Anthemiphyllia macrolobata

Honey,Bee,Flying,To,The,Flower

<p>Venoms, remarkable for their complexity and potency, have independently evolved in numerous animal groups, including bees. Within the diverse insect order Hymenoptera, which encompasses over 6,000 bee species alone, venomous species are notably abundant. </p>



<p>Despite their ecological and economic significance, the evolutionary development of hymenopteran venoms has remained largely unexplored. A recent study led by Dr. Björn von Reumont, a visiting scientist at <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>, has made significant strides in understanding this mysterious evolutionary path.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-bee-venom-evolution">Studying bee venom evolution</h2>



<p>The research, grounded in comparative genomics, marks the first systematic exploration of the evolution of bee and other hymenopteran venoms. </p>



<p>The team identified prevalent peptides and proteins in hymenopteran venom using protein databases. They then analyzed venoms from two wild bee species -- the violet carpenter bee (<em>Xylocopa violacea</em>) and the great-banded furrow-bee (<em>Halictus scabiosae</em>) -- as well as of the honeybee (<em>Apis mellifera</em>). </p>



<p>Twelve peptide and protein families were found to be common across the hymenopteran venoms studied, suggesting these are fundamental "common ingredient" of their venom cocktails.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-genetic-discoveries">Surprising genetic discoveries</h2>



<p>In collaboration with institutions like the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TUM</a>, and <a href="https://tbg.senckenberg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LOEWE TBG</a>, the researchers examined the genes of these 12 families in 32 hymenopteran taxa. </p>



<p>This group included sweat bees and stingless bees, and also wasps and ants such as the notorious fire ant (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>). The genetic differences were sometimes as minute as a single letter change in the genetic code. Nonetheless, this enabled the team to trace relationships and compile a lineage of venom genes using artificial intelligence and machine learning.</p>



<p>A key revelation was the presence of many venom genes across all hymenopterans, indicating a common ancestral origin. Bees, it seems, have been venomous from their beginnings. </p>



<p>This finding challenges current debates in other groups, such as Toxicofera, about the independent evolution of venoms. “This makes it highly probable that hymenopterans are venomous as an entire group,” concludes von Reumont. “For other groups, such as Toxicofera, which includes snakes, anguids (lizards) and iguania, science is still debating whether the venoms can be traced back to a common ancestor or whether they evolved separately.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hymenoptera-specialization">Hymenoptera specialization</h2>



<p>In the Hymenoptera order, it's specifically the stinging insects like bees, wasps, and ants that are equipped with a stinger for venom delivery. In contrast, the ancient parasitic sawflies, such as the sirex wood wasp (Sirex noctilio), employ a different method. They use their ovipositor, in conjunction with laying eggs, to introduce substances that modify the physiology of their host plants. </p>



<p>A notable example is the sirex wood wasp, which not only injects a fungus aiding its larvae in colonizing the wood but also delivers its unique blend of venomous proteins, as highlighted in the study. </p>



<p>These proteins are crucial in preparing the plant environment to be conducive for the larvae's growth. Dr. von Reumont points out, "Based on this, we can categorize the sirex wood wasp as venomous too."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-venom-components-in-bees">Novel venom components in bees</h2>



<p>Particularly intriguing was the discovery related to the peptide melittin in bees. Contrary to previous beliefs that multiple gene copies were responsible for its diversity and abundance in bee venom, the study revealed it is encoded by a single gene. </p>



<p>This discovery refutes the hypothesis of melittin belonging to the postulated aculeatoxins group, emphasizing the importance of genome data in understanding venom evolution.</p>



<p>Additionally, the study identified anthophilin-1 as a new protein family in bee venom, further enriching our understanding of venom composition and evolution.</p>



<p>Dr. von Reumont explains, “Not only are there many different variants of melittin, but the peptide also accounts for up to 60 percent of the dry weight of bee venom. That is why science previously assumed that there must be many gene copies. We were able to disprove this quite clearly.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-venom-evolution-research">Future venom evolution research</h2>



<p>This important study by Dr. von Reumont and his team offers unprecedented insights into the origin and evolution of venom genes in Hymenoptera. It sets the stage for future research in tracing venom gene evolution in the ancestors of Hymenoptera and understanding specializations within the group. </p>



<p>However, large-scale comparative genomics will require the automation of analysis methods for the expansive protein families involved. </p>



<p>This research illuminates the evolutionary paths of venoms, while also opening new avenues for understanding the intricate relationships between genetics and ecology in one of the most diverse and ecologically significant insect orders.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Which came first, bee venom or bee stingers?

Venoms, remarkable for their complexity and potency, have independently evolved...

<p>Scientists have uncovered a crucial connection between ocean oxygen levels and one of the most catastrophic marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/">extinction events</a> in Earth’s history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research not only illuminates our understanding of past global changes but also issues a stark warning about the current fragility of marine ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triassic-jurassic-mass-extinction">Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction</h2>



<p>The study was focused on the Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction, which occurred approximately 200 million years ago. This event is among the Earth's major mass extinctions, periods characterized by significant global ecosystem collapses and widespread species extinctions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Historically, these events have been closely associated with global environmental disturbances, frequently resulting in reduced oxygen levels (anoxia) in oceanic waters.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>A common hypothesis has been that greater extents of ocean deoxygenation would naturally lead to larger scale extinctions. However, the current study challenges this assumption by demonstrating that the level of euxinia (an extreme form of deoxygenation) during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction was similar to what we observe today.</p>



<p>The research team, including experts from Royal Holloway (UK), <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> (Ireland), and Utrecht University (Netherlands), analyzed chemical data extracted from ancient mudstone deposits in Northern Ireland and Germany.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The results of the analysis highlight the role of anoxia in the marine extinctions during this period. The study also reveals a surprising limitation in the global extent of extreme deoxygenation at the time.</p>



<p>The experts found a correlation between increased extinction rates and spikes in deoxygenation across shallow marine environments along European continental margins.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cautionary-tale-nbsp">Cautionary tale&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Upon further investigation, the team determined that the global extent of extreme deoxygenation was rather limited, and similar to the present day.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research serves as a cautionary tale about the current state of our oceans, suggesting that they may be more vulnerable than previously thought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study of past global change events is invaluable in understanding the consequences of modern climate change, as well as in predicting and possibly mitigating future ecosystem tipping points.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-impacts">Cascading impacts</h2>



<p>“Scientists have long suspected that ocean deoxygenation plays an important role in the disturbance of marine ecosystems, which can lead to the extinction of species in marine environments," said study co-author Professor Micha Ruhl.</p>



<p>"The study of past time intervals of extreme environmental change indeed shows this to be the case, which teaches us important lessons about potential tipping points in local, as well as global ecosystems in response to climatic forcing."</p>



<p>“Crucially however, the current findings show that even when the global extent of deoxygenation is similar to the present day, the local development of anoxic conditions and subsequent locally increased extinction rates can cascade in widespread or global ecosystem collapse and extinctions, even in areas where deoxygenation did not occur."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-ecosystem-stability-nbsp">Assessing ecosystem stability&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Professor Ruhl said the research shows that global marine ecosystems become vulnerable, even when only local environments along the edges of the continents are disturbed.</p>



<p>"Understanding such processes is of paramount importance for assessing present day ecosystem stability, and associated food supply, especially in a world where marine deoxygenation is projected to significantly increase in response to global warming and increased nutrient run-off from continents.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01303-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a></p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Today's ocean oxygen levels may have cascading impacts

Scientists have uncovered a crucial connection between ocean oxygen levels...

