Different,Types,Yeast.,Fresh,Pressed,Yeast,,Dry,Instant,Yeast,And

Yeast may not be much to look at, but these tiny fungal friends have played an important role in our diets for millennia! These organisms have allowed humans to leaven bread and brew beer. They may have even played a role in forming some of humanity’s earliest cities!



We often take it for granted that you can buy supplies like yeast in stores. Many people who decided to take up baking at the beginning of the pandemic were faced with yeast shortages in the grocery stores. However, our ancestors weren’t able to run down to Kroger for a packet of Fleischmann’s or other commercial yeast. Yeast originally came from the wild. Though we have cultured yeast for a long time, wild yeast has always played a role in brewing and bread making. Although wild yeast isn’t as consistent or convenient as instant yeast, it can give your bread or beer unique flavors.



Some types of wild yeast are prized in brewing for creating unique beers. Others are key components of sourdough starters. These organisms use fermentation to create delicious flavors. The diversity of wild yeast is an opportunity to create flavorful and delicious beer and bread. Though store-bought yeast is an easy and reliable option, it is far less exciting than the many wild species. From beer to bread, these living chemical factories have played an important role in human history.





<h2 id="h-">&nbsp;</h2>



<h2 id="h-what-is-yeast">What is Yeast?</h2>



The word “yeast” refers to a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/intro-to-the-fungi-life-cycle/">single-celled fungi</a>. They all reproduce through a process called budding but otherwise can have a huge range of traits. Yeasts occur throughout the natural world. Like other fungi, they are decomposers. This means they get their energy by digesting dead stuff. While this might sound morbid, they are more like nature’s recyclers. They make sure nothing dead goes to waste!



What we generally refer to as yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This species is the yeast most commonly used in brewing beer and leavening bread. Humans have been culturing this species of yeast for thousands of years. This traditional yeast has many different strains and variants. There are different strains for different beers, wines and baked goods. However, all of these types of yeast are the same species, and their flavor is relatively consistent. Wild yeast, on the other hand, is any species of yeast cultured from a natural source. These can be found on the skin of fruits or even floating in the air.





<h2 id="h--1">&nbsp;</h2>



<h2 id="h-fermentation">Fermentation</h2>



Yeast is prized for its ability to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide from sugar. This biological wizardry is called fermentation. Humans have taken advantage of this biochemical process since the start of civilization. The process of fermentation is an important part of what makes yeast unique!



Fermentation is the process of turning sugars into ethanol (drinking alcohol), carbon dioxide and aromatic compounds. Yeast carries out this process when growing on sugars in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic). Humans have taken advantage of this process to leaven bread, preserve foods and produce intoxicating beverages. By allowing foods to ferment we have created new and delicious dishes. Foods like sourdough, kombucha, injera, and beer all benefit from the powers of yeast.



Fermented foods can be beneficial in a number of ways. They can be more shelf stable, due to their alcohol and lactic acid contents, which discourage the growth of dangerous microbes. They can also help our bodies process sugars. The carbon dioxide gas produced when yeast ferments is also essential to bread making. It makes bread rise by adding gas bubbles to the otherwise solid dough. This is a process called leavening, which makes bread soft and chewy, rather than crusty and dry.



<h2 id="h-the-domestication-of-yeast">The Domestication of Yeast</h2>



Just like crops and cattle, humans have domesticated yeast through many generations of cultivation. We have been producing yeast <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beer-iron-age/">for thousands of years</a> to use in food and beverages. Some people even believe that cultivating yeast was a catalyst for the first human cities. Legendary beer scientist <a href="https://bamforth.faculty.ucdavis.edu/who-am-i/">Charlie Bamforth</a> claims that using yeast to produce beer led humans to leave their nomadic lives behind. Caring for a yeast culture required humans to stay put so their brews could ferment undisturbed.



There is no doubt of the close relationship between human civilization and yeast. This organism has been with us for millennia. Through generations of cultivation, humans have created yeast that fits our needs. Different strains have been isolated for beer, bread, wine, and other purposes. These have become essential for many of the foods we eat.



<h2 id="h--2">&nbsp;</h2>





<h2 id="h-brewer-s-and-baker-s-yeast">Brewer’s and Baker’s Yeast</h2>



Commercial yeast is just one species of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This species has been used in brewing and bread baking for thousands of years. Baker’s yeast is an essential part of nearly every bread recipe. However, sourdough bread generally uses a different kind of yeast. These breads rely on a sourdough starter, which is a culture of wild yeast and lactobacillus bacteria. Together these microorganisms create delicious baked goods with tons of flavor.



This species occurs naturally on the skin of grapes. There are different theories about the origins of domesticated yeast. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-05106-7">A recent paper</a> studying yeast genes proposed a common ancestor for all domesticated yeast originating in China. Though this species is the most common domesticated yeast, it’s not alone!



<h2 id="h-lager-yeast">Lager Yeast</h2>



Lagers are a very common type of beer, known for being light and refreshing. The difference between lager and ale is more than just taste. Lagers are brewed with a different type of yeast than ales. This yeast is called Saccharomyces pastorianus and is a hybrid between traditional brewing yeast S. cerevisiae and another species, S. bayanus. This yeast is used exclusively for brewing beer. It allows for brewing at a lower temperature than other yeasts.



<h2 id="h-what-is-a-wild-yeast">What is a Wild Yeast?</h2>



Yeasts exist throughout nature. They grow on fruit and plant matter. Wild yeasts generally refer to yeasts that can be easily caught and grown at home. These yeasts can be grown on flour in order to create your own sourdough starter!



<h3 id="h-brett-the-barnyard-beers">Brett &amp; The Barnyard Beers</h3>



Most wild yeast is truly wild. However, there are some species that have become so popular that they are cultivated on their own. The best known species of wild yeast is called Brettanomyces. Sometimes simply called “brett” this yeast has become popular for brewing certain beers. It’s flavor is often described as “barnyard.” While this might not sound all that delicious, it can produce unique beers. Traditionally, these yeasts were often pesky contaminants in breweries. However, brewers are a creative bunch. These funky and tart flavors have become essential to certain types of beer. Saison, lambic, and Flemish Red Ales are just a few types of beer that rely on the unusual taste of brettanomyces.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_1572747988-1.jpg" alt="wild yeast" class="wp-image-1891364"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/bogacerkan">Bogac Erkan</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-why-grow-wild-yeast">Why Grow Wild Yeast?</h2>



Collecting and growing your own wild yeast isn’t the easiest way to make bread. However, it makes it possible to make bread without buying yeast! Wild yeast can provide your bread or beer with a unique flavor. Each different species of yeast produces a different mixture of flavor compounds. Experimenting with wild yeast lets you create brews with new and unique flavors.



Capturing your own wild yeast is one way to create your own sourdough starter! Sourdough starters are generally a mix of different microorganisms including yeast and lactobacillus. It is important to do research before attempting to culture your own wild yeast. While wild yeast is widespread but so are less benign microbes that can make you very sick. When culturing wild yeast it is important to learn how to detect and avoid dangerous contamination!



Wild yeast is just one element of what the French call “terroir.” This term refers to the unique flavor of a wine created by all the environmental variables in the winery. This idea can be applied to your unique wild yeast as well. It will produce a distinct flavor profile unique to your kitchen.



<h2 id="h-how-to-capture-wild-yeast">How to capture wild yeast</h2>



True to its name, wild yeast lives in the wild! Wild yeast is everywhere. All you need to do to capture it is give it a good home. In nature, wild yeast grows on fruits, feeding on naturally occurring sugars. When growing wild yeast at home, you want to create a similar environment where the yeast will thrive.



There are many strategies for growing wild yeast at home, but they all boil down to feeding your yeast flour and keeping it at a good temperature. This means preparing a sugary solution (or wort) and storing it at room temperature in a mason jar. (It is best not to use a plastic container). There are many different strategies for collecting wild yeast. These can range from simply letting wild yeast in the air grow, to swabbing the skins of fruit. Where you find your wild yeast all depends on the kind of yeast you are hoping to grow. Once you have your new starter, you’re ready to get baking or brewing! You can grow wild yeast for a huge array of different purposes. Whether you are making a sourdough recipe or some special hooch, wild yeast is a great option.



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A Beginner's Guide to the Wild World of Wild Yeast

Yeast may not be much to look at, but these...

A,Macro,Head,Shot,Of,A17-year,Cicada.,They,Live,Underground

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing sound, and they will emerge in the billions! That might sound like the start to a horror movie, but let’s instead have it be an introduction to the sweet insect celebrity of 2021...the cicada! Though the sentiment “the cicadas are coming” might sound like a warning and the name “Brood X” like something from a dystopian novel, we meet this phenologic event with more of mystic awe than a nervous foreboding. In short, Brood X includes the geographically largest group of periodic cicadas that have been living underground since 2004 and are expected to emerge during the spring of 2021. Here, we’ll share a bit about cicada ecology and answer some common questions about Brood X, so you can be just as excited for them as we are!





<h2 id="h-cicada-ecology">Cicada Ecology</h2>



There are over 3,000 species of cicadas, mostly comprised by the family Cicadidae (with two outlier species are in the family Tettigarctidae). All cicadas, however, are members of the Hemiptera order and are generally known as “true bugs” because of the rostrum mouthparts that allow them to suck sap from plants. Cicadas can be grouped as either annual or periodical. Annual cicadas reproduce and emerge every one to three years, and include the vast majority of Cicadidae members. Periodic cicadas display an amazing behavior of breeding in much longer cycles - after hatching from the eggs the baby cicadas will spend 13 or 17 years underground before emerging as adults.&nbsp;



&nbsp;While cicadas are found worldwide, the phenomenon of periodic cicadas only exists within seven species in the genus Magicicada all found in the eastern United States. With a large (<a href="https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/E-47/E-47.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1.5-2 inches</a>) black body, orange veined wings, and red eyes, these cicadas also look distinct from their other relatives. So while this summer’s community of cicadas will include both annual and periodical species, you’ll be able to tell Brood X apart just by their appearance.



<h3 id="h-what-is-a-cicada-brood">What Is a Cicada Brood?</h3>



With some species emerging every 13 years and some every 17, entomologists needed a way to track the individuals’ life cycles that emerge in a given year. Each of these groups is called a brood and given a unique roman numeral (e.g. Brood I, Brood IV, Brood X). Remember though that there are seven species of cicadas that display this behavior. So these broods of periodical cicadas often include more than one species of cicada. Likewise, each species of cicada can be found in many distinct broods. For example, Brood X <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">includes the species</a> Magicicada septendecim, Magicicada cassini, and Magicicada septendecula.



When one brood emerges, their offspring return for the same cycle of either 13 or 17 years. Brood X cicadas have been laying in wait underground since 2004. That puts our last 13 months quarantining during the pandemic to shame!



<h3 id="h-why-do-cicadas-go-underground-for-so-long">Why Do Cicadas Go Underground for so Long?</h3>



This question poses quite a mystery! With insects normally have such rapid turnover in their lifecycles, it seems quite strange that these few species would evolve to play such a waiting game. To answer it, we just have to consider the evolutionary pressures on an insect similar to this. They aren’t poisonous (in fact, they’re quite nutritious), and they exist in large numbers. The perfect food source!



Their underground trickery seems to be a way to give the slip to their more voracious predators. Without year-to-year consistency, animals that enjoy cicada snacks can’t rely on the periodic insects for prey. And when they do emerge, they do so at such a grandiose scale, that their predators can’t keep up. This is commonly called the <a href="https://cicadas.uconn.edu/stragglers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">predator-satiation hypothesis</a>.



<h3 id="h-cicada-life-cycles">Cicada Life Cycles</h3>



Periodic cicadas have the longest life cycle of any known insect. But though it differs in duration, it’s not a unique process. These bugs go through incomplete metamorphosis with the life stages of egg, nymph, and adult. To give you a better picture of a cicada’s life, let’s take a look at the parents of Brood X, and go back in time to the last time Brood X was around in 2004.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-egg">Egg</h3>



Seventeen years ago, newly emerged cicada adults from Brood X focused on their paramount task for this life stage: breeding. The males struck up their evening chorus to attract a silent female. After mating, the female will carefully split the bark of tender twigs and lay hundreds of eggs, in batches of <a href="https://ag.tennessee.edu/epp/pages/cicadas.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">24-48</a>.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-nymph">Nymph</h3>



One to two months later the eggs hatch and rice-like nymphs drop to the ground. Though tiny, they have strong forelegs that they use to bury themselves between <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/ENT-58" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one to eight feet</a> in the soil. Just like nymphs of other insect species, this life stage is important for feeding and growing. But periodic cicadas just spend a bit longer as nymphs than the usual six-legged friend. Safely underground, that feed on plant and tree roots for the next 17 years.



<h3 id="h-adult">Adult</h3>



Now let’s return to 2021. After years of snacking and growing, the last instar of the cicada nymph digs its way out of the soil where it molts one final time to reveal the fully winged adult! Brood X emerges en masse to breed again!&nbsp;





<h2 id="h-brood-x-the-class-of-2021">Brood X: The Class of 2021</h2>



This might feel similar to a graduation announcement, and, in a way, it’s exactly that. The Brood X cicadas (also called the Great Eastern Brood) have been growing up for the past 17 years and have finally reached adulthood! And now they can throw their caps (aka shed their exoskeletons) and have the rager of their lives (aka their cacophony of noise the males make). We’re excited to celebrate them, and, to help spread the cheer, we’ve answered some of the most common questions about cicada entomology below.



<h2 id="h-when-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-come-how-long-will-they-stay">When Will The Brood X Cicadas Come &amp; How Long Will They Stay?</h2>



The Brood X cicadas will use soil temperature as a cue to help them know when to dig their way to the surface. When the soil reaches about 64 degrees Fahrenheit, the nymphs will begin to crawl towards the sun. But this level of thermo-tracking is not new to them. They have actually been using freeze and thaw cycles to track each of the past 17 years. Without calendars and push notifications, they need some way to count the days! For their range across the eastern U.S., you can expect them between <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">April and June</a>, depending on latitude.&nbsp;



With the singular goal of reproduction in mind, adult cicadas only live for two to four weeks, just enough for the female to lay eggs. So just as quickly as the cicadas appeared, they will vanish.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-where-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-be">Where Will The Brood X Cicadas Be?</h3>



Geography sets Brood X apart from other groups of 17-year cicadas. In fact, the group has the largest range of any cicada brood! They will appear in parts of 15 states including Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, as well as Washington D.C.



<h3 id="h-what-s-all-the-racket">What’s All the Racket?</h3>



Even if you haven’t seen a cicada before, you’ve probably heard their mating calls. The drone of the male cicada can get close to <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_24.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener">100 decibels</a> - similar to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/what_noises_cause_hearing_loss.html#:~:text=Sound%20is%20measured%20in%20decibels,immediate%20harm%20to%20your%20ears." target="_blank" rel="noopener">motorcycle</a>! So there’s no shame if you feel the need to cover your ears. In contrast to other noisy insects that use wings or legs to create sound, cicadas have specific organs totally dedicated to their serenade. Called tymbals, these structures are rib-like features that the cicada buckles together to create vibrations.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-are-cicadas-dangerous">Are Cicadas Dangerous?</h3>



When anything comes out in the billions, it’s natural to feel wary. But there’s nothing about cicadas to be worried about! You might start noticing a few more around, but apart from the ear-splitting evening song they pose no threat to humans. They won’t bite or sting and aren’t poisonous. In fact, full of protein and low in fat, cicadas could make a delicious and nutritious <a href="https://web.extension.illinois.edu/cicadas/edible.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">treat</a>!&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-plants">Plants</h3>



Though many often confuse cicadas with locusts because of their sheer numbers, they <a href="https://growingsmallfarms.ces.ncsu.edu/2013/04/should-farmers-gardeners-worry-about-17-year-cicadas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">don’t pose nearly as severe a threat</a> to crops. Since they rely on the sap from woody plants, they won’t even touch your herbaceous tomatoes and strawberries. If you have an orchard, you might take a little more caution. Especially if you have younger saplings, consider tossing some netting over them more the couple weeks the cicadas are out in force.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-pets">Pets</h3>



Another common concern surrounds pets. Oftentimes, dogs might find a fun game of chasing and catching cicadas, while some more adventurous canines even decide that a cicada is the dog biscuit of the century and chomp them up. The short answer is this is all fine. Cicadas are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-insects-food-source/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">edible</a> to dogs, just as they are to humans. Though they might get a tummy ache if they eat too many. So try to keep your pup from overindulging, and you should be ok!





<h2 id="h-good-luck-brood-x">Good Luck, Brood X!</h2>



With that, we wish Brood X an amazing year of cicada mania! We hope that their breeding season succeeds, that their songs echo through neighborhoods everywhere, and that their cicada babies hunker down for another nourishing and relaxing 17 years underground. ‘Til 2038, Brood X!



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Cicadas Are Coming: Brood X

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing...

Oyster,Mushrooms

The botanical name Pleurotus ostreatus may sound like an extra-terrestrial creature landed on planet earth, but, in fact, this edible fungus might be growing right in your neck of the woods. Commonly known as the oyster mushroom, this delicious foragable is also a species you can grow at home. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-vote-medicinal-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Medicinal mushrooms</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-look-for-gourmet-mushrooms-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">edible mushrooms</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-be-smart-while-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">toxic mushrooms</a> can be a fascinating area of study and a powerful means of connecting to the mycelia web of ecosystems. Keep reading to learn more about this species and how to cultivate it in your home garden.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-get-to-know-the-oyster-mushroom">Get To Know The Oyster Mushroom</h2>



The scientific name Pleurotus ostreatus is derived from the ancient Greek word for "side ear" in reference to the way the fruiting bodies grow upon a substrate. <a href="https://www.messiah.edu/Oakes/fungi_on_wood/gilled%20fungi/species%20pages/Pleurotus%20ostreatus.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">"Ostre" means oyster</a> - a reference to the more common name "oyster mushroom" - from the <a href="https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct98.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shell-like appearance</a> of their fruit bodies. Another synonym for this fungus is <a href="https://www.messiah.edu/Oakes/fungi_on_wood/gilled%20fungi/species%20pages/Pleurotus%20ostreatus.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Agaricus ostreatus Jacq</a>.&nbsp;



In North America, from the months of April to October, you can find this pleurotus species growing in shelf-like clusters on trees. This type of growth pattern is called <a href="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/pleurotus_ostreatus.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">saprobic</a>. They are light-brownish in color, with a brown cap. Usually, the cap is between 3-20 cm across. Their shape is similar to that of a kidney or a decorative fan. This mushroom has <a href="https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct98.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">decurrent gills</a> which are short and close together. They have irregular stipes, if they have them at all.&nbsp;



Fungi is separated into various ordres and phylum. Because of their gills, oysters are of the Agaricales order.&nbsp;



This species attacks and kills various <a href="https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct98.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nematodes and bacteria</a> as well.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_309764969.jpg" alt="oyster mushrooms" class="wp-image-1891096"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/coramueller">Cora Mueller</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-tips-for-identifying-pleurotas-ostreatus-in-the-wild">Tips For Identifying Pleurotas Ostreatus In The Wild&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



Identifying edible mushrooms in nature is no joke. One mistake can lead to violent illness or even death. If this sounds intimidating to you - good! It is important to adopt a philosophy of humility as you embark upon a mushroom quest.&nbsp;



If available to you, begin with foraging walks with an expert in your area. This will not only build confidence in identifying different species such as p. ostreatus, but you will most likely pick up on how different species within the ecosystem interact and what sort of practices are sustainable, specific to where you live. Often, there are also region-specific social media groups entirely dedicated to mushroom foraging. This can be a great way to ask questions and fill out your developing knowledge on the subject. People probably won't share their precious foraging sites with a stranger on the internet, but you'll be connected to folks with a similar passion, and who knows where that might lead.&nbsp;



For oyster mushrooms specifically, keep an eye out on the trees. They mostly grow on dead and alive hardwood trees, but you can occasionally find them growing on conifers as well - causing a white rot.



As you branch out on your own, you'll want to collect field guides for mushroom identification. Many are pocket-sized, and as you go, it's important to cross-reference different sources. Additionally, if you have your phone in your pocket, you can even compare what you find and identify through memory and ID guides with google images for an extra layer of security.&nbsp;



Other pleurotus species are easy to confuse with p. ostreatus. <a href="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/pleurotus_pulmonarius.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pleurotus pulmonarius</a> (p. pulmonarius) and <a href="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/pleurotus_populinus.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pleurotus populinus</a> (found on aspen and cottonwood trees) are two particularly closely related look-alikes.&nbsp;



Once you've used your wits, your ID guides, and maybe various search engines to identify that you have indeed found a cluster of oyster mushrooms, you'll want to follow up with one more step to be absolutely certain that you're correct in your identification: spore prints.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-spore-prints">Spore Prints&nbsp;</h3>



This part isn't hard: simply place a cap of the mushroom on a piece of paper or black Tupperware, for instance. The spores will fall from the cap and leave a print. In the case of oyster mushrooms, the print should be a whitish lilac color.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-look-a-likes">Look-A-Likes</h2>



You can't be too cautious in the world of mushroom identification. And in this instance, oyster mushrooms do have some unfavorable look-a-likes. For example, Lentinellus ursinus is very similar in appearance. While this Lentinus species isn't known to be toxic, it sure doesn't taste good according to experts in the field. Within foraging circles, there is the legend that <a href="https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct98.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">even raccoons spit out this nasty-tasting fungus</a>. Different from the oyster mushroom, L. ursinus has saw-toothed gills - this is a great way to distinguish the two. Knowing these small traits makes a big difference and allows you to focus in on foraging species with a higher score on the edibility scale.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-to-grow-oyster-mushrooms-at-home">How To Grow Oyster Mushrooms At Home</h2>



Mushroom cultivation may be slightly more nuanced than scattering wildflower seeds in the back garden, but there's no need to be deterred. With the right planning, environment, and ingredients you can grow these fungi right at home. This is an alternative that many people find satisfying in contrast to buying expensive, plastic-wrapped packages at the store, or those who struggle in finding the time and land to forage sustainably.&nbsp;



Oyster mushrooms grow fast and voluptuously - a cash crop of sorts. This step-by-step guide is adapted from the <a href="https://grocycle.com/how-to-grow-oyster-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Grocycle Mushroom Farm</a> and supplemented by other DIY mushroom farmers who have shared their processes online.&nbsp;



First, gather the necessary materials: Pleurotus ostreatus spawn and straw for sure, possibly sawdust pellets and coffee grounds if you have that available as well. Mix these ingredients together and put them in a plastic bag, tying the bag at the top.&nbsp;



Next is the incubation stage. The mycelium of the spawn will colonize the mixture within the bag. This can be an incredibly interesting visual process to observe, as layers will separate over the course of three weeks.&nbsp;



Finally, there is the fruiting stage. You want to simulate an autumn season. Find an area where you are able to provide light, moisture, and fresh air. The bodies grow quickly - poking out of the bag's plastic layer and are ready to harvest in 8-10 days. Simply twist the bodies off the bags and store, sell, or dry them for use to your heart's delight.&nbsp;



Other varieties of mushrooms do well in inoculated logs - such as lion's mane, reishi, and shiitake. But using this straw-bag method is a popular and easy method for growing oyster mushrooms at home.&nbsp;



The best part? By creating the ideal conditions for growth, you can grow and harvest mushrooms year-round.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_1026884599.jpg" alt="cluster of oyster mushrooms" class="wp-image-1891097"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ermess">ermess</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion&nbsp;</h2>



There's a lot of reasons to get into propagating mushrooms. For instance, it can be a sustainable alternative to over-foraging. It's a hobby that could become quite lucrative. Watching the process unfold can cultivate a sense of wonder and connectedness to the natural world. 



Whatever your reasons - best of luck as you embark on your Pleurotus ostreatus quest, however you choose to go about it! 



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Can You Grow "Pleurotus ostreatus" at Home? Yes, Here's How!

The botanical name Pleurotus ostreatus may sound like an extra-terrestrial...

Annelids

Annelids are segmented worms. They have neither arms, nor legs,...

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Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear often unless we work in a lab or in the garden. But as it turns out, unless you are perusing the internet from the international space station, you’re surrounded by them even as you read these words.



Perhaps you heard a rumor at the flower shop. Maybe you’re in the midst of a biology class in school. It’s possible you’ve seen small cysts in the roots of your soybean bed. Whatever it is that inspired your internet query today, you’ve come to the right place to learn about nematodes. We'll discuss what they are, how they move and interact in the world, and the ways in which nematodes are part of your life - whether you like it or not. Let’s dig in.



<h2 id="h-get-to-know-nematodes">Get To Know Nematodes</h2>



Nematodes, also known as roundworms, or eelworms make up the phylum Nematoda. This phylum is a world-wide phenomenon, found almost everywhere in the world and ranging from mountaintops to freshwater streams and deep valleys, the tropics all the way up to the arctic,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-organisms-driest-places/">across the deserts</a>, and slurping around in bogs - anywhere where there is a sufficient amount of water to support their various life cycles and preferred habitats. There are an estimated&nbsp;<a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">12,000 species</a>&nbsp;on our planet and they are categorized with insects and other molting creatures in the clade Ecdysozoa. They are “<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">elongate, thread-like, and active animals”</a>&nbsp;that are also commonly found in the stomachs and intestines of birds, fish, and mammals. Most are cylindrical, though some species have females are that are spherical. Nematodes are one of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754014/">the most abundant&nbsp;</a>invertebrates on Earth.



But for how abundant they are, they can sure are hard to spot. While it is possible to see certain species of nematodes, most are slender and transparent. This makes them incredibly difficult to see with the naked eye.



Derived from the Greek word for thread, these tube-like organisms move like eels where they live. Most species of nematodes are free-living and feed off of fungi, bacterial, and algae microorganisms. They are highly successful parasites. This is because of their <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">physiological elasticity: o</a>ne species is only found in vinegar. Another specializes in the niche-habitat of <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">beer mats</a>&nbsp;at the local dive bar.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1905527209.jpg" alt="pink nematode" class="wp-image-1890588"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Hussmann">Hussmann</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-nematode-life-cycle">Nematode Life Cycle</h2>



Often, the life cycle of a nematode is determined by six distinct stages:&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">egg, four juvenile stages, and adult</a>. The smallest free-living adult nematode is about 250 mm, but parasitic nematodes can be as smaller than 2 mm. In most species, females and males occur, though reproduction often happens without males and these animals are frequently hermaphroditic. Once an individual produces eggs, their life cycle is complete. Species can produce anywhere from 50 - 500 eggs per female - though some can produce&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">up to 1,000</a>.



More specifically, in the example of the soybean cyst nematode, eggs develop within a cyst. According to&nbsp;<a href="https://www.plantpath.iastate.edu/scn/life_cycle">Iowa State University</a>, inside each egg is an unhatched juvenile. A nematode’s body wall is composed of an underlying cell layer&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3282284?seq=1">called a cuticle</a>, and once the juvenile eggs hatch, they can penetrate the cell walls of the soybean root (similar to other soil nematodes). Once in the root, the juvenile develops into an adult male or adult female. The females eventually break back through the root’s surface but remain connected while the adult males leave the root system. The male and female will mate and the female will lay eggs, eventually dying and hardening around the egg sack as a tough cyst.



<h3 id="h-other-life-cycles">Other Life Cycles</h3>



Understanding the life cycles of different invertebrates is interesting. They might help you pass a biology exam, but it’s so much more than that too. Take Caenorhabditis elegans - it is one particularly famous species in the study of nematology in the last 25 years. Nematologists around the world are working to sequence the entire genome of this species. Oddly, it has no obvious economic benefit or parasitic threat to us. Why is that?



It shares&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">many of the same biological characteristics</a>&nbsp;that are central problems in our own biology. The worm begins as a single cell, undergoes complex development, maintains a nervous system, and exhibits behavior capable of learning. While it has yet to demonstrate consciousness, the parallels of this species with our own life cycle are eerily similar and “provides researchers with an ideal compromise&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">between complexity and tractability</a>”. In studying and understanding animals as small as nematodes, we can better understand ourselves.



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-humans">Parasites in Humans</h2>



People shudder at the thought of small critters living inside the body. Nematodes abound as parasites in mammals, and that includes Homo sapiens as well. These nematode parasites are documented In texts dated as early as 1550 BC for their plaguing presence in the human body. Another name for these pests is "lesion nematodes."



Some historians have inferred that the “fiery serpent” of the Bible that bedeviled the children of Israel after they crossed the swampy terrain of the Red Sea may have been the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">Guinea Worm</a>&nbsp;Dracunculus medinensis, which can grow over 12 inches in length in your intestines - a terrifying legend from antiquity that is very much real in that part of the world today. You’ve probably heard of hookworm before as it&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8261/">is a nematode parasite that commonly causes diarrhea</a>, malnutrition, and other infective, escalating medical conditions in marginalized communities, especially in areas that don’t have access to a clean water supply.



The largest parasitic nematode we know of is Placentonema gigantissima. It is a marine species documented to be over 8 meters long and living in the placenta of a sperm whale - a terrifying image to behold.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1820971748.jpg" alt="nematode drawing" class="wp-image-1890589"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/KaterynaKon">Kateryna Kon</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-plants">Parasites in Plants</h2>



Parasitic nematodes (such as&nbsp;Ditylenchus spp.) aren’t only after animals, however. Some species wreak havoc on your garden as well and are major agricultural pathogens or plant parasites. These destructive creatures are much, much smaller - often invisible to our eyes. Generally, if you can see a worm-like crawler in your garden or compost,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">it isn’t actually a nematode</a>. But plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">ubiquitous in agricultural soils</a>&nbsp;and can cause significant crop damage.



Most species of plant-parasitic nematodes&nbsp;attack by&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">using their needle-like stylets</a>&nbsp;to pierce and kill root cells. Species that use this type of feeding method include lesion (Pratylenchus) nematodes, lance, stunt, and sting nematodes. The species that inspire the fiercest loathing in farmers and the harshest economic impacts include the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)&nbsp;and the soybean cyst nematode because their feeding style allows them to establish permanent feeding sites and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">complete their life cycle</a>&nbsp;without killing nearby cells.



A nematode infection, by&nbsp;<a href="http://nemaplex.ucdavis.edu/Taxamnus/G060mnu.htm">Heterodera species</a>&nbsp;and others, in plants will look a lot like inhibited root growth and root function and may resemble environmental stressors such as drought and nutrient-deficient soil. Yields will decline and plant appearance can be yellowing, wilting, and stunted.



Oftentimes, though the nematodes are invisible to our eyes, we can inspect root systems of evidence of cysts and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">pale female bulbs</a>&nbsp;that are big enough for us to observe right out of the ground (or pot).



By the time you notice the effects of these parasites upon your plants, it’s probably too late to take action. Nature is as beautiful as it is cruel. Crop rotation techniques can be <a href="https://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-7550.pdf">an effective</a>&nbsp;means of nematode control (without using nematicides) and a way to mitigate similar sorts of crises that result in crop losses.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_499829854.jpg" alt="root parasite" class="wp-image-1890590"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jean+Faucett">Jean Faucett</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-benefits-of-nematodes">The Benefits of Nematodes</h2>



But, not all nematodes are scary snake-like parasites slithering in your intestines or invisibly depleting your garden or fields. As one of the most variable groups of animals, there are incredibly helpful species as well. Beneficial nematodes are used intentionally by organic gardeners and farmers to great effect.



So, what’s so good about nematodes and why do organic growers use these small creatures? First of all, it’s important to understand that these tiny creatures play a critical role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients in various ecosystems. For example, nematode populations are richly abundant in arable soil. There can be over 3 billion nematodes in one acre of land, calculated to a depth of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">20 centimeters</a>, and they are usually most abundant in the upper layers of soil where organic matter, plant roots, and other resources are most abundant.



And those same parasitic tendencies that make certain species of nematodes dangerous to us or to plants? There are other nematodes that go after the insect pests that we want to control organically with the same vigorous energy. Beneficial feeding nematodes will devour up to&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">200 different species of insects</a>, regulating adult bugs and also larvae, juvenile insects in grub stages that can ruin your neat rows of veggies and annual flowers.



Collaborating with beneficial nematodes might save your lawn. And more importantly, when you&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/">finally tear up your lawn</a>&nbsp;of Kentucky bluegrass (the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/monocrops-theyre-a-problem-but-farmers-arent-the-ones-who-can-solve-it/2014/05/09/8bfc186e-d6f8-11e3-8a78-8fe50322a72c_story.html">largest mono-crop</a>&nbsp;in North America and a huge detriment to our ecological health) and replace it with native perennials and water-saving landscaping techniques, beneficial nematodes will be a sustainable link in the bio-niche of your home.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_420833719.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1890591"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jes+Abeita">Jes Abeita</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-to-use-nematodes-in-your-garden">How To Use Nematodes in Your Garden</h2>



To use beneficial nematodes in your garden is&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">really a pretty simple process</a>. Start by contacting a nearby organic gardening shop. Beneficial nematodes are popular and chances are, a good garden store will have them in stock during the growing season. Additionally, they are likely to have a whole plethora of other beneficial predators such as ladybugs and praying mantis sacks. If you aren’t able to find them in a store, you can order beneficial nematodes online as well. Most products will have specific directions on the bottle. Usually, you simply add the contents of the package or bottle into a spray bottle or a watering can mixed with water.



Different species of nematodes will prey upon harmful pests with an efficiency that is reminiscent of a good horror film.&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">Some ambush their prey</a>. Others lure them in. Heterorhabdtis uses a cruising strategy.



<h2 id="h-a-pollinator-friendly-option">A Pollinator-Friendly Option</h2>



Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Chemical pesticides have a variety of horrible side effects on our bodies and the ecosystems we inhabit. These beneficial roundworms are an excellent alternative. Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Plus, <a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">they won’t harm the friendly pollinators</a>&nbsp;you want to attract to your garden.



These are the sort of techniques we want to continue to cultivate and spread into popular gardening culture. This is especially urgent when you look at the concerning trends around endemic bee species and butterfly migration patterns across continents. Unless you’ve been living under a rock, you know things aren’t looking good for these hard-working and necessary insects that make our world so beautiful and actually account for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/">billions of dollars</a>&nbsp;in our economy each year. And if things aren’t looking good for them, they aren’t looking good for us.



Nematodes might feel out of the box to gardeners from older generations with a proclivity for Round-Up. But, these techniques will be part of how we save the birds, the bees, the butterflies - and ourselves - from catastrophe. Digging into regenerative, organic methods of gardening can be an empowering way to connect to where you live, take accountability for your impact on the planet, and combat the climate malaise that seeps into our culture. Try beneficial nematodes in your garden and then tell your friends!



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



Like most of life on earth, nematodes are fascinating and nuanced. We’re so quick to categorize our fellow ecosystem inhabitants as “good” or “bad". We conceptualize the natural world into polarized extremes, elements of an ecosystem to be protected or eradicated.



Hopefully, it is obvious that this is simply not the case. In understanding the different phyla and the wild world of creatures that interact in cahoots and also in adversity, we know that the web of life is an intricate dance that we must respect and study. In a deeper understanding of animals like nematodes, we gain insight into our own existence and utilize the benefits of these small thread-like creatures in innovative ways to enrich beauty and deepen our connection to the landscape and sustainable ecology.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Nematodes

Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear...

Girl,Looking,At,Lunar,Eclipse,Through,A,Telescope.,My,Astronomy

If you're interested in famous astronomers, you've likely heard of Copernicus, Galileo, Stephen Hawking, Carl Sagan, and Albert Einstein. These men were brilliant and giants in their field. They are, however, all men from Europe or the United States. Throughout history, men and women from around the world have engaged in the study of outer space. We must recognize the foundational work these scientists have contributed to astronomy.



From the Muslim astronomers of over 1,000 years ago to the Nobel Prize-winning women scientists of today, astronomy is a dynamic field. Here are five famous astronomers who deserve more recognition for their game-changing work.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dark-matter-particles-background-530991658" rel="noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/shutterstock_530991658.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1888409"/></a><figcaption>An artistic intepretation of dark matter. By its nature, dark matter is invisible, so we have no photos of it. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Color4260">Color4260</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-five-famous-astronomers-you-should-know">Five Famous Astronomers You Should Know</h2>



Listed below are two astronomers from the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries) and three modern women astronomers.&nbsp; While their names may be foreign to you, the concepts they discovered likely aren't. These five individuals contributed greatly to astronomy, and therefore, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/space-exploration-progress-impact-forecast/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">space exploration</a> as a whole.



<h2 id="h-dr-vera-rubin">Dr. Vera Rubin</h2>



Vera Rubin's work is essential to all modern astronomy. In fact, her work is so ground-breaking that it may eventually <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/27/science/vera-rubin-astronomist-who-made-the-case-for-dark-matter-dies-at-88.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lead to changes</a> in Einstein's theories of gravity and relativity!&nbsp; The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/27/science/vera-rubin-astronomist-who-made-the-case-for-dark-matter-dies-at-88.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">New York Times wrote</a>, "Her work helped usher in a Copernican-scale change in cosmic consciousness."



Dr. Rubin discovered dark matter while studying spiral galaxies. In our solar system, pluto orbits around the sun more slowly than Saturn. Saturn orbits more slowly than Mars. Mars slower than Earth, etcetera. As the planets get closer to the Sun, they orbit faster. Johannes Keplers' <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/310/orbits-and-keplers-laws/#:~:text=Kepler's%20Third%20Law%3A%20the%20squares,the%20radius%20of%20its%20orbit." target="_blank" rel="noopener">third law of planetary motion</a> explains this phenomenon. This difference in speed is due to gravity, where objects closer to the sun experience more gravity than objects further away.



Dr. Rubin found that Kepler's third law didn't hold up for spiral galaxies. Stars at the edges of the galaxies moved more quickly than expected. Therefore, gravity wasn't working like it should've been. The only explanation, Vera Rubin decided, was that there was invisible, 'dark matter'. This dark matter exists within these spiral galaxies and accounts for the deviations from Kepler's third law.



Dark matter has become so important to astronomy that astronomers believe there is <a href="https://home.cern/science/physics/dark-matter#:~:text=Dark%20matter%20seems%20to%20outweigh,about%2027%25%20of%20the%20universe." target="_blank" rel="noopener">six times as much</a> dark matter as visible matter. The idea of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/dark-matter-just-became-even-more-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dark matter</a>, or an invisible thing that influences objects in space, spurred the discovery of dark energy. Dark energy is thought to make up two-thirds of our universe! Together, dark matter and dark energy make up 95% of our universe.



<h3 id="h-dr-vera-rubin-s-legacy">Dr. Vera Rubin's Legacy</h3>



Don't you think that discovering something as huge as dark matter should make Dr. Rubin one of the more famous astronomers? Some people argue that Dr. Rubin should have received a Nobel Prize but didn't because of sexism. There wasn't much room for women in astronomy when Rubin made her discovery of dark matter in the late 1970s. She died in 2016.



Even without a Nobel Prize, Dr. Rubin inspired a generation of women astronomers who <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/staff-directory/rebecca-oppenheimer" target="_blank" rel="noopener">continue to make</a> shattering discoveries in astronomy today.



If her discoveries weren't impressive enough, Dr. Rubin managed to raise four kids. All of them earned PhDs.



<h2 id="h-al-battani">Al-Battani</h2>



Al-Battani did a whole lot back in the day. He lived in the 9th century and made extraordinarily accurate observations for his time. His most enduring legacy defined the tilt of the Earth at 23.5 degrees. This discovery also helped him define the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/precession-of-the-equinoxes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">precession of the equinoxes</a>.



The above findings aided Al-Battani in refining the <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/al-battan" target="_blank" rel="noopener">precise length of the solar year</a> on Earth. He calculated a year lasted 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 26 seconds. He was only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off. That's just 0.0005% quicker than the actual length of a year. Check out that precision! Al-Battani was more accurate than Ptolomy, who predated Al-Battani by about 800 years.



Al-Battani also <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/al-battan" target="_blank" rel="noopener">created trigonometry</a>. While your high-school self may have cursed trigonometry, it allowed huge leaps in science.&nbsp;Al-Battani lived in ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Turkey). He is considered the most famous Islamic astronomer from the <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/cross-cultural-diffusion-of-knowledge/a/the-golden-age-of-islam" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Islamic Golden Age</a>.



Fun fact: Al-Battani's full name was Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Jabir ibn Sinan al-Raqqi al-Harrani al-Sabi al-Battani. That's a mouthful!



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1888395 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/neutron-star.jpg" alt="pulsars" class="wp-image-1888395"/><figcaption>Graphic of pulsars and neutron stars via NASA.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-jocelyn-bell-burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</h2>



Jocelyn Bell Burnell is one of the most famous women astronomers. When she was a mere research student, she discovered the first pulsars. Pulsars are super-dense neutron stars that emit a flickering light, sort of like a lighthouse. As the star spins, it only emits light from the pole.&nbsp; Each the length of darkness between each 'pulse' of light is exactly the same amount of time. This makes pulsars accurate clocks!





Jocelyn Burnell's advisors shared the Nobel Prize in physics for Burnell's discovering of the pulsar. Unsurprisingly, the Nobel committee didn't mention her name in the prize when, in fact, Burnell was the person to actually discover the concept. Her recent <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/09/06/645257118/in-1974-they-gave-the-nobel-to-her-supervisor-now-shes-won-a-3-million-prize#:~:text=via%20Getty%20Images-,Astrophysicist%20Jocelyn%20Bell%20Burnell%2C%20pictured%20in%202011%2C%20has%20been%20awarded,Breakthrough%20Prize%20in%20Fundamental%20Physics.&amp;text=In%201967%2C%20Jocelyn%20Bell%20Burnell,distant%20galaxies%20known%20as%20quasars." target="_blank" rel="noopener">multi-million dollar prizes</a> are proof that she is a famous astronomer in her own right.



<h2 id="h-abd-al-rahman-al-sufi">Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi</h2>



Another famous astronomer from the Islamic Golden Age, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, innovated how we look at stars. In the western world, he is more commonly called Azophi. Azophi, like Al-Battani, built upon Ptolomy's work. Al-Sufi's work more accurately described the brightness of individual stars. In addition, he discovered over <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhDT.......295H/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1oo new stars</a> and was the first astronomer to describe the Andromeda galaxy.



Azophi was also a major force in translating Greek astronomy into Arabic. This translation provided the Islamic world with valuable astronomical concepts to build upon. Azophi equated the Greek names with the Arabic names for individual stars.



Al-Sufi's <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/book-of-the-constellations-of-the-fixed-stars#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">big book</a> is called the Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars. It was one of the most important texts for Arab astronomers for centuries. <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/446297" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Original copies</a> of the book still exist today!



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1888410 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/shutterstock_674402578.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1888410"/><figcaption>The Hubble Space Telescope orbits around Earth. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Dotted+Yeti">Dotted Yeti</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-nancy-grace-roman">Nancy Grace Roman</h2>



“It is because of Nancy Grace Roman’s leadership and vision that NASA became a pioneer in astrophysics,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-telescope-named-for-mother-of-hubble-nancy-grace-roman" target="_blank" rel="noopener">NASA Administrator</a> Jim Bridenstine. Roman was the first chief astronomer for NASA. She inspired NASA to explore the concept of sending telescopes to space. Space telescopes have <a href="https://lco.global/spacebook/telescopes/space-telescopes/#:~:text=Space%20telescopes%20have%20the%20advantage,reflected%20by%20the%20Earth's%20atmosphere." target="_blank" rel="noopener">many advantages</a> over telescopes on Earth. Most importantly, they are above the blurring and distorting effect of Earth's atmosphere. Clouds, rain, and light pollution don't get in the way up in space, either.



Nancy Grace Roman did eventually lead NASA towards launching a space telescope. You've likely heard of it. Named for one of the most famous American astronomers, Edwin Hubble, the Hubble telescope launched in 1990. Roman's effort towards the Hubble earned the nickname 'The Mother of Hubble'.



Over <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">18,000 scientific papers</a> include findings from the Hubble Space telescope's last 30 years of images. Hubble has made nearly <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one and a half million observations</a>. Most importantly, it is one of the main sources for those <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-s-caldwell-catalog" target="_blank" rel="noopener">really cool space images</a>.



As a tribute to her pioneering mind, NASA will launch the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-telescope-named-for-mother-of-hubble-nancy-grace-roman" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> sometime in this decade.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/shutterstock_483529240.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1888411"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/kingstars11">SRStudio</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-there-are-many-more-famous-astronomers-that-deserve-recognition">There are Many More Famous Astronomers That Deserve Recognition</h2>



In addition to the five famous astronomers above, countless men and women from across the globe have advanced the science of astronomy. However, even today only <a href="https://www.aip.org/statistics/reports/women-physics-and-astronomy-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20% of physics doctorates and 40% of astronomy doctorates</a> are women. We can thank Jocelyn Burnell for trying to change this! She <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/09/06/645257118/in-1974-they-gave-the-nobel-to-her-supervisor-now-shes-won-a-3-million-prize#:~:text=via%20Getty%20Images-,Astrophysicist%20Jocelyn%20Bell%20Burnell%2C%20pictured%20in%202011%2C%20has%20been%20awarded,Breakthrough%20Prize%20in%20Fundamental%20Physics.&amp;text=In%201967%2C%20Jocelyn%20Bell%20Burnell,distant%20galaxies%20known%20as%20quasars." target="_blank" rel="noopener">created a multi-million dollar fund</a> to help underrepresented groups pursue physics.



If you want to come back down to Earth after this article, check out <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-5-most-famous-botanists-in-history/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">these famous botanists</a>!



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5 Famous Astronomers You've Never Heard Of (But Should Know About)

If you're interested in famous astronomers, you've likely heard of...

Beneath the surface of the ocean is a vast and mysterious world of deep-sea wonders. Over the course of human history, we’ve learned a lot about these bodies of water and these discoveries have shaped tradition, migration, and science in tidal ways.&nbsp;



However, many people do not realize how little we know of the ocean - especially the deepest parts of our globe’s seabed.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-diving-into-the-deep-sea">Diving Into The Deep Sea</h2>



Over 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the sea - <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects" target="_blank" rel="noopener">312,000,000 cubic miles of water</a>. Numbers like this can be difficult to wrap your mind around. Regardless, less than 5% of Earth’s oceans have been explored. That’s a lot of room for surprising secrets - many of which we clearly have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-species-discovered-in-the-deep-sea-near-japan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">yet to discover</a>.&nbsp;



Under the water’s surface, the light fades quickly, and at 650 feet, it is completely black. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deeper down you go</a>, the harsher the conditions become for survival, though plenty of creatures (many yet to be discovered!) have figured out how to do just that. It is a mysterious part of our planet, with secrets to be discovered with each dive. Here are seven facts you might be surprised to learn about these deepsea creatures and the habitat where they survive.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-1-the-majority-of-life-on-our-planet-is-aquatic">Secret 1: The Majority Of Life On Our Planet Is Aquatic</h2>



Creatures of the deep sea might seem like distant anomalies to us humans, but as it turns out, we land-dwellers are the actual weirdos. The majority of life on earth is aquatic - and it’s these salty waters from which we all evolved. Scientists estimate that there are over <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/nature/habitats/ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one million animal species</a> in the ocean - 95% of which are invertebrates, such as shrimp and squid. The deepest sea creatures are part of a vast ecological network of these expansive and mysterious oceanic ecozones.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_306095060.jpg" alt="deep sea jellyfish" class="wp-image-1887977"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Blue+bird">H.Tanaka</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-2-aqua-incognito">Secret 2: Aqua Incognito</h2>



Even though we’ve sent a man to the moon and found a coronavirus vaccine in record time, science and discovery work still has plenty of mysteries to unearth and understand. This is especially true of Earth’s oceans since over 80% of the ocean remains <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored</a>. This is because most parts of the ocean are difficult to get to, and it can be really expensive to do so. Scientists have relied on sonar mapping to explore many parts of the seafloor but this still leaves many questions unanswered.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-3-creatures-of-mysterious-currents">Secret 3: Creatures Of Mysterious Currents</h2>



The deepest sea creatures live in what scientists sometimes call the “inner space” of the Ocean. Within this space, we know that there are hefty currents at work like “<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/deep-sea/what-we-dont-know-about-deep-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an engine that controls our climate</a>” though we still don’t understand the nuances of how this engine functions. As glaciers and polar ice melt accelerate due to climate change, we know that an excess of cold water is funneling into this inner space of the ocean. But how will that impact these currents? And eventually our entire planet? The impacts could be massive in scale. Because there is still so much to learn, we aren’t sure what to expect. But, at the current rate of carbon emissions, we will definitely find out, one way or another.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_361651271.jpg" alt="ocean above the Deepest Sea Creatures" class="wp-image-1887979"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Marcus+Brown">Marcus Brown</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-4-slow-growers">Secret 4: Slow Growers</h2>



Deep-sea creatures are often <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">slow growers</a>. This is an adaptive trait in response to the limited food resources in such extreme conditions. This is also why so many of these swimmers have a very slow metabolism.&nbsp;



However, with human impact, these adaptive traits make many species vulnerable. In fact, some scientists compare deep-sea fishing to the harvest of old-growth forests for timber. We may be harvesting and disrupting delicate systems that we don’t yet have the science to understand. Only, deep-sea fishing might be worse - we can’t <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-02/osu-ldf021307.php#:~:text=Deep%2Dsea%20fishes%20grow%20slowly,to%2040%20years%2C%20Heppell%20said." target="_blank" rel="noopener">“replant” the fish</a> like we would trees.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-5-longevity-in-the-deep">Secret 5: Longevity In The Deep</h2>



Due to many creatures’ slow growth, their life cycles are often longer too. Many deep-water fish species can live to 30 years of age or longer. The orange roughy, for instance, can live up to <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">150 years old</a>. These slow, long growers often have later maturity development which can result in low reproductive capabilities. This, paired with the fact that so many of the deep-sea species are endemic to their area, means that they are very vulnerable to environmental changes and <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extinction</a> even without human impact.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_378002446.jpg" alt="orange Deepest Sea Creatures" class="wp-image-1887980"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Zoonar+GmbH">Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-6-deep-sea-coral-archive">Secret 6: Deep-Sea Coral Archive</h2>



If you’re unfamiliar with the ecology of coral reefs, you may be surprised to learn that coral is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-worlds-coral-dead/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">living, growing organism</a> in its own right.&nbsp;



As corals succumb to mass bleaching and die-off events due to human-caused climate change, it is especially concerning to discover that these very same organisms might hold clues to climate change solutions. Like a library or an archive, deep-sea corals <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">contain a record</a> of climate conditions that might provide valuable answers to how we might restore ecosystems to a healthy and sustainable balance of life.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-7-deep-sea-hermaphrodites">Secret 7:&nbsp; Deep-Sea Hermaphrodites</h2>



Many fish in the deeper parts of the sea begin their lives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-change-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">as females</a>, but if a male is needed, are able to biologically transition in order to procreate. These hermaphrodite fish are born with both female and male reproductive organs - and it’s an ingenious adaption. While there might be "more fish in the sea”, the pickings can be incredibly slim when you’re swimming so deep. Mating behaviors have evolved to solve that problem with sex-change strategies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1705865143.jpg" alt="deep sea coral" class="wp-image-1887999"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Divefriday">Divefriday</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



The surprising secrets of the deepest sea creatures are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-deep-ocean-sediments-can-survive-boiling-hot-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">yet to be discovered</a>. And that’s the most exciting part about this area of study. It's also why it is so important for us to protect our planet and the oceans.



With unchecked human greed and consumption, we are destroying the secrets of these wondrous places. Unfortunately, we're going this before we have a chance to discover them. It is a dim prospect for the future, especially when some of the answers and lessons we must learn are lurking in these very ecosystems. 



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Seven Surprising Secrets of the Deepest Sea Creatures

Beneath the surface of the ocean is a vast and...

Space exploration is a constant source of philosophical, moral, and intellectual debate. Should we spend the resources exploring other planets when we can't even take care of our own? How can we spend billions of dollars on space exploration when people don't have access to clean drinking water? On the flip side, how can we afford not to find out what space has to offer? Perhaps we can mine asteroids for metals we lack here on Earth.



Whatever you think, the technology needed for space exploration gets better every year. The U.S. plans to make a permanent base on the moon, private companies are gearing up for space tourism, and new breakthroughs in science make it more possible for humans to reach Mars.



While the future of humans in space is uncertain, governments and companies are investing billions of dollars to further our understanding of what lies beyond our blue planet.



<h2 id="h-humans-on-the-moon">Humans on the Moon</h2>



Our bright, white moon is only a three-day trip from Earth, yet we still know little about it. In the last five decades, countries have focused more on deep space exploration rather than exploring our neighboring celestial body. But recently, the U.S. decided to change course and put people back on the moon.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886376 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1480426817.jpg" alt="space exploration progress" class="wp-image-1886376"/><figcaption>One of the initial space shuttles launches into space. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ArtsiomP89">Artsiom P</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-progress">Progress</h3>



Believe it or not, the Apollo missions from 1969 to 1972 were the only missions to send people to the moon. In total, only 12 humans have ever set foot on the moon. While several people are always onboard the International Space Station, the station is actually <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moon-to-mars/overview" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">only 1/1000th</a> of the distance to the moon.



In 2017, NASA unveiled <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Project Artemis</a>, the first mission in 50 years to send humans to the moon. After the first two trial runs, Artemis III plans to have a human lunar landing in 2024.



While Project Artemis currently hums along, similar ambitious space programs have ultimately failed due to changes in governmental leadership shifting their funding priorities.



<h3 id="h-impact">Impact</h3>



The twelve people who have set foot on the moon were all men. Project Artemis <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis_plan-20200921.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">will change that</a>, sending the first woman ever to the moon's surface. This much-needed representation could inspire more women to pursue aeronautics and space exploration.



The xEMU, the next-generation spacesuit developed for Project Artemis, will level-up humanity's ability to explore space on foot. The ultimate goal of the xEMU is to create a spacesuit usable for deep space exploration by humans.



Compared with Apollo-era spacesuits, the xEMU allows for greater movement. The supercharged static space dust proved to be an unexpected challenge for the Apollo missions. The new spacesuit doesn't have zippers and all the important components are completely sealed off from the space environment. These improvements will prevent space dust from interfering with the spacesuits. Another cool feature is that the suits can be made for any sized human and can operate from 250F to -250F.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886377 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1042736410.jpg" alt="humans on the moon" class="wp-image-1886377"/><figcaption>Concept art of humans on the moon. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/gorodenkoff">Gorodenkoff</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-forecast">Forecast</h3>



The main goal of project Artemis is to prepare humans for the exploration of Mars.



If all goes according to plan, the Artemis missions will create a permanent human base on the moon. This base will allow humans to explore and study the moon in more depth and with greater ease. Scientists want to use the known water reserves on the moon for deep space exploration. A base on the moon would help humans access this precious water.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Gateway</a>, a structure orbiting the moon, will be a waypoint for crews seeking deep space exploration. This structure will provide spaceships a place to load up cargo and provisions needed for deep space flight.



The lunar infrastructure will also create a hub for the proto space tourism industry.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886378 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1485814658.jpg" alt="space exploration forecast" class="wp-image-1886378"/><figcaption>Virgin Galactic's space flight terminal in New Mexico at Spaceport America. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Grossinger">Grossinger</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-private-industry-in-space-exploration">Private Industry in Space Exploration</h2>



Wouldn't it be cool to go to space, especially without the years of training that astronauts need? For just a <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/articles/virgin-galactics-spaceshiptwo-completes-second-flight-from-spaceport-america/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">few hundred thousand dollars</a>, you might be able to take your own space adventure very soon! While government-funding projects remain the most important in space exploration, private industry isn't entirely new to the field. In fact, private industries already have a large presence in space, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-many-satellites-in-space-do-we-know-about/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nearly half of the 2,000 satellites</a> in space used for commercial purposes.



<h3 id="h-progress-1">Progress</h3>



In the last decade, billionaires have accelerated efforts to bring the private industry into space. Elon Musk's SpaceX, Jeff Bezos' BlueOrigin, and Richard Branson's Virgin Galatic are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-biggest-private-space-companies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">three big players</a> in the private space industry. Virgin Galactic has sold <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50929064#:~:text=If%20all%20goes%20to%20plan,Justin%20Bieber%20and%20Leonardo%20DiCaprio." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hundreds of tickets</a> for $200,000+ in anticipation of its space tourism flights. It seems likely that one or all three of these companies will operate commercial space flights in the next few years.



On a different note, SpaceX made its first delivery to the International Space Station. This marks the first time a private industry delivered space cargo.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886379 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1063592036.jpg" alt="space exploration, SpaceX Dragon" class="wp-image-1886379"/><figcaption>The SpaceX Dragon capsule, which was the first private ship to deliver cargo in space. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rtmup">Taylor McKnight</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-impact-1">Impact</h3>



Spaceship launches require enormous amounts of fuel. When that fuel burns in the stratosphere, it isn't subject to many forces, such as weather. The gasses and soot from that burnt fuel remain in place, more or less. Unfortunately, these byproducts can be potent greenhouse gases or other climate-altering substances. If space tourism develops as its investors hope, it's possible that emissions from space tourism <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/101022/full/news.2010.558.html#:~:text=Scientists%20predict%20that%20soot%20from%20commercial%20space%20flight%20will%20change%20global%20temperatures.&amp;text=The%20simulations%20show%20that%20the,ice%20by%205%E2%80%9315%25." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">could equal emissions</a> from all airplanes.



That's a big problem for our climate, which is already changing at a dangerous pace. But on the bright side, uber-rich people will get to see the Earth from space!



<h3 id="h-forecast-1">Forecast</h3>



It's difficult to say how space tourism will pan out. Perhaps it will experience technological or financing difficulties, as it has in the past. Or maybe once the first celebrities fly in space, companies will experience huge demand for their services. It is a remarkably risky business, with huge costs and plenty of safety issues. Would the industry ever recover if a famous celebrity was killed by a spaceship malfunction in space?



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886380 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1791639938.jpg" alt="Blueorigin space exploration" class="wp-image-1886380"/><figcaption>BlueOrigin's rocket facility in Florida. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/jchase">John M. Chase</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



However, the private space industry will likely remain relevant as a partner with governments to deliver space cargo and develop new technologies. If companies can profit off of space through these delivery services or extractive practices, such as space mining, they will increase the number of resources dedicated to space exploration.



The private companies argue that space tourism and industry will increase the pace and scale of space exploration technologies. They claim that such developments are the best way to ensure humanity's exploration of deep space.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1724343382.jpg" alt="space exploration, mars" class="wp-image-1886381"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshimerbin">joshimerbin</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-space-exploration-to-mars-and-beyond">Space Exploration to Mars and Beyond</h2>



Mars has an outsized presence in the human imagination. It is a frequent locale for science-fiction novels, a home for hundreds of fictitious aliens, and the planet that has always seemed just out of reach. Based on the cultural narrative, it seems like a given that humans will someday set foot on Mars. But will we really ever get there?



<h3 id="h-progress-2">Progress</h3>



Getting humans to Mars is a lot more difficult than getting humans to the moon. The trip to Mars takes at least 6 months, whereas a trip to the moon is under a week. This extra time means more food, water, and supplies for the astronauts. All of these additions are heavy and bulky. The extra cargo needed for a Mars mission makes it exponentially more difficult to engineer and propel than a lunar mission.



Another challenge with the bulky ship is landing it on Mars. At top speed, a spaceship carrying humans to Mars will <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/timeline/cruise/#:~:text=The%20spacecraft%20departs%20Earth%20at,miles%20(480%20million%20kilometers)." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">travel at 25,000mph</a>. Slowing down this fast and heavy ship is difficult in a thin atmosphere like Mars'. While the thicker atmosphere of Earth provided sufficient friction to slow down the crews landing from the Apollo missions, Mars' atmosphere doesn't. NASA is <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/loftid/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">currently developing</a> a massive sail that the Mars-bound ship can deploy to increase drag as it enters Mars' atmosphere.



Before it can land, this ship must travel the 140-million miles between Earth and Mars. The fuels used to get to the moon aren't sufficient for this extremely long trip. NASA is currently working on <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/6_Technologies_NASA_is_Advancing_to_Send_Humans_to_Mars" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nuclear propulsion</a> as a source of fuel. They are currently having some success with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">novel ion propulsion</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886382 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_751517470.jpg" alt="Martian landscape" class="wp-image-1886382"/><figcaption>A rendition of a Martian landscape. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/pitris">Jurik Peter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-impact-2">Impact</h3>



Mars is the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. If humans had a chance to research Mars on the ground, they might make ground-breaking discoveries into the history of life on Earth and potentially life on Mars. Needless to say, if humans found life on Mars, that would have profound implications for cultures, religions, and governments around the world.



Some people are fascinated with the idea of terraforming Mars. These people want to turn Mars into a second Earth, habitable by everyday humans. If that's our goal, we need to get to Mars first.



Finally, getting humans to Mars is the next stepping stone in humanity's quest for deep space exploration. To get deeper into space, we must first make it to Mars.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886383 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1718419765.jpg" alt="terraformed Mars" class="wp-image-1886383"/><figcaption>Cartoonish concept art of a terraformed Mars. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/GoldenSikorka">Golden Sikorka</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-forecast-2">Forecast</h3>



Some experts think the mission to Mars is impossible without a national effort akin to the Apollo Missions. But NASA <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/multimedia/NASABudgetHistory.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">only receives 10%</a> of the budget it did during the Space Race. With its current funding, it is unlikely NASA will send someone to Mars before the late 2030s, perhaps later. That being said, NASA is under a presidential order to put a human on Mars by 2033.



<a href="https://www.spacex.com/human-spaceflight/mars/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SpaceX</a>, on the other hand, claims it will send humans to Mars by 2024. I'm skeptical, but only time will tell.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886384 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1487449580.jpg" alt="space exploration, mars rover" class="wp-image-1886384"/><figcaption>A Mars rover collects Martian rocks. <a href="http://shutterstock.7eer.net/c/77643/108110/1305?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shutterstock.com%2Fimage-photo%2Fmars-explores-surface-planet-elements-this-1487449580&amp;subId1=1487449580">www.shutterstock.com</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-about-deep-space-exploration">What About Deep Space Exploration</h2>



It's safe to say that deep space exploration is a long way off. Even if SpaceX makes it to Mars by 2024, the challenges getting humans to Jupiter, the next closest planet after Mars, will be greater than the challenges overcome to make it to Mars. If humans are to explore past our solar system, we need technologies far beyond our current capabilities. Don't hold your breath for deep space exploration any time before 2050, or perhaps even this century.



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Space Exploration: Progress, Impact, & Forecast

Space exploration is a constant source of philosophical, moral, and...

Arable land is a critical aspect of the conversation surrounding agricultural sustainability and biodiversity on our planet. It is a term we often use on a large scale, but it is a concept that transcends theory and directly impacts everyone in the world. Understanding the importance of arable land is a key component for both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-changes-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">farmers in the field</a> and city-dwellers making informed decisions as consumers.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-terms-and-context">Terms And Context</h3>



Arable land is any land that people are capable of <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Arable_land" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">plowing and using for crops</a>. This includes land upon which temporary crops are growing, pastures, meadows that are mowed, gardens, land that is for sale, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/arable-land" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">land that is fallow</a>.&nbsp;



The term fallow describes land that has been plowed and harrowed but is intentionally or unintentionally left unsown. Often, a farmer will allow a plot to “lie fallow” in order to restore fertility to depleted soil. It is an important aspect of rotation planting.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For some context, out of the almost 5 billion hectares of agricultural land used in the world, about <a href="https://www.helgilibrary.com/indicators/arable-land-area/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1.5 billion hectares</a> is arable land.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_95912767.jpg" alt="arable land" class="wp-image-1886203"/><figcaption>Israel Hervas Bengochea/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-arable-and-non-arable-land">Arable and Non-Arable Land</h3>



Distinctions between what constitutes arable land and non-arable land can be tricky at first because there is some fluidity to the categories. Non-arable land can become arable over time due to technology and innovation. Arable land can become non-arable due to changes in climate or irresponsible land management.&nbsp;



Take the Aran Islands; a stunning landscape of landmasses off the coast of Ireland. Tourists flock to the Aran shores for the salty mist of the Irish sea and a vast sense of open exposure. It is a very rocky place and considered non-arable land. But the Aran Islands are also an example of how the distinction and definition of arable land is fluid. People living on the islands populated the shores with a layer of seaweed and sand, which can support some crops.&nbsp;



The Amazon Rainforest, or the “planet’s lungs,” is one of the earth’s most fertile and biodiverse ecosystems. In addition to providing food, shelter, and medicine, the rainforest also sequesters greenhouse gasses from the atmosphere, combating climate change. The rainforest is arable land. However, the fertility of the soil of the rainforest is diminishing, causing it to become non-arable due to deforestation practices. The rainforest, once considered some of the richest soil in the world, is converting to non-arable desert land due to criminally poor land management - in other words, greed.&nbsp;



To help keep things straight: Agricultural land that is arable is land where a person can grow crops. Non-arable land cannot currently be used for agriculture (due to steep inclines, lack of water, erosion, and a number of other possibilities) or land that is used for permanent agriculture - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-avocado-prices-are-fueling-deforestation-in-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an orchard</a>, which is considered a permanent crop.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_651399079.jpg" alt="orchard" class="wp-image-1886204"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/fotokostic">Fotokostic</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-why-is-arable-land-important">Why Is Arable Land Important?</h3>



Land is a <a href="https://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/the-future-prospects-for-global-arable-land/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">finite resource</a> so we have to be wise about how we use it. There is a direct link between arable land and food security. Finding a balance between competing interests is critical to sustainable food systems and broader economies. If we don’t have arable land available to utilize within sustainable growing practices, we’re in for a rather apocalyptic future.



People refer to the midwest region of the United States as the “American Breadbasket.” In the era of the Great Depression, land that was once arable became untenable to farm due to extreme drought. Historians and communities that lived through this occurrence call it the “Dust Bowl.” During the 1930s, over <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/dust-bowl#:~:text=Roughly%202.5%20million%20people%20left,traveled%20west%20looking%20for%20work." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2.5 million people were displaced</a> due to a terrifying combination of mismanagement and drought. The dust bowl created a desperate situation for innumerable families who migrated west in search of hope and opportunity. This migration shaped the trajectory of the United States immensely. The repercussions of this arable land converting to a desert-scape were devastating.&nbsp;



If this story of the early 20th century sounds eerily familiar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recovering-drought-damage-permanent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">news headlines today</a>, you’re exactly right. People in desperate situations migrate in search of a better life. Caravans of families arrive at border walls and suffer. So often, land mismanagement brings on or exacerbates the conflicts and failures of society. When arable land becomes unusable and ecosystems are ravaged by development, it is a humanitarian crisis and an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-6th-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">eventual extinction event.&nbsp;</a>



This is why understanding and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacterial-dirt/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">prioritizing soil health</a> and thriving ecosystems is such an important thing. When we understand the benefits of arable land, crop rotation, agroforestry, and other sustainable farming practices, we can commit to these practices ourselves and demand it of our governments. This is the way forward.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_575991601.jpg" alt="arable land" class="wp-image-1886205"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Pinkyone">Pinkyone</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-promoting-land-health-and-re-thinking-farming-practices">Promoting Land Health And Re-Thinking Farming Practices</h3>



The conversation around land health and sustainable farming practices has been politicized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-destruction-companies-profit/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">corrupt politicians and ineffective governments</a> all over the world. The hour is late. People and ecosystems are suffering in ways that might have been avoided.&nbsp;



But it does not have to be a story of doom and gloom. There is reason to hope.&nbsp;



Indigenous communities have consistently advocated for promoting land health and agro-foresty practices. Through decentralized networks and the power of social media, these ideas are gaining traction and have become a movement. In Guatemala, <a href="http://cloudforestconservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">young women teach their neighbors sustainable farming practices</a> while putting themselves through forestry school. In the UK, the <a href="https://extinctionrebellion.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Extinction Rebellion </a>organizes direct actions to advocate for change. <a href="http://www.honorearth.org/no_fossil_fuels_in_the_great_lakes" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Anishinabe youth protest giant pipelines</a> and cultivate sustainable crop management of hemp.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_565750513.jpg" alt="NDAPL; water is life" class="wp-image-1886206"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/DiegoGDiaz">Diego G Diaz</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



It is easy to feel overwhelmed by the bad news, the frightening data, or the people around you who have given up hope. But the answers, the many solutions necessary for our survival, are out there. 



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Understanding The Importance Of Arable Land

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...