A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the protein found in bones, skin, muscles, and ligaments, has been detected in specimens as old as 195 million years. This far exceeds the expected half-life of peptide bonds, which usually break down within 500 years.



Such a remarkable finding challenges long-held assumptions about how biological materials degrade over time.



Typically, proteins are some of the first components to disappear from fossils, leaving behind only hard minerals like bone. 



Yet, in the case of these ancient dinosaurs, collagen has somehow persisted, offering scientists a unique opportunity to explore molecular preservation in an entirely new way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-defies-time">Dinosaur collagen defies time</h2>



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) explains how collagen can survive far beyond its expected lifespan. 



The researchers uncovered a special atomic-level interaction that defends collagen from water molecule attacks, forming a barricade that prevents peptide bonds from being broken through hydrolysis.



Study senior author Ron Raines, the Firmenich Professor of Chemistry at MIT, collaborated with lead author and postdoc Jinyi Yang, postdoc Volga Kojasoy, and graduate student Gerard Porter.



"We provide evidence that that interaction prevents water from attacking the peptide bonds and cleaving them. That just flies in the face of what happens with a normal peptide bond, which has a half-life of only 500 years," explained Professor Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-flexibility-of-dinosaur-collagen">The flexibility of dinosaur collagen</h2>



Collagen is essential to biological structures, particularly due to its tough, fibrous composition. Made of long, intertwined protein strands forming a triple helix, collagen is remarkably stable.



"Collagen is the scaffold that holds us together," said Professor Raines. "What makes the collagen protein so stable, and such a good choice for this scaffold, is that unlike most proteins, it’s fibrous."



Evidence of collagen has even been found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur fossils</a>, including an 80-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> fossil and a nearly 200-million-year-old sauropodomorph fossil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-behind-collagen-s-longevity">Secrets behind collagen's longevity</h2>



Collagen's peptide bonds, formed between carbon and nitrogen atoms, are resistant to hydrolysis because of their structure. These bonds also include a double bond with oxygen, creating a molecular structure known as a carbonyl group.



The carbonyl oxygen can share its unbonded electrons with the neighboring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form-inside-of-water-droplets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide bond</a>, preventing water from disrupting the structure.



To test this, the team created two collagen mimics. One mimic formed the triple helix (trans), while the other had rotated peptide bonds (cis). The researchers found that water could infiltrate and disrupt the cis form, while the trans form resisted water damage.



"A peptide bond is either cis or trans, and we can change the cis to trans ratio. By doing that, we can mimic the natural state of collagen or create an unprotected peptide bond. And we saw that when it was unprotected, it was not long for the world," noted Professor Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-immortal-protein">The immortal protein</h2>



Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-dinosaur-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a>, collagen is composed entirely of triple helices, with no weak links. "Collagen is all triple helices, from one end to the other. There’s no weak link, and that’s why I think it has survived," said Professor Raines.



While other hypotheses suggest dehydration or other factors may contribute to collagen’s longevity, the MIT research points to the unique molecular protection as a key factor. 



"I can’t discount the contributions from other factors, but 200 million years is a long time, and I think you need something at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discrimination-speeds-up-aging-molecular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular level</a>, at the atomic level in order to explain it," noted Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-and-protein-preservation">Dinosaur collagen and protein preservation</h2>



The discovery of dinosaur collagen and its ability to survive for hundreds of millions of years opens new doors in the study of protein preservation and fossilization. 



These findings could revolutionize how scientists approach the study of ancient life, enabling more accurate reconstructions of prehistoric biology. 



Furthermore, in fields such as paleobiology and biotechnology, understanding how proteins withstand degradation over time can inspire new technologies and applications.



As researchers continue to explore the intricacies of collagen, the mysteries of how ancient proteins defy time could lead to broader scientific breakthroughs that span multiple disciplines, from archaeology to bioengineering.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.4c00971" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Central Science</a>.



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How dinosaur collagen survived the test of time

Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the...

Honesty is usually considered the best policy, but there are moments when telling the truth isn’t always the right choice. Social norms help humans decide when to be truthful and when to bend the truth to spare someone’s feelings or avoid harm. But how do these norms translate to robots, which are becoming increasingly integrated into our daily lives? 



To explore whether humans are comfortable with robots lying, researchers asked nearly 500 participants to evaluate and justify different types of robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-when-robots-lie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deception</a>.



“I wanted to explore an understudied facet of robot ethics, to contribute to our understanding of mistrust towards emerging technologies and their developers,” explained lead author Andres Rosero, a PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.gmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Mason University</a>. 



“With the advent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-generative-ai-go-mad-and-wreck-internet-data/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generative AI</a>, I felt it was important to begin examining possible cases in which anthropomorphic design and behavior sets could be utilized to manipulate users.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-types-of-deceptive-robot-behavior-nbsp">Distinct types of deceptive robot behavior&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers selected three common work scenarios involving robots - medical, cleaning, and retail - and tested three distinct types of deceptive behavior.&nbsp;



These behaviors were categorized as external state deceptions (lying about the outside world), hidden state deceptions (concealing the robot’s capabilities), and superficial state deceptions (exaggerating the robot’s abilities).



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-external-state-deception-nbsp">External state deception&nbsp;</h3>



In the external state deception scenario, a robot acting as a caretaker for a woman with Alzheimer’s lies, telling her that her late husband will be home soon.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-state-deception-nbsp">Hidden state deception&nbsp;</h3>



The hidden state <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-deception-is-a-growing-issue-that-we-cannot-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deception</a> scenario involves a woman visiting a house where a robot is cleaning, unaware that the robot is secretly filming her. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-superficial-state-deception-nbsp">Superficial state deception&nbsp;</h3>



In the superficial state deception scenario, a robot in a store complains about feeling pain while helping move furniture, prompting a human to ask someone else to take over for the robot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-people-view-robot-deception-nbsp">How people view robot deception&nbsp;</h2>



The team recruited 498 participants, asking each to read one of the scenarios and respond to a questionnaire.&nbsp;



The participants were asked whether they approved of the robot’s actions, how deceptive they considered the behavior, whether the deception was justifiable, and who, if anyone, they believed was responsible for the lie. The researchers then analyzed the responses to identify patterns in how people viewed each type of deception.



Of the three scenarios, participants were most disapproving of the hidden state deception involving the house cleaning robot that was secretly filming. They rated it as the most deceptive and found it largely unjustifiable.&nbsp;



In contrast, while the external and superficial state deceptions were also seen as deceptive, the superficial deception - where the robot pretended to feel pain - was viewed more negatively, likely because it seemed manipulative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-lies-are-justified">Some lies are justified</h2>



Interestingly, participants were most supportive of the external state deception, where the robot lied to the Alzheimer’s patient. Many justified the lie by saying it protected the patient from emotional pain, prioritizing compassion over truthfulness.



While participants could offer justifications for all three forms of deception - some suggested that the hidden state deception might have been for security reasons - most were firmly against the idea of robots lying about their capabilities without disclosure.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-that-manipulate-users-nbsp">Robots that manipulate users&nbsp;</h2>



More than half the participants who encountered the superficial state deception, where the robot faked pain, also found it unacceptable. When it came to these unacceptable deceptions, participants often pointed the blame at the robot’s developers or owners rather than the robot itself.



“I think we should be concerned about any technology that is capable of withholding the true nature of its capabilities, because it could lead to users being manipulated by that technology in ways the user (and perhaps the developer) never intended,” Rosero said.&nbsp;



“We’ve already seen examples of companies using web design principles and artificial intelligence chatbots in ways that are designed to manipulate users towards a certain action. We need regulation to protect ourselves from these harmful deceptions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gauging-human-reactions-to-robots">Gauging human reactions to robots</h2>



However, the researchers acknowledged that this study represents just a first step in understanding human responses to robot deception. They noted that future experiments should use real-life scenarios - such as videos or roleplay simulations - to better gauge human reactions.



“The benefit of using a cross-sectional study with vignettes is that we can obtain a large number of participant attitudes and perceptions in a cost-controlled manner,” Rosero explained.&nbsp;



“Vignette studies provide baseline findings that can be corroborated or disputed through further experimentation. Experiments with in-person or simulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-humans-react-to-coexisting-with-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-robot interactions</a> are likely to provide greater insight into how humans actually perceive these robot deception behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-technologies-and-ethical-decisions">Emerging technologies and ethical decisions</h2>



The research opens the door to understanding how we navigate the ethics of deception when it comes to emerging technologies like robots and AI.&nbsp;



As robots increasingly interact with humans in caregiving, service, and other industries, it's crucial to explore how comfortable we are with their behaviors, particularly when they involve deception.



With this study, the researchers have started a conversation about the ethical complexities of robot deception, pushing us to consider not just what robots can do, but what they should do. And as AI and robotic technologies continue to evolve, the need for clear regulations to protect users from potential manipulation becomes ever more pressing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2024.1409712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Robotics and AI</a>.



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Digital deception: How do humans respond to lying robots?

Honesty is usually considered the best policy, but there are...

A new study sheds light on how the brain initiates spontaneous actions without any external triggers. 



The research not only explains how these actions emerge but also offers insight into the mysterious ramping of neural activity before movement - a phenomenon that has puzzled scientists for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-spontaneous-action-nbsp">Origins of spontaneous action&nbsp;</h2>



The study was led by Jake Gavenas during his time as a PhD student at the Brain Institute at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chapman University</a>. He collaborated with two faculty members, Uri Maoz and Aaron Schurger, to explore the origins of spontaneous action. 



Together, the researchers simulated activity in neural networks and compared the results to real human intracortical recordings during spontaneous movement.&nbsp;



The findings offer a fascinating explanation for how the brain's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> work together to trigger movement without any clear external signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-signals-and-conscious-actions">Brain signals and conscious actions</h2>



One of the study's key discoveries is that rapid fluctuations in the activity of individual neurons can combine within a network, resulting in much slower fluctuations when viewed at the population level.&nbsp;



This helps explain a phenomenon that many people have experienced but never fully understood - such as when you're standing on a diving platform, contemplating a jump. Nothing outside of you is telling you to jump, but at some point, you make the decision internally, and then you move.&nbsp;



The brain, specifically the motor cortex, is coordinating muscle contractions to make this happen, but the question is: where do the initial signals to jump come from, and how do they relate to your conscious decision to act?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-voluntary-actions">Spontaneous voluntary actions</h2>



Since the 1960s, neuroscientists have observed that electrical activity in the brain begins to increase one to two seconds before a spontaneous voluntary action. 



Many researchers believed this slow ramping up of activity represented the brain preparing to move, following a preconscious decision. But what remained unclear was how this ramping process starts, as it seemed to emerge from nowhere.



This slow-ramping brain activity has sparked years of debate among neuroscientists and philosophers about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-do-not-have-free-will-stanford-scientist-robert-sapolsky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free will</a> and conscious control. 



The big question has been whether this ramping signals that the brain is preparing to move even before we consciously decide to act, raising concerns that our actions might be predetermined at an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unconscious</a> level. Understanding where this ramping activity comes from has been a central problem in neuroscience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-activity-before-spontaneous-actions-nbsp">Neural activity before spontaneous actions&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers like Maoz and Schurger have challenged the view that the brain makes a preconscious decision to move.&nbsp;



In 2012, Schurger proposed an alternative explanation, suggesting that the slow ramping in neural activity is part of a broader process. In this process, slow background fluctuations in the motor cortex accumulate until they hit a certain threshold, triggering movement.



In this framework, the key moment isn't when the slow ramping begins, but rather when the fluctuations cross a threshold to initiate action. This would explain why scientists see ramping activity before movement - because, looking back from the point of action, slow fluctuations would have been leading up to the threshold crossing all along.&nbsp;



This explanation, while compelling, left one crucial question unanswered: where do these slow background fluctuations in neural activity, often called 1/f noise, come from, considering that individual neurons fluctuate quite rapidly?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-ramping-signals-nbsp">Slow-ramping signals&nbsp;</h2>



The study is the first to provide an explanation for how slow background fluctuations arise from networks of neurons, none of which, individually, operate on such slow timescales.&nbsp;



The research shows that when neurons interact in a network, their fast, individual fluctuations can combine into slower, population-level fluctuations. These slow fluctuations can then lead to a threshold-crossing event, triggering movement and giving rise to the ramping activity that appears before spontaneous actions.



“We see similar slow-ramping signals before other kinds of spontaneous behaviors, like coming up with creative ideas or freely remembering things that have happened to you. A similar process might therefore underlie those phenomena, but only time and further research will tell,” Gavanas said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-triggers-movement">How the brain triggers movement</h2>



In short, this study provides a possible explanation for the slow, spontaneous fluctuations in neural activity, which are widespread in neural systems and critical to understanding how the brain triggers movement without external cues.



Moreover, the study highlights an important point about how researchers interpret their findings. According to Maoz, it reveals the bias we have as researchers to think that our results uncover a causal mechanism, when it may really be just a correlation.



This observation reminds us that in neuroscience, understanding the difference between correlation and causation is crucial for making sense of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-creativity-start-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> functions.



The research is published published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51401-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. 



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What causes the brain to initiate spontaneous actions?

A new study sheds light on how the brain initiates...

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution, influencing not only our diets but also our genetic makeup. 



A recent study has revealed that the rise of agriculture - around 12,000 years ago - and the subsequent increase in starchy staples like wheat and grains, significantly impacted the human genome.



Researchers from the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom found that our ability to digest carbohydrates has significantly evolved over time. This is closely linked to the rise of agriculture and the increase of starchy foods in our diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolutionary-power-of-starchy-foods">The evolutionary power of starchy foods</h2>



The ability to extract energy from starchy foods has increased remarkably during this period, as shown by an expansion in the number of genes encoding enzymes that break down starch - jumping from an average of eight to over 11.



"The copy number of amylase genes had increased in Europeans since the dawn of agriculture, but we had never been able to sequence this locus fully before. It is extremely repetitive and complex," said Peter Sudmant, assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of the lead authors of the study. 



This increase in amylase genes closely matched the rise and spread of agriculture across Europe from the Middle East, aligning with changes in dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-amylase-locus">Decoding the amylase locus</h2>



The researchers meticulously examined the genome's amylase locus, where the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) and two pancreatic amylase genes (AMY2A and AMY2B) reside. 



"If you take a piece of dry pasta and put it in your mouth, eventually it'll get a little bit sweet. That's your salivary amylase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-produced-during-exercise-protects-against-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> breaking the starches down into sugars," explained Sudmant.



While this happens in all humans and other primates, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a> contains a significantly higher number of amylase gene copies compared to our primate relatives, such as chimpanzees and Neanderthals, who possess only a single copy of AMY1.



UC Berkeley postdoctoral fellow Runyang Nicolas Lou, one of the study's co-authors, elaborated: "Our study found that each copy of the human genome harbors one to 11 copies of AMY1, zero to three copies of AMY2A, and one to four copies of AMY2B. Copy number is correlated with gene expression and protein level and thus the ability to digest starch."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-advantage-and-global-adaptation">Survival advantage and global adaptation</h2>



The presence of multiple amylase genes provided a survival advantage, with the incidence of chromosomes carrying multiple copies increasing sevenfold over the last 12,000 years. 



This evolution was not confined to Europe. The researchers found evidence of similar patterns in other agricultural populations globally, regardless of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-of-the-future-breadfruit-is-resistant-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starchy plant</a> was domesticated.



Erik Garrison, a co-lead author from the <a href="https://www.uthsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee Health Science Center</a>, highlighted the broader implications of the findings: "One of the exciting things we were able to do here is probe both modern and ancient genomes to dissect the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural evolution</a> at this locus."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dawn-of-a-new-method">The dawn of a new method</h2>



Another breakthrough in the study was the development of a new method for identifying diseases involving genes with multiple copies, like amylase. 



This method also opens doors to exploring rapidly duplicating genes related to the immune system, skin pigmentation, and mucus production. 



The research hints at a potential link between higher AMY1 copies and increased tooth decay, though further investigation is needed.



Joana Rocha, a co-author from UC Berkeley, compared the genomic structure of the amylase locus to “sculptures made of different Lego bricks." 



Long-read sequencing techniques allowed the team to reconstruct these complex genetic structures with unprecedented accuracy, shedding light on human evolutionary history and its genetic diversity.



This research, funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is part of an expanding effort to better understand how genetic adaptations have shaped human health and disease through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing diets</a> over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starchy-foods-and-human-health">Starchy foods and human health</h2>



The evolutionary relationship between starchy foods and human genetics continues to shape modern health. 



As our ancestors adapted to carbohydrate-rich diets, today's populations still show varying abilities to digest starch, potentially influencing susceptibility to conditions such as obesity and diabetes. 



Understanding this genetic adaptation to starchy foods not only offers insights into our past but also provides valuable information for addressing contemporary health challenges linked to diet and metabolism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How starchy foods shaped human genomes

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution,...

Once draped with seas and swathed in rivers, Mars was hardly the barren wasteland that it is today. But just as water can evaporate from your glass on a hot day, it seems Mars' liquid assets went poof sometime over the last 3 billion years. 



Where did the water go? We know that a portion of it went deep underground, seeping into the Martian crust. But the rest of it? Well, that's the focus of a recent study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escape-of-mars-water">Escape of Mars' water</h2>



Scientists have identified two possible exits for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insights-alien-life-mars-water-sulfur-discovered-gained-studying-extreme-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian water</a>. One, it could have filtered into the ground and become frozen in time. Two, it could have broken down into atoms and bounced into the great beyond - space. As interesting as the first scenario sounds, let's focus on the latter one.



John Clarke and his team in the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/csp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Space Physics</a> at Boston University explain that understanding water's fate on Mars necessitates tracking the escapee atoms.



By measuring the current escape rate and number of hydrogen atoms fleeing into space, they can trace the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-are-hiding-much-more-water-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history of water on the planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-in-the-martian-atmosphere">Hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere</h2>



The water molecules in Mars' atmosphere are essentially dismantled by sunlight into two types of atoms: hydrogen and deuterium, or "heavy hydrogen."



Deuterium is a hydrogen atom with an added neutron, which gives it twice the mass and drags it down, making it slower to escape into space.



Over time, as more basic hydrogen escaped and deuterium lagged, the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere grew. And this growing ratio is a treasure map for scientists, leading them back to the period when Mars was bustling with water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-meets-maven">Hubble meets MAVEN</h2>



As instrumental as the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/maven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAVEN</a> (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution) spacecraft's data was to this study, it had its limitations. It seems even space telescopes have blind spots. 



MAVEN struggles to detect deuterium emissions during the lengthy Martian winter, when Mars swings away from the sun. 



So, the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> swooped in to fill in the gaps, completing the picture of a three-Martian-year cycle (687 Earth days for a single Martian year). With additional data dating back to 1991, Hubble contributed vastly to this study long before MAVEN arrived at Mars in 2014.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turbulent-atmosphere">A turbulent atmosphere </h2>



In our fast-paced world, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> is also experiencing its share of change. The Martian atmosphere is not the static entity scientists once thought it to be. It's not just a slow, relaxed diffusion of atoms upwards until they reach an escape altitude - it's a far more high-octane process. 



Mars' closeness to the sun causes water molecules to speed through the atmosphere, discharging atoms at higher altitudes.



Scientists have found this transformation is so swift that it even needs added energy to explain the changes. This paints a far more dynamic picture of Mars' atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-solar-wind-in-mars-water-loss">Role of solar wind in Mars' water loss</h2>



One cannot discuss the loss of water from Mars without considering the impact of solar wind. This constant stream of charged particles emitted by the sun plays a significant role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian atmosphere's evolution</a>. 



Unlike Earth, which is protected by its magnetic field, Mars lacks a global magnetic shield, allowing solar wind to directly interact with its atmosphere. These interactions can strip away light gases, including hydrogen, from the atmosphere. 



Recent studies have indicated that solar wind has been a persistent thief, exacerbating the loss of water molecules over eons by providing the energy needed to liberate lighter atoms from their atmospheric bonds, further diminishing the planet's once-thriving liquid reservoirs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-isotope-analysis">Insights from isotope analysis</h2>



As scientists delve deeper into the puzzle of Mars' water loss, isotope analysis emerges as a powerful tool in their arsenal. 



By examining the ratios of hydrogen isotopes - regular hydrogen versus deuterium -researchers can gain insights into the history and volume of liquid water that once circulated on the planet. Isotopic signatures serve as valuable markers, providing clues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> when the water was abundant.



This analytical approach not only helps paint a more detailed picture of Mars' hydrological history but also opens avenues for comparison with Earth, allowing scientists to enhance their understanding of the planetary processes that govern water retention and loss. 



As we continue to explore these methodologies, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of our enigmatic neighbor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-an-intergalactic-puzzle">Piecing together an intergalactic puzzle</h2>



Unraveling the historical mystery of water on Mars extends beyond our solar system. It presents invaluable information for understanding the evolution of Earth-sized planets elsewhere in the cosmos.



With astronomers identifying more of these distant planets, Mars, Venus, and Earth serve as models to understand their conditions.



The research appears in the recent edition of <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adm7499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.



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Mars lost most of its water, but where did it go?

Once draped with seas and swathed in rivers, Mars was...

Bad teen behavior usually happens away from adult supervision, which means it's easy for parents to blame others for their child's delinquent behavior.



When parents believe that other teens are a bad influence, they may feel tempted to limit these friendships. However, a recent study suggests that this overbearing approach could be counterproductive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prohibiting-friendships-can-backfire">Prohibiting friendships can backfire</h2>



A new study cautions parents - especially meddling moms - against prohibiting friendships, as such actions might worsen the very behavior they aim to correct.



The study was co-authored by Brett Laursen, a professor of psychology at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a>, and Goda Kaniušonytė from <a href="https://www.mruni.eu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mykolas Romeris University</a>.



The researchers followed a diverse group of students, consisting of 292 boys and 270 girls aged 9 to 14, over the course of a school year.



The students completed surveys at regular intervals to measure their conduct, perceived maternal disapproval of friends, peer status, and classroom disruptiveness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-disapproval-impacts-teen-behavior">Maternal disapproval impacts teen behavior</h2>



The findings reveal that maternal disapproval of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-teen-friendships-build-lasting-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a> in response to behavior issues can damage a child's peer status, exacerbating the behavioral problems that mothers intend to address.



 "Maternal friend disapproval has counterproductive consequences for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kindergarten-conduct-childhood-behavioral-problems-will-cost-society-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior problems</a> because of the deleterious impact it has on peer status," explained Laursen. 



The children, alienated from their peers, faced increased classroom disruptions and adjustment difficulties.



Results from the study indicate that when mothers intervened to restrict friendships, they inadvertently worsened their child’s relationships with peers, causing further issues in behavior. 



The researchers found that classmates responded to maternal interference with increased disliking of the child, not just a reduction in popularity. 



As a result, children who were subject to friend prohibitions often found themselves ostracized, with classmates distancing themselves to avoid ridicule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-domino-effect-of-prohibited-friendships">The domino effect of prohibited friendships</h2>



The study also explored the potential for parents to unintentionally succeed in disrupting friendships. 



"Imagine this scenario," said Laursen. "A friendship ends because a mother prohibits it. Now the child needs a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reconnecting-with-old-friends-is-as-scary-as-making-new-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new friend</a>. Who wants to be friends with someone who has an unpleasant, interfering mother?" 



"Chances are good that friend options are now quite limited, and the child is forced to consider someone who also is rejected by peers; someone who has a hard time making friends."



In many cases, the limited social options available to children after such interventions meant they were more likely to befriend classmates who exhibit the same behavior problems.



The pressure to conform to disruptive behaviors was heightened, compounding the very issues that the mothers had hoped to resolve. 



Moreover, the loss of peer status led to increased distress, making it more difficult for children to develop healthy coping mechanisms. 



Exclusion from social interactions with typically developing peers deprived them of the chance to learn and practice age-appropriate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-who-are-active-on-social-media-are-just-as-active-offline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social skills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parental-support-improves-teen-behavior">Parental support improves teen behavior</h2>



“Mothers may think they are protecting their children, but in reality, their actions often push them further into undesirable situations,” Laursen noted. 



This unintended consequence highlights the risks of direct interference in children’s friendships, especially when it involves cutting off ties with peers.



The study authors suggest that instead of prohibiting friendships, parents should focus on creating positive, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supportive relationships</a> with their children. This, they argue, may help buffer against the negative influence of troublesome peers.



"Parents should consider positive alternatives to friend prohibition," said Laursen. "Focus on maintaining positive relationships with children, because warmth and support can be effective buffers against troublesome peer pressure, potentially disrupting the downward spiral of peer problems and adjustment difficulties."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-constructive-peer-engagement">Encouraging constructive peer engagement</h2>



The researchers further advise that parents should encourage their children to engage in constructive peer activities within supervised settings. 



Participation in clubs and other adult-sponsored activities could offer opportunities for positive peer interaction while minimizing deviant behavior. 



According to Laursen, creating these positive environments for friendship can help children build healthier social connections without the need for restrictive parental interference.



Study co-author Goda Kaniušonytė added that parents’ well-meaning interventions often stem from concerns about their child’s behavior, but these efforts can have the opposite effect. 



By limiting social opportunities, children may fall into a cycle of rejection and behavioral issues, making it harder for them to adjust in the long term.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.14043" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</a>.



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When moms meddle: Friend disapproval worsens teen behavior

Bad teen behavior usually happens away from adult supervision, which...

Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are among the smallest vertebrates on the planet. Regardless of their tiny size, their organs and bodily functions are almost identical to those of animals that are hundreds or even thousands of times larger.&nbsp;



While extreme miniaturization is a phenomenon seen in nature, the exact mechanisms behind how animals become so small have long remained a mystery. 



Now, thanks to a grant of around $1.7 million from the <a href="https://erc.europa.eu/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Research Council</a> (ERC), a <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> researcher is setting out to solve this puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-miniature-animals-with-optimal-function-nbsp">Miniature animals with optimal function&nbsp;</h2>



What do flea toads and smartphones have in common? Both have undergone extreme miniaturization while still maintaining all their essential components. 



In the tech world, we’ve grown accustomed to devices becoming smaller while retaining or even increasing functionality. 



Similarly, in nature, creatures like flea toads, dwarf pygmy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-three-new-species-of-freshwater-goby-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goby fish</a>, and bumblebee bats have evolved to shrink while keeping their vital organs and functions intact, much like their larger relatives.&nbsp;



But what exactly happens within these creatures, especially at the genetic level, when they undergo such evolutionary changes to reduce in size? And are there any biological limits to how small these animals can get?



These are some of the questions Mark D. Scherz, a researcher at the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>, will explore over the next five years. His research will focus on uncovering the genetic processes that govern miniaturization in vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-animals-become-miniature-nbsp">Understanding how animals become miniature&nbsp;</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-animals-vulnerable-human-expansion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large animals</a> are often the ones to grab our attention. But I think it to be just as fascinating how nature has managed to miniaturize the exact same vital organs and cram them into a less than one-centimeter-long frog. Today, we know surprisingly little about how it all happens, and I want to change that,” Scherz explained.



Much like the tech industry has continually reduced the size of transistors to make devices smaller and more efficient, nature has found ways to make animals miniature over millions of years. 



Scientists believe that extreme miniaturization is linked to evolutionary innovation, although the exact mechanisms remain poorly understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-changes-during-miniaturization-nbsp">Genetic changes during miniaturization&nbsp;</h2>



Scherz’s research project, GEMINI (Genomics of Miniaturisation in Vertebrates), aims to uncover the specific genetic changes that occur as animals become smaller. 



The goal is to create a sort of genetic “template” that will reveal what happens in the DNA of vertebrates when they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-flea-toad-worlds-smallest-vertebrate-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrink in size</a>.



“In several independent studies that looked at the genomes of miniaturized animals, a kind of clean-up and innovation takes place, where the genome becomes smaller. A lot of this happens in repetitive bits of the genome that we used to call <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-may-set-humans-apart-from-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘junk’ DNA</a>. But some of it happens in other genes as well, which is what we need to learn more about,” Scherz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-size-big-innovations-nbsp">Small size, big innovations&nbsp;</h2>



In the past, scientists believed that animals generally evolved to become larger over time, a concept known as “Cope’s rule.” However, it is now clear that this isn’t always the case - and for a good reason.



“Animals can't just keep growing bigger and bigger. At some point, their physiology reaches a limit, and so does gravity. That’s why there are phases where body size reduces, allowing for a trend toward increased size later on,” Scherz said.&nbsp;



“We also think that small size might be where the really big innovations happen, which we then see expanded when the descendants get bigger again. That makes these miniaturized animals particularly exciting to study when we’re trying to figure out how innovations evolve in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-overlooked-phenomenon-nbsp">An overlooked phenomenon&nbsp;</h2>



For decades, miniature animals have been somewhat overlooked in favor of studying large species like blue whales and elephants. 



Some of the biggest discoveries in the field of miniaturization date back to the 1990s, with fewer recent advancements.



“Everyone’s attention is on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blue whales</a> and elephants. Any child you ask can tell you about the largest land mammal and the largest marine mammal and the largest dinosaur that has ever lived,” said Scherz.



“But scaling up and getting bigger is not a big problem. It is a far more impressive feat to have (practically) everything in a twenty-three-ton blue whale compressed into a seven-millimeter package.”



However, interest in miniaturization is experiencing a resurgence, partly due to exciting new discoveries. 



Earlier this year, researchers in Brazil found the world’s smallest vertebrate, the flea frog, measuring just seven millimeters in length. This discovery has reignited curiosity about the biological processes behind miniaturization.



“We live at a time when probably the smallest vertebrates ever are around us, but they are too easy to overlook, so we just forget about them. This project will allow us to gain a genetic understanding of what controls this 'miniaturization process' and investigate whether there is something that keeps animals from becoming even smaller,” Scherz concluded.



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Why do some animals evolve to become miniature?

Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are...

Neighbors can often be annoying, intruding on our personal space or being too loud. But is it worthwhile to fight them? Parrotfish, for instance, choose not to battle it out with their neighbors. 



In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, researchers revealed that the stoplight parrotfish - a brightly colored species living in the shallow waters off Florida and in the Caribbean Sea - tends to behave more tolerantly toward neighboring parrotfish, but rather aggressively toward strangers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-parrotfish-nbsp">Ecological role of parrotfish&nbsp;</h2>



The experts spent days underwater observing parrotfish, to gather new insights into a species which plays a major role in maintaining healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>, while also contributing to the white sand beaches of the Caribbean.



“Parrotfish are an important part of the coral reef ecosystem and the ecological functions it provides,” said lead author Joshua Manning, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at CU Boulder. “Understanding their behavior will help us evaluate whether and how they can buffer the effects of climate change on coral reefs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-with-beak-like-teeth-nbsp">Parrotfish with beak-like teeth&nbsp;</h2>



Stoplight parrotfish are some of the largest parrotfish species in the Caribbean reefs, measuring up to 1.5 feet long. They sport strong, beak-like teeth which allow them to spend nearly 90% of the day eating microscopic organisms that grow on and within the calcium carbonate structures produced by corals.&nbsp;



As the parrotfish remove coral skeletons, they make space for new corals to grow and produce white sand as their digestive waste.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-claiming-their-territory-nbsp">Claiming their territory&nbsp;</h2>



Since they are highly territorial animals, male stoplight parrotfish defend territories as large as two tennis courts, where they spend their time foraging and mating with a small group of female followers.&nbsp;



However, not every parrotfish has a specific territory. Some of them are “floaters,” as Manning calls them, constantly scouting the reefs and claiming space that becomes available.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-respect-their-neighbors">Parrotfish respect their neighbors</h2>



As an experienced diver, Manning spent over 400 hours underwater during his doctoral studies trying to understand how the stoplight parrotfish behave and interact with one another. His observations revealed that the fish might be smarter than previously thought.&nbsp;



By following ten spotlight parrotfish off the coast of Bonaire, a Caribbean island, he discovered that each time a floater swam by an occupied territory, the territory holders would puff up, displaying their fins and aggressively chasing the floater away.&nbsp;



Surprisingly though, when parrotfish from neighboring territories approached the boundary lines, territory holders appeared to be much less aggressive.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dear-enemy-effect">The “dear enemy” effect</h2>



When parrotfish did behave aggressively toward their neighbors, it was most frequently because they had strayed too far into other parrotfish’s territory while chasing another parrotfish.



This “dear enemy” effect, as scientists call it - when territory holders show less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-animals-have-mirror-neurons-that-spark-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> toward neighbors than strangers - has also been observed in frogs, squirrels, sparrows, and several other animal species. However, this was the first time this phenomenon was discovered in parrotfish. 



According to Manning, parrotfish might be more aggressive toward floaters because they are more likely to try to take over their territories.&nbsp;



Moreover, since territory-holding males have better mating opportunities, their continuous patrolling and defense efforts take a toll on their physical condition and, as a consequence, they have to focus their energy on fighting off the most critical threats.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-capacity-to-learn-and-use-information-nbsp">The capacity to learn and use information&nbsp;</h2>



To the scientists’ surprise, floaters appeared to recognize territorial boundaries. For instance, floaters often swam across the reefs using the buffer zones between established territories in order to avoid aggression.



“These fish may be smarter than what we give them credit for. They seem to recognize neighbors, find the boundaries of territories, and have the capacity to learn and use information,” Manning said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-accelerate-reef-recovery-nbsp">Parrotfish accelerate reef recovery&nbsp;</h2>



Due to global warming, coral reefs worldwide are declining rapidly. Between 2023 and mid-May 2024, experts have found mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching</a> - which happens when corals expel the algae living in their tissues due to stress caused by high ocean temperatures and other climatic factors - in 62 countries and territories worldwide. 



Since parrotfish depend on coral reefs for shelter and food, coral loss due to ocean acidification and warming can have major impacts on their habitat and populations. Yet, parrotfish are able to accelerate reef recovery from bleaching events by creating space for coral larvae to settle and grow.



“Reefs are a vital source of food for us and support immense biodiversity, including species with significant medical potential,” said Manning.&nbsp;



“By studying how parrotfishes use space and how their grazing influences coral recruitment patterns, we can better understand how reefs can recover from disturbances and adapt to climate change.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Parrotfish are more aggressive with strangers than neighbors

Neighbors can often be annoying, intruding on our personal space...

Have you ever considered the impact of simply observing how others deal with challenging situations? It's a lot more profound than you might think. This act of empathy can help us develop a layer of emotional armor, helping us with resilience and shielding us from the mental health ravages of trauma, such as depression.



The researchers at the University of Lausanne (UNIL) have been delving into this, studying how this "emotional contagion" works in mice – and they've cracked the code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-resilience-anyway">What's resilience, anyway?</h2>



When life throws us tough situations, we humans have a knack for getting through it, picking up and pressing on. This is what we call resilience. 



That said, not everyone finds it so easy to bounce back from traumatic events. Some folks may feel stuck in a rut, losing their motivation and drive, the telltale signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-maltreatment-fuels-mental-health-crisis-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>. 



If we could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-high-resilience-live-up-to-ten-years-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boost resilience</a> in these vulnerable individuals, we could fortify them against the onset of debilitating mental health conditions. However, we're not quite there yet. 



"There is a lack of clinical tools or underlying mechanisms to promote this type of conditioning capable of fostering a resilient reaction as in healthy people," says Manuel Mameli, Associate Professor at the Department of Fundamental Neurosciences at the Faculty of Biology and Medicine, <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNIL</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peek-learn-endure-for-emotional-resilience">Peek, learn, endure for emotional resilience</h2>



How did the UNIL neuroscientists crack this nut? 



They created an experimental model to promote resilience and then measure its effects on the development of pathological traits following trauma. The process was quite ingenious.



"We started from the recognized fact that simply observing the emotional experiences of others helps us to learn from them. It's a phenomenon known as emotional contagion, and it engages resilience", explains Manuel Mameli.



They used an "observer" mouse, who got to watch another mouse experiencing mild electric shocks. This observation served as a protective shield for the observer mice -- when they later experienced the shocks themselves, they largely avoided falling into depression-like states.



On the other hand, the mice that didn't get a chance to observe the shocks, they weren't so lucky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-serotonin-our-resilience-maestro">Meet serotonin, our resilience maestro</h2>



Stumbling upon the behavioral principle was a big win. But the UNIL scientists didn't stop there. They dived deeper, identifying the brain mechanism mediating this learning process. 



They focused on an itsy-bitsy brain structure called the habenula, known for its involvement in our emotional and sensory processing, and regulation of neurotransmitters linked with depression, notably serotonin. They developed imaging tools to track this elusive molecule in mice. 



"It's very difficult to measure the variation of serotonin in the brain. Thanks to a biosensor developed by Yulong Li of <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peking University</a>, co-author of the study, we were able to identify the key mechanism," says Manuel Mameli.



The team found that this emotional contagion coincided with a change in neuron function in the habenula, along with a surge in serotonin release in this region. 



"It's the dynamics of serotonin that change during this task, and this is the key finding of our study," reveals Sarah Mondoloni, a postdoctoral fellow in Manuel Mameli's lab at UNIL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-resilience-and-mental-health">Emotional resilience and mental health</h2>



The revolutionary findings at the UNIL offer promising implications for mental health treatment and therapy. 



If emotional contagion can bolster resilience, then therapeutic models that incorporate observational learning may be beneficial for those struggling with mental health issues.



Such approaches could potentially enable individuals to develop coping mechanisms by learning from those who have navigated similar challenges successfully. 



This could be particularly impactful for vulnerable populations, offering a pathway towards improved mental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilience-is-surprisingly-linked-to-gut-and-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health resilience</a> in a more holistic and supportive environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-research">Future directions in research</h2>



Building upon the exciting discoveries related to serotonin in the habenula, future research must continue to explore the neurobiological pathways involved in emotional contagion and resilience. 



Investigating how these processes can be harnessed not only in animal models but in human populations is crucial. 



Additionally, researchers might look into related neurotransmitters and their roles in bolstering or limiting resilience, thereby broadening our understanding of the intricate interplay between social learning and emotional health. 



Such inquiries may pave the way for novel interventions that tap into our inherent capacity for resilience through shared human experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-depression">New understanding of depression</h2>



Depression has long been linked to serotonin. Many antidepressants target serotonin, aiming to boost its concentration in the brain. 



This study introduces a novel angle, indicating that a localized surge of serotonin in the habenula could fend off depressive symptoms following a traumatic experience. 



"Our discovery could pave the way for new therapeutic applications relevant to depression, for example by testing existing pharmacological serotonin activators. Their use could be refined to achieve better therapeutic approaches," Mameli aptly concludes.



So next time you watch someone dealing with a tough situation, know that you're not just a passive observer. You're building mental resilience, potentially protecting your mental well-being. 



And, who knows, this new understanding of serotonin could eventually lead to better therapeutic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-a-history-of-depression-tend-to-process-more-negative-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches to fight depression</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3897" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Seeing others' struggles can strengthen our emotional resilience

Have you ever considered the impact of simply observing how...

Ever looked up at the night sky and pondered the mysteries the Moon holds? Scientists have been doing just that for decades, and the latest discoveries about the Moon's volcanoes are nothing short of fascinating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peek-into-the-moon-s-volcanoes">Peek into the Moon's volcanoes</h2>



The Moon has experienced extensive volcanic activity in its past, evidence of which can be traced geologically. But the timeline of these volcanic episodes remained in the realm of the unknown until recently. 



Now, a team of dedicated researchers led by Prof. LI Qiuli at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="http://english.igg.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IGGCAS</a>) has brought forth an interesting revelation.



By examining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-moon-is-drifting-away-and-earth-will-never-be-the-same-without-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> soil samples collected by the Chang’e-5 mission, Prof. LI Qiuli’s Lab identified three volcanic glass beads. 



Intriguingly, these beads were formed 123±15 million years ago, making them the most recent specimens of lunar volcanism confirmed by radioisotope dating. This find was spotlighted in a recent publication in Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-of-the-moon-s-volcanoes">Echoes of the Moon's volcanoes</h2>



The dating of lunar volcanic basalt samples fetched by the Apollo and Luna missions, or that have arrived on Earth via lunar meteorites, suggested that lunar basaltic volcanism endures until approximately 2.9–2.8 billion years ago. 



However, a more recent analysis of lunar samples from the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2020-087A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chang’e-5 mission</a> implies that basaltic volcanism lingered on until at least 2.0 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remote-observations">Remote observations </h2>



Remote sensing observations hint at the possibility of even younger volcanism during the late Copernican era (less than 0.8 billion years ago) on the Moon. But without precise dating, these suspicion-filled observations remain just that. 



An additional challenge arises from the fact that the proposed late-Copernican mare basalt extrusions are distributed over limited areas, and no samples have been obtained from these regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-clues">Deciphering the clues</h2>



Eruptions of gas-enriched magma can create magma fountains, dropping submillimeter glass bead deposits over broad regions. 



Over time, these beads can be further relocated across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a> due to impact. These tiny volcanic glasses could remain undetected in existing samples.



WANG Biwen, a graduate student under the guidance of Profs. LI Qiuli and HE Yuyang, along with postdoctoral researcher ZHANG Qian, scrutinized approximately 3000 glass beads in lunar soil samples. 



They identified three volcanic glass beads based on their textures, primary and trace-element compositions, and in-situ sulfur isotope analyses.



Interestingly, the δ34S values of the three volcanic glass beads do not conform to impact glass beads' values. 



This divergence gives researchers a selection criterion for distinguishing volcanic glasses from impact glasses. Using uranium-lead dating, the team concluded that these volcanic glass beads were formed 123±15 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-discovering-younger-volcanism">Implications of discovering younger volcanism</h2>



The discovery of younger volcanic material on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-aims-to-build-a-train-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> changes how we think about its geological history. 



We used to believe the Moon had cooled down and was mostly inactive, but finding recent volcanic glass beads shows that volcanic activity might have continued longer than we thought. 



This new insight opens up exciting questions about the Moon's heat and volcanic history and what it could mean for future eruptions.



Understanding these processes not only helps us learn more about the Moon but also gives us clues about other planets and how they formed over time in our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profound-implications-for-lunar-history">Profound implications for lunar history</h2>



The radioisotope dating of these three Chang’e-5 volcanic glass beads sheds light on 120-million-year-old volcanoes on the Moon. 



This suggests that small celestial bodies, such as the Moon, may retain sufficient heat to foster internal vitality until quite far in their life span. 



These findings offer new constraints for geophysical models on the Moon’s deep interior's thermal history.



This awe-inspiring study was a joint venture with <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a> and the State University of New York (<a href="https://www.suny.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY</a>) at Albany. 



So, the next time you gaze at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-new-quasi-moon-will-stick-around-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moonlit sky</a>, remember, there's more than what meets the eye. Every celestial body out there has a gripping tale to tell, and there's no end to the mysteries we can unravel when science leads the way.



-----



It was supported by several esteemed organizations, including the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the China National Postdoctoral Foundation. The China National Space Administration provided the samples used in this study.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk6635" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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The Moon had active volcanoes just 120 million years ago

Ever looked up at the night sky and pondered the...

Have you ever wondered how long can your dogs remember the names of their favorite toys? Do they have a lasting memory or is it just temporary? 



Well, a trio of ethologists in Hungary have some insightful answers for us. They have peeled back the curtain of canine brains, revealing some intriguing answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-toy-names">Dogs and toy names</h2>



Most dog owners know that dogs can associate human words with toys. Call out "Squeaker," and Fido will bypass all other toys, laser-focused on finding that one.



However, what remained a mystery was the longevity of this association. Could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> retain these associations for long? Or is it more of a fleeting "here and gone" experience?



The research was led by Shany Dror, Ádám Miklósi, and Claudia Fugazza from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a>. Their study reveals that some dogs can remember toy names for at least two years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiment-that-fetches-results">Experiment that fetches results</h2>



The experiment involved five dogs, all of whom had previous training to associate human words with toys. 



These dogs, known as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gifted-dogs-can-learn-the-names-of-up-to-100-toys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gifted</a> word learners," are better at making these associations, with some breeds and individuals within those breeds emerging as star performers.



Giving a new spin to the existing training, the squad taught the dogs to associate names with twelve new toys. 



The researchers made sure the dogs thoroughly learned these names before storing away all the toys for two years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-toy-names-0">Dogs and toy names</h2>



Imagine the excitement when, after two years, the dogs were reintroduced to these toys. They were then put to the ultimate test. 



The researchers mixed these test toys with others familiar to the dogs, then asked the dogs to fetch the test toys by their associated name.



The results? The dogs fetched the correct toy 44% of the time on average, with some even reaching the impressive 60% accuracy mark. 



These results far exceed chance, proving that the dogs remembered the names -- a clear testament to their long-term memory.



The findings offer some serious food for thought. Do we often underestimate our pets' cognitive abilities? Perhaps.



What the research implies is remarkable. Dogs, or at least some of them, have a memory retention ability that runs deep. They can store associations in their long-term memory, much like we humans do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-intelligence-of-dogs">Underestimated intelligence of dogs</h2>



Understanding how dogs remember toys intrigues owners and sheds light on broader animal cognition.



Comparative studies have shown that while dogs process information differently than humans, their ability to learn and retain information is remarkably sophisticated. 



Dogs exhibit features of both associative and episodic memory, enabling them to recall specific experiences and the context in which they occurred. 



Such capabilities suggest that dogs, with their unique interaction with humans, might even share some cognitive traits with our species, challenging the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/go-fetch-some-cats-love-fetching-as-much-as-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-held perception</a> of dog intelligence as merely instinctual. 



By exploring these parallels, we highlight the profound bond between humans and their canine companions, rooted in shared understanding and communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dog-training">Implications for dog training</h2>



The insights from this research possess vital implications for dog training and enrichment activities. Recognizing that dogs can retain information over extended periods emphasizes the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-learn-to-speak-by-pressing-buttons-on-a-soundboard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consistent and meaningful training sessions</a>. 



Engaging dogs in exercises that reinforce name associations with toys not only aids in developing their cognitive skills but also enriches their playtime, making it more stimulating. 



This understanding encourages dog owners and trainers to incorporate varied vocabulary and concepts into daily interactions, ultimately enhancing the dog's learning experience.



By equipping dogs with the tools to remember their belongings, we empower them to engage in more enriched and fulfilling lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unleashing-the-true-potential-of-dogs">Unleashing the true potential of dogs </h2>



So, dog-lovers, maybe it's time we challenge our fur-babies a little more. Their cognitive abilities are impressive, and they continue to surprise us with their capabilities. 



Further research is needed to understand the full scope of canine memory.



Perhaps, the next time you play fetch, try attaching a name to that new toy. Who knows, even after many dog years, they just might surprise you and retrieve the right one.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0208" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Some dogs can remember their toy names for years

Have you ever wondered how long can your dogs remember...

Mountain chickadees, small birds native to North America, are more than just cute faces. They are survivors, and quite smart ones at that.



But how was this determined? Firstly, it's crucial to understand that these birds have developed a unique ability to stash away food, specifically seeds, in numerous locations and retrieve them when needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chickadees-the-smart-survivor">Chickadees: The smart survivor</h2>



"Survival of the fittest" suggests that the strong and adaptable are more likely to survive and reproduce. However, the latest research indicates there might be another critical factor involved – being smarter.



A decade-long study involving 227 mountain chickadees was conducted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a> and cognition researcher Dr. Carrie Branch, a psychology professor in the Advanced Facility for Avian Research at the University of Western Ontario.



Collaborating with researchers at the <a href="https://www.ou.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oklahoma</a> and <a href="https://www.unr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada</a>, Branch tracked the spatial cognition and lifespan of the chickadees. The study revealed a significant correlation between a bird's spatial awareness, its lifespan, and the number of offspring it could produce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speaking-of-smart-birds">Speaking of smart birds</h2>



"Animals have two interests. They want to survive, and they want to reproduce, so the smart thing for them to do is whatever allows those two things to happen," noted Dr. Branch. 



"We found for mountain chickadees that means knowing where to collect food, successfully storing it and remembering where they stored it so they can retrieve it later."



In simpler terms, these quick-witted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-birds-moving-area-where-giant-moa-pachyornis-australis-went-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> have learned that the key to survival is not just about how much food they can gather, but how efficiently they can store and retrieve it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-smart-chickadees">Potential of smart chickadees</h2>



The study confirmed that enhanced cognitive abilities are associated with a more extended lifespan in wild chickadees. Specifically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> with better learning and memory capabilities regarding their surroundings and food storing strategies lived longer.



"We can confirm chickadees have figured out how to cache and recover food using spatial cognition and the ones that do it better, live longer," said Dr. Branch.



The results showed that mountain chickadees with the best spatial cognitive abilities, on average, tend to outlive their peers by two years. Furthermore, they may produce more than double the offspring compared to those with poorer cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-brains-more-babies">More brains, more babies</h2>



It's no secret that longer life signifies more years to breed and produce offspring. This rings particularly true for chickadees, who breed once a year with an average clutch size of seven eggs.



In addition to this, Dr. Branch and her teammates have discovered that females produce more offspring when paired with "smarter" males. Substantiating the claim, the study showed that individuals with the best spatial abilities could produce 14 more offspring than those with poorer cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-skills-amidst-climate-change">Survival skills amidst climate change</h2>



In times of harsh and unpredictable environments, including extreme weather events caused by climate change, better spatial cognitive abilities allow chickadees to successfully retrieve cached food.



"This study shows that mountain chickadees with better spatial cognitive abilities are more likely to live longer," said Dr. Branch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-and-survival">Intelligence and survival</h2>



Understanding the link between cognitive abilities and survival not only sheds light on mountain chickadees but opens the door to broader implications across <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-birds-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avian species</a>. 



The enhanced problem-solving and adaptability showcased by these birds may provide key insights into how intelligence can contribute to evolutionary success. 



This information may hold critical significance in conservation efforts, prompting researchers and wildlife managers to consider cognitive capacities as a vital component when assessing the resilience of bird populations in a rapidly changing environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-smart-chickadees">Protecting the smart chickadees</h2>



The revelations from this study highlight the importance of preserving natural habitats, as the decline of suitable environments poses a substantial threat to the intelligence-driven survival strategies of mountain chickadees and many other species.



Conservation initiatives must not only focus on protecting the physical aspects of these ecosystems but also on ensuring that the cognitive demands placed on wildlife are met. 



By maintaining environments that challenge and expand the learning opportunities for avian populations, we can contribute to a future where smarter birds lead the way in adaptation and resilience amidst environmental changes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn5633" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Survival of the smartest: Chickadees with better memory live longer

Mountain chickadees, small birds native to North America, are more...

Have you ever wondered how fruit flies manage to move seamlessly within a complex and unpredictable world? 



This seemingly trivial question is the focus of advanced research at the University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle. The researchers used treadmills to study proprioception in fruit flies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-miniature-treadmills-and-fruit-flies">Miniature treadmills and fruit flies</h2>



A pivotal part of this research is the use of miniature treadmills, specifically designed for fruit flies. The study was led by Brandon G. Pratt, a recent physiology and biophysics PhD graduate and a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellow.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="i8pV3IVB8g-3836567-12187" type="single"]</div>



The treadmill setup is relatively simple. Pratt created it from inexpensive parts, improving on a prototype from Max Mauer, an alumnus from the same institution. The question is, why use a treadmill, and what's the bigger picture?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-movement-and-balance">Fruit flies' movement and balance</h2>



Any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking creature</a>, from insects to humans, needs to recognize and quickly adapt to unexpected changes underfoot. Failing to do so can result in a significant amount of stumbling and, possibly, a few unexpected crashes.



This is where the nervous system plays a vital role. It detects unexpected events and controls the body to regain balance, making navigation possible.



These balance issues are being studied at the UW Department of Physiology and Biophysics, under the supervision of associate professor John Tuthill, where Pratt carried out his doctoral research. 



Pratt wasn't alone in this endeavor. His colleagues in the lab, Su-Yee J. Lee and Grant M. Chou, contributed significantly to this intriguing project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proprioception-the-unsung-hero">Proprioception: The unsung hero</h2>



Tuthill's lab focuses on proprioception - the body's ability to sense its movement and positioning. It's an essential aspect of our coordination, with malfunctions causing difficulties in everyday tasks, like picking up a glass of water or simply walking.



In the lab, the researchers used their fruit fly treadmill experiment to study how proprioception controls the body when it becomes off kilter during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movement</a>.



This isn't an easy task, as disruptions to proprioception can alter animal behaviors and confuse the examination of proprioception's role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural activities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treadmills-not-just-for-humans">Treadmills: Not just for humans</h2>



For decades, treadmills have been effectively used to reignite the desire to walk in animals with perturbations to the nervous system. 



Not just in fruit flies, but also in a variety of creatures like cockroaches, rodents, cats, and of course, humans. There's even a variation, known as split-belt treadmills, that help researchers understand leg coordination when the legs on one side of the body move at a different speed than those on the other.



Inspired by these methods, Tuthill and his team designed miniature versions of these treadmills to study locomotion in fruit flies.



And why fruit flies? Because they're a good model system. With a compact, fully mapped nervous system and the availability of genetic tools, they offer unique opportunities for manipulating the nervous system precisely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthroughs-in-fruit-fly-locomotion">Breakthroughs in fruit fly locomotion </h2>



By coercing flies to walk on the newly engineered treadmills, the investigators could track their movement in 3D over the long term. This allowed them to analyze walking at various speeds in flies with and without impaired proprioception.



The researchers found that the fruit flies walked in bursts on the mini treadmill. They sprinted to the front of the treadmill chamber, then rode the belt back. Roughly half their time was spent walking, and they sped up when the treadmill did. 



Their body height even rose when they walked faster - a trait shared with humans and cockroaches. The highest walking speed ever reported for fruit flies, an impressive 50 millimeters per second, was achieved in these experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-key-to-coordination">The key to coordination</h2>



When the researchers genetically silenced neurons underlying proprioception and ran the insects on the treadmill, they noticed another interesting phenomenon. 



The flies took fewer but larger steps. Yet, the coordination of their legs didn't seem to be affected. 



This suggested that other proprioceptive neurons might be key to coordinating walking, or the nervous system might have compensated for the lack of feedback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treadmills-a-valuable-research-tool">Treadmills: A valuable research tool</h2>



The researchers from University of Washington <a href="https://www.uwmedicine.org/school-of-medicine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Medicine</a> in Seattle have found treadmills to be invaluable tools for investigating the neural and behavioral mechanisms of fly locomotion. 



From their work, the experts have realized that treadmills bridge an important gap between free-walking and tethered preparations, enlightening the scientific community further on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fly behavior</a>.



In a display of intellectual generosity, the team has provided the designs of their miniature treadmill systems as a free, open source for fellow scientists. 



The research was backed by numerous grants and awards, including a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship and a UW Innovation Award.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01082-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



Video Credit: B.G. Pratt et al/bioRxiv 2024



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Fruit flies on treadmills: Video shows how insects walk and balance

Have you ever wondered how fruit flies manage to move...

A new species of sauropod dinosaur, Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra, has been identified in Cuenca, Spain. This remarkable discovery sheds light on the rich biodiversity that thrived in southwestern Europe during the Upper Cretaceous period, approximately 75 million years ago.



The research was led by Portuguese paleontologist Pedro Mocho from the <a href="https://idl.ciencias.ulisboa.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Instituto Dom Luiz</a> at the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon (CIÊNCIAS).&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-in-dinosaur-history">Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra in dinosaur history </h2>



The fossil remains of Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra were uncovered during excavation work for the Madrid-Levante high-speed train (AVE) tracks, starting in 2007. Over 12,000 fossils have since been collected from the site, making it one of the most significant deposits of Upper Cretaceous vertebrates in Europe.&nbsp;



Thanks to ongoing national research projects and support from the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, this fossil trove has provided paleontologists with unprecedented insights into the ecosystems that once dominated the region.&nbsp;



The discovery of Qunkasaura represents another significant step forward in understanding Europe’s late dinosaur history, with the find being hailed as a crucial piece in the puzzle of dinosaur evolution on the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-distinct-lineages-of-sauropod-dinosaurs-nbsp">Two distinct lineages of sauropod dinosaurs&nbsp;</h2>



Mocho and his team’s analysis of the fossils has yielded important discoveries about the presence of two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct lineages</a> of sauropod dinosaurs in the same area. This is the first time such an occurrence has been documented in the fossil record.&nbsp;



“The study of this specimen allowed us to identify for the first time the presence of two distinct lineages of saltasauroids in the same fossil locality. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra_dinosaur_relationship-tree_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra_dinosaur_relationship-tree_3s.webp" alt="Relationships of Qunkasaura with some of the most important sauropods from the Late Cretaceous and reconstruction of the life form of Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra. Credit: José Antonio Peñas Artero, GBE-UNED, FCUL" class="wp-image-1943748"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Relationships of Qunkasaura with some of the most important sauropods from the Late Cretaceous and reconstruction of the life form of Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra. Credit: José Antonio Peñas Artero, GBE-UNED, FCUL</figcaption></figure>



One of these groups, called Lirainosaurinae, is relatively known in the Iberian region and is characterized by small and medium-sized species, which evolved in an island ecosystem.



“In other words, Europe was a huge archipelago made up of several islands during the Late Cretaceous. However, Qunkasaura belongs to another group of sauropods, represented in the Iberian Peninsula by medium-large species 73 million years ago," Mocho explained. 



"This suggests to us that this lineage arrived in the Iberian Peninsula much later than other groups of dinosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-dispersal">Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra dispersal</h2>



This insight into the two lineages of sauropods is vital in understanding how dinosaurs adapted to the island-like ecosystems that characterized Europe during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-cretaceous-dinosaur-was-sluggish-and-nearly-deaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Cretaceous</a> period. It was a time when Europe was a collection of islands rather than a continuous landmass.&nbsp;



Mocho’s findings suggest that Qunkasaura represents a later arrival to this archipelago, highlighting the complexities of dinosaur dispersal and evolution across what is now the Iberian Peninsula.



The site where Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra was discovered, Lo Hueco, is unique not only for the sheer number of fossils uncovered but also for the exceptional preservation of large partial sauropod skeletons - an unusual occurrence in Europe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-most-complete-sauropod-skeletons-nbsp">One of the most complete sauropod skeletons&nbsp;</h2>



Qunkasaura stands out as one of the most complete sauropod skeletons found on the continent, with key elements such as cervical, dorsal, and caudal vertebrae, parts of the pelvic girdle, and limb bones preserved.



This level of completeness allows scientists to gain new insights into the anatomy and evolutionary history of sauropods in Europe. 



Particularly noteworthy is the distinct morphology of Qunkasaura’s tail vertebrae, which provide fresh perspectives on the non-avian dinosaurs that roamed the Iberian Peninsula during the Upper Cretaceous -- a group that has historically been poorly understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-in-the-northern-hemisphere">Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra in the northern hemisphere </h2>



The study identifies Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra as part of the opisthocoelicaudine saltasaurids, a group of sauropods that lived in the northern hemisphere (Laurasia).&nbsp;



This finding is significant because it contrasts with other Late Cretaceous sauropods from southwestern Europe, such as Lohuecotitan pandafilandi, which belong to the Lirainosaurinae group - a lineage previously thought to be exclusive to Europe.&nbsp;



The discovery of both lineages at Lo Hueco suggests that this site is the only known location where these groups coexisted, offering a unique glimpse into the evolutionary dynamics of sauropods in Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-sauropod-evolution-nbsp">The story of sauropod evolution&nbsp;</h2>



Moreover, the study introduces a new group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-titanosaur-discovered-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">titanosaurs</a>, the Lohuecosauria, which includes members of both the Lirainosaurinae and opisthocoelicaudine lineages.&nbsp;



The researchers propose that this group may have originated on the southern continents (Gondwana) before spreading globally, adding another layer of complexity to the story of sauropod evolution.



The name Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra holds special significance, as it incorporates local geographic and cultural references from the Cuenca region. “Qunka” refers to the oldest etymology of the Cuenca and Fuentes area, while “Saura” is the feminine form of the Latin word “saurus,” meaning lizard.&nbsp;



Additionally, the name pays homage to the renowned Spanish painter Antonio Saura. The final part of the name, “pintiquiniestra,” is a reference to Queen Pintiquiniestra, a giant character from a novel mentioned in Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote.



This discovery is just the beginning of what Lo Hueco may reveal about sauropod dinosaurs. As Mocho notes, “fortunately, the Lo Hueco deposit also preserves several skeletons of sauropod dinosaurs to be determined, which may correspond to new species and which will help us understand how these animals evolved.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-efforts">Ongoing research efforts</h2>



The study is part of ongoing research focusing on the ecosystems of dinosaurs in the central Iberian Peninsula. Part of the skeleton of Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra is now on display at the <a href="https://mupaclm.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleontological Museum of Castilla-La Mancha</a> in Cuenca, allowing the public to view one of the most complete sauropod skeletons found in Europe.&nbsp;



This discovery not only deepens our understanding of Europe’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sea-creatures-built-ecosystems-that-diversified-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric ecosystems</a> but also paves the way for future discoveries about the life and evolution of dinosaurs in the region.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06653-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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New sauropod discovery fills in dinosaur history gaps

A new species of sauropod dinosaur, Qunkasaura pintiquiniestra, has been...

It's no secret that ant colonies operate with remarkable efficiency, functioning as highly organized, cooperative systems that have evolved over millions of years.



Similar to our own societies, these tiny creatures have assigned roles, effectively dividing labor among various ant individuals to ensure the colony’s survival and success. 



This division of labor is not random but rather a finely tuned system where each ant knows its place and function within the larger group.



Some ants are dedicated caregivers, meticulously tending to the young and ensuring the next generation thrives, while others take up the mantle of soldiers, bravely guarding the nest and protecting the colony from potential intruders or predators. 



Each role, whether defensive, nurturing, or foraging, is vital to maintaining the balance and longevity of the entire colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-division-and-evolution">A tale of division and evolution</h2>



A recent study involving 794 species of ants reveals a compelling insight: the size of a group plays a crucial role in whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/division-of-labor-in-ants-emerged-over-100-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">division of labor</a> develops.



Remarkably, in some species, ants evolve distinct physical features to better serve their respective roles, despite being siblings. 



Charles Darwin referred to such worker castes as his "special difficulty" because their evolution was challenging to explain.



"We know that larger ant colonies have more worker castes," said Philip Downing, a Postdoctoral Researcher from the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a> and one of the study's authors. "The difficulty is working out how this association came to be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-or-caste-what-comes-first">Size or caste - what comes first?</h2>



The study explored whether large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> evolved first, paving the way for specialized castes, or if the emergence of castes enabled colonies to grow larger. 



To address this question, the researchers compared modern ants to their extinct ancestors using statistical methods.



"Since the ant ancestors no longer exist, researchers had to rely on statistical approaches to infer what their colony sizes and caste numbers would have been, based on their living descendants," explained Downing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-size-complexity-hypothesis">The size-complexity hypothesis</h2>



The research points to a clear pattern: larger colonies tend to evolve before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-molecule-can-switch-an-ant-from-worker-to-queen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worker castes</a>. This suggests that as ant colonies grow, their social structures become more complex, leading to the development of specialized roles.



"We found that larger colony sizes evolved before worker castes did, supporting what's known as the size-complexity hypothesis," said Downing.



"The size-complexity hypothesis is a leading explanation for the evolution of complex life on Earth," said study lead author Louis Bell-Roberts from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



"Our research shows that larger colony sizes favored the evolution of increased division of labor, leading to more worker castes and greater variation in worker size."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-complex-life">Evolution of complex life</h2>



These insights not only enhance our understanding of ant colonies but could also provide clues about the evolution of complex multicellular organisms, including plants and animals. 



"The implications of our findings extend beyond ants, offering potential explanations for the broader evolution of life's complexity," said Bell-Roberts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-underlying-ant-colony-sizes">Factors underlying ant colony sizes</h2>



With the discovery that larger colony sizes promote more worker castes, future research is needed to identify what drives the growth of larger colonies among ants.



"Colony size in ants varies from seven to 14.8 million," noted Downing. "Can ecological factors, such as the number of predators, climate conditions, or even the number of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-thing-of-nightmares-parasite-turns-ants-into-zombies-at-dawn-and-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant species' parasites</a>, explain this?"



His next steps involve large-scale statistical comparisons across various ant species to uncover these factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-ant-caste-systems">Broader implications of ant caste systems</h2>



The evolution of ant castes offers a unique window into social organization and division of labor across species. 



Much like human societies, where cooperation and specialization enhance success, ants develop distinct roles that improve colony efficiency. 



This reflects broader evolutionary themes, such as how altruistic behavior - working for the collective good - emerges in nature.



The specialization of castes in ants parallels the differentiation of cell types in multicellular organisms, providing a model for studying how division of labor evolves. 



Additionally, understanding how environmental factors like predators and climate shape colony size and caste development offers insights into how social organisms adapt to changing environments, an increasingly relevant topic as species face new ecological challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02512-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Larger ant colonies drove the evolution of worker castes

It's no secret that ant colonies operate with remarkable efficiency,...

The summer of 2024 is shaping up to be the hottest on record for numerous cities across the U.S. and globally, with temperatures reaching unprecedented levels.&nbsp;



Even in Antarctica, which is currently in the middle of its winter, temperatures soared more than 50°F above the July average in some areas. This extreme weather event is part of a broader trend of intensifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-experienced-the-most-intense-heat-wave-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves </a>fueled by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-ecosystems-of-antarctica-nbsp">Delicate ecosystems of Antarctica&nbsp;</h2>



A recent study published on July 31 in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023EF004306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s Future</a> explores how such heat waves, particularly during Antarctica’s cold seasons, may impact the continent’s delicate ecosystems.



The research, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, focuses on how these heat waves could disrupt the lives of the animals and organisms that inhabit the coldest and driest places on Earth. 



The findings illustrate that climate change-driven extreme weather could have profound and long-lasting effects on the fragile ecosystems of Antarctica, particularly for its resilient yet vulnerable inhabitants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-intense-heat-wave-on-earth">Most intense heat wave on Earth</h2>



In March 2022, Antarctica experienced the most intense heat wave ever recorded on Earth. This unprecedented event occurred just as the region’s organisms were preparing for the long, harsh winter ahead.&nbsp;



Temperatures soared more than 70°F above the average in parts of the continent, leading to rapid melting of glaciers and snow, even in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, a region known for being one of the coldest and driest places on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-organisms-in-soils-nbsp">Microscopic organisms in soils&nbsp;</h2>



As part of a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) project, researchers studied the impact of this sudden heat wave on the McMurdo Dry Valleys, where they found that the extreme weather likely disrupted the life cycles of many organisms.&nbsp;



In particular, the rapid melting followed by an equally rapid refreeze appeared to have killed a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invertebrate-extinction-cause-concern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invertebrates</a>, such as roundworms, which are well-adapted to the harsh conditions of the polar desert.



“It's important that we pay attention to these signals, even if they're coming from microscopic organisms in soils in a polar desert,” said Michael Gooseff, senior author of the study and a professor in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering at CU Boulder.&nbsp;



“They're the early responders to changes that could cascade up to larger organisms, the landscape, and even us, far away from Antarctica.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-temperature-rise-nbsp">Extreme temperature rise&nbsp;</h2>



Gooseff, a fellow at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research</a> (INSTAAR), has led the LTER project at the McMurdo Dry Valleys for the past decade, regularly traveling to the southern region during the Antarctic summer to study the unique ecosystem. 



In November 2021, when Gooseff arrived in Antarctica, the landscape appeared much like it had for the past two decades. 



However, by March 2022, when the research team had already left the continent, an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consecutive-atmospheric-rivers-cause-far-more-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric river</a> - a massive storm carrying moist air over long distances - brought about the most extreme heat wave ever recorded there. 



The event caused temperatures in the McMurdo Dry Valleys to rise more than 45°F above normal, with air temperatures that typically hover around -4°F in March rising above freezing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-life-cycles">Disrupted life cycles</h2>



Satellite imagery and stream discharge measurements confirmed that the sudden warming caused an unusual wetting of the valleys’ soil, occurring more than two months after the typical summer thaw.&nbsp;



This was a critical period when organisms in the region were preparing for the upcoming winter, shutting down their biological processes to conserve energy.&nbsp;



The rapid rise and subsequent fall in temperatures, as the heat wave passed and the soil refroze, likely disrupted the delicate timing of these organisms’ life cycles.



“These animals invest a significant amount of energy in preparing and shutting down for the winter,” Gooseff explained. “When things start to warm up the following summer, they use energy to become active again.”&nbsp;



“One of our major concerns with unusual weather events like this heat wave is that these animals might start using a lot more energy, thinking it's summer, only to have to shut down again two days later. How many times can they go through that cycle before they exhaust their energy reserves?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-false-start-to-the-summer">A false start to the summer</h2>



When Gooseff and his team returned to Antarctica in December 2022, they sampled the soil and compared the organisms in areas that had become wet during the heat wave with those in areas that had stayed dry.&nbsp;



The findings revealed a 50% decrease in the population of Scottnema, a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roundworms-travel-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roundworm</a> species that is highly adapted to the extreme cold and dryness of the McMurdo Dry Valleys.



“The heat wave made the environment appear warm enough for things to get wet, creating a false start to summer. Some of the biology responding to these temperatures might be seriously disrupted by this,” Gooseff said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-food-webs">Implications for food webs</h2>



While species like Scottnema suffered, other organisms, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-a-16-million-year-old-tardigrade-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a> (also known as water bears), which are more tolerant of moisture, were likely less affected. 



This shift in species populations could have wide-ranging implications for the region's food webs and nutrient cycling.



Changes in the populations of organisms like Scottnema can have a significant impact on the ecosystem. Previous research has shown that Scottnema is responsible for about 10% of the carbon processing in the Dry Valleys’ soil ecosystem.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-species-affected-by-heat-waves-in-antarctica">Large species affected by heat waves in Antarctica </h2>



As extreme weather events become more frequent due to climate change, larger species in Antarctica are also being affected. 



In 2013, an unusual rainfall event along the Adélie Coast of East Antarctica killed all of the Adélie penguin chicks in the region, and in July 2024, temperatures in parts of East Antarctica climbed 50°F above the usual winter average.



Gooseff and his team plan to continue monitoring the effects of extreme weather events on Antarctica’s ecosystems. 



As Gooseff noted, what happens in Antarctica does not stay in Antarctica. “The loss of ice shelves has pretty dramatic impacts on the mass balance of our oceans, and it affects us even thousands of miles away,” he concluded.



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How are intense heat waves affecting life in Antarctica? 

The summer of 2024 is shaping up to be the...

A single million-strong population of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) can consume up to two billion termites in just over two weeks, according to a new study.&nbsp;



These large numbers highlight the vital role that Northeast India plays as a stopover site for these falcons during their migration.&nbsp;



The region allows the birds to prepare for their non-stop flight across the Arabian Sea, a journey that gives the Amur falcon the distinction of making the longest known overwater flight of any raptor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fall-migration-of-amur-falcons">Fall migration of Amur falcons</h2>



Amur falcons are small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-falcons-are-highly-intelligent-and-eager-to-show-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds of prey</a> that migrate twice a year between northern Asia, where they breed, and southern Africa, where they spend the winter. Their autumn migration involves a 3,500 km (2,000 mile) journey across the Arabian Sea. 



To successfully complete this flight, the falcons must build up energy reserves by feeding on protein-rich food, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a> are their preferred choice. 



In the paper titled “Prey Species in the Diet of the Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) During Autumn Passage Stopover in Northeast India,” lead author Amarjeet Kaur from the <a href="https://wii.gov.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Institute of India</a> and her co-authors identify the region of Nagaland in Northeast India as a critical stopover for the falcons. 



As insect-eaters, the Amur falcons likely rely on termites to fuel their migration, making this area a priority for conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dominant-prey-for-amur-falcons">Dominant prey for Amur falcons</h2>



To assess the role of insects in the falcons’ diet during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-of-peregrine-falcons-suggests-birds-have-a-migration-gene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>, Kaur and her team analyzed more than 1,000 regurgitated pellets collected from beneath an Amur falcon roost in Nagaland in October and November of 2017 and 2018. 



These pellets, which contain undigested prey remains, showed a high concentration of body parts from two species of fungus-growing termites, Odontotermes feae and Odontotermes horni. Termites were the dominant prey for the falcons across both years and at all three roosting sites studied.&nbsp;



The researchers also observed numerous Amur falcons feeding on termite swarms, providing further evidence that termites are a crucial food source.&nbsp;



Termites offer easily digestible protein and are rich in fat, a fact well-known to local hunters who historically called Amur falcons “loi,” meaning “insect eater.” In the past, hunters would capture the falcons late in the season, when their consumption of termites had resulted in a rich layer of fat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-symbol-of-conservation-efforts-nbsp">A symbol of conservation efforts&nbsp;</h2>



Today, the local Naga communities have become active in protecting the falcons, moving away from hunting them during migration. 



Senior author Suresh Kumar initially began this research to raise local awareness about the falcons, and now he says the birds have become a symbol for regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts. 



“Local communities in Nagaland and neighboring States of Manipur and Assam have independently begun setting aside community lands for the protection of not only Amur falcons, but for all biodiversity in the area,” Kumar said. 



“Given that Nagaland is predominantly governed by community-owned land, conservation actions are significantly shaped by local residents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The study’s findings are significant because they underscore the importance of stopover sites in the yearly migration of the Amur falcon, especially the pre-Arabian Sea refueling site in Nagaland.&nbsp;



Kaur and her team were surprised by the strong connection between the Amur falcons and termites, noting that “it appears that termites are the exclusive prey in this region, and the synchronization between termite emergence and the presence of Amur Falcons is remarkable.”



As long-distance migrators, the falcons are on a strict schedule and could be vulnerable to changes in the environment that disrupt this synchronization.&nbsp;



Climate change has already affected other long-distance migrators, such as the Great Knots (Calidris tenuirostris) and Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica).&nbsp;



The study also emphasizes the role that insect-eating raptors like the Amur Falcon play in controlling insect populations, a fact supported by research on their wintering grounds in southern Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-stopover-sites-nbsp">Critical stopover sites&nbsp;</h2>



Looking ahead, Kaur and her colleagues aim to identify specific features of Amur falcon stopover sites across Northeast India and use this data to develop a more comprehensive GIS-based model. They also plan to conduct a detailed study of termite populations at these sites.



“We need to determine if the termite swarming events are cyclic in nature and how they might be influenced by climatic factors, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-land-conditions-affect-the-asian-monsoon-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monsoonal rains</a>,” noted the researchers. 



Since the Amur Falcons may depend on just a few critical locations to gain the energy needed for their migration, understanding the connectivity between these sites is crucial. As the researchers conclude, “Amur falcon conservation requires a landscape-scale approach.”



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3356/JRR-23-49" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>.



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How do Amur falcons fuel their 2,000-mile flights?

A single million-strong population of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) can...

Our world is changing, and among the most vivid signs of this change is the diminishing sight of beautiful butterflies dancing through our gardens and parks. Yet, don't lose hope just yet. Recent research indicates that specific butterfly species teetering on the edge of extinction can be given a fighting chance if humans intervene and actively manage habitats that can support butterflies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss-of-butterflies">Habitat loss of butterflies</h2>



Digging into the looming crisis faced by our winged companions, a team of researchers from Washington State University assessed data from 31 butterfly species across 10 U.S. states. The pattern they discovered was concerning.



Scientists have been sounding the alarm over declining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-butterfly-wings-acquire-their-breathtaking-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> globally, attributing this trend to the impact of climate change, habitat loss, and prevalent pesticide use. The study's results reflected these concerns.



The butterfly species teetering on the brink of extinction exhibited an estimated annual decline rate of 8%. To put it in perspective, this translates to a staggering 50% decrease in less than a decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-at-the-end-of-the-tunnel">Light at the end of the tunnel</h2>



However, the world of butterflies isn't all descending into darkness. According to the study, habitat management interventions have the potential to slow down or even reverse these alarming declines in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a>.



Study co-lead author Cheryl Schultz, a professor of conservation biology at WSU, elaborated on the team's findings.



“The strongest signal we found is that in places where people are actively engaged with ways to manage the habitat, the butterflies are doing the best. That means that habitat management can make a difference, even in the face of stressors like climate change,” said Schultz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-decline-due-to-climate-change">Butterfly decline due to climate change</h2>



Climate change has been causing temperatures to soar incrementally. As a result, there's been an observable change in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-create-silk-seatbelts-to-strap-in-for-metamorphosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly species</a>' behavioral patterns, especially in terms of their seasonal activities.



In reaction to the changing environment, many species are stirring into action much earlier in the year. The long-term effects of these changes are not entirely clear.



“We found that for these butterflies, big shifts in timing were generally bad. Populations with greater shifts were more likely to be declining,” said Collin Edwards, a recent WSU postdoctoral fellow and  co-lead author on the study.



“However, we were excited to discover that habitat management appeared to be dampening the effect of climate change on butterfly timing. Populations that received more frequent management had smaller shifts in their timing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-butterfly-habitats">Conserving butterfly habitats</h2>



Even though the population trends for these species don't paint a rosy picture, the links discovered by the research team between population patterns, behavioral shifts, and management strategies pave the way for a solid butterfly conservation strategy.



"This might not solve the impact of climate change, but we can mediate some of the effects. It's within our power at the local level to do something positive for these populations," noted study co-author Professor Elizabeth Crone from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-showcasing-butterfly-resilience">Showcasing butterfly resilience</h2>



The study dissected the behavior of myriad species, such as the Oregon silverspot, Taylor's checkerspot, Karner blue, and frosted elfin. 



Among these, the Fender's blue butterfly deserves a special mention. This butterfly made a remarkable recovery, increasing from a few thousand butterflies in the 1990s to about 30,000 today, owing to the efforts of Schultz and others in the fields of public land management and private land ownership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-interventions-for-butterflies">Habitat interventions for butterflies</h2>



The researchers concluded that the implemented habitat interventions, including prescribed burns, mowing, weeding, and planting of nectar or "host" plants for butterfly caterpillars, were aptly identified based on the individual needs of each area.



Schultz urges people to participate in natural area management activities, which could involve planting new flowers or weeding out invasive plant species.



"We really encourage people to plant an abundance of wildflowers and plants which are both hosts for caterpillars and provide nectar for butterflies. These should be 'clean plantings' meaning they are pesticide-free. The more we can reduce pesticides in our environment, the better it's going to be for butterflies and insects,” noted Schultz.



This research was funded by the U.S. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Geological Survey.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14735" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Butterflies can be saved if we manage their habitats

Our world is changing, and among the most vivid signs...

Ferruginous hawks that winter in California have shown an unexpected rise in numbers, despite a significant decline in their preferred grassland habitats over the past two decades. 



In contrast, many other grassland bird species have experienced sharp population declines, paralleling the loss of the open landscapes that once characterized much of western North America.



A recent study published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3356/jrr2370" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>, explores this surprising trend. The paper, authored by independent researcher Edward Pandolfino, along with Lily Douglas from the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> and Chris Ray from <a href="https://www.birdpop.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Institute for Bird Populations</a>, suggests possible explanations for the hawks’ population growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-data-on-ferruginous-hawks">Conflicting data on ferruginous hawks</h2>



The research highlights how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-rare-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> can reveal important insights about the lesser-studied aspects of a raptor’s life cycle, such as wintering grounds. These periods, although often overshadowed by the breeding season, are vital to understanding the overall health of a species.



Studying ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) can be difficult because they do not consistently appear at migration sites, unlike other hawks that follow more predictable paths along topographical features such as ridges. 



This has led to conflicting data on their population status, with their conservation status varying across different regions and countries.&nbsp;



For example, many of the hawks wintering in California come from breeding populations in Washington and Oregon, where they are classified as endangered and sensitive-critical, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-bird-counts-nbsp">Christmas Bird Counts&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate the species’ mixed population trends, the research team analyzed citizen science data from the Washington-Oregon population's wintering grounds. They focused on five Bird Conservation Areas in California, where Christmas Bird Counts (CBCs) had been conducted between 1998 and 2022.



Christmas Bird Counts are organized by bird enthusiasts and related organizations every December, following a consistent method to record bird species' presence. These counts provide a rich dataset that offers a clearer picture of the ferruginous hawk’s winter range, far beyond what typical research efforts could achieve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-trends-of-ferruginous-hawks">Population trends of ferruginous hawks</h2>



The analysis revealed an intriguing result: while the quality of the hawks' habitat declined over the 25-year period, their winter numbers actually increased. This finding was unexpected, especially since the species has been in decline in Washington, where many of these hawks breed.



“Grassland species are nearly all in long-term, continent-wide declines. Our findings offer a small ray of hope these hawks can continue to persist,” Pandolfino said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raptors-in-open-habitats-nbsp">Raptors in open habitats&nbsp;</h2>



One potential reason for the hawks’ resilience in California could be their preference for larger prey, such as Black-tailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), which thrive in open habitats, including areas affected by development and agriculture.&nbsp;



It’s also possible that ferruginous hawks have adapted by using inactive croplands as new habitat and expanded their diet to include a greater variety of prey.



Despite the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predators-face-the-most-imminent-threat-from-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat losses</a>, these findings suggest that the population dynamics of raptors in open habitats can be more complex than expected. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-ferruginous-hawks-nbsp">Protecting ferruginous hawks&nbsp;</h2>



Since young ferruginous hawks face high mortality rates during their first year, understanding the conditions they encounter on their non-breeding grounds is crucial. Protecting these areas, especially in California, will require a collaborative conservation approach.



“Nearly every acre of ferruginous hawk habitat surveyed for this paper is on private cattle ranches,” Pandolfino explained. “In California, the survival of this hawk is completely dependent on cattle ranching continuing to be a viable way to make a living.”



As apex predators, ferruginous hawks serve as indicators of the overall health of their ecosystems, making their protection even more critical in a rapidly changing environment.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-habitats-of-grassland-birds-nbsp">Preserving the habitats of grassland birds&nbsp;</h2>



Pandolfino plans to continue his research in California to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-energy-facilities-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grassland birds</a> like the ferruginous hawk and raise awareness about the importance of preserving their diminishing habitats.



“This same approach of assessing population trends conducted in other parts of the winter range could shed more light on the overall population status of this species,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;



“In addition, telemetry studies of birds breeding in other parts of the range could clarify the source(s) of increasing numbers of Ferruginous Hawks wintering in California.”



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Resilient hawks manage to thrive despite shrinking habitats

Ferruginous hawks that winter in California have shown an unexpected...

In a marine science mystery reminiscent of a game of Clue, researchers from the United States set out to investigate the death of a pregnant porbeagle shark in the open waters southwest of Bermuda. The evidence points to a larger shark, equipped with its deciduous triangular teeth, as the most likely culprit.  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predation-of-a-porbeagle-shark-nbsp">Predation of a porbeagle shark&nbsp;</h2>



“This is the first documented predation event of a porbeagle shark anywhere in the world,” said Brooke Anderson, the study’s lead author and a former graduate student at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



“In one event, the population not only lost a reproductive female that could contribute to population growth, but it also lost all her developing babies. If predation is more widespread than previously thought, there could be major impacts for the porbeagle shark population that is already suffering due to historic overfishing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-porbeagle-sharks">Endangered porbeagle sharks</h2>



Porbeagles are formidable sharks found in the Atlantic, South Pacific Ocean, and the Mediterranean. These sharks are large, active, and robustly built, growing up to 3.7 meters in length and weighing as much as 230 kilograms.&nbsp;



They are also long-lived, with lifespans that can reach 30 to even 65 years. Female porbeagles have a slow reproductive cycle, not reaching reproductive maturity until around 13 years old. When they do reproduce, they give birth to an average of four pups every one or two years after a gestation period of eight to nine months.



Due to this slow reproduction rate, porbeagle populations struggle to recover from threats such as overfishing, recreational fishing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-reduces-shark-bycatch-by-electrifying-the-bait/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bycatch</a>, and habitat loss and degradation.&nbsp;



These pressures have led to the porbeagle being listed as endangered in the Northwest Atlantic on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>, with populations in the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean considered critically endangered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porbeagles-tagged-off-massachusetts-nbsp">Porbeagles tagged off Massachusetts&nbsp;</h2>



As part of a broader research effort to study shark migration, Anderson and her colleagues tagged porbeagles off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in 2020 and 2022.&nbsp;



Each shark was fitted with two satellite tags: a fin-mount satellite transmitter and a pop-off satellite archival tag (PSAT).&nbsp;



The fin-mount tag sends the shark’s location to satellites whenever the fin surfaces, while the PSAT records depth and temperature data continuously, storing it until the tag detaches and floats to the surface to transmit its collected data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-nbsp">Unexpected turn of events&nbsp;</h2>



One of the tagged porbeagles was a pregnant female measuring 2.2 meters in length. Anderson and her team hoped that tracking this female would provide valuable insights into important habitats for porbeagle mothers and their offspring.



However, an unexpected turn of events occurred. After 158 days, the PSAT began transmitting from an area off Bermuda, indicating that the tag had detached and was floating at the surface.



The transmitted data revealed that this female had spent five months cruising at depths between 100 and 200 meters at night and 600 to 800 meters during the day, in water temperatures ranging from 6.4 to 23.5 °C. Throughout this period, the fin-mount tag had only transmitted once, confirming that the shark had mostly remained underwater.



But then, on March 24, 2021, over the span of four days, the temperature recorded by the PSAT remained consistently around 22 °C at depths between 150 and 600 meters.&nbsp;



This sudden change in data could only mean one thing: the unfortunate porbeagle had been hunted and consumed by a larger predator. The PSAT was likely excreted four days later, which is when it began transmitting again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-sharks-hunting-each-other">Large sharks hunting each other</h2>



“Two endothermic predator candidates large enough to predate upon mature porbeagles and located within the vicinity and at the time of year of the predation event include the white shark Carcharodon carcharias and shortfin mako Isurus oxyrhinchus,” the authors wrote.



Shortfin mako sharks typically prey on cephalopods, bony fish, smaller sharks, porpoises, sea turtles, and seabirds, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-separated-into-three-distinct-groups-that-dont-intermingle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great white sharks</a> are known to feed on whales, dolphins, seals, and rays.&nbsp;



Of the two suspects, the great white shark is the more likely culprit, as shortfin mako sharks usually exhibit rapid, oscillatory dives between the surface and deeper waters during the day - behavior that was not detected by the PSAT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-of-large-predators-nbsp">Complex interactions of large predators&nbsp;</h2>



“The predation of one of our pregnant porbeagles was an unexpected discovery. We often think of large sharks as being apex predators. But with technological advancements, we have started to discover that large predator interactions could be even more complex than previously thought,” Anderson noted.



“We need to continue studying predator interactions to estimate how often large sharks hunt each other. This will help us uncover what cascading impacts these interactions could have on the ecosystem,” she concluded.



This case, while tragic, opens new avenues for understanding the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine predator</a>-prey dynamics, particularly among the ocean’s most formidable inhabitants.



The research is detailed in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1406973">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Unexpected discovery: Large sharks are hunting each other

In a marine science mystery reminiscent of a game of...

Ever heard a high-pitched buzzing sound near your ear in the dark? That's a sign a female mosquito is on a hunt. And no, it's not after your fear. It's after your blood. But for a male mosquito, that same buzz means something entirely different. It's love in the air... or rather, mating season for mosquitoes.



An international team led by researchers at the University of Washington has stumbled upon surprising details about mosquito mating. Spoiler alert: it's not just about romance. These novel findings could give us the upper hand in malaria control strategies and guide the development of precision drone flight technology.



The male Anopheles coluzzii <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> is a major culprit in spreading malaria throughout Africa. Let's call him Mr. A. 



Now, for Mr. A, finding a mate isn't just about showing off his six-pack abdomen. It's a game of sounds. The moment he hears the sound of female-specific wingbeats, his rather poor vision gets a boost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sounds-of-mosquito-mating">The sounds of mosquito mating </h2>



Though many mosquito species have subpar eyesight, their other senses make up for it. The moment a male mosquito hears the alluring buzz of a female in flight, his eyes "activate," and he starts scanning for a potential partner.



Imagine being in a crowded, busy swarm of eager mosquitoes, all trying to find their soulmate. Even in such chaotic conditions, male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> can visually lock on to his target. He then speeds up, zipping through the swarm without bumping into any fellow Romeos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sound-love-affair">A sound love affair</h2>



"We have discovered this incredibly strong association in male mosquitoes when they seek a mate. They hear the sound of wingbeats at a specific frequency - the kind that females make - and that stimulus engages the visual system," explained study lead author Saumya Gupta, a postdoctoral researcher in biology at <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UW</a>. 



It's a complex tango between different mosquito sensory systems to create this love connection.



Now, why is this important? The strong link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-listen-for-a-specific-buzz-to-find-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males hearing the female-like buzz</a> and moving towards what they think might be the source could open up new possibilities for mosquito control. 



Picture this: a new generation of traps that are specific to the Anopheles mosquitoes, which are the type that spread malaria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-mating-and-preventing-malaria">Mosquito mating and preventing malaria </h2>



The unique behavior of male mosquitoes got the attention of study senior author Jeffrey Riffell, a UW professor of biology. He suggests that this sound is so irresistible to males that it causes them to steer towards what they think might be the source, be it a real lady or a mosquito trap.



Understanding the interaction between the senses of mosquitoes in these swarms was a key goal for Gupta, Riffell, and their colleagues from various international universities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sound-cues-change-male-behavior">Sound cues change male behavior </h2>



The team built a miniature arena - a mosquito flight simulator of sorts - where mosquitoes could see, smell, hear, and beat their wings as if in flight, even though they were tethered and couldn't freely move.



In a series of experiments, the experts found that males changed their behavior based on the sounds they heard. The males moved towards an object when they heard the buzz of a female mosquito, but not when they heard the higher-frequency sound of male wingbeats.



Visual cues also played a role here. If a simulated object appeared more than three body lengths away, the male mosquito wouldn't be interested, even if the sound of lady-love was in the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fight-or-flight-in-mosquito-mating">Fight or flight in mosquito mating</h2>



"The resolving power of the mosquito eye is about 1,000-fold less than the resolving power of the human eye. Mosquitoes tend to use vision for more passive behaviors, like avoiding other objects and controlling their position," Riffell explained. 



But when male mosquitoes hear the alluring flight tones of females, they make a surprising set of subtle flight adjustments.



Such visually driven responses could be preparatory maneuvers to avoid an object, the research team concluded. Their observations also suggested that males use close-range visual cues for collision avoidance within swarms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mosquito-control">Future of mosquito control</h2>



This innovative research on mating could lead to new methods for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bad-news-mosquitoes-prefer-heat-and-thrive-in-the-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito control</a> by capitalizing on how mosquitoes integrate auditory and visual cues. 



Mosquitoes are getting smarter and becoming increasingly resistant to insecticides. So, it's time to outsmart them, and these insights into their mating behavior may be the key.



"Today's measures, like insecticides, are increasingly less effective as mosquitoes evolve resistance," said Riffell. "We need new approaches, like lures or traps, which will draw in mosquitoes with high fidelity."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)00946-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mating secrets of mosquitoes may help us gain control of them

Ever heard a high-pitched buzzing sound near your ear in...

Crocodile culling in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia is a controversial practice aimed at managing the population of saltwater crocodiles, which have been increasing since they were protected by law in 1971. The primary focus of culling is to ensure public safety, particularly in areas where there is a high risk of crocodile attacks on humans.



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a> reveals that education and community awareness, the removal of problematic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-ecology-shaped-250-million-years-of-crocodile-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, and the designation of exclusion areas are significantly more effective in reducing saltwater crocodile attacks than widespread culling. 



The research, led by <a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin University</a> (CDU), challenges the notion that culling is a cost-effective or efficient solution to mitigating crocodile attacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-rate-of-crocodile-attacks-nbsp">Analyzing the rate of crocodile attacks&nbsp;</h2>



The experts examined the correlation between the density of crocodile populations and human populations and the frequency of saltwater crocodile attacks in the Northern Territory over the past 50 years. Data analysis showed that from 1979 to 2022, there were 76 crocodile attacks in the region, with 30% of these attacks resulting in fatalities.



Interestingly, while both crocodile density and the human population continued to rise, the rate of crocodile attacks stabilized from 2009 onwards, with a notable 10% decrease in the frequency of attacks over the following decade.&nbsp;



This trend suggests that the behaviors of Northern Territory residents and tourists around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-impacts-on-waterways-contribute-to-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a> have adapted in response to the growing crocodile population, largely due to government-led education programs and efforts to remove problem crocodiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-culling-is-not-the-best-strategy-nbsp">Crocodile culling is not the best strategy&nbsp;</h2>



Lead author Cameron Baker, a postdoctoral research fellow at CDU's Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, highlighted the fact that the reduction in attacks correlates with increased awareness and the targeted removal of problem crocodiles.&nbsp;



These strategies have proven to be more effective in reducing attacks than any broad-scale culling program, a method periodically considered in the Northern Territory.



“Our models predicted that the NT crocodile population would have to be reduced by as much as 90% to reduce the crocodile attack frequency by one attack per year,” Baker explained.&nbsp;



“If widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-animals-ecosystem-non-native-culling-harmful-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culling</a> to reduce density was the prime strategy to reduce crocodile attacks, then the population would need to be driven to very low levels to see any significant reduction. This is because the risk of attacks on humans only decreases once large crocodiles are completely extirpated from an area.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-downside-of-crocodile-culling-nbsp">The downside of crocodile culling&nbsp;</h2>



According to Baker, such extensive culling would not only push the species back into the critically endangered category but would also be prohibitively expensive. Humane culling operations, based on the current Northern Territory crocodile management budget, would cost approximately $975 per crocodile.&nbsp;



“Assuming these operational costs remained constant throughout the culling period, it would cost $87,750,000 to cull 90% of the NT crocodile population humanely, achieving a 48% reduction in crocodile attack frequency,” he said.



In contrast, the Northern Territory Government spent AUD$250,000 on the “Be Crocwise” educational campaign between 2013 and 2016. Since its implementation in 2009, this campaign has contributed to a 10% decrease in crocodile attacks, demonstrating a far more cost-effective approach than culling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-and-crocodile-attacks-nbsp">Human behavior and crocodile attacks&nbsp;</h2>



Baker further noted that the data indicated crocodile attacks were influenced by human behavior and activities near water. “Between 2011 and 2021, humans were 363 times more likely to be severely injured or killed in a motor vehicle accident than by a crocodile in the NT,” he said.&nbsp;



“Most victims of crocodile attacks, 90%, were local to the NT. This highlights the importance of modifying human behavior to reduce the risks of attacks by large predators such as crocodiles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-crocodile-management-methods-nbsp">Alternative crocodile management methods&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Hamish Campbell, who led the study, stressed the need for an evidence-based approach to crocodile management.&nbsp;



“Crocodiles are a danger to humans in North Australia, and this risk needs to be managed. The funds available for crocodile management are limited, and we need to spend these in the most effective manner to reduce crocodile attacks on humans, and the evidence shows that widespread culling is not a cost-effective nor efficient means of doing this,” he said.&nbsp;



“Alternative management methods currently used by the Northern Territory government seem to be working and effective.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Vinay Udyawer from the Australian Institute of Marine Science, who also contributed to the research, noted that the study's findings could inform other predator mitigation strategies.&nbsp;



“The results of this study can be expanded beyond just the management of crocodiles in the Northern Territory,” he said. “It highlights the general ineffectiveness of culling as a primary mitigation tool and the importance of alternative strategies like public education campaigns for managing the risks posed by other large marine predators such as sharks.”



The findings underscore the effectiveness of targeted, evidence-based approaches over broad, less effective measures, offering valuable insights for managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exploring-the-impacts-of-human-wildlife-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-wildlife interactions</a> in various contexts.



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Culling is not effective in preventing crocodile attacks 

Crocodile culling in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia is...

Imagine an epic prehistoric saga, unfolding in what is now northwestern Venezuela, featuring a sea cow as our unfortunate protagonist and a crocodile and a shark as the antagonists. 



This tale is not a figment of our imagination, but a fascinating reality woven by scientists from several esteemed institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-prehistoric-tale">Unearthing the prehistoric tale</h2>



The events of this story took place during the Early to Middle Miocene epoch, a period dating from 23 million to 11.6 million years ago. A sea cow, belonging to the extinct genus Culebratherium, found itself at the mercy of a crocodile's attack.



Evidence of this saga is etched on the sea cow's skull. Deep tooth impacts suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> launched the first attack, attempting to grasp the sea cow's snout, likely intending to suffocate it.



Further large incisions indicate the crocodile dragged and tore at the sea cow, executing a "death roll" - a behavior observed in modern crocodiles.



As if being preyed upon by an ancient crocodile wasn't enough, the sea cow's remains were later scavenged by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-genomes-reveal-two-distinct-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiger shark</a>. The discovery of a shark tooth in the sea cow's neck, along with various shark bite marks across the skeleton, solidify this part of the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predation-events-in-the-fossil-record">Predation events in the fossil record </h2>



This prehistoric narrative was pieced together by experts from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> and the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, along with researchers from Venezuelan institutes Museo Paleontológico de Urumaco and the Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda.



The findings offer valuable insights into prehistoric predation patterns and the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a>. Aldo Benites-Palomino, the study's lead author from the Department of Paleontology at Zurich, explained that the research highlights the pivotal role of sea cows in the food chain.



"Our findings constitute one of the few records documenting multiple predators over a single prey, and as such provide a glimpse of food chain networks in this region during the Miocene," said Benites-Palomino.



Verifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predation</a> events in the fossil record can be challenging. “While evidence of food chain interactions are not scarce in the fossil record, they are mostly represented by fragmentary fossils exhibiting marks of ambiguous significance," explained Benites-Palomino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peculiar-sea-cow-remains">Peculiar sea cow remains</h2>



The fossils were uncovered in outcrops of the Early to Middle Miocene Agua Clara Formation, south of the city of Coro, Venezuela. Among the remains, experts discovered a partial skull and eighteen associated vertebrae.



The fossil site is intriguing due to its location - just 100 kilometers away from previous fossil finds. Professor Marcelo R Sanchez-Villagra described the discovery as “remarkable.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/sea-cow_ancient_crocodile-attack_illustration_credit-Jaime-Bran-Sarmiento_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/sea-cow_ancient_crocodile-attack_illustration_credit-Jaime-Bran-Sarmiento_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of a sea cow being attacked by a crocodile. Credit to Jaime Bran Sarmiento" class="wp-image-1943435"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of a sea cow being attacked by a crocodile. Credit to Jaime Bran Sarmiento</figcaption></figure>



Upon hearing rumors of unusual "rocks" from a local farmer, Sanchez-Villagra and his team decided to investigate. The researchers unearthed sea cow remains that were incredibly unusual in appearance.



“Initially, we were unfamiliar with the site’s geology, and the first fossils we unearthed were parts of skulls," said Sanchez-Villagra.



“It took us some time to determine what they were - sea cow skulls, which are quite peculiar in appearance. By consulting geological maps and examining the sediments at the new locality, we were able to determine the age of the rocks in which the fossils were found.”



The meticulous work of preparing and restoring the cranial elements took several months, further solidifying the significance of this exciting find.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-prehistoric-marine-ecosystems">Insights into prehistoric marine ecosystems</h2>



The discovery of this prehistoric interaction not only sheds light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> but also provides crucial insights into the marine ecosystems of the Miocene epoch. 



During this period, the region that is now northwestern Venezuela was submerged under shallow seas, creating a vibrant habitat teeming with diverse marine life. 



These waters supported a rich tapestry of organisms, ranging from small invertebrates to large marine mammals like the sea cow.



By studying the fossilized remains and the environmental context in which they were found, scientists can reconstruct ancient ecosystems and better understand the ecological roles of different species. 



The behaviors observed, such as the crocodile's death roll and the shark scavenging, highlight the complex interactions that occurred in these prehistoric seas. 



The research emphasizes the importance of apex predators in shaping the structure and dynamics of marine food webs, a concept that remains relevant in studying modern ecosystems.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2381505" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Prehistoric sea cow fossils show it was dinner for a crocodile and a shark

Imagine an epic prehistoric saga, unfolding in what is now...

Did you know that every bird nest you spot in a tree is a unique form of artwork? And imagine this, the creators of these delicate constructions are our very own feathered friends. 



The nests are a manifestation of the birds' ingenuity and survival instincts, and proof of nature's boundless creativity. 



Recent research has focused on one fascinating species - the white-browed sparrow weavers - and their distinctive nest-building practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-nests-of-sparrow-weavers">Unique nests of sparrow weavers</h2>



In the sweeping vistas of the Kalahari Desert, where the air is dry, and conditions harsh, thrives a species of bird known for their distinctive nest building abilities. Enter the white-browed sparrow weavers.&nbsp;



A team of biologists from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St Andrews</a>&nbsp;set out on a two-year expedition to observe the nest-building behaviors of these hardy birds.



Birds, like humans, have their unique styles, whether it's singing or foraging. But the sparrow weavers stand out because they have an exclusive nest-building style. The research team captured hours of footage of these birds, collectively creating over 450 nests.



The nests were painstakingly built using grass and were all single-occupancy, making the observational opportunities plentiful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nest-passed-down-through-generations">A nest passed down through generations</h2>



All the groups that the researchers observed lived in the same general area with similar&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebellious-birds-use-anti-bird-spikes-to-build-their-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat conditions</a>&nbsp;and had identical genetic makeup.&nbsp;



Yet, the nests they built were strikingly different from each other. Some groups built short and thick nests with minimal embellishment, while others chose long, complicated entrance and exit pathways.&nbsp;



These differences couldn't be chalked up to natural variables such as wind or temperature, leading the researchers to believe that these styles were passed down across generations.



Moreover, with no change in habitat or environmental conditions, the sparrow weaver groups retained their unique styles over the years.&nbsp;



This remarkable consistency suggests a behavior that's transmitted across generations but isn't genetically encoded. It's a thread that ties the past to the future, a story told from one generation to the next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nest-building-behavior-of-sparrow-weavers">Nest-building behavior of sparrow weavers </h2>



An intriguing aspect of the white-browed sparrow weavers' nest-building behavior is the influence of their social structures. 



Unlike many bird species that exhibit solitary nesting habits, sparrow weavers often collaborate in groups, which significantly impacts their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">architectural choices</a>. 



The research indicated that within these cooperative groups, the roles in nest building were not only shared but also varied by individual proficiency. Certain birds, for instance, might excel at weaving while others were adept at gathering materials.&nbsp;



This collaboration creates a dynamic learning environment, whereby younger birds observe and emulate their more experienced counterparts, leading to an informal education in nest construction techniques that adds to the distinct styles observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges-faced-by-weavers">Environmental challenges faced by weavers</h2>



The design and structure of nests also reflect the environmental challenges the sparrow weavers face in the Kalahari. These birds must contend with not only the scarcity of materials but also ongoing threats from predators and the harsh elements.&nbsp;



As a result, their nesting strategies are not only artistic but also practical and adaptive. The researchers noted that nests with elaborate entrances and exits often correlated with higher survival rates, as these designs provided birds with immediate camouflage and evasion opportunities.&nbsp;



This adaptability to their environment underscores an essential principle of natural selection: the need for efficiency in survival intricately woven into the very fabric of their creative expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-avian-behavior">Understanding avian behavior </h2>



The intrigue surrounding the white-browed sparrow weavers extends beyond their remarkable nest-building practices; it also highlights the importance of human observation in understanding avian behavior.



The meticulous research highlights how dedicated observation can yield insights into the complexities of avian life. Through the lens of modern technology, such as high-definition cameras and drones, researchers are able to capture behaviors that may go unnoticed in casual observation.



This technology not only enhances our understanding of these birds but also promotes a deeper appreciation for biodiversity and the intricate web of life that surrounds us. 



By promoting a connection between scientists and the natural world, the research advocates for conservation efforts and encourages citizen science participation, ultimately benefiting both the sparrow weavers and the ecosystems they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-of-sparrow-weavers">Social dynamics of sparrow weavers </h2>



The study paints a vivid picture of avian life in the wild. It sheds light on the incredibly sophisticated group dynamics among birds and opens up fascinating questions about&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-fishing-cats-raiding-bird-nests-in-the-treetops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a>.&nbsp;



Is it possible that these little birds have their own culture? Can we call these nest-building styles an avian "tradition"?



The white-browed sparrow weavers, with their unique nest-building styles, show us that nature is full of surprises if we just take the time to observe. What other secrets do these little architects hide? Only time, and further exploration will tell.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2573" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Weaver birds build strikingly unique nests

Did you know that every bird nest you spot in...

In the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, scientists have made a thrilling discovery: a new species of Antarctic dragonfish, Akarotaxis gouldae.



The discovery of this "Banded Dragonfish" highlights both the hidden depths of biodiversity and the fragile state of the Antarctic ecosystem. The species was identified by researchers at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) at William &amp; Mary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-akarotaxis-gouldae">Akarotaxis gouldae</h2>



The discovery of Akarotaxis gouldae began when larval specimens, initially assumed to be Akarotaxis nudiceps, were collected during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> trawling missions off the Antarctic coast.



Upon comparing their DNA with Akarotaxis nudiceps specimens from collections at institutions like VIMS, <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.mnhn.fr/fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle</a> in Paris, significant genetic differences became apparent. 



The experts were able to confirm that these specimens belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_specimens_credit-andrew-corso_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously unrecognized species</a>.



Study lead author Andrew Corso conducted the research during his PhD studies at VIMS under the guidance of advisors Eric Hilton and Deborah Steinberg. Corso emphasized the importance of genetic testing in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-in-insect-taxonomy-threatened-by-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taxonomy</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_science-boat_credit-andrew-corso_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_science-boat_credit-andrew-corso_1s.jpg" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae, a newly discovered species of Antarctic dragonfish, was named in honor of the recently decomissioned Antarctic research supply vessel Laurence M. Gould. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1943441"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae, a newly discovered species of Antarctic dragonfish, was named in honor of the recently decomissioned Antarctic research supply vessel Laurence M. Gould. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



“In the world of fish taxonomy, it’s becoming common to distinguish species with genetics alone. Genetic testing is an extremely valuable tool, but our discovery highlights the importance of early life stage morphology and natural history collections like those at <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VIMS</a> and other institutions,” said Corso.



Subsequent morphological analysis of adult Akarotaxis gouldae samples from ichthyology collections worldwide confirmed these genetic findings. 



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult Akarotaxis gouldae that are not present on Akarotaxis nudiceps, so we were surprised that the species already existed in collections but had been previously overlooked,” noted Corso.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-insights-from-genetic-testing">Empowering insights from genetic testing</h2>



Through time-calibrated phylogeny, Corso and his colleague Thomas Desvignes from the University of Oregon’s <a href="https://ion.uoregon.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Neuroscience</a> estimated that Akarotaxis gouldae diverged as a separate species approximately 780,000 years ago, when the Southern Ocean was predominantly covered in glaciers.



“We hypothesize that a population of dragonfishes may have become isolated within deep trenches under glaciers, surviving on food pushed in by the moving ice," Corso explained.



Once the glaciers retreated, this subpopulation had become distinct enough to be reproductively incompatible with Akarotaxis nudiceps."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecology-of-antarctic-dragonfish">Ecology of Antarctic dragonfish</h2>



Despite their crucial ecological role, much remains unknown about Antarctic dragonfish. These species, including Akarotaxis gouldae, inhabit the deep, remote waters of the Southern Ocean.



The dragonfish species exhibit unique behaviors like nest guarding in shallower coastal waters, and their offspring remain closer to the surface during the larval stage.



Examination of female dragonfish ovaries has shown limited reproductive capacity, and larval sampling suggests that Akarotaxis gouldae is confined to the waters around the western Antarctic Peninsula.



“Akarotaxis gouldae appear to have one of the smallest ranges of any fish endemic to the Southern Ocean,” said Corso. 



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggest that this is a vulnerable species that could be impacted by the krill fishery.”



These dragonfish serve as a vital food source for many Antarctic species, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-will-not-survive-the-current-rate-of-sea-ice-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>, whose populations are already under threat from changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-akarotaxis-gouldae-honors-a-scientific-legacy">Akarotaxis gouldae honors a scientific legacy</h2>



The naming of Akarotaxis gouldae honors the legacy of the ARSV Laurence M. Gould, a vessel that significantly contributed to Antarctic research for over two decades.



The vessel’s decommissioning marked a shift in the U.S. Antarctic Program's priorities, highlighting the ongoing need for support and resources to continue studying the region's unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. 



“To me, the loss of the ARSV Laurence M. Gould marks a setback in the scientific study of the Antarctic region. Antarctica is warming faster than anywhere in the Southern Hemisphere, and there is untold biodiversity in the region that we’re only beginning to understand," Corso concluded.



"By naming this fish after the ship, we hope to honor its scientific contributions while also bringing attention to the need for additional resources to study this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>."



This discovery emphasizes the urgent need to protect fragile ecosystems and the invaluable biodiversity they support.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5501.2.3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New dragonfish species reveals the fragility of the Antarctic ecosystem

In the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, scientists...

Butterfly wings are to the eye what symphonies are to the ear. Now, an international research team has uncovered an intriguing, genetic mechanism contributing to the vibrant and intricate patterns we see on butterfly wings. 



Their discovery? It is an RNA molecule that plays a key role in determining the distribution of black pigment on butterfly wings. And here's the surprise twist - it's not a protein, as we previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-code-of-butterfly-wings">Genetic code of butterfly wings</h2>



The study was led by Luca Livraghi, a postdoctoral scientist at George Washington University and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



Researchers have been intrigued for centuries by how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> can generate the breathtakingly beautiful patterns and colors on their wings.



The genetic code in the cells of developing butterfly wings actually dictates the specific arrangement of color on the wing's scales - like the arrangement of colored pixels to form a digital image. Decoding this could pave the way to understanding how our genes construct our anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-are-not-the-only-players">Proteins are not the only players</h2>



Scientists have long known that protein-coding genes are pivotal in these processes. But when it comes to black pigments, this research paints a different landscape altogether. 



The team discovered that a gene producing an RNA molecule - not a protein - controlled where dark pigments were made during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> metamorphosis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rna-influence-on-butterfly-wing-patterns">RNA influence on butterfly wing patterns</h2>



"What we found was astonishing," said Livraghi. "This RNA molecule directly influences where the black pigment appears on the wings, shaping the butterfly's color patterns in a way we hadn't anticipated." 



Through examining the RNA molecule's activity, researchers found a perfect correlation between where the RNA was expressed and where the black scales formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-paintbrush">An evolutionary paintbrush</h2>



"It is truly an evolutionary paintbrush in this sense, and a creative one, judging by its effects in several species," said Arnaud Martin, associate professor of biology at <a href="https://www.gwu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Washington University</a>. 



The team, in their curious endeavors, examined the newly discovered RNA in several other butterflies, diverging in evolutionary history around 80 million years ago. The result? The RNA had evolved to control new placements in the patterns of dark pigments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rna-in-butterfly-wing-diversity">Role of RNA in butterfly wing diversity</h2>



"The consistent results obtained from CRISPR mutants in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-love-pretty-butterflies-and-that-complicates-data-for-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">several species</a> really demonstrate that this RNA gene is not a recent invention, but a key ancestral mechanism to control wing pattern diversity," noted Riccardo Papa, professor of biology at the <a href="https://www.uprrp.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Puerto Rico</a>.



"This RNA molecule evidently plays a crucial role in the evolution of wing patterns. Who knows what other phenomena biologists might've missed because they weren't paying attention to the genome's dark matter?" concluded Joe Hanly, a postdoctoral scientist and visiting fellow at GW.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assumptions-about-genetic-regulation">Assumptions about genetic regulation</h2>



The research fundamentally challenges our long-standing assumptions about genetic regulation. It throws open new avenues of exploration in studying how visible traits evolve in animals.



The genetic mechanism of butterfly wing patterns might seem like a specific niche in the scientific sphere, but its implications reach far and wide in the realm of biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The revelations stemming from this study not only illuminate the enigmatic processes behind butterfly coloration but also pave the way for a broader understanding of genetics in other species. 



As researchers continue to investigate the role of RNA in butterfly wing patterns, it is likely that similar genetic mechanisms exist across the animal kingdom. 



Future inquiries may focus on the possibility of RNA's influence in other phenotypic traits, providing fresh insights into evolutionary biology and genetics. 



This newfound appreciation for RNA as a functional player in developmental processes of butterflies compels scientists to reconsider their methodologies and assumptions, potentially leading to transformative discoveries across diverse biological fields.



So, the next time you admire a butterfly's wings, remember there's more than meets the eye. There's an intriguing genetic mechanism at play, dominated by an RNA molecule that's defining patterns of dark pigment. Talk about nature having a sense of sublime artistry!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403326121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How do butterfly wings acquire their breathtaking colors?

Butterfly wings are to the eye what symphonies are to...

In our quest to understand the intrepid and often overlooked secrets of the animate wonderland we inhabit, we occasionally stumble upon a wonder that brings a new perspective to life. Enter the globular springtail, scientifically known as Dicyrtomina minuta, a tiny creature that is outdoing everyone in the field of jumps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-springtail-s-acrobatic-jumps">The springtail’s acrobatic jumps</h2>



Globular springtails are, at most, a couple millimeters in length. They do not possess the ability to fly, bite, or sting. But, they can jump. 



Surprising as it may sound, the sprightly springtail is an expert at avoiding predators, merely by jumping. By the time you blink, they are airborne and out of sight.



So, how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-springtails-and-why-would-humans-not-exist-without-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">springtails</a> do it? They don't just bob up and down, like a bouncing basketball; instead, they flip through the air, executing the fastest known backflips on Earth.



Dr. Adrian Smith is a professor of biology at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and head of the Evolutionary Biology and Behavior Research Lab at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences. Describing the spectacle, Dr. Smith compared the springtails' jump to the iconic spin of Sonic the Hedgehog.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cD9gRN8hS6-3828870-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hunt-for-the-globular-springtail">The hunt for the globular springtail</h2>



The process of studying these little jumping virtuosos was a rewarding adventure in itself. Dr. Smith's expedition to find globular springtails was relatively straightforward – he single-handedly located and recruited his research subjects by sifting through leaf litter in his own backyard. The main challenge lay in capturing their lightning-fast jumps on camera.



“Globular springtails jump so fast that you can’t see it in real time,” noted Dr. Smith. “If you try to film the jump with a regular camera, the springtail will appear in one frame, then vanish. When you look at the picture closely, you can see faint vapor trail curlicues left behind where it flipped through the one frame.”



Overcoming this challenge required the use of cameras capable of shooting a staggering 40,000 frames per second. Dr. Smith then stimulated the springtails into jumping by either shining a light on them or lightly prodding them with an artist's paintbrush.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mechanics-of-the-jumping-springtail">The mechanics of the jumping springtail</h2>



Interestingly, globular springtails don't rely on their legs to jump; instead, they use an appendage called a furca that folds up underneath their abdomen. 



The furca is tipped with a tiny, forked structure. When the springtails jump, the furca flips down, pushing against the ground, and catapults them into a sequence of breathtakingly rapid backflips.



The springtails can launch themselves over 60 millimeters into the air - more than 60 times their own body length - and they typically travel up and backward instead of forward.



Jacob Harrison, a postdoctoral researcher at the Georgia Institute of Technology, pointed out that this lack of forward movement suggests jumping is mainly an escape tactic, not a form of general locomotion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastering-a-rough-landing">Mastering a rough landing</h2>



The landing strategies of the globular springtail further provide insight into their unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">locomotion</a>. A common way of landing is by tumbling chaotically, very much like bouncing to a stop. 



Alternatively, they use a sticky forked tube, known as a collophore, which they can push out of their bodies to grapple a surface or halt their momentum. These findings offer a clear perspective on the flight and landing dynamics of the remarkable globular springtail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impossibly-spectacular-performance">Impossibly spectacular performance </h2>



“This is the first time anyone has done a complete description of the globular springtail’s jumping performance measures, and what they do is almost impossibly spectacular,” said Dr. Smith. “This is a great example of how we can find incredible, and largely undescribed, organisms living all around us.”



The study shows us that our world still harbors many unsung heroes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating phenomena</a> waiting to be discovered.



In essence, the globular springtail's extraordinary performances, unique behaviors, and understudied status make it a promising candidate for further research. 



So, the next time you take a casual stroll in your garden or park, remember, there might be tiny creatures around you, ready to backflip their way into the record books.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/iob/article/6/1/obae029/7742965" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Integrative Organismal Biology</a>.



Video Credit: Ant Lab



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Tiny backyard bugs perform the fastest backflips on the planet

In our quest to understand the intrepid and often overlooked...

Looking back at the Cretaceous period, one cannot help but marvel at the dominance of the hadrosaurs, often referred to as duck-billed dinosaurs. The most advanced herbivores of their time, hadrosaurs, with their formidable teeth, were anything but passive eaters. New research reveals that these colossal creatures went through average teeth every two months, all thanks to their voracious appetite for plants. They may have had hundreds of thousands of teeth throughout their lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embarking-on-a-jurassic-journey">Embarking on a Jurassic journey</h2>



To comprehend the dietary dynamics of these herbivores, we need to navigate back in time and trace the evolutionary trajectory of the ornithopods - a group of dinosaurs that encompassed the likes of Iguanodon, Hypsilophodon, rare rhabdodontids, and, of course, the hadrosaurs.



These plant-eating machines, comparable to modern-day cows and sheep in their feeding frenzy, first made their appearance in the Middle Jurassic. By the time the Cretaceous period took over, they were the reigning herbivores across vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-comptonatus-chasei-most-complete-discovered-unique-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swathes of the world</a>.



The journey of hadrosaurs is much like a small start-up company evolving into a multinational corporation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hadrosaurs-used-teeth-as-tools">Hadrosaurs used teeth as tools</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Attila Ősi from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> in Hungary. She highlights the drastic changes in the teeth and jaws of ornithopods during their evolution. 



The Iguanodon, an early member of the group, took over 200 days to form their teeth and consumed at least the same amount of time to wear them down through chewing.



Fast forward to the end of the Cretaceous, and we see that hadrosaurs gnawed through their teeth in merely 50 days.



Clearly, the later ornithopods were binge-eating on tough plants that rapidly eroded their teeth. They needed to deploy reinforcements, building up reserves of teeth in their skulls to prevent themselves from going hungry. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivory-harder-than-it-looks">Herbivory: Harder than it looks</h2>



Being a vegetarian isn’t an easy job, especially if you’re a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-teeth-reveal-their-eating-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a>. While meat dissipates easily in the gut, plants are composed of tough fibers and complex carbohydrates that are a bit more challenging to digest. 



It calls for teeth to lead the charge, breaking open plants and cutting them into smaller pieces for gut bacteria to disintegrate more efficiently.



“Across a herbivore's life, its teeth gradually wear down," explained study co-author Professor Paul Barrett. The constant wear and tear eventually led to the end of the tooth and subsequently the end of the animal, at least in the case of some mammals.



However, reptiles appear to have dodged this dental dilemma by continually producing new teeth. As a result, dinosaur teeth have become the holy grail for researchers delving into early animal evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformation-of-ornithopod-chompers">Transformation of ornithopod chompers</h2>



The study focused extensively on the teeth and jaws of ornithopods, the planet’s most advanced herbivores in their time. Examination of well-preserved skulls offers a glimpse into the transformation of the dinosaurs' skulls, with increasingly complex features best suited for plant-eating.



“At the start, they had single rows of fairly simple teeth with limited wear, probably because these dinosaurs focused on fruits and softer plants," said Professor Paul.



These early ornithopods evolved into hadrosaurs with numerous teeth, a large blade-like edge on one side, and ridges on the other. This unique structure ensured sharp teeth as they ground against each other.



The evolution of ornithopods also marked new ways of jaw movement, allowing them to grind plants down even further. Their bodies grew larger to house more extensive guts better suited to release nutrients from plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-hadrosaur-teeth">Mystery of hadrosaur teeth</h2>



So what triggered this evolution of tough teeth? Scientists believe that the diet of dinosaurs was dictated by the kind of plants available. One theory suggests that the rise of flowering plants might have influenced their dietary preferences. 



Microscopic wear patterns on teeth indicate changes in the type of plants consumed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredibly-unusual-dinosaur-unearthed-in-mississippi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> over time. Could the emergence of flowers be the reason? 



"While it is suspicious that the flowering plants start to diversify around this time, they were still pretty uncommon at the time," noted Professor Paul.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-fossil-research">Future of fossil research</h2>



With their study on ornithopods completed, the team aims to extend their research to other herbivorous dinosaurs, like the ankylosaurs or the horned dinosaurs. Unveiling the dietary preferences and subsequent evolution of these creatures could help us better understand why they thrived during their time. 



"If we can find out what changes herbivores were going through at the time, it will give us a much better chance of understanding the place of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-with-huge-blade-like-horns-discovered-in-montana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> in the ecosystems of the Mesozoic Era," said Dr. Attila.



The teeth of dinosaurs offer a fascinating window into the world of the Cretaceous period, unraveling the mysterious ways in which these creatures evolved and thrived.



So, the next time you're biting into your favorite plant-based snack, spare a thought for the complex evolutionary processes that enabled us and our ancient ancestors to enjoy our greens. Who knew teeth could tell such compelling tales?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51697-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Some plant-eating dinosaurs chewed through thousands of teeth

Looking back at the Cretaceous period, one cannot help but...

The Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT) has taken coral reef research to a whole new level. Dr. Julian Lilkendey and an international team of dedicated researchers have combined innovative AI technologies with stereo-video technology to study the movements of reef fish in the Red Sea with startling precision.



But how does this marvel work? Well, imagine a camera that can capture the tiniest detail and AI that paints every aspect of a 3D moving image.



This revolutionary technique takes us beyond the conventional two-dimensional observations, allowing for an in-depth study of the reef and its inhabitants. Just as we peel an onion layer by layer, these researchers are peeling back the mysteries of the sea.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="mZgUie5TWE-3827453-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surgeonfish-story">The surgeonfish story</h2>



Diving deeper into this fascinating study, two species of surgeonfish became the stars. The team noticed some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intriguing behavior</a>.&nbsp;



The Brown surgeonfish seemed to prefer feasting on algae that grew on dead corals, while the Yellowtail tang was fond of a more varied palate, munching on algae found on sedimentary rock, coral rubble, and sand.



The researchers didn't stop at just observations. They used this advanced set up to estimate the energy expenditure of these fish as they moved and foraged around their natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-coral-reef-fish">AI and coral reef fish</h2>



What makes this research possible? AI. Dr. Julian Lilkendey described the advanced technologies used for the study. 



The team used YOLOv5 (You Only Look Once version 5), a real-time object detection neural network. Tuned with additional background images from the Red Sea, the AI was able to recognize and classify the fish species.



But the real challenge lay in training the AI model for species recognition. With limited specific training images, the team turned to the citizen science website iNaturalist for publicly accessible photos. The results were spectacular.



Next, they used the DeepSORT (Simple Online and Realtime Tracking with a Deep Association Metric) algorithm for 3D data acquisition. This impressive algorithm generates detailed 3D movement patterns of the fish, even when they sometimes disappear or are obscured by other objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tales-of-coral-reefs-using-ai">Tales of coral reefs using AI</h2>



All this high-tech research isn't for naught. The findings have given us unique insights into the role of surgeonfish and their importance in maintaining the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-reveal-the-health-of-coral-reefs-in-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological balance of our coral reefs</a>.&nbsp;



"The Brown surgeonfish demonstrated specialized feeding behavior, preferring certain algae growing on specific substrates, in contrast to the generalized feeding behavior of the Yellowtail tang," said Dr. Lilkendey.



"Despite their low biomass, both species significantly contribute to reef grazing, using the energy obtained from food with similar efficiency in their movements."



Dr. Lilkendey also noted that changes in the feeding behavior and energy expenditure of surgeonfish could directly impact the health and biodiversity of the entire reef ecosystem.



The sophisticated methodological approach employed by the researchers has significantly enhanced their ability to explore the intricate dynamics of fish behavior and energy flows in aquatic ecosystems. 



By utilizing advanced techniques and innovative models, they can analyze various factors influencing fish interactions and energy transfer within their habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The methods used for the study are not only providing deeper insights into behavioral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> but are also facilitating the creation of "Energy Seascapes."



This concept allows scientists to visualize and understand the spatial distribution of energy resources in marine environments, ultimately contributing to more effective conservation strategies and sustainable management of fish populations. The implications of this research could reshape our understanding of marine ecology.



The findings are nothing short of revolutionary. They're our ticket to understanding how energy is absorbed, transformed, and distributed within the reef. And this wealth of knowledge? It's invaluable for developing health indicators and formulating novel protective measures for our reefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-ai-and-reef-fish-research">What’s next in AI and reef fish research?</h2>



With this new research methodology, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">possibilities are endless</a>. We're no longer just spectators, we're part of the scene, witnessing the lives of these fish, understanding their movements and behavior, and the energy they expend. 



It's a lens into the future, a chance to get a closer look at the ecological makeup of our underwater world.



So, what can we expect to discover next? Only time will tell. What matters most, though, is how we use this knowledge to protect the fragile balance of our planet's ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.11070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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AI illuminates fish interactions in coral reefs

The Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT) has taken...

Vultures, much like humans, tend to prefer the comfort and security of familiarity as they age, seeking out predictable routines and long-standing relationships that provide a sense of stability. 



This shift towards regularity and consistent social circles reflects a natural inclination to rely on known resources and trusted companions, minimizing risks and conserving energy.



New research published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences sheds light on this phenomenon among Griffon vultures. 



The study reveals that young Griffon vultures are far more nomadic and socially adventurous, frequently moving between different sleeping sites and engaging with numerous companions. 



This exploratory behavior allows younger vultures to gather critical information about food sources and potential threats, aiding their survival in the unpredictable landscapes they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-vultures-the-nomadic-phase">Young vultures: The Nomadic phase</h2>



“What we found was as they age, their loyalty to certain roost sites increases,” said Noa Pinter-Wollman, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> and co-author of the study. 



“Young vultures check out many different roosts but in middle age, they start going repeatedly to the same places.” 



Younger vultures tend to avoid the most popular roosts, possibly feeling intimidated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-blue-tits-have-a-mating-advantage-that-involves-cheating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older birds</a> or avoiding potential conflict, reminiscent of an avian version of “Hey you kids, get off my lawn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-middle-age-stronger-bonds">Middle age: Stronger bonds</h2>



The study highlights that, similar to humans, older Griffon vultures form fewer but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-social-bonds-promote-healthy-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stronger social bonds</a>, prioritizing quality over quantity in their relationships.



As they age, Griffon vultures also establish specific movement routines, preferring to return to the same familiar roosts and consistently associating with the same social circles.



The predictable patterns reflect their desire for stability and the benefits that come with established territories and social structures. This behavior is closely linked to their accumulated knowledge about food resources and environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-patterns-of-griffon-vultures">Life patterns of griffon vultures</h2>



Griffon vultures, scientifically known as Gyps fulvus, inhabit the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and India. With impressive wingspans reaching up to 9 feet, they are much larger than North American turkey vultures and even bigger than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bald-eagles-dont-only-eat-fish-as-prairie-dogs-will-attest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bald eagles</a>. 



Their diet primarily consists of animal carcasses, which are unpredictable and often fleeting. 



Roosting sites become vital "information hubs" where vultures can signal to others about food availability, forming friendships that enhance their survival chances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-griffon-vultures-over-time">Tracking griffon vultures over time</h2>



The researchers aimed to understand how Griffon vultures' movement patterns and social behaviors evolve throughout their lives. 



By analyzing GPS data from 142 individually tagged birds in Israel over a 15-year period, they cross-referenced the vultures’ ages with their movement and social interactions at roost sites. 



The study revealed that young vultures are highly exploratory, rarely staying in the same place for two consecutive nights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-exploration-to-familiarity">From exploration to familiarity</h2>



“When they are old, from the age of 10 onward, they no longer have the energy to be ‘out and about’ and return consistently to the same site,” said corresponding author Orr Spiegel from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>. 



As vultures aged, their social interactions also shifted, with the strength of their bonds with non-close friends declining. 



Older vultures increasingly preferred the company of a few close friends and exhibited more predictable movement patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-behavioral-shifts">Understanding behavioral shifts</h2>



This long-term study, tracking the same vultures over nearly 12 consecutive years, provides insights into behavioral changes in aging birds. 



The findings support similar observations in other species, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-ties-influence-the-social-behavior-of-aging-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging animals</a> exhibit greater fidelity to familiar sites and routines and become more selective in their social relationships. 



These behavioral shifts offer valuable insights into how animal populations navigate their environments and interact with their peers, aiding in developing better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



“It looks like they just get set in their ways,” noted Pinter-Wollman. “They’ve gathered information over the years, and they might as well use it. Carcasses are hard to come by, and roosts are information hubs.”



For Griffon vultures, this might involve protecting essential roosting sites and using knowledge of their social dynamics to mitigate threats like poisoning.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407298121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Older griffon vultures have fewer friends with stronger bonds

Vultures, much like humans, tend to prefer the comfort and...

Once upon a time, a destructive “tag-team” of natural forces triggered catastrophic mass marine extinctions that reshaped the course of evolution on Earth, paving the way for new forms of life.



This powerful duo wasn't made up of marauding warriors or mythical monsters but rather the elemental forces of nature we still encounter today: land and sea.



Acting in deadly harmony, these powerful elements transformed marine life, disrupted entire ecosystems, and altered the planet's history forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-events-of-marine-species">Mass extinction events of marine species</h2>



In a recent study, researchers led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> present startling new explanations for these drastic events.



The scientists have shed new light on an age-old enigma: the sequence of traumatic environmental crises known as oceanic anoxic events that occurred between 185 and 85 million years ago.



During these events, the oceans were dangerously low on dissolved oxygen, throwing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a> into turmoil and leading to mass extinctions of marine species.



"Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) are transient perturbations to the global carbon cycle, during which large regions of the oceans are depleted in dissolved oxygen," noted the researchers.



"The resulting euxinic (anoxic and sulfidic) waters are highly toxic, leading to biological turnover events and, in extreme cases, mass extinctions of marine biota."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triggers-for-the-extinction-events">Triggers for the extinction events</h2>



"Oceanic anoxic events were like hitting the reset button on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystems-classified-for-the-first-time-across-the-entire-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s ecosystems</a>. The challenge was understanding which geological forces hit the button," said study lead author Professor Tom Gernon.



The study was an international effort, bringing together minds from universities in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United States.



The researchers set out to investigate how ocean chemistry was altered by the impact of tectonic shifts during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic era</a>, often known as the age of the dinosaurs.



The Mesozoic era marked the disintegration of Gondwana, a once vast landmass that dinosaurs claimed as their dominion.



"The Mesozoic era witnessed the breakup of this landmass, in turn bringing intense volcanic activity worldwide. As tectonic plates shifted and new seafloors formed, large amounts of phosphorus, a nutrient essential for life, were released from weathering volcanic rocks into the oceans," explained Professor Gernon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-sea-and-mass-marine-extinctions">Land, sea, and mass marine extinctions</h2>



According to Professor Gernon, the team found evidence of multiple pulses of chemical weathering on both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a> and continents, which alternately disrupted the oceans. "It’s like a geological tag-team," he added.



The timing of these weathering pulses eerily lined up with most oceanic anoxic events.



The researchers propose that the weathering-triggered influx of phosphorus to the ocean acted like a natural fertilizer, boosting the growth of marine organisms. But this seemingly beneficial fertilization had a disastrous flip side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-oxygen-depletion">Widespread oxygen depletion </h2>



The surge in biological activity resulted in large amounts of organic matter sinking to the ocean floor, consuming significant quantities of oxygen in their wake. 



This led to vast regions of the oceans becoming oxygen-depleted or anoxic, effectively becoming "dead zones" where most marine life could not survive.



“The anoxic events typically lasted around one to two million years and had profound impacts on marine ecosystems, the legacy of which even felt today," said study co-author Professor Benjamin Mills.



These events also led to the accumulation of organic matter-rich rocks, which today form the largest source of commercial oil and gas reserves globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-in-today-s-oceans">Echoes in today's oceans</h2>



This mass extinction study not only offers answers to historical biological upheaval but also shines a spotlight on the dire effects of nutrient overloading in contemporary marine environments.



There is a haunting parallel with human activities today that have reduced oceanic oxygen levels by about two percent, causing a significant expansion in anoxic water masses.



“Studying geological events offers valuable insights that can help us grasp how the Earth may respond to future climatic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-thrive-under-environmental-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stresses</a>," said Professor Gernon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deadly-symbiosis">A deadly symbiosis</h2>



Ultimately, the research illuminates a potent connection between Earth’s solid interior and its surface environment and biosphere, especially during periods of tectonic and climatic upheaval.



“It’s remarkable how a chain of events within the Earth can impact the surface, often with devastating effects," noted the researchers. "Tearing continents apart can have profound repercussions for the course of evolution."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01496-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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What caused marine mass extinctions millions of years ago?

Once upon a time, a destructive “tag-team” of natural forces...

When we think of climate change, we often focus on loftier issues – melting ice caps, rising sea levels, more frequent and intense storms. However, the effects of climate change aren't simply grand-scale phenomena; they seep into our everyday world, altering delicate balances that sustain life as we know it. 



In a recent study, researchers from Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) investigated the impacts of global warming on the humble lives of bumblebees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battle-of-the-bumblebee">Battle of the bumblebee</h2>



Bumblebees - beloved for their fuzzy bodies and industrious nature - are vital cogs in natural and agricultural processes. 



If you relish every bite of your apple, cherish the beauty of blooming flowers, or value the vast spectrum of biodiversity, you have the hardworking bumblebee to thank. But did you know these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">buzzing pollinators</a> are living on borrowed time? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-impact-on-bumblebees">Climate change impact on bumblebees</h2>



The JMU team found that, despite their robust appearance, bumblebees are delicate creatures that are especially susceptible to changes in temperature.



Thanks to their natural predisposition towards cooler habitats, these tiny pollinators are increasingly feeling the heat, quite literally.



"Bumblebees are important pollinators in natural and agricultural systems. They therefore have a high economic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity value</a>," noted Dr. Sabine Nooten, head of the study. Yet, rising temperatures could spell doom for these intricate creatures.



In a series of experiments, bumblebees found themselves navigating an artificial heatwave, akin to the rising global temperatures we see today. The results? Well, let’s just say it left these buzzing beauties in a bit of a hot mess.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staggering-consequences">Staggering consequences</h2>



Retaining the ability to detect floral scents is paramount for bumblebees. The fragrances emitted by flowers serve as chemical signposts, detailing their location and the state of the flowers.



The 40-degree Celsius temperature trial, however, disabled this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-bumblebees-navigate-better-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential sensory capacity</a> in bumblebees.



"We found that the heat significantly impaired the bumblebees' ability to detect floral scents," said Sabine Nooten. 



A staggering 80% decrease in scent detection ability was noted among female worker bees. The male bees fared marginally better, losing half of their olfactory abilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebee-recovery-from-climate-change">Bumblebee recovery from climate change</h2>



Hoping for a recovery post heat-wave exposure? The experiments painted a grim picture. Even a subsequent cool-down period did not restore the bumblebees' olfactory capabilities immediately. A whole day later, most affected specimens still struggled with the loss of smell.



The study highlights the importance of understanding the intricate relationship between plants and insects in the context of climate change. The adverse effects of heatwaves, it seems, extend far beyond human discomfort.



Following these revelations, a new project has been approved. "Now that we have found out that heat waves impair the physiological processes of bumblebees to detect flower scents, our focus is now on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-show-surprising-adept-teamwork-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavioral side</a>," said Nooten. "We will test how the foraging behavior of bumblebees is affected by experimental heatwaves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-habitat-preservation">Role of habitat preservation</h2>



As we explore the effects of climate change on bumblebee populations, it’s clear that protecting their habitats is vital for their survival. Keeping a variety of native flowers around is essential for these important pollinators, especially as temperatures rise. 



Unfortunately, urban areas filled with monocultures and pesticides can make life even tougher for bumblebees. By focusing on planting native wildflowers and restoring natural habitats, we can not only help bumblebees thrive but also improve the overall health of our ecosystems. 



Getting communities involved in these efforts builds a sense of responsibility and boosts biodiversity, paving the way for a more sustainable future together.



As we inch forward into an uncertain environmental future, it's crucial to understand and mitigate the diverse impacts of climate change. The plight of the bumblebees is but one chapter in a rapidly evolving story. 



Through awareness, action and (quite literally) a cooler head, perhaps we can ensure these buzzing pollinators continue their vital work for generations to come. After all, every flower has its bee, and every bee, its flower.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0352" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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How climate change is buzzing off bumblebee senses

When we think of climate change, we often focus on...

How many times have you tossed a squeaky toy or balled-up paper across the room, only to find your feline friend darting off to fetch it, exactly like our canine pals? A recent study tells us that fetching is not just a dog's game - cats love it too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-and-dogs-on-fetching">Cats and dogs on fetching </h2>



Contrary to popular belief, dogs aren't the only pets that love to go fetch. The domesticated feline population also has its share of fetch enthusiasts.&nbsp;



Mikel Delgado from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> and his team have unearthed quite a surprise in their study, which is published in the open-access journal PLOS ONE.



The game of fetch resonates with dogs. They chase balls, sticks, and toys, bringing them back to us, tail wagging with canine joy. But have you ever wondered whether our purring pals enjoy the game as much? Surprisingly, the answer is yes. Some cats fetch, and they seem to love it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-on-the-fetching-behavior-of-cats">More on the fetching behavior of cats</h2>



The study brings into focus the fetching attributes of cats, a behavior previously accredited mainly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heartache-from-dog-theft-is-as-intense-as-losing-a-loved-one/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>. 



Delgado and the team analyzed data from online surveys of cat (Felis catus) and dog (Canis familiaris) owners conducted between 2015 and 2023, which included questions about their pet's fetching behavior.



The experts found that among the 8,000 cat owners surveyed, 41% reported their cats would sometimes, frequently, or always retrieve toys or objects tossed at them - a figure significantly higher than previous estimations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-furry-game-of-fetch">Furry game of fetch</h2>



Cats that are more playful, active, and live indoors are more likely to fetch, according to the report. Though all breeds show fetching behavior, it is more common in Burmese, Siamese, and Tonkinese cats.



These breeds originated from cats that were taken to the Far East during early cat domestication, making them genetically distinct from other breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-dogged-fetchers">Discovering dogged fetchers</h2>



Of nearly 74,000 dog owners surveyed, 78% confirmed their dogs would fetch toys, sticks, or balls thrown at them, sometimes, frequently or always. 



The study points out that dogs that exhibit fetching behavior also scored high on overall trainability. Breeds commonly associated with fetching include Labrador and Golden Retrievers, Border Collies, and English Cocker Spaniels. Dogs bred for herding livestock or as hunting companions are more likely to fetch.



But the game of fetch is not so common in females and older pets, or those with health conditions in both cats and dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joy-of-interactive-play">Joy of interactive play</h2>



Understanding that cats can engage in fetching behaviors opens up exciting new dimensions for interaction between pets and their owners. 



The act of throwing a toy and watching a cat retrieve it not only stimulates the feline’s natural hunting instincts but also strengthens the bond between human and pet. 



This level of engagement can, in turn, lead to a more fulfilling and enriched life for indoor cats, who might otherwise lack the opportunities for physical and mental stimulation found in the great outdoors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-pet-owners">Implications for pet owners</h2>



For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homeless-pet-owners-need-better-options-to-protect-their-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet owners</a>, recognizing the potential of their cats to enjoy fetching can reshape the way they approach playtime. 



Incorporating fetching into their daily routine encourages exercise and mental challenge, addressing issues related to obesity and boredom in felines, which are often overlooked. 



By providing a variety of toys that are suited for fetching - such as lightweight balls or soft plush toys - owners can elevate their pet's play experience.



Additionally, this newfound understanding may prompt further research into the cognitive and physical benefits of fetch-like activities in both cats and dogs, paving the way for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-experience-puppy-blues-with-a-new-pet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deeper exploration</a> of interspecies behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-of-fetch-for-cats">A game of fetch for cats</h2>



Fetching, it seems, is more than just a game. It is a behavioral pattern, often compared to the hunting instincts of the pets. 



But the study suggests fetching to be more connected to play than predation. Delgado stresses that domestication might have made pets retain juvenile behaviors like fetching, initially a tool for wild animals to learn hunting.



"Although cats and dogs are very different in many aspects of their behavior and how they ended up being companion animals, we find it fascinating that so many of them share this very interesting behavior - fetching! We hope that our study will encourage further exploration of how fetching is related to play, hunting and social interactions in both cats and dogs," noted the researchers.



And there it is, ladies and gentlemen - fetching isn't just a dog's game anymore. Have you ever wondered how your pet's fetching habits stand up to Delgado's research? Maybe it's time to give the old game of fetch another shot with your feline friend.



You never know, you might just discover a whole new level of playfulness in them. You might indeed be living with a fetching feline or a dogged dog who loves nothing more than a good game of fetch.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0309068" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Go fetch: Some cats love fetching as much as dogs

How many times have you tossed a squeaky toy or...

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