<p>In a recent development hailed as a conservation success, bluefin tuna have made a remarkable return to Northern European waters. This resurgence, however, is shadowed by concerns over rising sea temperatures in their Mediterranean nursery grounds. </p>



<p>New research led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> suggests that this recovery may be fleeting due to the impending climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-rising-temperatures">Impact of rising temperatures</h2>



<p>According to the research, the Mediterranean Sea is expected to reach temperatures that could drive juvenile bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tunas-billfishes-and-sharks-are-sentinels-of-global-ocean-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> out within the next 50 years. </p>



<p>Professor Clive Trueman is the lead author and a Geochemical Ecology expert at the University of Southampton. He emphasized the critical temperature threshold, saying, “We have found that anything over 28 degrees Celsius will adversely impact bluefins’ growth.”</p>



<p>The study predicts a potential shift in the tuna's nursery areas to cooler regions like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/desert-dust-over-the-bay-of-biscay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay of Biscay</a>. This migration poses a new challenge as juvenile tuna might end up in existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fisheries-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a> for sardines and anchovies. This confluence of events would necessitate a change in fishery management practices.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-use-of-otolith">Innovative use of otolith</h2>



<p>An international team, including the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> and Spain's <a href="https://www.azti.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AZTI</a> science and technology centre, used a novel method involving the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/bluefin-tuna-otolith_credit-Clive-Trueman_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otolith</a> -- a tissue found behind the brains of bony fish. </p>



<p>This method was pioneered by Professor Trueman. It analyzes the otolith's chemistry to measure the tuna’s metabolic rate, offering insights into the ideal living conditions for these fish.</p>



<p>The otolith, or 'ear stone', is crucial for a fish’s ability to hear and balance. Professor Trueman explained its significance, saying, “Our new work uses variations in the levels of natural stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen in the otolith to reveal each tuna’s individual metabolic rate. This can tell us when waters are getting too hot for the fish to handle - it’s like a natural fitness tracker.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluefin-tuna-value">Bluefin tuna value</h2>



<p>Bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-payment-tuna-ocean-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> are among the largest and most powerful fish in the sea. They are capable of impressive speeds, leaping out of the water at 43 miles per hour. These fish are not just ecologically significant but also economically valuable, with their meat being a prized component in sushi and sashimi.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-pinpoint-blue-corridors-for-large-migratory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> spawns on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, with Eastern Atlantic bluefin spending their first year in the Mediterranean. Upon reaching maturity, they venture into the Atlantic. Bluefin will often cross the ocean in search of prey like sardines and herring, before returning to the Mediterranean to spawn.</p>



<p>In summary, the return of bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-in-bluefin-tuna-reveal-patterns-of-ocean-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> to Northern European waters is a testament to successful conservation efforts. However, the looming threat of climate change, specifically the rising temperatures in their Mediterranean nursery grounds, presents new challenges. </p>



<p>This research highlights, most importantly, the resilience of bluefin tuna. However, it also underscores the need for adaptive management in fisheries and a deeper understanding of the impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-improve-well-being-in-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bluefin-tuna">More about bluefin tuna</h2>



<p>As discussed previously, bluefin tuna are one of the ocean's most magnificent creatures. They command the attention of environmentalists, fishermen, and seafood connoisseurs alike. Let's now delve into their biology, behavior, and the challenges they face in today's oceans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-and-characteristics">Biology and characteristics</h3>



<p>Impressive Size and Speed -- Bluefin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tuna-contain-toxic-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> stand out for their size and speed. They can grow up to three meters in length and weigh over 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds). Known for their incredible speed, they swim at bursts of up to 70 kilometers per hour (43 miles per hour), as mentioned above.</p>



<p>Unique Physiological Traits -- These fish possess several unique physiological adaptations. Unlike most fish, bluefins can regulate their body temperature, allowing them to thrive in diverse water temperatures. Their streamlined bodies and powerful tails make them highly efficient swimmers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-migration-patterns">Habitat and migration patterns</h3>



<p>Diverse Habitats -- Bluefin tuna inhabit various oceanic environments. They primarily roam the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, with distinct populations in the Eastern and Western Atlantic.</p>



<p>Long-Distance Migrations -- These fish are renowned for their long-distance migrations, crossing oceans for feeding and spawning. Western Atlantic bluefins migrate between North American waters and the Gulf of Mexico, while Eastern Atlantic populations travel between European waters and their spawning grounds in the Mediterranean.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluefin-tuna-diet-and-feeding-habits">Bluefin tuna diet and feeding habits</h3>



<p>Predatory Nature -- Bluefin tuna are apex predators, feeding on a diet rich in fish and cephalopods. Their preferred prey includes herring, mackerel, and squid. They hunt both individually and in schools, showcasing impressive coordination.</p>



<p>Foraging Strategies -- Bluefins employ various foraging strategies, from swift, powerful attacks to cooperative hunting in groups. Their keen eyesight and heightened sense of smell aid in locating prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-life-cycle">Reproduction and life cycle</h3>



<p>Spawning Rituals -- Bluefin tuna spawn in warm waters, typically in the Mediterranean Sea for the Eastern Atlantic population. Spawning occurs annually, with females releasing millions of eggs, ensuring a higher chance of survival for the offspring.</p>



<p>Growth and Development -- Young bluefins grow rapidly, a necessity for survival in the competitive oceanic environment. They reach sexual maturity at around 3-5 years, embarking on their first spawning migrations.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status-and-threats">Conservation status and threats</h3>



<p>Overfishing and Population Decline -- Bluefin tuna face significant threats from overfishing. Their high market value, particularly for sushi and sashimi, has led to intense fishing pressure, causing a stark decline in their populations.</p>



<p>Environmental Challenges -- As mentioned previously in this article, climate change and pollution also pose grave threats to bluefin tuna. Changes in ocean temperatures affect their spawning grounds and migration patterns, while pollution impacts their health and the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p>In summary, bluefin tuna are not only a seafood delicacy, they are integral to the marine ecosystem. Understanding their biology, behavior, and the challenges they face is crucial for their conservation. </p>



<p>Efforts to manage fisheries sustainably and address environmental issues are vital to ensure the survival of these magnificent creatures for future generations.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41930-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Bluefin tuna, a sushi delicacy, will likely be extinct within 50 years

In a recent development hailed as a conservation success, bluefin...

<p>A biotech firm based in San Francisco (<a href="https://loyalfordogs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loyal</a>), is making strides in the development of a drug that could potentially increase the lifespan of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-small-dogs-live-longer-than-large-breeds/">dogs</a> by at least one year. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Food and Drug Administration for Veterinary Medicine</a> recently affirmed that the data for Loyal’s drug candidate, LOY-001, shows promising signs of effectiveness. This advancement brings the possibility of veterinarians prescribing this longevity drug to our canine companions a step closer to reality.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-dog-breeds-nbsp">Large dog breeds&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Slated for a 2026 launch, LOY-001 is designed to specifically target cellular mechanisms in large and giant dog breeds. These breeds, known for their rapid aging and shorter lifespans compared to smaller breeds, could benefit significantly from this intervention.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The extreme phenotypic variety found in dogs is not ‘natural’ - it’s the result of intensive breeding by humans to create dogs that excelled at tasks such as herding, protection, and companionship,” explained Brennen McKenzie, Loyal’s director of veterinary medicine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-the-drug-work">How does the drug work?</h2>



<p>The drug operates by addressing the genetic anomaly of increased IGF-1 levels, a growth-promoting hormone, which is believed to curtail the lifespan of larger dogs. Studies indicate that larger dogs have IGF-1 levels up to 28 times higher than those of smaller breeds. LOY-001 seeks to reduce these levels, thereby potentially extending the healthy life of larger dogs.</p>



<p>Loyal’s research indicates that this innovative drug development could offer hope in extending the lifespan and healthspan of large dogs by targeting mechanisms associated with their accelerated aging. The drug, if approved, would be administered by vets as an injection every three to six months, but only for dogs that are seven years or older and weigh at least 40 pounds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-implications-nbsp">Research implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Loyal is also working on other products like LOY-002, a daily pill for medium to giant breeds, and LOY-003, targeting large and giant breeds only. Celine Halioua, Loyal’s CEO, envisions that this is just the beginning, with potential implications for human longevity as well. “We are not going to make 80-year-old dogs,” Halioua stated, emphasizing the realistic goals of their research.</p>



<p>Inspired by her experience in an oncology clinic at 18, Halioua was moved to tackle aging in dogs. “Feeling that lack of freewill, that lack of ability to control your destiny when it comes to your health completely freaked me out,” she said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-trial-phase">Clinical trial phase</h2>



<p>Currently, Loyal is in the "companion dog clinical study" phase, conducting large-scale nationwide studies to evaluate the drug’s safety and efficacy in real-world veterinary settings. With over 1,000 dogs across the US participating in this four-year study, Loyal aims to conduct thorough testing before seeking FDA approval for prescription use.</p>



<p>Loyal, a subsidiary of Cellular Longevity, a San Francisco-based biotech firm, focuses on researching how drugs can control pathological aging mechanisms to prolong life. This endeavor to delay the onset and reduce the severity of age-related diseases could mark a significant advancement in veterinary medicine and beyond.</p>



<p>Like what you<em> read?</em> <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Want to extend your dog's lifespan? A new drug shows promise

A biotech firm based in San Francisco (Loyal), is making...

A,Male,Asian,Elephant,Is,Enjoying,Bathing.

<p>Researchers have recently shed light on how ancestral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-understanding-celebrating-and-protecting-earths-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> developed their dexterous trunks, a significant evolutionary adaptation. The study offers valuable insights into the feeding behaviors of extinct longirostrine elephantiforms -- elephant-like mammals known for their elongated lower jaws and tusks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-longirostrine-gomphotheres">Evolution of longirostrine gomphotheres</h2>



<p>Longirostrine gomphotheres, part of the proboscidean family, are known for their prolonged evolutionary phase featuring an exceptionally elongated lower jaw. </p>



<p>This fascinating study was crucial for understanding the dynamics behind the evolution of the extended lower jaw and lengthy trunks in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-may-be-the-first-non-human-animals-to-call-each-other-by-names/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a>-like animals. Longirostrine gomphotheres lived during the Miocene epoch, approximately 11-20 million years ago.</p>



<p>“During the Early to Middle Miocene, gomphotheres flourished across Northern China,” says lead author Dr. Chunxiao Li, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://english.ucas.ac.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, Beijing, China.</p>



<p>The research offers persuasive proof of the variety in these "trunk" features among longirostrine gomphotheres, as well as their probable adaptive responses to worldwide climate shifts.</p>



<p>Li continued, “Across species there was huge diversity in the structure of the long mandible. We sought to explain why proboscideans evolved the long mandible and why it subsequently regressed. We also wanted to explore the role of the trunk in these animals’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-do-elephants-eat-study-shows-they-have-unique-dietary-preferences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feeding behaviors</a>, and the environmental background for the co-evolution of their mandibles and trunks.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-elephant-trunk-evolution">Studying elephant trunk evolution</h2>



<p>Li and colleagues employed comparative functional and eco-morphological investigations, along with a feeding preference analysis. From this, they reconstructed the feeding behavior of three major families of longirostrine gomphotheres: <em>Amebelodontidae</em>, <em>Choerolophodontidae</em>, and <em>Gomphotheriidae</em>. </p>



<p>Examining crania and lower jaws from different museums revealed variations in mandible and tusk structures, indicating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-have-taught-themselves-to-peel-bananas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse appetites</a>.</p>



<p>The team’s analysis of enamel isotopes helped identify the ecological niches of the three families. <em>Choerolophodontidae</em> lived in relatively closed environments. <em>Amebelodontidae</em> family members, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/elephant_Playtybelodon_trunk_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Platybelodon</a>, inhabited open habitats like grasslands. Finally, <em>Gomphotheriidae</em> occupied a niche between these environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-elephant-trunk-evolution">Implications of elephant trunk evolution</h2>



<p>A Finite Element analysis provided insights into the advantages and disadvantages of mandible and tusk structures among the three family groups. This effort revealed specializations for cutting different types of vegetation.</p>



<p>The study also found variations in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-behavior-provides-new-insights-into-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary stages</a> of the trunk among these families. Additionally, they uncovered implications for their feeding abilities and ecological adaptations. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-use-trunks-count/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trunk's development</a> paralleled the mandible's evolution, indicating a co-evolutionary relationship.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the Mid-Miocene Climate Transition, which led to regional drying and expansion of open ecosystems, had a significant impact on these species. The study suggests that Platybelodon's coiling and grasping trunk allowed it to thrive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-asian-elephants-exhibit-strong-capacity-for-innovation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open environments</a>. This trait is not developed in other trunk-bearing animals like tapirs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-elephant-trunk-research">Further elephant trunk research</h2>



<p>Co-author Ji Zhang is associate professor of structural engineering at <a href="https://english.hust.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huazhong University of Science and Technology</a>, Wuhan, China. Zhang highlights the importance of using modern computational mechanics and statistics in paleontological research, bringing a cross-disciplinary approach to understanding these ancient creatures.</p>



<p>“Our cross-disciplinary team is dedicated to introducing multiple quantitative research methods to explore paleontology,” says Zhang. “Modern computational mechanics and statistics have injected new vitality into traditional fossil research.”</p>



<p>The main limitation in their research is the lack of comparison with the development of gigantism and long limbs in proboscideans from the same period. Further analysis could enhance understanding of how changing feeding behaviors related to differences in body shapes and sizes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-journey-of-proboscideans">Evolutionary journey of proboscideans</h2>



<p><a href="http://sourcedb.ivpp.cas.cn/yw/rckyw/index_2.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Shi-Qi Wang</a> is the senior author and professor at the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He concludes that multiple eco-adaptations contributed to the diverse mandibular structure in proboscideans. The elongated mandible initially served as the primary feeding organ, paving the way for the development of the long trunk. </p>



<p>“Our findings demonstrate that multiple eco-adaptations have contributed to the diverse mandibular structure found in proboscideans,” concludes Wang. “Initially, the elongated mandible served as the primary feeding organ in proboscideans, and was a prerequisite for the development of the extremely long trunk. Open-land grazing drove the development of trunk coiling and grasping functions, and the trunk then became the primary tool for feeding, leading to the gradual loss of the long mandible. In particular, <em>Platybelodons</em> may have been the first proboscidean to evolve this grazing behavior.”</p>



<p>The evolution of open-land grazing led to the modern day elephant trunk becoming the primary tool used for feeding. Over time, this adaptation resulted in the gradual loss of the long mandible. Platybelodons may represent the first proboscideans to evolve this grazing behavior. </p>



<p>In summary, today's elephants use these versatile organs for a myriad of tasks, including breathing, communicating, grasping objects, and drinking. They have millions of years of evolution to thank for their amazing and iconic trunks. </p>



<p>The full study was published in <em><a href="https://elifesciences.org/for-the-press/62f7502a/how-shifting-climates-may-have-shaped-early-elephants-trunks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife Sciences</a></em>.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

How elephants got their incredible iconic trunks

Researchers have recently shed light on how ancestral elephants developed...

<p>A study led by <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> PhD student Paige Van de Vuurst has recently shed light on the alarming prospect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vampire-bats-deadly-bacteria/">vampire bats </a>extending their habitat into the United States, potentially bringing with them an ancient and deadly pathogen - rabies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This migration, driven by climate change, poses a significant threat to both public health and the agricultural sector, particularly the cattle industry.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-rabies-cases">Climate change and rabies cases</h2>



<p>The research points to a direct correlation between climate-induced shifts in vampire bat distribution and rising rabies cases across Latin America.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“What we found was that the distribution of vampire bats has moved northward across time due to past climate change, which has corresponded with an increase in rabies cases in many Latin American countries,” she explained, highlighting the urgency of the situation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-field-study-nbsp">Comprehensive field study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research team, including both undergraduate and graduate students, embarked on a comprehensive field study in Colombia, collaborating with local universities such as the <a href="https://www.lasalle.edu.co/">University of La Salle</a>, <a href="https://www.udistrital.edu.co/inicio">Universidad Distrital</a>, and <a href="http://www.ut.edu.co/">Universidad del Tolima</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The journey took the researchers across diverse landscapes, from the humid jungles to the cooler regions of the Andes Mountains, accessible only by cable car. This allowed them to gather a wide array of bat samples, observing firsthand how climate variations influence disease dynamics in these mammals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-laboratory">A natural laboratory&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The significance of Colombia as a research site was underscored by Luis Escobar, assistant professor at Virginia Tech and a co-author in the study.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Colombia is a mega-diverse country, making it a perfect natural laboratory,” said Escobar. The country has a large number of hummingbirds and bats, due to its tropical climate and proximity to the equator.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research aimed to bridge knowledge gaps regarding rabies transmission and its spillover from wildlife to humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts set out to determine habitat and virus mutation roles in rabies spillover, identify the effects of changes in biodiversity on the virus, and investigate factors influencing the spread of bat-borne diseases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-international-field-work-nbsp">International field work&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the most notable aspects of this research was the involvement of undergraduate students, a rarity in international field work.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Van de Vuurst expressed concern about the current state of wildlife research, where students often bear the cost of gaining field experience. She emphasized the importance of providing fully funded opportunities for students.</p>



<p>“There is a sad reality in wildlife research at the moment that often mandates a ‘pay to play’ mentality, where students must pay for the experience of doing field work, especially international field work.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformative-experience-nbsp">Transformative experience&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Julia Alexander, an undergraduate participant, reflected on her experience, sharing the profound impact it had on her both professionally and personally.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“I not only learned valuable field skills for my career, but also important life lessons from every challenge faced,” she said. The experience was transformative, marking her first field research, plane journey, and international travel.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



<p>The study’s findings are crucial in understanding the spread of vampire bats and the associated rabies risk. As these bats extend their range due to changing climates, it becomes imperative to monitor and prepare for their potential arrival in the United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research not only provides vital data on bat migration patterns and disease transmission but also highlights the importance of cross-border collaboration in addressing global health and environmental challenges.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We all have one goal: generating samples, new data, and new knowledge,” concluded Escobar, underscoring the collaborative spirit driving this significant research endeavor.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.06714" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Ecography</em></a>.</p>



<p>Like what you<em> read?</em> <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Rabies-infected vampire bats may extend their habitat into the U.S.

A study led by Virginia Tech PhD student Paige Van...

Monk,Parakeet,Welcoming,The,Spring

<p>A recent study led by Stephen Tyndel, a doctoral student at the<a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/ding" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>, has revealed fascinating insights into the communication patterns of monk parakeets, an invasive parrot species in Europe. The research focuses on the development of unique dialects among these birds, mirroring the regional linguistic variations found in human populations.</p>



<p>Europe is home to no native parrot species. Despite that significant fact, several species, including the monk parakeet, have established thriving populations after escaping from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/escaped-parrots-new-homes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet trade</a>. </p>



<p>Originating from South America, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monk-parakeets-lose-social-standing-if-they-take-long-vacations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parakeets</a> are now abundant in numerous European countries. They stand out for their highly flexible vocal abilities, capable of imitating and learning new sounds throughout their lives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-monk-parakeet-voices">Studying monk parakeet voices</h2>



<p>To explore the possibility of regional dialects among monk parakeets, the researchers recorded these birds in eight cities across Spain, Belgium, Italy, and Greece. The aim was to determine if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-have-a-unique-voice-print-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrot calls</a> varied not only between different cities but also within them, across various parks.</p>



<p>Stephen Tyndel explains, “Monk parakeets are the perfect test tube for studying how complex communication evolves in a species other than our own.” The study, employing a novel statistical method, found that monk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/longevity-in-parrots-linked-to-brain-size-and-cognitive-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parakeets</a> indeed have distinct dialects in each city. </p>



<p>Simeon Smeele is a co-lead author of the study and an affiliate scientist at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Smeele notes significant differences in the frequency modulation structure of contact calls. This is particularly challenging for human detection.</p>



<p>However, within individual cities, no dialectical variations were observed between different parks. “This suggests that parrot dialects separated early when birds invaded European cities, but then didn’t significantly change further over this time period,” Tyndel adds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-surprises">Implications and surprises</h2>



<p>The research outcomes were unexpected. Tyndel reflects on the formation of dialects, suggesting they could result from a passive process where small errors in copying calls lead to gradual differences between cities. Alternatively, initial differences might have been maintained over time.</p>



<p>The team also considers the possibility of active processes shaping dialects for social communication purposes. This would include recognizing group mates within highly clustered nest environments. Smeele proposes, “We think that dialects could be used to communicate who is part of what nest cluster, like a password.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monk-parakeets-and-future-research">Monk parakeets and future research</h2>



<p>The next step for the research team involves understanding how individual monk parakeets learn from each other. In addition, if smaller groups exhibit distinct dialects within the same park. This exploration will deepen our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-intelligence-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrot</a> communication and shed light on the broader context of complex communication in both humans and animals. </p>



<p>As Tyndel concludes, “This will add to our understanding of parrot communication and provide insights into the ways in which complex communication is linked to the complex social lives of humans and animals.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-european-monk-parakeets">More about European monk parakeets</h2>



<p>Monk parakeets, a species native to South America, have become an increasingly common sight in various European countries. Their journey from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-red-crowned-parrots-are-thriving-in-urban-texas-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare pets</a> to established wild populations provides a unique perspective on wildlife adaptation and urban ecology.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-and-introduction">Origin and introduction</h3>



<p>Originally from the temperate and subtropical regions of South America, monk parakeets are known for their distinctive green plumage and sociable nature.</p>



<p>The monk parakeet's presence in Europe began primarily through the pet trade. Escapes and intentional releases by pet owners in the late 20th century led to the formation of feral populations across the continent.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-across-europe">Spread across Europe</h3>



<p>These birds have established significant populations in countries like Spain, Italy, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. They are particularly prevalent in urban and suburban areas, where they find ample food and nesting opportunities.</p>



<p>Despite originating from a warmer climate, monk parakeets have shown remarkable adaptability to the varied European climates. They thrive even in regions with colder temperatures.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-impact">Ecological impact</h3>



<p>In their new European habitats, monk parakeets compete with native birds for food and nesting sites. Their robust nature often gives them an advantage in these competitions.</p>



<p>Environmentalists express concerns about the potential impact of these invasive birds on local ecosystems and biodiversity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-and-communication">Behavior and communication</h3>



<p>Monk parakeets are highly social, living in large, noisy colonies. They build intricate communal nests, which are often reused year after year.</p>



<p>As mentioned above, recent studies have revealed that European populations of monk parakeets have developed unique vocal dialects. This indicates a high level of adaptability and learning in new environments.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-management">Challenges and management</h3>



<p>Several European countries have initiated efforts to control monk parakeet populations, ranging from nest removal to more comprehensive management plans.</p>



<p>The management of monk parakeets raises legal and ethical questions, balancing conservation efforts with animal welfare concerns.</p>



<p>In summary, the story of monk parakeets in Europe is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of wildlife. It also serves as a reminder of the complex consequences of human interference in natural ecosystems. </p>



<p>As these vibrant birds continue to make their mark on European landscapes, ongoing research and informed management strategies will be crucial in addressing the challenges they pose.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/advance-article/doi/10.1093/beheco/arad093/7444942" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behavioral Ecology</a></em>.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Monk parakeets have different voice ‘accents’ that mirror humans

A recent study led by Stephen Tyndel, a doctoral student...

Anthemiphyllia macrolobata

Taxonomic tree: