Spelaeoecia parkeri

<p>After more than three and a half decades of diligent observation, researchers at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) are unraveling some of the enigmatic behaviors of a unique type of mob – those comprised of spotted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyenas-change-their-foraging-behavior-to-adapt/">hyenas</a>.</p>



<p>The findings of this research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1390" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society B</em></a>, shed light on the intricate relationships and social interactions among hyenas, which influence their decisions to join forces and confront lions cooperatively, a behavior known as mobbing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mobbing-behavior-nbsp">Mobbing behavior&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Lead author Tracy Montgomery initiated this project during her doctoral studies under the mentorship of Kay Holekamp at MSU. Her research was bolstered by support from the Dr. Marvin Hensley Endowed Scholarship Fund in Zoology.</p>



<p>“Social relationships can overcome barriers to mobbing and let hyenas achieve cooperation,” Montgomery said, further adding that greetings among hyenas and the strength of their social bonds play pivotal roles in determining their likelihood to engage in mobbing behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-social-structures-nbsp">Complex social structures&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Spotted hyenas are intriguing social animals characterized by complex social structures similar to those found in baboons and other primates. Researchers study hyenas not only to comprehend cooperative behaviors in wildlife but also to gain insights into such behaviors in humans.</p>



<p>Kenna Lehmann, another lead author who was part of Holekamp’s team during her doctoral studies and is now an assistant professor at MSU, emphasizes the significance of long-term relationships built among hyenas. She notes that their interactions go beyond mere transactional arrangements. “It’s not just, ‘I’ll give you a zebra leg if you help,’” as she puts it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-characteristics-nbsp">Unique characteristics&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Holekamp, who has dedicated 35 years to studying hyenas in Kenya, expresses her fascination with these creatures. “I went to Kenya in 1988 thinking I’d do a dissertation-length project - three or four years - with hyenas, then I'd move on to study dolphins or monkeys or some other animals.” However, the unique characteristics of hyenas kept her captivated.</p>



<p>For example, female spotted hyenas possess pseudo-penises, a biological anomaly that challenges conventional understanding. Although this particular aspect doesn’t directly relate to the current study, it highlights the hyenas’ propensity to defy established biological norms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Spotted hyenas appear to violate many of the basic rules of mammalian biology,” Holekamp said, thus making them intriguing subjects for scientific investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Both Tracy Montgomery and Kenna Lehmann, under the guidance of Kay Holekamp, became intrigued by the rules governing hyenas’ behavior when mobbing lions. They sought to understand why hyenas engage in this risky behavior and what motivates them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notably, their research revealed that lions were responsible for the deaths of hyenas in over 25 percent of cases where the cause of death could be ascertained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tangible-benefits-of-mobbing-nbsp">Tangible benefits of mobbing&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Lions and hyenas often share territories, prompting Lehmann and Montgomery to initially examine mobbing behavior through the lens of its tangible benefits, such as protecting food resources from lions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In a previous report in 2017, the team demonstrated that mobbing was not limited to scenarios with immediate benefits but also occurred without any apparent advantages.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-nbsp">New insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In their recent study, the researchers delved deeper into mobbing behavior to explore other underlying motivations. During this exploration, they discovered that mobbing was more prevalent when the risk of harm or death to hyenas was lower, even in situations devoid of immediate benefits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, hyenas were more likely to engage in mobbing when there were no male lions present, as male lions are larger and more hazardous to hyenas. Conversely, among spotted hyenas, where females are larger than males, females were more inclined to participate in mobbing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meticulous-observation-nbsp">Meticulous observation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, the most noteworthy aspect of mobbing behavior was its social dimension, a discovery made possible by the meticulous observation of hyenas spanning several generations within the same habitat over 35 years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Throughout this extended period, the research team maintained a continuous presence at their research camp in the Maasai Mara National Reserve, with multiple collaborators contributing to the project.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-commitment-nbsp">Long-term commitment&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The significance of the long-term commitment to this research became evident as mobbing events are relatively infrequent. Over the course of three decades, the team witnessed approximately 1,000 interactions involving hyenas and lions, with only a fraction of those interactions providing the comprehensive data required for detailed analysis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These interactions are typically fast-paced, involve numerous hyenas and lions, and are characterized by rapid movement, making precise data recording a significant challenge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data">Valuable data</h2>



<p>Out of the roughly 1,000 interactions observed, only 325 yielded sufficiently robust data for Montgomery and Lehmann to conduct their analyses and make their discoveries. They credit the dedication and efforts of students, research assistants, and other collaborators over the past 30 years for their ability to standardize and organize field observations into usable datasets.</p>



<p>The researchers continue to explore the wealth of insights that these datasets may hold. “Finding these results was really exciting, but I feel like the fun part of science is you answer a question and you immediately have 50 more. There are so many more things that we need to do with this data,” Montgomery concluded.</p>



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'Friendly' hyenas more likely to engage in mobbing behavior

After more than three and a half decades of diligent...

Funny,Mouse,And,Its,Reflection,In,Mirror

<p>Researchers have made significant strides in understanding self-recognition in animals, specifically in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-genetic-diversity-of-the-wild-house-mouse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>, with the help of the mirror test. This research opens new avenues in neurobehavioral studies while also providing insights into the neural mechanisms behind self-recognition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-and-the-mirror-test">Mice and the mirror test</h2>



<p>The researchers conducted a mirror test to determine if mice could recognize changes in their appearance, specifically a dollop of ink on their foreheads. To assess the role of tactile stimulus, they applied both black and white ink on the black-furred mice. </p>



<p>While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-evidence-that-dogs-have-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> traditionally aims to evaluate consciousness across species, the researchers clarify that their findings only demonstrate the mice's ability to perceive changes in their appearance, not necessarily indicating self-awareness.</p>



<p>The results showed that mice indeed noticed changes in their appearance, but certain conditions were necessary. Mice accustomed to mirrors dedicated more time to grooming their heads in front of the mirror if they had large white ink marks (0.6 cm2 or 2 cm2) on them. </p>



<p>Conversely, they did not increase head grooming for small marks (0.2 cm2) or black ink, matching their fur color. Additionally, mice not previously exposed to mirrors did not show increased grooming behavior in these tests, regardless of the ink's color or size.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-mechanisms-of-self-recognition">Neural mechanisms of self-recognition</h2>



<p>The team pinpointed a subset of neurons in the hippocampus responsible for developing and storing this visual self-image. Senior author Takashi Kitamura from the <a href="https://www.utsouthwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center</a> emphasized the novelty of this discovery, as the encoding of self-information in the brain has been largely unexplored.</p>



<p>“To form episodic memory, for example, of events in our daily life, brains form and store information about where, what, when, and who, and the most important component is self-information or status,” says Kitamura. “Researchers usually examine how the brain encodes or recognizes others, but the self-information aspect is unclear.”</p>



<p>Further investigation through gene expression mapping revealed that when these hippocampal neurons were deactivated, the mice ceased to exhibit the grooming behavior in response to their mirror image. These neurons also responded when the mice observed other mice of the same strain, indicating a link between self-recognition and social familiarity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-and-self-recognition">Mice and self-recognition</h2>



<p>The study also underscored the importance of social experience in developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roosters-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror-demonstrating-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-recognition</a> capabilities. Mice that were socially isolated or raised with mice of a different fur color did not show increased grooming behavior in response to the mirror test. This finding aligns with previous research on chimpanzees, suggesting a universal aspect of social experience in self-recognition across species.</p>



<p>The research team, including first author Jun Yokose, is planning to delve deeper into the roles of visual and tactile stimuli in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-recognition</a>. They aim to discern whether mice can recognize changes in their reflection without a tactile stimulus, potentially using technology similar to social media filters.</p>



<p>“The mice required significant external sensory cues to pass the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-may-have-a-degree-of-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> -- we have to put a lot of ink on their heads, and then the tactile stimulus coming from the ink somehow enables the animal to detect the ink on their heads via a mirror reflection,” says Yokose. “Chimps and humans don't need any of that extra sensory stimulus.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-mice-and-mirrors">Implications of mice and mirrors</h2>



<p>The mouse model established in this study offers a unique opportunity to manipulate and monitor neural activity. This will enable a more thorough investigation of the neural circuit mechanisms behind self-recognition-like behavior in mice.</p>



<p>“Now that we have this mouse model, we can manipulate or monitor neural activity to comprehensively investigate the neural circuit mechanisms behind how self-recognition-like behavior is induced in mice,” says Yokose.</p>



<p>In summary, this research represents a significant milestone in understanding the neural basis of self-recognition. It not only sheds light on the cognitive abilities of mice but also provides a valuable model for exploring complex neural processes in higher mammals, including humans. As the study progresses, it could unravel many mysteries of the brain related to self-awareness and consciousness.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mouse-intelligence">More about mouse intelligence</h2>



<p>As discussed above, mice demonstrate a remarkable level of intelligence, often surprising researchers with their cognitive abilities. These small rodents possess a keen ability to learn and adapt to new environments, making them invaluable in scientific research.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-and-problem-solving-skills">Learning and problem-solving skills</h3>



<p>Mice excel in learning tasks, especially those involving mazes and spatial navigation. They quickly memorize routes and can find efficient paths to reach food or avoid perceived threats. This skill indicates not just memory strength but also spatial awareness and problem-solving capabilities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-intelligence">Social intelligence</h3>



<p>Mice exhibit complex social behaviors. They communicate through high-pitched sounds, some of which are inaudible to humans, and use scent marking to convey information. </p>



<p>Mice recognize and bond with their kin, showing preferences for social interaction with familiar mice over strangers. This social intelligence is critical for their survival in the wild, as it aids in forming social hierarchies and cooperative networks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptability">Adaptability</h3>



<p>Mice are highly adaptable creatures. They thrive in a wide range of environments, from urban areas to rural fields. This adaptability extends to their learning; they can adjust their strategies based on changes in their environment, showcasing flexibility in their cognitive processes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-in-research">Use in research</h3>



<p>Scientists frequently use mice in research due to their intelligence and physiological similarities to humans. Mice are capable of performing complex tasks, making them suitable for studies in genetics, neuroscience, and psychology. Their ability to learn and adapt makes them ideal subjects for experiments involving memory, learning, and behavior.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-intelligence">Emotional intelligence</h3>



<p>Mice are not just mechanically reacting to stimuli; they exhibit signs of emotional intelligence. They show fear, pleasure, and stress responses, and can even empathize with other mice. Studies have shown that mice are affected by the emotional state of their peers, indicating a level of emotional awareness.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-disease-and-brain-function">Understanding disease and brain function</h3>



<p>Mice's cognitive abilities make them particularly useful in studying human diseases, especially those affecting the brain. By observing how mice learn, remember, and interact, researchers gain insights into the workings of the human brain, including the development of neurological diseases.</p>



<p>In summary, mice are intelligent creatures with sophisticated learning abilities, social structures, and emotional capacities. Their intelligence, coupled with their physiological resemblance to humans, makes them invaluable in scientific research, particularly in understanding the human brain and behavior. By passing the mirror test, mice may even prove to be self-aware, cognizant beings.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(23)00803-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuron</a></em>.</p>



<p>---</p>



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Mice pass the mirror test. Does that mean they are self-aware?

Researchers have made significant strides in understanding self-recognition in animals,...

<p>Could the ownership of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-learn-the-names-of-their-companions/">cat</a> increase the risk of schizophrenia? The answer is yes, according to a recent review of 17 studies conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> in Australia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>In their comprehensive analysis, the team performed a meta-analysis of existing research, published over the last 44 years and spanning 11 countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom.&nbsp;</p>



<p>What they discovered was that individuals exposed to cats before the age of 25 had approximately double the odds of developing schizophrenia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxoplasma-gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</h2>



<p>The scientific rationale behind this correlation lies in a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii, or T. gondii for short, which is commonly found in pet cats. This parasite has the potential to enter the human body through a cat’s bite.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Once inside, it can infiltrate the central nervous system and influence neurotransmitters in the brain. This, in turn, can lead to alterations in personality, the emergence of psychotic symptoms, and the development of psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-schizotypy-scale">Schizotypy scale</h2>



<p>One of the studies included in the review, which focused on 354 students in the United States, did not find a direct link between cat ownership and scores on a schizotypy scale.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, when comparing individuals who had been bitten by a cat to those who had not, the bitten group displayed higher scores on the schizotypy scale. </p>



<p>This scale is essentially a questionnaire designed to gauge traits associated with unconventional and disorganized patterns of thinking, often employed in the diagnosis of schizophrenia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-mental-disorder-nbsp">Severe mental disorder&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Schizophrenia is a severe and chronic mental disorder affecting an estimated one percent of the global population, with around two million individuals in the United States alone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This condition profoundly impacts how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, often resulting in the affected individual seeming disconnected from reality.</p>



<p>The precise cause of schizophrenia remains elusive, with experts speculating that it may be a combination of genetic factors, abnormalities in brain chemistry, viral infections, and immune disorders.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms-of-schizophrenia-nbsp">Symptoms of schizophrenia&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Symptoms typically manifest between the ages of 16 and 30, although there are rare instances of children being affected as well.</p>



<p>The symptoms of schizophrenia can be categorized into three groups: positive, negative, and cognitive.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-symptoms">Positive symptoms</h3>



<p>Positive symptoms entail disturbances that are “added” to an individual’s personality, encompassing hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders characterized by unusual or dysfunctional thinking patterns.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-symptoms">Negative symptoms</h3>



<p>Negative symptoms involve the loss of certain capabilities from an individual’s personality, such as “flat affect” (reduced emotional expression through facial expressions or voice tone), decreased pleasure in everyday life, and difficulties initiating and sustaining activities.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-symptoms">Cognitive symptoms</h3>



<p>Cognitive symptoms include alterations in memory and other cognitive functions, including problems with focus, attention, working memory, and the ability to comprehend and use information for decision-making.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations">Study limitations</h2>



<p>Nevertheless, the UQ review has faced criticism on Twitter from other researchers who argue that it did not adequately account for other potential contributing factors, such as social and economic backgrounds and family histories.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, a British study found an association between childhood cat exposure (between ages four and ten) and increased psychotic-like experiences at age 13, but these findings did not persist after adjusting for potential confounding variables.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Sanil Rege, a psychiatrist based in Melbourne, pointed out that 15 out of the 17 included studies were case-control studies known for their susceptibility to spurious associations.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbad168" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Schizophrenia Bulletin</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Owning a cat before age 25 may double the risk of schizophrenia

Could the ownership of a cat increase the risk of...

Front,Head,Of,Bottlenose,Dolphin,(tursiops,Truncatus),With,An,Open

<p>Recent research by Tim Hüttner and Guido Dehnhardt from the <a href="https://www.uni-rostock.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rostock</a>, Germany, has revealed a remarkable discovery about bottlenose dolphins. Known for their intelligence and agility, these marine mammals are now suspected to have an additional sensory ability – the detection of weak electric fields. This finding could revolutionize our understanding of dolphin behavior and sensory capabilities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-bottlenose-dolphins">Studying bottlenose dolphins</h2>



<p>The study began with an observation of bottlenose dolphin calves, which are born with two rows of whiskers on their beaks that eventually fall out, leaving behind vibrissal pits. </p>



<p>Hüttner and Dehnhardt noted that these pits closely resemble the structures in sharks that enable them to detect electric fields. Intrigued by this similarity, they decided to investigate further.</p>



<p>In collaboration with Lorenzo von Fersen at <a href="https://tiergarten.nuernberg.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nuremberg Zoo</a> and Lars Miersch at the University of Rostock, Dehnhardt and Hüttner designed experiments to test the dolphins' sensitivity to electric fields. </p>



<p>The team first examined how sensitive two bottlenose dolphins, Donna and Dolly, were to varying electric fields to determine their ability to detect a fish buried in the sandy sea floor. Hüttner, Armin Fritz from Nuremberg Zoo, and a team of colleagues trained the dolphins to rest their jaws on a submerged metal bar. </p>



<p>They then taught them to swim away within 5 seconds upon detecting an electric field from electrodes placed just above their snouts. As the researchers progressively reduced the electric field strength from 500 to 2μV/cm, they meticulously recorded the frequency of the dolphins' correctly timed departures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



<p>The experiments yielded fascinating results. Donna demonstrated slightly higher sensitivity than Dolly as the electric fields weakened, detecting fields as low as 2.4μV/cm compared to Dolly's threshold of 5.5μV/cm. </p>



<p>The team recognized that living animals produce fluctuating electric fields, not just static ones, due to the pulsing movements of fish gills. To test this, they varied the electric field pulses at 1, 5, and 25 times per second while lowering the field strength. </p>



<p>Both Donna and Dolly detected these pulsing fields. However, their sensitivity to these alternating fields was not as high as it was to steady fields. Dolly detected only the slowest pulsed field at 28.9μV/cm, while Donna sensed all three, with the slowest at 11.7μV/cm.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-this-super-sense">Implications of this "super sense"</h2>



<p>Dehnhardt explains the practical significance of this finding, stating that the ability to detect weak electric fields aids dolphins in locating fish hidden in sediment. This skill differs from sharks, who can sense electric fields from a greater distance.</p>



<p>Hüttner and Dehnhardt propose that dolphins' ability to perceive electricity might aid them on a larger scale. Dehnhardt explains, "Dolphins could use this sensory ability to orient themselves to the Earth's magnetic field." </p>



<p>He suggests that dolphins swimming at a normal speed of 10m/s through weak areas of the Earth's magnetic field could produce a detectable electric field of 2.5μV/cm across their bodies. Moreover, swimming faster increases their likelihood of sensing the planet's magnetic field, enabling them to navigate globally using an electric sense-based magnetic map.</p>



<p>In summary, this surprising discovery by Hüttner and Dehnhardt opens new avenues for understanding the sensory world of dolphins. It highlights their remarkable adaptability, and also poses exciting questions about the evolutionary purpose and ecological implications of this newfound electrosensitivity "super sense" in dolphins.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bottlenose-dolphins">More about bottlenose dolphins</h2>



<p>Bottlenose dolphins, scientific name <em>Tursiops truncatus</em>, captivate people worldwide with their intelligence, agility, and playful behavior. These marine mammals, known for their curved mouths giving the appearance of a friendly "smile," belong to the family Delphinidae. They inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide and have become one of the most studied and recognized dolphin species.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics-of-bottlenose-dolphins">Physical characteristics of bottlenose dolphins</h3>



<p>This dolphin species typically measures between 2 to 4 meters in length and weighs around 150 to 650 kilograms. Their sleek, streamlined bodies, adapted for swimming, display a grayish-blue color with a lighter underside. They possess a distinctive dorsal fin, which provides stability while swimming. These dolphins have a well-developed sense of hearing and eyesight, both above and below the water.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-hunting-techniques">Diet and hunting techniques</h3>



<p>Bottlenose dolphins are carnivorous, primarily feeding on a diet of fish and squid. They employ sophisticated hunting techniques, including the use of echolocation. By emitting sound waves that bounce off objects, they can locate and identify their prey with remarkable precision. In some regions, they have developed unique hunting strategies, like mud-ring feeding, where they trap fish in muddy circles before feasting on them.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-and-communication">Social behavior and communication</h3>



<p>Bottlenose dolphins are highly social animals, living in groups called pods. These pods can contain anywhere from a few individuals to over a dozen. They communicate using a complex array of whistles, clicks, and body language. Each dolphin has a unique signature whistle, functioning like a name, allowing them to call out to specific individuals.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-and-training">Intelligence and training</h3>



<p>Renowned for their intelligence, bottlenose dolphins can learn and perform complex tasks, making them stars in many aquarium shows. They have the ability to understand symbolic language, use tools, and exhibit problem-solving skills. Researchers continually discover new aspects of their cognitive abilities, deepening our understanding of these fascinating creatures.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifespan">Reproduction and lifespan</h3>



<p>Female bottlenose dolphins reach sexual maturity around 5-12 years of age, while males mature a bit later, around 10-12 years. They mate throughout the year, with a gestation period of about 12 months. A calf is born tail-first and quickly rises to the surface for its first breath. Calves typically stay with their mothers for 3-6 years. In the wild, bottlenose dolphins can live up to 40 years or more.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>While bottlenose dolphins are not currently endangered, they face threats from habitat loss, pollution, and fishing nets. Various conservation efforts focus on protecting their natural habitats and reducing human-induced threats. Public awareness and responsible ecotourism play significant roles in the conservation of these magnificent creatures.</p>



<p>In summary, bottlenose dolphins, with their remarkable abilities and charismatic nature, continue to intrigue and delight humans. Their presence in the oceans reminds us of the complexity and beauty of marine life and the importance of preserving such incredible species for future generations.</p>



<p>Understanding and respecting these intelligent creatures is crucial for their continued survival in the ever-changing marine environment.</p>



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Bottlenose dolphins have a 'super sense' previously unknown to science

Recent research by Tim Hüttner and Guido Dehnhardt from the...

A,Moray,Eel,In,An,Aquarium

<p>Electric eels, known for their remarkable ability to generate electricity, also play a potentially significant role in natural genetic modification. </p>



<p>In a shocking study by a research team from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan, it has been revealed that electric eels can emit electricity potent enough to alter the genetic makeup of small fish larvae. This finding sheds new light on the phenomenon of electroporation and its occurrence in the natural world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-electroporation">Understanding electroporation</h2>



<p>Led by Professor Eiichi Hondo and Assistant Professor Atsuo Iida, the research group at Nagoya University embarked on this study with a hypothesis centered on the natural occurrence of electroporation. </p>



<p>Electroporation is a technique traditionally confined to the laboratory. It involves the application of an electric field to create temporary pores in a cell membrane. This process allows molecules, such as DNA or proteins, to enter the cell. This method is commonly used for gene delivery in various research applications.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-electric-eels">Studying electric eels</h2>



<p>The research team speculated that the electric discharges in rivers, specifically from electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-hunting-behavior-observed-among-electric-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eels</a>, could influence the cellular structures of nearby organisms. In their experiment, they exposed zebrafish larvae to a DNA solution marked with a glow-in-the-dark tag. Subsequently, an electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-secret-feeding-strategies-of-garden-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eel</a> was introduced to discharge electricity in the environment.</p>



<p>Assistant Professor Iida, challenging the traditional view of electroporation as a lab-only process, stated, "I thought electroporation might happen in nature." </p>



<p>He elaborated on his theory, suggesting that electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eel-most-potent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eels</a> in natural habitats like the Amazon River could facilitate genetic recombination in surrounding organisms through their electric discharges. The electricity would interact with environmental DNA fragments in the water.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The study's results were astonishing. Approximately 5% of the zebrafish larvae exhibited markers indicative of successful gene transfer. </p>



<p>This outcome implies that the electric eel's discharge was effective in promoting gene transfer, despite the differences in pulse shape and voltage stability compared to conventional electroporation machinery. </p>



<p>"Electric eels and other electrically generating organisms could affect genetic modification in nature," Iida observed, highlighting a new dimension to our understanding of natural genetic processes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-wisdom">Challenging conventional wisdom</h2>



<p>This discovery aligns with other studies that have observed similar phenomena in nature. This includes the effects of lightning on nematodes and soil bacteria. Iida expressed great enthusiasm for the future of research in electric field effects on living organisms. </p>



<p>He believes that these findings challenge conventional wisdom and open doors to unprecedented biological phenomena and potential breakthroughs. "I believe that attempts to discover new biological phenomena based on such 'unexpected' and 'outside-the-box' ideas will enlighten the world about the complexities of living organisms," Iida commented.</p>



<p>In summary, the research by Nagoya University's team adds a significant chapter to our understanding of electroporation and underscores the intricate interplay between natural phenomena and biological processes. </p>



<p>The electric eel, once merely a curiosity due to its electric generating capability, now stands at the forefront of a fascinating scientific discovery. These amazing creatures could potentially transform our perception of genetic modification in the natural world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-electric-eels">More about electric eels</h2>



<p>As discussed above, electric eels are a species native to South American freshwater habitats. They are among the most electrifying creatures in the animal kingdom. </p>



<p>Known scientifically as <em>Electrophorus electricus</em>, they possess the unique ability to generate powerful electric shocks. These shocks serve multiple purposes, from hunting prey to self-defense and navigation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-and-electric-generation">Anatomy and electric generation</h3>



<p>Electric eels have elongated, snake-like bodies, typically growing up to 2 meters in length. They lack the typical scales seen in most fish and have a slimy, absorbing skin which aids in breathing as they extract oxygen directly from the air.</p>



<p>The key to their electric ability lies in three pairs of abdominal organs: the Main, Hunter's, and Sachs' organs. These organs contain electrocytes, specialized cells functioning much like batteries. When the eel decides to generate a shock, these cells align to send a burst of electricity through the water.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-eels-behavior-and-habitat">Electric eels' behavior and habitat</h3>



<p>Electric eels inhabit the murky waters of the Amazon and Orinoco River basins. They prefer slow-moving, oxygen-poor waters where they can easily rise to the surface to breathe air.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-and-feeding">Hunting and feeding</h3>



<p>Electric eels use low-voltage electric discharges to navigate and locate prey in their dark environment. Once they find a target, they emit high-voltage shocks to stun or kill the prey, which typically includes fish, amphibians, and even small birds or mammals.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



<p>Electric eels are solitary creatures, coming together only to mate. During the dry season, males build nests from saliva and guard the eggs. The young eels hatch with a developed electric organ, ready to start generating shocks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-electric-eels-discharge">Power of electric eels' discharge</h3>



<p>An electric eel can generate shocks of up to 600 volts, making it one of the most powerful bioelectricity generators. This voltage is enough to stun a human and is far higher than the 120 volts typically found in household electrical outlets in the United States. As we learned above, the charge is strong enough to transfer genetic material to other organisms</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-applications">Research and applications</h3>



<p>Scientists study electric eels for insights into bioelectricity. Their unique physiology has inspired research in medical technologies, such as designing better pacemakers and understanding electrical impulses in the human body.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status-of-electric-eels">Conservation status of electric eels</h3>



<p>Despite their formidable defense mechanism, electric eels face threats from habitat loss and pollution. Conservation efforts focus on preserving their natural habitats and maintaining the ecological balance of South American river systems.</p>



<p>In summary, electric eels are not only a marvel of nature but also a window into the vast potential of bioelectricity. Their unique characteristics continue to fascinate scientists and nature enthusiasts alike, making them a significant subject in the study of aquatic life and bioelectrical phenomena.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://peerj.com/articles/16596/">PeerJ</a></em>.</p>



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Electric eels can genetically modify other creatures by shocking them

Electric eels, known for their remarkable ability to generate electricity,...

<p>In a recent study led by <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, researchers found that in North America's hottest regions, mammals prefer forests over areas dominated by human activity. </p>



<p>The research revealed that mammals, including pumas, wolves, bears, rabbits, deer, and opossums, are 50% more likely to inhabit forests than open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-koala-habitats-face-an-escalating-threat-of-bushfires/">habitats</a> in hotter regions, while the opposite is true in colder areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Different populations of the same species respond differently to habitat based on where they are,” said study lead author Mahdieh Tourani. “Climate is mediating that difference.”</p>



<p>An example of this is the eastern cottontail rabbit, which prefers forests in hotter areas but tends to occupy human-dominated habitats in colder regions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-crisis">Biodiversity crisis</h2>



<p>"Addressing the ongoing biodiversity crisis requires identifying the winners and losers of global change," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Species are often categorized based on how they respond to habitat loss; for example, species restricted to natural environments, those that most often occur in anthropogenic habitats, and generalists that do well in both."</p>



<p>"However, species might switch habitat affiliations across time and space: an organism may venture into human-modified areas in benign regions but retreat into thermally buffered forested habitats in areas with high temperatures."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>For the investigation, the researchers used data from Snapshot USA's extensive camera trap network.</p>



<p>“We analyzed 150,000 records of 29 mammal species using community occupancy models,” said Tourani.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“These models allowed us to study how mammals respond to habitat types across their ranges while accounting for the fact that species may be in an area, but we did not record their presence because the species is rare or elusive.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-flexibility-nbsp">Ecological flexibility&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This research challenges the traditional conservation biology practice of categorizing species into simple groups based on their compatibility with human environments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers say there is growing recognition of ecological flexibility, and that species are more complicated than those two categories suggest.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-conservation-nbsp">Habitat conservation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We can’t take a one-size-fits all approach to habitat conservation,” said study senior author Daniel Karp. “It turns out climate has a large role in how species respond to habitat loss.”</p>



<p>For example, if elk are managed under the assumption that they can only live in protected areas, there may be missed opportunities to conserve them in human-dominated landscapes.</p>



<p>“On the other hand, if we assume a species will always be able to live alongside us, then we might be wasting our effort trying to improve the conservation value of human-dominated landscapes in areas where it is simply too hot for the species,” said Karp.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study highlights the growing importance of preserving forest cover for wildlife conservation in the context of a warming climate.</p>



<p>“If we’re trying to conserve species in working landscapes, it might behoove us to provide more shade for species,” said Karp. “We can maintain patches of native vegetation, scattered trees, and hedgerows that provide local refugia for wildlife, especially in places that are going to get warmer with climate change.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304411120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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North America's mammals are seeking refuge from the heat in forest habitats

In a recent study led by UC Davis, researchers found...

<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> have made a breakthrough discovery in the field of evolutionary biology by mapping the family tree of crocodiles, including their extinct relatives known as Pseudosuchia.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The comprehensive study offers new insights into the evolutionary history of crocodiles, particularly focusing on the question of why today's world has such a limited variety of croc species compared to their avian relatives, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/">birds</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-crocodile-family-tree">Building the crocodile family tree</h2>



<p>The team, led by Dr. Katie Davis from the Department of Biology, meticulously combined data from the fossil record with their detailed mapping of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> lineage. </p>



<p>This approach revealed significant insights into the factors influencing the survival and extinction of these species over millions of years. </p>



<p>A key finding of the research is the crucial role that ecology played in the survival of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cultures-crocodiles-worshipped/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> species. The team discovered that changes in global temperatures affected sea-dwelling and land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-crocodilians-may-have-devastating-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a> differently than freshwater species. </p>



<p>Interestingly, while the diversity of sea-dwelling and land-based crocodiles increased with rising temperatures, they were more susceptible to extinction due to increased competition for resources, possibly with marine predators like sharks or dinosaurs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bt contrast, freshwater species were less impacted by temperature changes but faced greater extinction risks due to rising sea levels.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-fossil-record">Valuable fossil record</h2>



<p>This study is not just a deep dive into the past, but holds significant implications for contemporary conservation efforts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-plant-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> species today classified as critically endangered or vulnerable, understanding the historical factors that influenced their survival becomes crucial in a world grappling with climate change. </p>



<p>“The fossil record is a rich source of valuable information allowing us to look back through time at how and why species originate, and crucially, what drives their extinction," said Dr. Davis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"By examining this record and mapping it against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-birds-archosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> family tree, our research reveals how important it is to think about ecology when we're trying to predict how species might respond to today's climate change."</p>



<p>“With a million plant and animal species perilously close to extinction, understanding the key factors behind why species disappear has never been more important."&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In the case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-distribution-past-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, many species reside in low-lying areas, meaning that rising sea levels associated with global warming may irreversibly alter the habitats on which they depend.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-family-tree-significance">Crocodile family tree significance</h2>



<p>The research highlights the interconnectedness of abiotic factors like climate and biotic interactions such as competition in shaping the evolutionary journey of species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By constructing a large phylogeny for all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-had-great-success-through-rapid-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a> and their extinct relatives, the researchers could analyze speciation and extinction patterns in relation to historical climate changes. </p>



<p>The team employed a type of mathematics called the Information Theory to estimate the impact of these environmental and interactive factors on species emergence and extinction rates.</p>



<p>“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-not-changed-much-in-200-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crocodiles</a> and their extinct relatives offer unique insights into climate change and its impact on biodiversity in the past, present and future," said Dr. Davis. "Our findings advance our understanding of what factors have shaped, and continue to shape, life on Earth.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-crocodiles">More about crocodiles</h2>



<p>As discussed above, crocodiles, formidable and ancient reptiles, have roamed the Earth for millions of years, showcasing an evolutionary success that demands respect and fascination. These predators, primarily found in tropical regions, display a variety of species, each adapted to its unique environment, yet all sharing certain key characteristics that define their family.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-features">Crocodile features</h3>



<p>The most striking feature of a crocodile is its robust, elongated body, covered with tough, scaly skin, which provides defense against predators and harsh environments. Their eyes and nostrils, positioned on top of their heads, enable them to see and breathe while mostly submerged, a trait essential for their ambush hunting style. This positioning, coupled with their excellent night vision, makes crocodiles formidable nocturnal hunters.</p>



<p>Crocodiles boast an impressive set of sharp teeth, designed for gripping and tearing flesh, and their powerful jaws can exert tremendous pressure, ensuring that prey captured rarely escapes. They primarily feed on fish, birds, and mammals, showing a remarkable ability to adapt their diet based on the available prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-reproduction">Crocodile reproduction</h3>



<p>One of the most fascinating aspects of crocodiles is their nurturing behavior. Despite their fierce reputation, they exhibit a gentle side when caring for their young. Females vigilantly guard their nests and assist hatchlings to water, displaying a level of parental care not commonly associated with reptiles.</p>



<p>Their role in their ecosystems is crucial. As apex predators, crocodiles help maintain the balance by controlling the population of other species, thereby ensuring a healthy ecosystem. Moreover, their nesting behavior contributes to shaping their habitat, influencing the geography of their environment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>Unfortunately, crocodiles face threats from habitat loss and human conflict. Their skins are highly valued in the fashion industry, leading to illegal hunting, which, along with habitat destruction, poses a significant risk to their survival.</p>



<p>In summary, crocodiles, with their ancient lineage and remarkable adaptations, are not just survivors of a bygone era but active, vital participants in their ecosystems. Their continued existence hinges on our ability to understand and protect these magnificent creatures, ensuring they continue to thrive in the wild.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02244-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Crocodile family tree reveals 250 million years of crocodile evolution

Researchers at the University of York have made a breakthrough...

Spelaeoecia parkeri

Taxonomic tree: