Phyllidiopsis cardinalis

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">Humpback whales</a> have been engaging in a unique behavior involving seaweed. Experts believe that whales are not just using seaweed for play, but also for its antibacterial properties.</p>



<p>This intriguing behavior is documented in a paper by Dr. Olaf Meynecke of Griffith University. The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11091802"><em>Journal of Marine Science and Engineering</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sand-scrubs-nbsp">Sand scrubs&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In previous work, Dr. Meynecke described whales rolling in sandy substrates off the Gold Coast during their migration, presumably to shed dead skin cells and parasites.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelping-nbsp">Kelping&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The new paper delves into another understudied behavior displayed by baleen whales, including humpbacks, across various populations in the northern and southern hemispheres. The whales have been seen frolicking and rolling around with clumps of kelp and seaweed at the water’s surface.</p>



<p>According to Dr. Meynecke, the behavior was similar in different individuals, regardless of where in the world it occurred.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For the investigation, three instances of "kelping" behavior on Australia's east coast were scrutinized through aerial observations, alongside 100 other documented seaweed interactions worldwide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These interactions involved 163 baleen whales with the majority being humpbacks (in 95 separate events), followed by gray whales, southern right whales, and northern right whales.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behaviors-nbsp">Complex behaviors&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The use of objects by cetaceans like baleen whales is well known, and their ability to interact with their environment in complex behaviors has been previously reported on,” said Dr. Meynecke. “But baleen whales, including humpback whales, are less often observed to perform object use, and this behavior might be more common than previously thought."&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There are two plausible theories: play and/or self-medication with seaweed. This behavior may be playful but could also serve additional benefits in the context of learning and socialising, as well as ectoparasite removal and skin treatment by using brown algae’s antibacterial properties.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Meynecke emphasizes that recognizing this behavior across various whale populations is crucial for understanding the species’ habitat preferences. It also sheds light on the intricate behaviors of whales, about which there is still much to discover.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-behavior-among-whales">Playful behavior among whales</h2>



<p>Whales, despite their immense size, often engage in playful behavior, demonstrating both their intelligence and their social nature.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaching">Breaching</h3>



<p>One of the most dramatic and easily noticeable behaviors, a breach involves the whale leaping out of the water and then crashing back down with a splash. It's believed this may help to dislodge parasites or simply be a form of play.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tail-slapping">Tail slapping</h3>



<p>Whales might slap their tails (flukes) on the water's surface. This can serve as a form of communication, a way to stun prey, or even just play.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spyhopping">Spyhopping</h3>



<p>This is when a whale vertically pokes its head out of the water to take a look around, possibly to scout its surroundings.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lobtailing">Lobtailing</h3>



<p>Similar to tail slapping, but the whale will stick its tail out of the water and wave it around before smacking it down.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-log-rolling">Log rolling</h3>



<p>Whales, especially young ones, are sometimes observed rolling around in the water, which can be a playful activity or a way to dislodge parasites.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playing-with-seaweed">Playing with seaweed</h3>



<p>Some whales have been observed playing with seaweed, passing it between their fins or tossing it around.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interacting-with-other-species">Interacting with other species</h3>



<p>Whales are known to occasionally interact playfully with other marine animals, such as dolphins. For example, orcas (killer whales) and dolphins have been seen playing together, chasing each other, and even sliding on each other's wakes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bubble-blowing">Bubble blowing</h3>



<p>Some whales will release a stream of bubbles as they swim, which could serve various purposes including hunting, communication, or simply play.</p>



<p>The reasons behind these behaviors aren't always clear and could be a combination of play, communication, and practical necessity. Nevertheless, these playful activities offer a glimpse into the complex social and cognitive lives of these magnificent marine mammals.</p>



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Whales play with seaweed and roll in its antibacterial properties

Humpback whales have been engaging in a unique behavior involving...

<p>During a recent deep-sea dive off the coast of Hawaii, scientists encountered a rare and mesmerizing ocean creature known as the “Dumbo octopus."&nbsp;</p>



<p>This remarkable sighting occurred approximately a mile below the ocean's surface, on an unnamed seamount located within the <a href="https://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papahānaumokuākea</a> Marine National Monument.</p>



<p>The expedition was funded by the <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/video/2023/09/27/cute-dumbo-octopus-eyes-rov-hercules">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association</a> (NOAA).&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dumbo-octopus">Dumbo octopus</h2>



<p>The Dumbo octopus, also known as Grimpoteuthis, belongs to the umbrella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">octopus</a> family. The nickname "Dumbo" comes from its resemblance to the character in Disney's 1941 film, due to the prominent ear-like fins situated on top of its head. The octopus utilizes these fins to gracefully propel itself through the water, as it searches for food.</p>



<p>The Dumbo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus</a> is usually found in the deep waters of the central Pacific at depths ranging from 1,300 to 13,000 feet. However, some of these intriguing animals have been found as deep as 23,000 feet.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Because they live in such deep, dark environments, their coloration can vary, often appearing in shades of red, pink, brown, or white.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-footage-nbsp">Fascinating footage&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The footage of the Dumbo octopus was captured by the Exploration Vessel (E/V) Nautilus, providing a unique opportunity to observe the creature as it effortlessly drifts in the ocean's depths.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="9KGzHmAd5J-3029266-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>The crew aboard the E/V Nautilus was fortunate enough to witness not just one, but five of these creatures in a single night.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-beautiful-experience">A beautiful experience</h2>



<p>Jaina Galves, a video engineer intern who played a role in this discovery, shared her excitement about the experience.</p>



<p>“Each time, you’re kind of just roaming around with the ROV,” said Galves. “Somebody’s like, wait, what is that in the corner, and then everybody starts to gasp, everybody starts to freak out. And everybody’s like Dumbo octopus!"</p>



<p>"So we take the ROV over, we go, and we follow them. They move very slowly and very gracefully, so we get to follow them for quite a while.”</p>



<p>“It depends on what we’re doing and how long we can hang out. But for one of them, we just got to stay for quite a while. Just watched it kind of glide through the water, and it was beautiful.”</p>



<p>Galves told ABC News: “When I saw it on the screen, I couldn’t even say anything. My jaw was just on the floor.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique characteristics</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



<p>Overall, scientists have discovered more than a dozen species of dumbo octopuses. The largest individual captured on film was nearly six feet long, according to the environmental group Oceana, but most are much smaller, with an average length of 8 to 12 inches.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Dumbo octopuses are characterized by their unique umbrella-shaped appearance when their arms are spread. They possess a soft, gelatinous body, which is an adaptation to the deep-sea environment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-octopuses-smart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> feed on crustaceans, benthic worms, and other small organisms found on the ocean floor. They often swallow their prey whole.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Unlike many other octopus species, Dumbo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-octopuses-dream-a-recent-study-shows-octopuses-sleep-is-very-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> do not have a defined breeding season. They can lay eggs at any time, and the young are developed enough to survive on their own immediately after hatching. While their exact lifespan is unknown, it is believed to be about 3 to 5 years.</p>



<p>The species is known for its gentle and passive demeanor, and since it inhabits regions difficult for humans to access, it has not been extensively studied, and much about it remains a mystery.</p>



<p>The E/V Nautilus, owned by the nonprofit organization <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Exploration Trust</a>, is currently exploring the expansive Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. This protected marine area spans over 500,000 square miles in the Pacific, making it larger than all U.S. national parks combined.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Video and image credit: NOAA Ocean Exploration via the Ocean Exploration Cooperative Institute</p>



<p>---</p>



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<p>.</p>

Rare and ghostly "Dumbo octopus" captured on film and video in Hawaii

During a recent deep-sea dive off the coast of Hawaii,...

<p>In a recent study, scientists from the University of Florida have unveiled the mysterious process of how hammerhead sharks, renowned for their peculiar head shape, undergo dramatic changes during their gestation. </p>



<p>“This is a look at how monsters form,” said Gareth Fraser, a UF professor of Biology who supervised the new study. “This is an insight into the development of a wonder of nature that we haven’t seen before and may not be able to see again.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-transformations-nbsp">Surprising transformations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research highlighted the surprising transformations that bonnethead shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-birds-can-learn-sounds-before-birth/">embryos</a>, a species of hammerhead, experience during their growth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Approximately mid-gestation, these two-inch-long embryos begin to widen their heads drastically. This expansion pushes their developing eyes outwards, creating an eerie and unnatural appearance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Subsequently, the front of this "hammer" shape continues to evolve, moving backward toward the gills until it takes on a shovel-like form. A few months post this transformation, a foot-long shark emerges into the world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Steven Byrum, a graduate student, teamed up with Professor Fraser to lead this detailed investigation of bonnetheads, which are abundant in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Given their proximity to the shore, bonnetheads provide a unique opportunity for study.</p>



<p>What makes this study even more remarkable is the inherent challenges in studying the development of hammerheads. Unlike many fish and sharks that lay eggs, which can be studied in a controlled lab environment, hammerheads give birth to live young.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This natural process, combined with the endangered status of many shark species, prevents the harvesting of sharks for developmental research. To conduct this study without causing harm to additional sharks, Fraser’s team utilized preserved embryos from bonnetheads obtained during other biological research endeavors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-opportunity-nbsp">Unique opportunity&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"It’s the perfect qualities of the bonnethead that allowed us to do it with this species," said Byrum. "This was a unique opportunity we may not be able to get for very much longer with bonnetheads and may not be able to get in any other species of hammerhead.”</p>



<p>The study was a collaborative effort that involved Gavin Naylor, director of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the Florida Museum of Natural History, as well as scientists from the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Florida State University.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This documentation now paves the way for future experiments. The researchers hope to uncover the mechanisms that govern the hammerhead's head shape evolution and to decipher the evolutionary reasons behind their unique features, which are believed to enhance their visual field and ability to detect the electrical movements of their prey.</p>



<p>"Documenting the development of hard-to-access vertebrates, like this viviparous shark species, offers important information about how new and diverse morphologies arise that otherwise may remain poorly studied," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>"This work will serve as a platform for future comparative developmental research both within sharks and across the phylogeny of vertebrates, underpinning the extreme potential of craniofacial development and morphological diversity in vertebrate animals."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-hammerhead-sharks-nbsp">More about hammerhead sharks&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hammerhead sharks are a distinctive group of sharks known for their unique, hammer-like head shape which is called a "cephalofoil." This unusual structure provides them with several advantages in their marine environment:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species">Species</h3>



<p>There are nine recognized species of hammerhead sharks, including the well-known great hammerhead, scalloped hammerhead, and the bonnethead. Each species varies in size, habitat, and behavior.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cephalofoil">Cephalofoil</h4>



<p>The hammer-shaped head improves their maneuverability, allowing them to make sharp turns quickly.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes">Eyes</h4>



<p>Their eyes are positioned on the ends of the cephalofoil, providing a wide field of vision and improved depth perception.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h4>



<p>Hammerheads range in size, with smaller species like the bonnethead measuring around 3 to 4 feet long, while larger species like the great hammerhead can grow up to 20 feet.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Hammerhead sharks are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. They typically prefer temperatures ranging from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius (68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



<p>Some species, like the scalloped hammerhead, often swim in schools, which is unusual for most shark species.</p>



<p>Despite their occasional schooling behavior, hammerheads usually hunt alone, using their cephalofoil to scan the ocean floor for prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Hammerheads primarily feed on fish, including other sharks, as well as squid, octopus, and crustaceans. Their wide-set eyes give them a better visual range to locate prey, while the cephalofoil assists in trapping stingrays, one of their favorite meals, against the seafloor.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



<p>Many species of hammerhead sharks are classified as endangered or vulnerable due to overfishing and the global shark fin trade. Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect these unique and important marine predators, including establishing shark sanctuaries and implementing fishing regulations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h2>



<p>As mentioned previously, hammerheads give birth to live young. Depending on the species, a female can give birth to a litter ranging from 6 to 42 pups every two years.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-behavior">Hunting behavior</h3>



<p>The cephalofoil is also believed to house a large number of electroreceptors, allowing hammerhead sharks to effectively detect the electrical signals emitted by other marine organisms, making them highly efficient predators.</p>



<p>Understanding and protecting hammerhead sharks is crucial due to their role in maintaining the health and balance of their marine ecosystems. The study by the University of Florida offers valuable insights into their developmental process, adding to the body of knowledge necessary for their conservation and management.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.658" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Developmental Dynamics</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Making a monster: The bizarre development of hammerhead sharks

In a recent study, scientists from the University of Florida...

<p>As our planet faces escalating challenges from global warming, a group of international scientists will be recruiting a surprising ally in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/">greenhouse emissions</a>: the cow.&nbsp;</p>



<p>At the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, experts in animal sciences are launching a novel venture aimed at cutting methane emissions due to rumen fermentation in beef and dairy cattle.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-cattle">Greener cattle</h2>



<p>Spanning three years and backed by a $3.2-million budget, this undertaking falls under the umbrella of the <a href="https://foundationfar.org/consortia/greener-cattle-initiative/">Greener Cattle Initiative</a>, which is backed by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR).</p>



<p>Research data indicates that taking on methane might be a faster route to addressing climate issues than solely focusing on carbon dioxide (CO2). Methane’s heat-trapping ability is 28 times stronger than CO2’s, but it exits the atmosphere in roughly a dozen years, while CO2 can linger for centuries.</p>



<p>“What this means is that anything we do now with ruminant animals can have a huge impact on warming within decades, rather than centuries. Our challenge is to reduce enteric methane emissions by about 30 to 40 percent with the technologies we have,” said project leader Rod Mackie, a professor in the Department of Animal Sciences at U of I.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Connecting six research centers globally, this project zeroes in on enteric methane – a byproduct of microbial fermentation in the rumen. As a part of this strategy, Mackie and his colleagues aim to examine hydrogen’s role during fermentation.</p>



<p>During the fermentation process, the recycling of an energy-rich molecule, NADH, stands out. For the uninterrupted generation of energy, NADH must release its hydrogen and anticipate a replacement from the decomposition of carbohydrates. Generally, NADH’s surplus hydrogen aids in turning CO2 into methane. Yet, the scientists speculate that there are alternatives to use this type of hydrogen.</p>



<p>“In anaerobic fermentation in the rumen, you have to have some way of recycling hydrogen through the conversion of NADH to NAD. In that process, most of the excess hydrogen goes towards methane. If you shut down methane production, hydrogen builds up and inhibits glycolysis,” Mackie explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We don’t want that to happen. Instead, we want to redirect hydrogen into other products, such as propionate and butyrate, reduced fatty acids that serve as the primary energy source for all ruminants.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-reduction">Methane reduction</h2>



<p>“There are a lot of groups working on inhibiting methane directly using dietary additives. Our focus is trying to figure out how we actually make it work in an animal and make it more energetically feasible. That’s really been the missing piece,” added Josh McCann, an assistant professor of Animal Sciences at the same university, who will also be involved in the project.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“If cows can’t metabolize the excess hydrogens for productive benefit and to improve growth, there will continue to be limited adoption of methane reduction strategies or additives. There’s no economic incentive.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-communities-nbsp">Microbial communities&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team’s strategy begins in the lab through a thorough investigation of hydrogen production and its utilization. By examining rumen microbial communities from diverse cattle, the researchers aim to uncover potential tweaks using inhibitor compounds. Their findings will eventually be tested on cattle.</p>



<p>“Most of the grant is focused on the basic and the mechanistic side, but once we make something that might work within a microbial community, it still has to work in an animal,” McCann explained.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-inhibitor-nbsp">Methane inhibitor&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We have complicating factors like diet components and how much they want to eat. Not to mention dairy cattle and beef cattle are eating different things, so the bugs in the rumen function differently. So, if we apply a methane inhibitor to a dairy microbial community, we might have to approach the hydrogen capture a little bit differently than in a beef rumen community.”</p>



<p>Mackie envisions this initiative as the starting point of a long-term quest to tackle enteric methane. By the conclusion of the three-year project, the experts aim to pinpoint precise inhibitor dosages that either maintain or even bolster production capacities.</p>



<p>“What we’d like is to have ruminants save the planet within 10 years. That would be amazing,” Mackie concluded.</p>



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<p>.</p>

Greener cattle: Seeking ways to inhibit methane production in cows

As our planet faces escalating challenges from global warming, a...

<p>A team of researchers led by Dartmouth College has recently used an innovative approach to solve the longstanding debate about what caused the mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-in-a-state-of-decline-before-their-extinction/">extinction</a> of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago: Did a colossal asteroid strike or volcanic eruptions lead to their demise? </p>



<p>To remove potential biases, the experts took the scientists out of the equation and put the decision-making in the hands of computers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnected-processors">Interconnected processors</h2>



<p>The novel modeling technique they used employed interconnected processors to sift through extensive geological and climate data autonomously.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The processors were given the task of retroactively examining the fossil record to identify the sequences and conditions that culminated in the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event. This event set the stage for mammals, including primates and eventually early humans, to rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>“Part of our motivation was to evaluate this question without a predetermined hypothesis or bias,” said lead author Alex Cox, a graduate student in Earth Sciences at Dartmouth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Most models move in a forward direction. We adapted a carbon-cycle model to run the other way, using the effect to find the cause through statistics, giving it only the bare minimum of prior information as it worked toward a particular outcome. In the end, it doesn’t matter what we think or what we previously thought - the model shows us how we got to what we see in the geological record.”</p>



<p>This computational model tested over 300,000 potential scenarios spanning a million years around the K–Pg extinction, factoring in variables like carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions and biological productivity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning">Machine learning</h2>



<p>Relying on a machine learning technique known as the Markov Chain Monte Carlo, the processors functioned collaboratively yet independently, continuously refining their findings until a conclusion was reached that aligned with fossil records.</p>



<p>The traces left behind in fossils distinctly portray the catastrophic environment during the K–Pg extinction. There were significant ecological disruptions as food chains crumbled amidst an atmosphere that oscillated drastically due to airborne pollutants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-dinosaur-extinction">What caused the dinosaur extinction?</h2>



<p>While the evidence of this devastation is clear, the root cause remains a topic of debate. Initial theories that pointed to volcanic eruptions have been overshadowed by the discovery of the Chicxulub impact crater in Mexico, attributed to a massive asteroid believed to be the primary catalyst for the dinosaur extinction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, recent findings suggest the asteroid might have struck an Earth already destabilized by powerful volcanic eruptions in India’s Deccan Traps.</p>



<p>Yet, there is still uncertainty about the relative contributions of each event to the extinction. This drove Cox and his advisor, Brenhin Keller, a Dartmouth assistant professor of Earth Sciences and co-author of the study, to “see what you would get if you let the code decide.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-deccan-traps">The Deccan Traps</h2>



<p>Their model indicates that the emissions from the Deccan Traps could have alone instigated the global extinction. The Deccan eruptions began approximately 300,000 years before the asteroid’s impact, releasing staggering amounts of gases over nearly a million years.</p>



<p>“We’ve known historically that volcanoes can cause massive extinctions, but this is the first independent estimation of volatile emissions taken from the evidence of their environmental effects,” Keller explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our model worked through the data independently and without human bias to determine the amount of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide required to produce the climate and carbon cycle disruptions we see in the geologic record. These amounts turned out to be consistent with what we expect to see in emissions from the Deccan Traps.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surge-in-gas-emissions-nbsp">Surge in gas emissions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While the model recognized a significant decline in organic carbon accumulation in deep-sea regions around the Chicxulub impact timeframe, it revealed no surge in gas emissions during the period, implying that the asteroid’s role in the extinction wasn’t primarily linked to gas emissions.</p>



<p>Comparing historical events to modern times, Cox noted that between 2000 and 2023, fossil fuel burning released roughly 16 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually, a rate 100 times more intense than the Deccan Traps’ highest yearly emissions. However, it would still take millennia for current emission levels to equal the total output of these ancient eruptions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impressive-results">Impressive results</h2>



<p>“Most heartening is that the results we achieved are broadly physically plausible, which is impressive given that the model could have technically run completely wild without stronger prior constraints,” Cox said.</p>



<p>The integration of processors sped up the data analysis, trimming what could have taken years down to mere hours. This method developed by Cox and Keller can be applied to other earth systems models, enabling researchers to delve deeper into well-documented geological events where the outcomes are clear but the preceding conditions remain elusive.</p>



<p>“This type of parallel inversion hasn't been done in earth sciences models before. Our method can be scaled up to include thousands of processors, which gives us a much broader solution space to explore, and it’s quite resistant to human bias,” remarked Cox.</p>



<p>“So far, people in our field have been more fascinated by the novelty of the method than the conclusion we reached. Any earth system for which we know the effect but not the cause is ripe for inversion. The better we know the output, the better we’re able to characterize the input that caused it.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adh3875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Violent volcanic eruptions likely caused dinosaur extinction

A team of researchers led by Dartmouth College has recently...

<p>Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan morellensis, which inhabited the Iberian Peninsula approximately 122 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The remains were uncovered in the Morella region of Spain, highlighting the region's significant contribution to the understanding of dinosaur diversity in Europe. Sedimentary deposits in this region have been found to contain an abundant record of dinosaurs from the Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-europes-enigmatic-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-cretaceous-dinosaur">New Cretaceous dinosaur</h2>



<p>Garumbatitan morellensis belongs to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/">sauropod</a> group, characterized by their immense size, quadrupedal stature, herbivorous diet, and distinctive long necks and tails.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The new dinosaur was identified by a team of Spanish and Portuguese paleontologists, whose findings were recently published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance">Historical significance</h2>



<p>Morella has a history of significant fossil discoveries, with the region yielding some of Spain's first dinosaur fossils. In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the discovery of relevant Mesozoic vertebrate fossils, including a notable collection of ornithopod dinosaurs like Morelladon beltrani and other sauropods.</p>



<p>One of the unique aspects of Garumbatitan morellensis is its distinct anatomical characteristics, separating it from other known sauropods. Its femur shares similarities with those of later sauropods from the Late Cretaceous, while the elements forming the foot exhibit unique morphologies.</p>



<p>“One of the individuals we found stands out for its large size, with vertebrae more than one meter wide, and a femur that could reach two meters in length," said Pedro Mocho, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lisbon</a>. "We found two almost complete and articulated feet in this deposit, which is particularly rare in the geological record."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications">Evolutionary implications</h2>



<p>“Our study highlights the enormous complexity of the evolutionary history of sauropods from the European Cretaceous - in particular, from the Iberian Peninsula, with species related to lineages present in Asia and North America, as well as some groups related to forms from the African continent. Our results suggest the existence of periods of faunal dispersal between these continents," explained Pedro Mocho.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The future restoration of all fossil materials found in this deposit will add important information to understand the initial evolution of this group of sauropods that dominated dinosaur faunas during the last million years of the Mesozoic era," noted study co-author Francisco Ortega of the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-garumbatitan-morellensis">Garumbatitan morellensis</h2>



<p>The name Garumbatitan morellensis carries significant meaning. “Garumbatitan” translates to “the giant of Garumba,” referencing the base of Mola de la Garumba where the specimen was found.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, “morellensis” pays homage to the location of the deposit, Morella. These fossil remains are now part of the extensive collection of the Iberian Mesozoic at the Temps Museum of Dinosaurs in Morella, contributing to the Valencian Community Museum Network’s offering.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The introduction of Garumbatitan morellensis to the scientific community not only emphasizes the rich dinosaur diversity in the Early Cretaceous but also provides crucial insights into their evolutionary history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With the promise of future restoration and study of these fossils, the discovery may ultimately help to clarify the initial evolution of the sauropod group that dominated the dinosaur landscape of the Mesozoic era.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-cretaceous-period">More about the Cretaceous period</h2>



<p>The Cretaceous period spanned from approximately 145 to 66 million years ago. It ushered in a diverse array of dinosaurs that dominated the land, air, and sea. This era, last of the three periods of the Mesozoic Era, saw the rise of iconic dinosaurs like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-estimated-2-5-billion-tyrannosaurus-rexes-lived-and-died-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a>, and as mentioned above, <em>Garumbatitan morellensis</em>. The Cretaceous ended with one of the most significant mass extinction events in Earth's history.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Diversity and adaptation</h3>



<p>Cretaceous dinosaurs exhibited remarkable diversity and adaptability, populating every continent and evolving a myriad of forms, sizes, and ecological roles. Small, feathered theropods like Velociraptor roamed the lands, showcasing the link between dinosaurs and modern birds. Larger predators like Spinosaurus, with its distinctive sailback, pursued prey in aquatic environments.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Herbivorous giants</h3>



<p>Massive herbivores such as the long-necked sauropods also marked the landscapes of the Cretaceous. Titanosaurs, the last surviving group of long-necked sauropods, roamed the Southern Hemisphere, revealing the evolutionary success of herbivorous dinosaurs. Triceratops, recognized by their prominent frills and horns, browsed the lush vegetation. They represented a group of herbivorous dinosaurs known as ceratopsians.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Flora and climate</h3>



<p>Rich and diverse flora characterized the Cretaceous landscapes. Flowering plants, or angiosperms, made their first appearance, rapidly diversifying and providing new food sources for herbivorous dinosaurs. The global climate was warmer, with higher sea levels creating shallow seas and dividing continents. These conditions shaped the distinct dinosaur faunas in different regions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Birds and flight</h3>



<p>The Cretaceous period witnessed the evolutionary transition from non-avian dinosaurs to birds. Archaeopteryx, often regarded as the first bird, illustrated the morphological changes from theropod dinosaurs to modern avian species. Pterosaurs, with their membranous wings, dominated the skies, showcasing various adaptations for flight and feeding.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</h3>



<p>The fascinating journey of the Cretaceous dinosaurs concluded with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> around 66 million years ago. A colossal asteroid impact, combined with extensive volcanic activity, dramatically altered the Earth’s climate. This ultimately led to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs. The remnants of this impact form the Chicxulub crater, located on the Yucatán Peninsula.</p>



<p>In summary, the Cretaceous period illuminates the adaptability and diversity of dinosaurs in a dynamically changing world. The dinosaurs of this era, from the fearsome T. rex to the soaring Pterosaurs to <em>Garumbatitan morellensis</em>, showcase the evolutionary innovations and ecological roles that these creatures occupied. </p>



<p>The advancements in paleontology continue to uncover new dinosaur species and provide deeper insights into their lives, behaviors, and environments. This ongoing research enhances our understanding of the intricate tapestry of life during the Cretaceous period. The fossil record from this time not only serves as a window into our planet’s past, but also as a reminder of the ever-present possibility of change and adaptation in the natural world.</p>



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<p><em>Image Credit: Grup Guix</em></p>



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Massive new dinosaur discovered in Spain's Early Cretaceous fossil collection

Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan...

<p>Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a predatory nature or passive filtering like sponges?&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new study on sea anemones may offer some answers. The research indicates that the evolution of sea anemones, and potentially the early evolution of multicellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-can-thrive-on-the-seafloor-in-extreme-heat/">organisms</a>, was significantly shaped by a predatory lifestyle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predatory-larvae">Predatory larvae</h2>



<p>The study, which was led by Dr Thomas W. Holstein of Heidelberg University, was focused on the young life stages or larvae of the Aiptasia sea anemone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Contrary to previous beliefs, these larvae actively hunt and feed on live prey. They do not rely on algae as previously thought. Using specialized stinging cells and a rudimentary neuronal network, these larvae capture and devour their prey.</p>



<p>“In its simplest form, the gastrula develops from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, forming a larval stage with gut and mouth; imagine pushing a ball inwards at one side. All animals pass through this gastrula stage, which could also have existed at the beginning of animal evolution,” said Dr. Holstein.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-organism-nbsp">A model organism&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Aiptasia sea anemone holds significance as a model for researching endosymbiosis in corals and other cnidarians.</p>



<p>“Corals live in nutrient-poor waters and as larvae or young polyps, take up symbiotic algae cells. In Aiptasia, however, this process is important for adults but does not lead to growth and settlement of the larvae, suggesting that nutrition is a critical step in closing the life cycle,” said Dr. Holstein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ira Mägele, a member of the research group, provided crucial evidence. She found that even in the late gastrula stage, Aiptasia larvae actively use their stinging cells to hunt prey that matches their size, subsequently consuming and digesting them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relevance-of-aiptasia-nbsp">Relevance of Aiptasia&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While corals, especially in nutrient-deficient waters, absorb symbiotic algae cells during their larvae or young polyp stages, Aiptasia doesn't show this reliance during their larval phase.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the researchers, lab studies of the nutritional conditions showed that the food for the tiny Aiptasia larvae had to be small enough and alive. Nauplius larvae of Tisbe copepods are 50 to 80 micrometers - a similar size to Aiptasia larvae - making them an ideal food.</p>



<p>Under these conditions, larvae grew consistently, later settling and undergoing metamorphosis into primary polyps.</p>



<p>“In this way, we were able to grow mature polyps as well as their descendants for the first time,” explained Mägele.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“By thus closing the life cycle of Aiptasia, it will finally be possible to carry out necessary molecular genetic experiments required for functional studies on this key endosymbiotic model organism," noted study&nbsp;co-author Dr. Elizabeth Hambleton.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-gastrula-hypothesis">Redefining the gastrula hypothesis</h2>



<p>Dr. Holstein's findings challenge the long-standing gastrula hypothesis first proposed by evolutionary theorist Ernst Haeckel in the 19th century. While Haeckel imagined the gastrula as a passive, particle-filtering entity similar to sponges, the Aiptasia gastrula tells a different story. It showcases a predatory lifestyle with specialized stinging cells tailored for hunting.</p>



<p>This predatory nature, which is also found in some single-celled organisms and simple worms, might have been pivotal in the evolution of multicellular organisms, potentially even spurring the development of sophisticated nervous systems.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2311872120"><em>PNAS</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Did early animal evolution start with predatory behavior?

Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a...

Phyllidiopsis cardinalis

Taxonomic tree: