Enderleinellus menetensis

Wolverine,(gulo,Gulo),Portrait.,Wolverine,Face,Closeup.

<p>In a landmark decision, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> has announced the protection of the wolverine population in the lower 48 states under the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-endangered-species-act" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Act</a> (ESA). This move is a significant victory for conservationists who have campaigned for decades to secure legal protections for this rare wilderness species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-fought-conservation-battle">Long-fought conservation battle</h2>



<p>The decision to list the wolverine as threatened under the ESA is the culmination of a prolonged campaign by conservationists, involving six rounds of successful litigation. Timothy Preso, an <a href="https://www.earthjustice.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthjustice</a> attorney, expressed his satisfaction with the decision. He said, “This long-awaited decision gives the wolverine a fighting chance at survival.”</p>



<p>The journey began in 1994 when conservation organizations first filed petitions, filing again in 2000, urging for the classification of the wolverine as a threatened under the Endangered Species Act. However, over the years, the service consistently postponed and hindered the listing process for the wolverine, compelling those advocating for the species to seek legal action to enforce the act. </p>



<p>Earthjustice, along with its allied groups, achieved success in every lawsuit they pursued for the wolverine's protection. They consistently secured victories either via court decisions in their favor or through advantageous settlement deals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolverines-are-endangered">Why wolverines are endangered</h2>



<p>Dave Werntz from <a href="https://conservationnw.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Northwest</a> and Michael Saul from <a href="https://defenders.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Defenders of Wildlife</a> emphasized the importance of this decision in light of the challenges posed by climate change. Wolverines, dependent on snowpack for their survival, are facing an uncertain future due to global warming.</p>



<p>“The decision today gives a boost to struggling wolverines across the west,” said<strong> </strong>Werntz. “The future for wolverines in the North Cascades and elsewhere is now much brighter.”</p>



<p>With no more than 300 individuals remaining in the lower 48 states, the wolverine, the largest terrestrial member of the weasel family, is endangered by habitat loss due to climate change. Pregnant females rely on deep snow for birthing and raising their young.</p>



<p>“The science is clear: snowpack-dependent species like the wolverine are facing an increasingly uncertain future under a warming climate,” Michael Saul explained. “The protections that come with Endangered Species Act listing increase the chance that our children will continue to share the mountains with these elusive and fascinating carnivores. Now it’s time to support the species’ future by bringing them back to the mountains of Colorado as well.”</p>



<p>Andrea Zaccardi from the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Biological Diversity</a> expressed joy over the decision, noting the overdue nature of these protections. Megan Mueller from <a href="https://rockymountainwild.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Wild</a> highlighted the importance of reintroducing wolverines to Colorado as a refuge from climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-context-and-current-challenges">Historical context and current challenges</h2>



<p>Historically, wolverines roamed across the northern United States, reaching as far south as New Mexico and Southern California. Today, traps, human disturbance, and low genetic diversity pose risks to their limited and fragmented populations.</p>



<p>George Sexton from the <a href="https://www.kswild.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Klamath-Siskiyou Wildlands Center</a> and Jeff Abrams from the <a href="https://www.idahoconservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Idaho Conservation League</a> emphasized the significance of the decision for regional recovery efforts. </p>



<p>“Wolverines have been completely driven out of the Klamath Mountains where they once roamed, this is an important step to ensure that they are not driven off the planet,” said Sexton.</p>



<p>“Biologists estimate a loss of more than 40% of suitable wolverine habitat in Idaho by 2060 if we fail to act," Abrams added. “This decision allows us to move forward on recovery actions to prevent such extensive loss of wolverine habitat and recover wolverine populations.”</p>



<p>Bonnie Rice from <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sierra Club</a> called the decision a lifeline for the snow-dependent species, saying, “Today’s decision gives this amazing, snow-dependent species a long-overdue lifeline in the face of massive habitat loss due to climate change.”</p>



<p>In summary, the long-overdue move by the USFWS marks a pivotal moment in the conservation of endangered wolverines in the United States. It not only offers legal protection, but also sets the stage for recovery programs and initiatives. Earthjustice and their allies earned a hard-fount victory and a beacon of hope for this iconic wilderness species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-wolverines">More about wolverines</h2>



<p>Wolverines, known for their formidable strength and resilience, thrive in some of the most inhospitable climates on Earth. These solitary mammals, often misunderstood, play a crucial role in the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Wolverines, the largest members of the Mustelidae or weasel family, display a bear-like appearance. They have a stocky build, broad heads, and short, rounded ears. </p>



<p>Their thick, dark brown fur, often with light facial markings and a pale stripe running from each shoulder to the base of their tail, provides insulation against extreme cold. Wolverines also have large, five-toed paws with sharp claws, making them excellent climbers and diggers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolverine-habitat-and-distribution">Wolverine habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Wolverines are adapted to cold, boreal forests, tundra, and alpine environments. They predominantly inhabit the Northern Hemisphere, especially in Canada, Alaska, northern Europe, and Russia. </p>



<p>Their home ranges are vast, spanning hundreds of square miles. Being solitary animals, they require large territories for hunting and scavenging.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-hunting-behavior">Diet and hunting behavior</h3>



<p>Carnivorous in nature, wolverines feed on a variety of foods. Their diet primarily consists of carrion, small mammals, birds, and occasionally fruits and berries. </p>



<p>Wolverines are opportunistic feeders and have been known to take down prey much larger than themselves, such as deer, using their powerful jaws and sharp teeth.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-behavior">Reproductive behavior</h3>



<p>Wolverines mate in the summer, but the implantation of the embryo is delayed until winter. Births occur in the early spring. </p>



<p>Females give birth to two to three kits in dens insulated with snow, which provide protection and warmth. The young wolverines are weaned after a few months but often stay with their mother until the next breeding season.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-for-survival">Adaptations for survival</h3>



<p>Wolverines have several adaptations that aid their survival in harsh climates. Their fur is frost-resistant, and their wide paws act like natural snowshoes, supporting them in deep snow. Wolverines also have a keen sense of smell, allowing them to locate food buried deep beneath the snow.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



<p>As discussed above, wolverines face threats from habitat loss, climate change, and human activities such as trapping and hunting. Their dependency on snow-covered terrain makes them particularly vulnerable to global warming. Conservation efforts, including legal protections and habitat conservation, are crucial for their survival.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-wolverines-in-ecosystems">Role of wolverines in ecosystems</h3>



<p>As apex scavengers, wolverines play a vital role in their ecosystems by helping to keep them clean and free of carrion. They also impact the populations of smaller predators and prey, maintaining a balance in their habitats.</p>



<p>Wolverines, with their fierce reputation and remarkable adaptability, are fascinating creatures deserving of admiration and protection. Understanding and conserving these resilient animals is essential for maintaining the health and balance of the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



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Wolverines receive much-needed protection from the Endangered Species Act

In a landmark decision, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service...

British,Cat,And,Golden,Retriever

<p>Dog and cat owners often engage in the age-old debate about which of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-dogs-and-cats-dramatically-reduces-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beloved pets</a> is smarter. This question, however, has remained challenging to answer due to the inherent difficulties in making a sound comparison between the two species. The complexity lies in their differing natures and the varying success of previous comparative studies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-human-pointing-gestures">Interpreting human pointing gestures</h2>



<p>In an attempt to provide a clearer understanding, researchers from the <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/research_groups" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELKH-ELTE</a> Comparative Ethology Research Group and the Department of Ethology at <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> embarked on a new study. Their goal was to compare how well companion dogs and cats can interpret human pointing gestures under identical test conditions.</p>



<p>Attila Salamon, the first author of the study, highlighted the unique challenges faced during the research. "We tested cats and dogs first in the laboratory, which was quite the challenge for cats," Salamon stated. </p>



<p>Salamon explained that of the 62 indoor family cats brought to the Department, only 34 participated in the pointing test. The other cats were too shy or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-dogs-preference-for-certain-foods-has-a-direct-impact-on-motivation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unmotivated</a>, despite the lure of their favorite treats. In contrast, no dogs had to be excluded from the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-were-dogs-or-cats-smarter-with-pointing">Were dogs or cats smarter with pointing?</h2>



<p>The testing procedure, as described by co-author Melitta Csepregi, was straightforward. Two containers were placed on the ground, with one containing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switching-dogs-and-cats-to-vegan-diets-would-help-the-earth-tremendously/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> reward. The experimenter pointed at the baited container, and then the animal made its choice. </p>



<p>"Overall, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-with-vegan-diets-may-have-better-health-outcomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> proved to be more skilled. They found the reward significantly more frequently than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-is-your-cat-in-human-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>," Csepregi observed. “In addition, cats gradually became less willing to choose, while dogs were eager to work during the whole duration of the test.”</p>



<p>Acknowledging that cats might have been at a disadvantage in an unfamiliar environment, a subgroup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-attachments-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> was later tested in their homes. This adjustment did not significantly alter the outcome. Although cats were more willing to participate at home, their success rate remained lower than that of dogs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



<p>Márta Gácsi, the lead researcher, offered insights into the possible reasons for these differences. "Cats may have been less attentive, less motivated by food rewards, or frustrated by the unfamiliar environment or unusual handling during the test,” she suggested. </p>



<p>Gácsi also highlighted the inherent differences between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumer-choices-are-influenced-by-ads-with-cats-and-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the two species</a>. “Unlike the cat, the dog is a social species and was selected for interaction and cooperation with humans during domestication. Differences in how we keep them may also have contributed to the test results."</p>



<p>Gácsi concluded with a significant observation. She explained, "All things considered, it's no surprise that it's less relevant for cats to rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-better-at-expressing-emotions-than-cats-except-for-anger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human communication</a> cues." </p>



<p>In summary, this study sheds light on the differing natures of dogs and cats, suggesting that intelligence in pets cannot be universally measured. This trait is heavily influenced by their evolutionary and domestication histories. </p>



<p>While the debate on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-pet-owners-care-more-for-dogs-than-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">which pet</a> is smarter, dogs or cats, may continue, this research underscores the importance of understanding and appreciating the unique qualities of each species.</p>



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Are dogs smarter than cats? A new study looks for answers to that never-ending debate

Dog and cat owners often engage in the age-old debate...

Dog,Holds,Carrot,In,Its,Mouth

<p>Recent research conducted by the Department of Ethology at <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a>, Hungary, and <a href="https://petfood.symrise.com/emea-en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Symrise Pet Food</a>, France, has provided new understanding into how dogs' food preferences and motivation are reflected in their brain activity. Specifically, their caudate nuclei, a brain region associated with reward processing, show marked variations in response to different food qualities. </p>



<p>This study, which cleverly integrates behavioral observations with advanced neuroimaging techniques, offers a unique perspective on the relationship between food quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-celebrating-all-the-ways-that-dogs-make-life-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> motivation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-food-motivates-dogs">Learning how food motivates dogs</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiment-1-behavioral-assessment">Experiment 1: Behavioral assessment</h3>



<p>The first part of the study involved a group of twenty family <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-live-longer-and-happier-lives-when-they-get-to-socialize-often/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>. These dogs were initially trained to unwrap a box. They were then introduced to associate specific tones with two types of food: smoked ham, a highly rewarding treat, and fiber cookies, a less desirable option.</p>



<p>The crucial part of this experiment was to measure the dogs' motivation to obtain the associated food. This was determined by the speed at which they unwrapped the box when one of the sounds played. "The results showed that the dogs unwrapped the box quicker when the sound associated with the higher quality food, the smoked ham, was played," the research team reports.</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="GEfERCYtSv-3208636-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiment-2-neuroimaging-analysis">Experiment 2: Neuroimaging analysis</h3>



<p>A different group of twenty family <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mischievous-dogs-experts-reveal-the-top-ten-naughtiest-breeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> participated in the second experiment, which focused on brain activity. These dogs were trained to remain still in a brain scanner. Initially, they were exposed to both sounds without any specific meaning attached. After participating in the wrapped box experiment, they underwent another scanning session, this time with each sound linked to either smoked ham or fiber cookies.</p>



<p>The primary focus here was on changes in the caudate nucleus during these sessions. The study found that, compared to the first session, there was a heightened response in the caudate nucleus in the second session, particularly to the sound associated with smoked ham.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-food-motivation-and-the-brain">Dog food, motivation, and the brain</h2>



<p>Dorottya Ujfalussy is the senior author of the study. She explains, "While prior research has primarily focused on how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typical-american-dog-knows-18-words-and-love-is-at-the-top-of-the-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog brain</a> responds to rewards versus non-rewards, our study takes a step further, delving into the representation of two food rewards varying in quality." </p>



<p>Not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-needy-independent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> showed the same performance, with significant variation in how quickly they unwrapped the boxes. The study observed a clear positive correlation between the behavioral performance of the dogs and the differentiation in their brain responses. </p>



<p>Laura V. Cuaya is the first author of the study. She remarks, "It is exciting to be able to 'see' how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-facial-markings-influence-how-they-bond-with-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> represent different foods in their brains and observe how the quality of the food influences their motivation. We were surprised to discover a distinct positive correlation between the behavior of the dogs and their brain representations."</p>



<p>Cuaya explains further, "The direction of this relationship still intrigues us. Based on our data, we cannot determine whether a more distinct brain representation of both sounds enables a better behavioral performance or if it operates in the reverse. It’s likely that this process is not solely unidirectional."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-canine-training-and-motivation">Implications for canine training and motivation</h2>



<p>This study offers a unique insight into how dogs' preferences and motivations towards food are intricately linked to their brain activity. It opens new avenues in understanding canine cognition and behavior, especially in terms of how they perceive and value different types of rewards. </p>



<p>Ujfalussy further expounded, "Our findings highlight that the caudate nuclei not merely process rewards, but also distinguish between rewards based on their quality."</p>



<p>These findings could have significant implications for training methods and enhancing the well-being of domestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-humans-process-social-information-in-surprisingly-similar-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> around the world.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-40539-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a></em>.</p>



<p>Video Credit: Eötvös Loránd University/ Symrise Pet Food&nbsp;</p>



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A dog's preference for certain foods has a direct impact on motivation

Recent research conducted by the Department of Ethology at Eötvös...

<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> have discovered that plastic waste in aquatic environments may be severely disrupting the reproductive behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-45000-marine-species-are-endangered-by-human-impacts/">marine animals</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts say that plastic waste in the water might be stopping - or interrupting - some creatures from reproducing.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-marine-plastic-waste">Studying marine plastic waste</h2>



<p>The study was specifically focused on the marine amphipod Echinogammarus marinus, a shrimp-like creature that has a wide distribution.</p>



<p>Previous research on marine plastic pollution has typically examined the physical dangers, such as entrapment and ingestion. Instead, the Portsmouth study explored the chemical composition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-dropped-into-the-ocean-can-travel-hundreds-of-miles-while-sinking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a>, particularly the additives that enhance their properties.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsuccessful-mating-nbsp">Unsuccessful mating&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study reveals that chemicals commonly found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-materials-do-not-biodegrade-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> are altering the reproductive behavior of E. marinus. This could have serious consequences not only for the species but also for the entire marine ecosystem.</p>



<p>“This unsuccessful mating behavior has serious repercussions, not only for the species being tested but potentially for the population as a whole," explained Professor Alex Ford from Portsmouth's Institute of Marine Sciences.</p>



<p>"These animals form pairs to reproduce. Once they were exposed to a chemical, they would break apart from their mate and take much longer -in some cases days - to repair, and sometimes not at all."</p>



<p>“These creatures are commonly found on European shores, where they make up a substantial amount of the diet of fish and birds. If they are compromised it will have an effect on the whole food chain.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-use-of-chemicals-nbsp">Widespread use of chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research sheds light on the widespread use of chemicals in everyday products. Out of over 350,000 chemicals used globally, about 10,000 are employed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-plastic-pollution-increases-with-depth-and-near-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> for various purposes, including flexibility, color enhancement, sun protection, and fire resistance. </p>



<p>Alarmingly, a third of these chemicals are toxic to human health, affecting the immune, nervous, or reproductive systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-additives-nbsp">Plastic additives&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers tested four common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastics-are-a-hazard-at-every-stage-of-their-life-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic additives</a>: phthalates (DEHP and DBP), Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), and N-butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS). These chemicals are found in a range of products, from medical supplies and food packaging to electronic equipment and cooking utensils.</p>



<p>The study revealed that all the tested additives hindered the pairing process of the amphipods, with some even causing a substantial decline in sperm count.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Although the animals we tested were exposed to much higher concentrations than you would normally find in the environment, the results indicate these chemicals can affect sperm count," said Professor Ford.</p>



<p>“It is conceivable that if we did the experiment on shrimps that had been exposed for a longer period or during critical stages in their life history, it would affect their sperm levels and quality.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Study lead author Bidemi Green-Ojo, a PhD researcher in Environmental Toxicology, emphasized the importance of understanding the effects of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals on aquatic life</a>. </p>



<p>“We must understand more about these chemicals and how they affect behavior. Many types of behavior - such as feeding, fight or flight mode, and reproduction - are essential in an animal's life, and any atypical behavior may reduce the chances of survival," said Green-Ojo.</p>



<p>“We are urging environment agencies around the world to take more notice of behavioral data, because sometimes the data tells us things that normal toxicity tests don’t. Studies like this give a different perspective on potential damage caused by a specific pollutant.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122946" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Environmental Pollution</em></a>.</p>



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Plastic waste is disrupting the sex lives of marine animals

Researchers at the University of Portsmouth have discovered that plastic...

Honey,Bee,Flying,To,The,Flower

<p>Venoms, remarkable for their complexity and potency, have independently evolved in numerous animal groups, including bees. Within the diverse insect order Hymenoptera, which encompasses over 6,000 bee species alone, venomous species are notably abundant. </p>



<p>Despite their ecological and economic significance, the evolutionary development of hymenopteran venoms has remained largely unexplored. A recent study led by Dr. Björn von Reumont, a visiting scientist at <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>, has made significant strides in understanding this mysterious evolutionary path.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-bee-venom-evolution">Studying bee venom evolution</h2>



<p>The research, grounded in comparative genomics, marks the first systematic exploration of the evolution of bee and other hymenopteran venoms. </p>



<p>The team identified prevalent peptides and proteins in hymenopteran venom using protein databases. They then analyzed venoms from two wild bee species -- the violet carpenter bee (<em>Xylocopa violacea</em>) and the great-banded furrow-bee (<em>Halictus scabiosae</em>) -- as well as of the honeybee (<em>Apis mellifera</em>). </p>



<p>Twelve peptide and protein families were found to be common across the hymenopteran venoms studied, suggesting these are fundamental "common ingredient" of their venom cocktails.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-genetic-discoveries">Surprising genetic discoveries</h2>



<p>In collaboration with institutions like the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TUM</a>, and <a href="https://tbg.senckenberg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LOEWE TBG</a>, the researchers examined the genes of these 12 families in 32 hymenopteran taxa. </p>



<p>This group included sweat bees and stingless bees, and also wasps and ants such as the notorious fire ant (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>). The genetic differences were sometimes as minute as a single letter change in the genetic code. Nonetheless, this enabled the team to trace relationships and compile a lineage of venom genes using artificial intelligence and machine learning.</p>



<p>A key revelation was the presence of many venom genes across all hymenopterans, indicating a common ancestral origin. Bees, it seems, have been venomous from their beginnings. </p>



<p>This finding challenges current debates in other groups, such as Toxicofera, about the independent evolution of venoms. “This makes it highly probable that hymenopterans are venomous as an entire group,” concludes von Reumont. “For other groups, such as Toxicofera, which includes snakes, anguids (lizards) and iguania, science is still debating whether the venoms can be traced back to a common ancestor or whether they evolved separately.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hymenoptera-specialization">Hymenoptera specialization</h2>



<p>In the Hymenoptera order, it's specifically the stinging insects like bees, wasps, and ants that are equipped with a stinger for venom delivery. In contrast, the ancient parasitic sawflies, such as the sirex wood wasp (Sirex noctilio), employ a different method. They use their ovipositor, in conjunction with laying eggs, to introduce substances that modify the physiology of their host plants. </p>



<p>A notable example is the sirex wood wasp, which not only injects a fungus aiding its larvae in colonizing the wood but also delivers its unique blend of venomous proteins, as highlighted in the study. </p>



<p>These proteins are crucial in preparing the plant environment to be conducive for the larvae's growth. Dr. von Reumont points out, "Based on this, we can categorize the sirex wood wasp as venomous too."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-venom-components-in-bees">Novel venom components in bees</h2>



<p>Particularly intriguing was the discovery related to the peptide melittin in bees. Contrary to previous beliefs that multiple gene copies were responsible for its diversity and abundance in bee venom, the study revealed it is encoded by a single gene. </p>



<p>This discovery refutes the hypothesis of melittin belonging to the postulated aculeatoxins group, emphasizing the importance of genome data in understanding venom evolution.</p>



<p>Additionally, the study identified anthophilin-1 as a new protein family in bee venom, further enriching our understanding of venom composition and evolution.</p>



<p>Dr. von Reumont explains, “Not only are there many different variants of melittin, but the peptide also accounts for up to 60 percent of the dry weight of bee venom. That is why science previously assumed that there must be many gene copies. We were able to disprove this quite clearly.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-venom-evolution-research">Future venom evolution research</h2>



<p>This important study by Dr. von Reumont and his team offers unprecedented insights into the origin and evolution of venom genes in Hymenoptera. It sets the stage for future research in tracing venom gene evolution in the ancestors of Hymenoptera and understanding specializations within the group. </p>



<p>However, large-scale comparative genomics will require the automation of analysis methods for the expansive protein families involved. </p>



<p>This research illuminates the evolutionary paths of venoms, while also opening new avenues for understanding the intricate relationships between genetics and ecology in one of the most diverse and ecologically significant insect orders.</p>



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Which came first, bee venom or bee stingers?

Venoms, remarkable for their complexity and potency, have independently evolved...

<p>Scientists have uncovered a crucial connection between ocean oxygen levels and one of the most catastrophic marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/">extinction events</a> in Earth’s history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research not only illuminates our understanding of past global changes but also issues a stark warning about the current fragility of marine ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triassic-jurassic-mass-extinction">Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction</h2>



<p>The study was focused on the Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction, which occurred approximately 200 million years ago. This event is among the Earth's major mass extinctions, periods characterized by significant global ecosystem collapses and widespread species extinctions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Historically, these events have been closely associated with global environmental disturbances, frequently resulting in reduced oxygen levels (anoxia) in oceanic waters.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>A common hypothesis has been that greater extents of ocean deoxygenation would naturally lead to larger scale extinctions. However, the current study challenges this assumption by demonstrating that the level of euxinia (an extreme form of deoxygenation) during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction was similar to what we observe today.</p>



<p>The research team, including experts from Royal Holloway (UK), <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> (Ireland), and Utrecht University (Netherlands), analyzed chemical data extracted from ancient mudstone deposits in Northern Ireland and Germany.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The results of the analysis highlight the role of anoxia in the marine extinctions during this period. The study also reveals a surprising limitation in the global extent of extreme deoxygenation at the time.</p>



<p>The experts found a correlation between increased extinction rates and spikes in deoxygenation across shallow marine environments along European continental margins.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cautionary-tale-nbsp">Cautionary tale&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Upon further investigation, the team determined that the global extent of extreme deoxygenation was rather limited, and similar to the present day.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research serves as a cautionary tale about the current state of our oceans, suggesting that they may be more vulnerable than previously thought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study of past global change events is invaluable in understanding the consequences of modern climate change, as well as in predicting and possibly mitigating future ecosystem tipping points.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-impacts">Cascading impacts</h2>



<p>“Scientists have long suspected that ocean deoxygenation plays an important role in the disturbance of marine ecosystems, which can lead to the extinction of species in marine environments," said study co-author Professor Micha Ruhl.</p>



<p>"The study of past time intervals of extreme environmental change indeed shows this to be the case, which teaches us important lessons about potential tipping points in local, as well as global ecosystems in response to climatic forcing."</p>



<p>“Crucially however, the current findings show that even when the global extent of deoxygenation is similar to the present day, the local development of anoxic conditions and subsequent locally increased extinction rates can cascade in widespread or global ecosystem collapse and extinctions, even in areas where deoxygenation did not occur."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-ecosystem-stability-nbsp">Assessing ecosystem stability&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Professor Ruhl said the research shows that global marine ecosystems become vulnerable, even when only local environments along the edges of the continents are disturbed.</p>



<p>"Understanding such processes is of paramount importance for assessing present day ecosystem stability, and associated food supply, especially in a world where marine deoxygenation is projected to significantly increase in response to global warming and increased nutrient run-off from continents.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01303-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a></p>



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Today's ocean oxygen levels may have cascading impacts

Scientists have uncovered a crucial connection between ocean oxygen levels...

<p>In a recent development hailed as a conservation success, bluefin tuna have made a remarkable return to Northern European waters. This resurgence, however, is shadowed by concerns over rising sea temperatures in their Mediterranean nursery grounds. </p>



<p>New research led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> suggests that this recovery may be fleeting due to the impending climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-rising-temperatures">Impact of rising temperatures</h2>



<p>According to the research, the Mediterranean Sea is expected to reach temperatures that could drive juvenile bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tunas-billfishes-and-sharks-are-sentinels-of-global-ocean-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> out within the next 50 years. </p>



<p>Professor Clive Trueman is the lead author and a Geochemical Ecology expert at the University of Southampton. He emphasized the critical temperature threshold, saying, “We have found that anything over 28 degrees Celsius will adversely impact bluefins’ growth.”</p>



<p>The study predicts a potential shift in the tuna's nursery areas to cooler regions like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/desert-dust-over-the-bay-of-biscay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay of Biscay</a>. This migration poses a new challenge as juvenile tuna might end up in existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fisheries-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a> for sardines and anchovies. This confluence of events would necessitate a change in fishery management practices.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-use-of-otolith">Innovative use of otolith</h2>



<p>An international team, including the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> and Spain's <a href="https://www.azti.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AZTI</a> science and technology centre, used a novel method involving the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/bluefin-tuna-otolith_credit-Clive-Trueman_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otolith</a> -- a tissue found behind the brains of bony fish. </p>



<p>This method was pioneered by Professor Trueman. It analyzes the otolith's chemistry to measure the tuna’s metabolic rate, offering insights into the ideal living conditions for these fish.</p>



<p>The otolith, or 'ear stone', is crucial for a fish’s ability to hear and balance. Professor Trueman explained its significance, saying, “Our new work uses variations in the levels of natural stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen in the otolith to reveal each tuna’s individual metabolic rate. This can tell us when waters are getting too hot for the fish to handle - it’s like a natural fitness tracker.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluefin-tuna-value">Bluefin tuna value</h2>



<p>Bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-payment-tuna-ocean-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> are among the largest and most powerful fish in the sea. They are capable of impressive speeds, leaping out of the water at 43 miles per hour. These fish are not just ecologically significant but also economically valuable, with their meat being a prized component in sushi and sashimi.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-pinpoint-blue-corridors-for-large-migratory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> spawns on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, with Eastern Atlantic bluefin spending their first year in the Mediterranean. Upon reaching maturity, they venture into the Atlantic. Bluefin will often cross the ocean in search of prey like sardines and herring, before returning to the Mediterranean to spawn.</p>



<p>In summary, the return of bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-in-bluefin-tuna-reveal-patterns-of-ocean-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> to Northern European waters is a testament to successful conservation efforts. However, the looming threat of climate change, specifically the rising temperatures in their Mediterranean nursery grounds, presents new challenges. </p>



<p>This research highlights, most importantly, the resilience of bluefin tuna. However, it also underscores the need for adaptive management in fisheries and a deeper understanding of the impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-improve-well-being-in-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bluefin-tuna">More about bluefin tuna</h2>



<p>As discussed previously, bluefin tuna are one of the ocean's most magnificent creatures. They command the attention of environmentalists, fishermen, and seafood connoisseurs alike. Let's now delve into their biology, behavior, and the challenges they face in today's oceans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-and-characteristics">Biology and characteristics</h3>



<p>Impressive Size and Speed -- Bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tuna-contain-toxic-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> stand out for their size and speed. They can grow up to three meters in length and weigh over 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds). Known for their incredible speed, they swim at bursts of up to 70 kilometers per hour (43 miles per hour), as mentioned above.</p>



<p>Unique Physiological Traits -- These fish possess several unique physiological adaptations. Unlike most fish, bluefins can regulate their body temperature, allowing them to thrive in diverse water temperatures. Their streamlined bodies and powerful tails make them highly efficient swimmers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-migration-patterns">Habitat and migration patterns</h3>



<p>Diverse Habitats -- Bluefin tuna inhabit various oceanic environments. They primarily roam the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, with distinct populations in the Eastern and Western Atlantic.</p>



<p>Long-Distance Migrations -- These fish are renowned for their long-distance migrations, crossing oceans for feeding and spawning. Western Atlantic bluefins migrate between North American waters and the Gulf of Mexico, while Eastern Atlantic populations travel between European waters and their spawning grounds in the Mediterranean.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluefin-tuna-diet-and-feeding-habits">Bluefin tuna diet and feeding habits</h3>



<p>Predatory Nature -- Bluefin tuna are apex predators, feeding on a diet rich in fish and cephalopods. Their preferred prey includes herring, mackerel, and squid. They hunt both individually and in schools, showcasing impressive coordination.</p>



<p>Foraging Strategies -- Bluefins employ various foraging strategies, from swift, powerful attacks to cooperative hunting in groups. Their keen eyesight and heightened sense of smell aid in locating prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-life-cycle">Reproduction and life cycle</h3>



<p>Spawning Rituals -- Bluefin tuna spawn in warm waters, typically in the Mediterranean Sea for the Eastern Atlantic population. Spawning occurs annually, with females releasing millions of eggs, ensuring a higher chance of survival for the offspring.</p>



<p>Growth and Development -- Young bluefins grow rapidly, a necessity for survival in the competitive oceanic environment. They reach sexual maturity at around 3-5 years, embarking on their first spawning migrations.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status-and-threats">Conservation status and threats</h3>



<p>Overfishing and Population Decline -- Bluefin tuna face significant threats from overfishing. Their high market value, particularly for sushi and sashimi, has led to intense fishing pressure, causing a stark decline in their populations.</p>



<p>Environmental Challenges -- As mentioned previously in this article, climate change and pollution also pose grave threats to bluefin tuna. Changes in ocean temperatures affect their spawning grounds and migration patterns, while pollution impacts their health and the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p>In summary, bluefin tuna are not only a seafood delicacy, they are integral to the marine ecosystem. Understanding their biology, behavior, and the challenges they face is crucial for their conservation. </p>



<p>Efforts to manage fisheries sustainably and address environmental issues are vital to ensure the survival of these magnificent creatures for future generations.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41930-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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Bluefin tuna, a sushi delicacy, will likely be extinct within 50 years

In a recent development hailed as a conservation success, bluefin...

Enderleinellus menetensis

Taxonomic tree: