Podocerus inconspicuus

<p>Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan morellensis, which inhabited the Iberian Peninsula approximately 122 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The remains were uncovered in the Morella region of Spain, highlighting the region's significant contribution to the understanding of dinosaur diversity in Europe. Sedimentary deposits in this region have been found to contain an abundant record of dinosaurs from the Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-europes-enigmatic-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-cretaceous-dinosaur">New Cretaceous dinosaur</h2>



<p>Garumbatitan morellensis belongs to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/">sauropod</a> group, characterized by their immense size, quadrupedal stature, herbivorous diet, and distinctive long necks and tails.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The new dinosaur was identified by a team of Spanish and Portuguese paleontologists, whose findings were recently published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance">Historical significance</h2>



<p>Morella has a history of significant fossil discoveries, with the region yielding some of Spain's first dinosaur fossils. In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the discovery of relevant Mesozoic vertebrate fossils, including a notable collection of ornithopod dinosaurs like Morelladon beltrani and other sauropods.</p>



<p>One of the unique aspects of Garumbatitan morellensis is its distinct anatomical characteristics, separating it from other known sauropods. Its femur shares similarities with those of later sauropods from the Late Cretaceous, while the elements forming the foot exhibit unique morphologies.</p>



<p>“One of the individuals we found stands out for its large size, with vertebrae more than one meter wide, and a femur that could reach two meters in length," said Pedro Mocho, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lisbon</a>. "We found two almost complete and articulated feet in this deposit, which is particularly rare in the geological record."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications">Evolutionary implications</h2>



<p>“Our study highlights the enormous complexity of the evolutionary history of sauropods from the European Cretaceous - in particular, from the Iberian Peninsula, with species related to lineages present in Asia and North America, as well as some groups related to forms from the African continent. Our results suggest the existence of periods of faunal dispersal between these continents," explained Pedro Mocho.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The future restoration of all fossil materials found in this deposit will add important information to understand the initial evolution of this group of sauropods that dominated dinosaur faunas during the last million years of the Mesozoic era," noted study co-author Francisco Ortega of the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-garumbatitan-morellensis">Garumbatitan morellensis</h2>



<p>The name Garumbatitan morellensis carries significant meaning. “Garumbatitan” translates to “the giant of Garumba,” referencing the base of Mola de la Garumba where the specimen was found.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, “morellensis” pays homage to the location of the deposit, Morella. These fossil remains are now part of the extensive collection of the Iberian Mesozoic at the Temps Museum of Dinosaurs in Morella, contributing to the Valencian Community Museum Network’s offering.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The introduction of Garumbatitan morellensis to the scientific community not only emphasizes the rich dinosaur diversity in the Early Cretaceous but also provides crucial insights into their evolutionary history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With the promise of future restoration and study of these fossils, the discovery may ultimately help to clarify the initial evolution of the sauropod group that dominated the dinosaur landscape of the Mesozoic era.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Grup Guix</em></p>



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Massive new dinosaur discovered in Spain's Early Cretaceous fossil collection

Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan...

<p>During a recent deep-sea dive off the coast of Hawaii, scientists encountered a rare and mesmerizing ocean creature known as the “Dumbo octopus."&nbsp;</p>



<p>This remarkable sighting occurred approximately a mile below the ocean's surface, on an unnamed seamount located within the <a href="https://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papahānaumokuākea</a> Marine National Monument.</p>



<p>The expedition was funded by the <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/video/2023/09/27/cute-dumbo-octopus-eyes-rov-hercules">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association</a> (NOAA).&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dumbo-octopus">Dumbo octopus</h2>



<p>The Dumbo octopus, also known as Grimpoteuthis, belongs to the umbrella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">octopus</a> family. The nickname "Dumbo" comes from its resemblance to the character in Disney's 1941 film, due to the prominent ear-like fins situated on top of its head. The octopus utilizes these fins to gracefully propel itself through the water, as it searches for food.</p>



<p>The Dumbo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus</a> is usually found in the deep waters of the central Pacific at depths ranging from 1,300 to 13,000 feet. However, some of these intriguing animals have been found as deep as 23,000 feet.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Because they live in such deep, dark environments, their coloration can vary, often appearing in shades of red, pink, brown, or white.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-footage-nbsp">Fascinating footage&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The footage of the Dumbo octopus was captured by the Exploration Vessel (E/V) Nautilus, providing a unique opportunity to observe the creature as it effortlessly drifts in the ocean's depths.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="9KGzHmAd5J-3029266-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>The crew aboard the E/V Nautilus was fortunate enough to witness not just one, but five of these creatures in a single night.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-beautiful-experience">A beautiful experience</h2>



<p>Jaina Galves, a video engineer intern who played a role in this discovery, shared her excitement about the experience.</p>



<p>“Each time, you’re kind of just roaming around with the ROV,” said Galves. “Somebody’s like, wait, what is that in the corner, and then everybody starts to gasp, everybody starts to freak out. And everybody’s like Dumbo octopus!"</p>



<p>"So we take the ROV over, we go, and we follow them. They move very slowly and very gracefully, so we get to follow them for quite a while.”</p>



<p>“It depends on what we’re doing and how long we can hang out. But for one of them, we just got to stay for quite a while. Just watched it kind of glide through the water, and it was beautiful.”</p>



<p>Galves told ABC News: “When I saw it on the screen, I couldn’t even say anything. My jaw was just on the floor.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique characteristics</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



<p>Overall, scientists have discovered more than a dozen species of dumbo octopuses. The largest individual captured on film was nearly six feet long, according to the environmental group Oceana, but most are much smaller, with an average length of 8 to 12 inches.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Dumbo octopuses are characterized by their unique umbrella-shaped appearance when their arms are spread. They possess a soft, gelatinous body, which is an adaptation to the deep-sea environment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-octopuses-smart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> feed on crustaceans, benthic worms, and other small organisms found on the ocean floor. They often swallow their prey whole.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Unlike many other octopus species, Dumbo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-octopuses-dream-a-recent-study-shows-octopuses-sleep-is-very-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> do not have a defined breeding season. They can lay eggs at any time, and the young are developed enough to survive on their own immediately after hatching. While their exact lifespan is unknown, it is believed to be about 3 to 5 years.</p>



<p>The species is known for its gentle and passive demeanor, and since it inhabits regions difficult for humans to access, it has not been extensively studied, and much about it remains a mystery.</p>



<p>The E/V Nautilus, owned by the nonprofit organization <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Exploration Trust</a>, is currently exploring the expansive Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. This protected marine area spans over 500,000 square miles in the Pacific, making it larger than all U.S. national parks combined.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Video and image credit: NOAA Ocean Exploration via the Ocean Exploration Cooperative Institute</p>



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<p>.</p>

Rare Dumbo octopus captured on film and video in Hawaii

During a recent deep-sea dive off the coast of Hawaii,...

<p>Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a predatory nature or passive filtering like sponges?&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new study on sea anemones may offer some answers. The research indicates that the evolution of sea anemones, and potentially the early evolution of multicellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-can-thrive-on-the-seafloor-in-extreme-heat/">organisms</a>, was significantly shaped by a predatory lifestyle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predatory-larvae">Predatory larvae</h2>



<p>The study, which was led by Dr Thomas W. Holstein of Heidelberg University, was focused on the young life stages or larvae of the Aiptasia sea anemone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Contrary to previous beliefs, these larvae actively hunt and feed on live prey. They do not rely on algae as previously thought. Using specialized stinging cells and a rudimentary neuronal network, these larvae capture and devour their prey.</p>



<p>“In its simplest form, the gastrula develops from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, forming a larval stage with gut and mouth; imagine pushing a ball inwards at one side. All animals pass through this gastrula stage, which could also have existed at the beginning of animal evolution,” said Dr. Holstein.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-organism-nbsp">A model organism&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Aiptasia sea anemone holds significance as a model for researching endosymbiosis in corals and other cnidarians.</p>



<p>“Corals live in nutrient-poor waters and as larvae or young polyps, take up symbiotic algae cells. In Aiptasia, however, this process is important for adults but does not lead to growth and settlement of the larvae, suggesting that nutrition is a critical step in closing the life cycle,” said Dr. Holstein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ira Mägele, a member of the research group, provided crucial evidence. She found that even in the late gastrula stage, Aiptasia larvae actively use their stinging cells to hunt prey that matches their size, subsequently consuming and digesting them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relevance-of-aiptasia-nbsp">Relevance of Aiptasia&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While corals, especially in nutrient-deficient waters, absorb symbiotic algae cells during their larvae or young polyp stages, Aiptasia doesn't show this reliance during their larval phase.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the researchers, lab studies of the nutritional conditions showed that the food for the tiny Aiptasia larvae had to be small enough and alive. Nauplius larvae of Tisbe copepods are 50 to 80 micrometers - a similar size to Aiptasia larvae - making them an ideal food.</p>



<p>Under these conditions, larvae grew consistently, later settling and undergoing metamorphosis into primary polyps.</p>



<p>“In this way, we were able to grow mature polyps as well as their descendants for the first time,” explained Mägele.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“By thus closing the life cycle of Aiptasia, it will finally be possible to carry out necessary molecular genetic experiments required for functional studies on this key endosymbiotic model organism," noted study&nbsp;co-author Dr. Elizabeth Hambleton.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-gastrula-hypothesis">Redefining the gastrula hypothesis</h2>



<p>Dr. Holstein's findings challenge the long-standing gastrula hypothesis first proposed by evolutionary theorist Ernst Haeckel in the 19th century. While Haeckel imagined the gastrula as a passive, particle-filtering entity similar to sponges, the Aiptasia gastrula tells a different story. It showcases a predatory lifestyle with specialized stinging cells tailored for hunting.</p>



<p>This predatory nature, which is also found in some single-celled organisms and simple worms, might have been pivotal in the evolution of multicellular organisms, potentially even spurring the development of sophisticated nervous systems.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2311872120"><em>PNAS</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Did early animal evolution start with predatory behavior?

Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a...

<p>Periodontal disease is a prevalent issue among canines, impacting at least 80 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typical-american-dog-knows-18-words-and-love-is-at-the-top-of-the-list/">dogs</a> over the age of three. The disease begins with gingivitis, characterized by red, inflamed gums that may bleed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If untreated, the condition escalates to periodontitis, leading to progressive alveolar bone damage and potential tooth loss, while also increasing the risk of cardiovascular and lung diseases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oral-hygiene-nbsp">Oral hygiene&nbsp;</h2>



<p>With poor oral hygiene identified as a principal cause of periodontal disease, leading to plaque and tartar build-up, regular teeth brushing for dogs is advised by veterinarians.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, many people do not comply with this advice, often because their dogs will not cooperate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-plaque-and-tartar">Reducing plaque and tartar</h2>



<p>Dr. Jerzy Gawor is a veterinary dentistry practitioner and researcher at the Arka Veterinary Clinic in Krakow, Poland, and lead author of a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1241197" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Veterinary Science</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Here we show that an additive to drinking water, based on pomegranate extract, can reduce the accumulation of plaque and tartar in dogs,” said Dr. Gawor. “This additive thus helps dogs to maintain healthy gums, and may ultimately help to limit the occurrence of periodontal disease.”</p>



<p>The researchers examined Vet Aquadent® FR3SH™ - an over-the-counter oral hygiene product developed by French veterinary company Virbac.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We did this study after obtaining evidence that the main ingredient, pomegranate extract, limits the growth of oral bacteria in dogs in vitro, including species involved in periodontal disease," said study co-author Dr. Celine Nicolas, an employee of Virbac.</p>



<p>"There was also evidence that the other components, inulin and erythritol, likewise play a role in the maintenance of a healthy oral microbiome in dogs."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The product, which can be easily added to dogs’ drinking water, was tested on 40 dogs representing 14 breeds. All subjects had mild to moderate gingivitis but were otherwise healthy.</p>



<p>The dogs were monitored over 30 days after a professional dental cleaning session. The research involved thorough oral health assessments, dental charting, and mouth radiography under general anesthesia.</p>



<p>Dogs were then divided into two groups: one receiving water with a 1% solution of Vet Aquadent® FR3SH™ daily, and the other receiving plain water. During the study, no other oral hygiene practices were implemented.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-of-the-study">Results of the study</h2>



<p>After 30 days, dogs receiving the pomegranate extract additive had a 47 percent reduction in plaque and a 24 percent decrease in tartar. Furthermore, the gums of dogs in the treatment group were completely healthy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The results showed that 30 days after the dental cleaning and polishing, dogs which had received the additive daily scored 47% lower for the amount of plaque, and had a 24% lower score for the amount of tartar, compared to dogs in the control group. The gum was also completely healthy in the active treatment group,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-dog-teeth">Healthier dog teeth</h2>



<p>The study thus affirmed that the additive effectively limits plaque and tartar reformation post professional dental cleaning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Gawor and team suggest that the product works by restricting the growth of harmful bacteria, especially preventing bacterial biofilms formation.</p>



<p>"Daily oral hygiene and prophylaxis are essential to prevent periodontal diseases in dogs. This includes active methods like brushing, passive methods like dental chews or water additives, or a combination, as well as regular clinical dental checks," said Dr. Gawor.</p>



<p>"The frequency of the latter should depend on the dog’s age, breed, size, and predisposition, as determined by veterinary clinicians."</p>



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Mouthwash with pomegranate helps prevent gum disease in dogs

Periodontal disease is a prevalent issue among canines, impacting at...

<p>Scientists have recently uncovered remnants of DNA within the fossilized remains of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-sea-turtle-flattened-dinosaur/">sea turtle</a>, closely related to contemporary Kemp’s ridley and olive ridley turtles, dating back six million years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding marks one of the infrequent instances where genetic material has been identified in ancient vertebrate fossils. The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2023.2254356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-cells-nbsp">Bone cells&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The fossil, discovered along the Caribbean coast of Panama in 2015, presented notably well-preserved bone cells, known as osteocytes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Though the fossil is incomplete, featuring a relatively intact carapace - the turtle’s shell - but lacking the rest of the skeleton, researchers estimate the turtle would have measured about a foot (30 cm) in length during its lifetime.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-remnants">DNA remnants</h2>



<p>In some of these osteocytes, the cell nuclei remained intact and responded to a specific chemical solution. This reaction allowed the scientists to detect the remnants of DNA, essential for an organism’s development and functioning, explained study lead author Edwin Cadena, a paleontologist at the Universidad del Rosario in Bogota and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.</p>



<p>“I want to point out that we did not extract DNA, we only were able to recognize the presence of DNA traces in the nuclei,” Cadena said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Given its perishable nature, DNA preservation in ancient remains is rare, but not unprecedented, with discoveries of DNA remnants dating back to around two million years in some ancient specimens from Greenland.</p>



<p>The only vertebrate fossils older than the newly studied turtle and showing similar DNA remnants belonged to two dinosaurs – Tyrannosaurus, from around 66 million years ago, and Brachylophosaurus, from about 78 million years ago. DNA remnants have also been reported in insects dating back tens of millions of years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-history-nbsp">Evolutionary history&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The turtle in question belongs to the genus Lepidochelys, which includes two of the seven existing sea turtle species – the Kemp’s ridley, primarily found in the Gulf of Mexico, and the more widespread olive ridley.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This fossil is pivotal in shedding light on the evolutionary history of this genus, which remains largely unclear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Due to the incomplete nature of the remains, the researchers have refrained from identifying the turtle by its species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomolecular-remains-nbsp">Biomolecular remains&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Each fossil, each fossil site has specific conditions of preservation that in some cases could have favored preservation of original biomolecular remains such as proteins and DNA," said Cadena.</p>



<p>"Maybe in the future and with more studies of this kind, we could be able at some point to sequence very small pieces of DNA and to infer things about their close relatives or involve that information in a broader molecular evolutionary study."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ridley-turtles-nbsp">Ridley turtles&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ridley turtles, specifically those in the Lepidochelys genus, are known for their relatively small size compared to other sea turtles and unique nesting habits.</p>



<p>There are two species within this genus: the Kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) and the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



<p>Ridley turtles are among the smallest sea turtles, with adults usually weighing between 75 and 100 pounds.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shell">Shell</h3>



<p>Their carapace (upper shell) is broad and somewhat heart-shaped, typically olive-green in Kemp’s ridleys and grayish-green in olive ridleys.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limbs">Limbs</h3>



<p>They possess flippers with clawless tips, which are adapted for swimming in open oceans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Kemp's ridley is primarily found in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast of North America. These turtles prefer coastal habitats like bays, estuaries, and lagoons.</p>



<p>Olive ridley is found in tropical regions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. They are often found in open waters but migrate to coastal areas for nesting.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nesting">Nesting</h3>



<p>One notable behavior of ridley turtles is “arribada,” a mass nesting phenomenon where thousands of females come ashore simultaneously to lay eggs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Olive ridley turtles are particularly known for this behavior, with significant arribada events occurring in places like Ostional, Costa Rica.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Ridley turtles are omnivores, consuming a variety of food items, including crabs, shrimp, mollusks, jellyfish, and occasionally algae and seaweed.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>Both species of ridley turtles are listed under the IUCN Red List. Kemp's ridley is classified as critically endangered, with major threats including habitat loss, accidental capture in fishing gear (bycatch), and climate change affecting their nesting sites.</p>



<p>Olive ridley is listed as vulnerable, facing threats like illegal egg collection, bycatch, and habitat destruction.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-nbsp">Conservation efforts&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Various conservation programs and legal protections are in place to help conserve ridley turtles, such as:</p>



<ul>
<li>Establishing protected areas and wildlife refuges.</li>



<li>Implementing regulations and initiatives to reduce bycatch.</li>



<li>Engaging in public education and awareness campaigns.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arribadas-nbsp">Arribadas&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The synchronized nesting events, or arribadas, are crucial for the survival of these species as it overwhelms predators, ensuring that more hatchlings can safely reach the ocean.</p>



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DNA remnants found in six million-year-old sea turtle

Scientists have recently uncovered remnants of DNA within the fossilized...

<p>A new study led by the University of South Carolina (USC) has found that distinct variations in the attributes of wildflowers, depending on their respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/">pollinators</a>, are driven by a small number of key genetic differences.</p>



<p>Wildflowers exhibit unique sets of characteristics - termed “pollination syndromes” - that have evolved to cater to specific animal pollinators, such as insects or birds.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penstemons">Penstemons</h2>



<p>While most species within the Penstemon genus present wide, blue flowers, serving as landing spots for bees, evolution has led some species to develop narrow, red, tubular flowers, catering to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<p>The North American wildflower genus&nbsp;<em>Penstemon</em>&nbsp;displays remarkable floral syndrome convergence, with at least 20 separate lineages that have evolved from ancestral bee pollination syndrome (wide blue-purple flowers that present a landing platform for bees and small amounts of nectar) to hummingbird pollination syndrome (bright red narrowly tubular flowers offering copious nectar).&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Related taxa that differ in floral syndrome offer an attractive opportunity to examine the genomic basis of complex trait divergence,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>The objective of this research was to explore how these distinctive pollination syndromes are preserved genetically.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team sequenced the DNA of 229 plants from three related species of the Penstemon genus: <em>P. neomexicanus</em> and <em>P. virgatus</em>, which are bee-pollinated, and <em>P. barbatus</em>, adapted to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite the stark differences in floral attributes, the experts found a relatively small number of genetic differences between <em>P. barbatus</em> and its bee-pollinated relatives.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, plants from the same geographical vicinity exhibited greater genetic similarity compared to those from varied locations, regardless of the species. These findings suggest that a genetic blending occurs between wildflowers adapted to both bee and hummingbird pollination.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-pollinators-nbsp">Varied pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, the researchers identified 21 sites that showcased consistent differences among species with varied pollinators. These sites are dispersed throughout the genome, suggesting an increased likelihood of the disruption of complementary floral traits by recombination, resulting in hybrids with diminished success.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Interestingly, three of these identified genetic variances were located proximal to genomic regions that determine flower color, width, and nectar volume - traits distinctive to different pollination syndromes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp-flower-traits">&nbsp;Flower traits</h2>



<p>The study provides evidence of occasional hybridization between neighboring bee- and hummingbird-pollinated Penstemon species, alongside an intense selection pressure to retain flower traits adapted to each type of pollinator.</p>



<p>“Although bee- vs. hummingbird-pollinated species are easily distinguished in the field, based on unmistakable differences in flowers and the overall stature of the plant, a surprisingly small number of genetic regions distinguish these different species at the genetic level,” concluded Carolyn Wessinger, an assistant professor of Evolution and Plant Biology at USC.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLoS Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Just a few genetic differences tailor flowers to specific pollinators

A new study led by the University of South Carolina...

<p>In a recent study, scientists have investigated some curious behavior among fish-eating killer whales in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp;For decades, these toothed whales have been harassing and killing porpoises, but without eating them.</p>



<p>The research was co-led by Deborah Giles of Wild Orca and Sarah Teman of the <a href="https://www.seadocsociety.org/killer-whale-facts#:~:text=Three%20distinct%20types%20of%20killer,as%20shown%20in%20recent%20studies." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SeaDoc Society</a>, a program of the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-conduct-nbsp">Mysterious conduct&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team examined over 60 years of interactions between Southern Resident killer whales and porpoises in the Salish Sea to clarify this mysterious conduct.</p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-prey-is-changing-the-behavior-of-killer-whales/">killer whales</a>, an endangered group with a count of only 75, are significantly dependent on Chinook salmon for their survival. These fish are also endangered.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-ecology">Unique ecology</h2>



<p>Giles pointed out that the killer whales, despite residing in the same waters as their marine mammal-eating counterparts, possess a distinct ecology and culture, making them exclusively fish-eaters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“I am frequently asked, why don’t the Southern Residents just eat seals or porpoises instead?” said Giles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It's because fish-eating killer whales have a completely different ecology and culture from orcas that eat marine mammals - even though the two populations live in the same waters."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"So we must conclude that their interactions with porpoises serve a different purpose, but this purpose has only been speculation until now.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plausible-theories-nbsp">Plausible theories&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study authors analyzed 78 documented porpoise harassment incidents from 1962 to 2020, proposing three plausible explanations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One suggestion is that this behavior serves as social play for the killer whales, allowing them to bond, communicate, and enjoy themselves, ultimately benefiting group coordination and teamwork.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Alternatively, harassing porpoises might be a method for the whales to sharpen their salmon-hunting skills, using the porpoises as practice targets without intending to eat them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A third hypothesis introduces the concept of “mismothering behavior,” where whales may offer care to perceived weaker porpoises, mirroring their instinct to assist group members.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mothering-challenges">Mothering challenges</h2>



<p>“Mismothering behavior - also known as ‘displaced epimeletic behavior’ to scientists - might be due to their limited opportunities to care for young,” explained Giles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our research has shown that due to malnutrition, nearly 70% of Southern Resident killer whale pregnancies have resulted in miscarriages or calves that died right away after birth.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-animals">Complex animals</h2>



<p>The exact motivations behind porpoise harassment by these whales may remain elusive.&nbsp;The study confirms that porpoises are not included in the Southern Resident killer whale's diet, as these whales feed almost exclusively on Chinook salmon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Killer whales are incredibly complex and intelligent animals. We found that porpoise-harassing behavior has been passed on through generations and across social groupings. It’s an amazing example of killer whale culture,” said Teman.</p>



<p>“Still, we don’t expect the Southern Resident killer whales to start eating porpoises. The culture of eating salmon is deeply ingrained in Southern Resident society. These whales need healthy salmon populations to survive.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-conservation">Salmon conservation </h2>



<p>This dietary constraint underlines the crucial need for salmon conservation efforts in the Salish Sea to ensure the Southern Residents' survival and the health of the region’s ecosystem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study received funding and support from numerous institutions, including Wild Orca, SeaDoc Society, University of Exeter, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Orca Behavior Institute, NOAA, Cascadia Research, The Whale Museum, Center for Whale Research, ORCA at Everett Community College, Bay Cetology, North Gulf Oceanic Society, George Mason University, and Marine-Med.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.13073"><em>Marine Mammal Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Wild Orca</em></p>



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Killer whales have been killing porpoises for decades, but why?

In a recent study, scientists have investigated some curious behavior...

Podocerus inconspicuus

Taxonomic tree: