A sparkling galactic neighbour

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the galaxy ESO 300-16, which is located 28.7 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Eridanus



According to ESA, the galaxy is a ghostly assemblage of stars which resembles a sparkling cloud.&nbsp;



"A rogue’s gallery of distant galaxies and foreground stars complete this astronomical portrait, which was captured by the Advanced Camera for Surveys," said ESA.



"This observation is one of a series which aims to get to know our galactic neighbors; around three quarters of the known galaxies suspected to lie within 10 megaparsecs of Earth have been observed by Hubble in enough detail to resolve their brightest stars and establish the distances to these galaxies."



"A team of astronomers proposed using small gaps in Hubble’s observing schedule to acquaint ourselves with the remaining quarter of the nearby galaxies."



ESO 300-16 is a relatively small and remote dwarf galaxy. It is sometimes known as a "compact blue dwarf galaxy" because of its size and the intense blue colors indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically small, but they have high star-forming rates for their size. This kind of galaxy can provide insights into the process of star formation as well as galaxy evolution in general.



Dwarf galaxies are of particular interest to astronomers because they can help to provide understanding about the formation and evolution of galaxies in the early universe. They're also thought to play a role in the assembly of larger galaxies over cosmic time.



By studying galaxies like ESO 300-16, astronomers can hope to better understand how galaxies grow, evolve, and interact over time.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA



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A ghostly assemblage of stars make up the galaxy ESO 300-16

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut view of the Tunupa Volcano, a dormant volcano in southwestern Bolivia. The volcano is located on a peninsula between two of Bolivia’s largest salt flats - Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Coipasa.



"Tunupa Volcano is located at the center of the Southern Altiplano, or the Andean Plateau, and rises as high as 5.3 kilometers (3.3 miles) in elevation," says NASA. "The volcano is a composite cone - a large, complex volcano that is often covered by lava flows, pyroclastic and mudflow deposits, and domes. Last active about 1.4 million years ago, Tunupa is now considered dormant."



"The flanks of the volcano’s cone are incised by valleys that were eroded by ancient glaciers and stream flows. Domes and lava flows appear on the eastern side of Tunupa, and the volcano is adjacent to other eroded volcanic fields and craters, including Jayu Khota and Titivilla."



According to NASA. the salt flats are typically a bright white color when viewed from orbit - but during Bolivia’s rainy season, rivers can carry sediment rich in microbes and dark-colored volcanic minerals onto the flats.&nbsp;



The image was captured on February 5, 2022 by a member of the Expedition 66 crew.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tunupa Volcano in southwestern Bolivia

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2023/09/Earth_from_Space_Southern_Patagonian_Ice_Field">European Space Agency</a> features the Southern Patagonian Ice Field in the Southern Andes. It is one of the world's largest continuous masses of ice outside the polar regions.&nbsp;



The Southern Patagonian Ice Field spreads across the border between Argentina and Chile and is an essential fresh water reservoir. Covering an area of about 12,363 square kilometers, it is home to numerous glaciers, including the well-known Perito Moreno and Upsala Glaciers in Argentina.



The ice field is situated within the Andes mountain range and is part of two national parks: the Los Glaciares National Park in Argentina and the Torres del Paine National Park in Chile.&nbsp;



"Ice fields form as a result of accumulations of snow that turn into ice through years of compression and freezing. Shaped by the underlying topography, glaciers often form at the edges of an ice field," explained ESA.



"In this image, the ice mass feeds several smaller and bigger glaciers, including the Argentinian Perito Moreno Glacier in the top right corner. Located on a narrow channel, Perito Moreno feeds Lake Argentino and forms an ice dam that separates the main body of the lake, visible on top in turquoise, from its southern arm, which appears grey."



The Southern Patagonian Ice Field is crucial for the study of climate change as it reacts sensitively to temperature variations. Over recent years, it has experienced significant retreat and thinning due to global warming, leading to concerns over rising sea levels and loss of freshwater resources.&nbsp;



"Glaciers are the largest reservoirs of freshwater on our planet. The rate at which they may be melting or growing is one of the best indicators of climate change," said ESA. "The demise of glaciers is one of the main causes of sea-level rise. Many glaciers in Patagonia have retreated over the last 50 years."&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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The Southern Patagonian Ice Field in the Andes Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory </a>&nbsp;features a dust storm that moved across parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan in mid-September.



"This image, acquired by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) instrument on the NOAA-NASA Suomi NPP satellite, shows thick plumes of dust blowing hundreds of kilometers across the arid region on September 22, 2023," said NASA.



"The dust appears to emanate from the ephemeral Hamun wetlands, which partially surround the Iranian city of Zabol. When dry, this area becomes a hotspot for dust storms due to a persistent weather feature known as the Levar wind (or “120-day wind”), which blows out of the northwest from late-May to late-September."



Across the Sistan-Baluchistan province in southeastern Iran, three people were killed in accidents related to poor visibility and more than 1,300 others sought medical assistance for respiratory, heart, and eye ailments.



According to NASA, more than two decades of low water levels in the Hamun wetlands have led to a significant increase in dust storms. This has been especially the case during the 120-day winds, strong summer winds that occur from late May to late September.



"Water levels are influenced by rainfall and the flow of the Helmand river, which runs from the Hindu Kush mountains across Afghanistan before terminating at the wetlands. More frequent drought since 1999, along with increasing upstream demands on water resources for agriculture and other uses, have amplified the drying," said NASA.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Brutal dust storm sweeps across Southern Asia

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory &nbsp;features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features dust flowing through the Tokar Gap, where the easternmost extent of the African Sahel meets the Red Sea.



"Mountain chains border both sides of the Red Sea, the long narrow inlet of the Indian Ocean that separates Saudi Arabia to the east from Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea to the west. One major exception is the Tokar Gap, a 100-kilometer (60-mile) break in the Red Sea Hills that serves as a conduit for both winds and dust," says NASA.



"In the summer, strong surface winds frequently stream through the gap from the southwest, often funneling narrow plumes of dust from the Tokar Delta over the Red Sea."



The photo was captured on June 24, 2023 by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite. The image shows a plume of dust from Sudan pushing through the Tokar Gap.



"In the winter, the winds reverse and winds typically gather over the Red Sea and move through the gap toward the southwest," says NASA.



"A 2019 analysis of weather conditions that fuel summer dust storms indicated that stronger winds moving through the Tokar Gap - and warmer air and soil temperatures - have increased the amount of airborne dust found in this area since 2002."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/ Wanmei Liang



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Dust from Africa streams through the Tokar Gap

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory </a>&nbsp;features a fjord in western Greenland as the ice was joined by a mysterious arc.



"In summer, the fjords around Greenland are commonly littered with angular pieces of ice that have sloughed off from the island’s numerous outlet glaciers. But on August 3, 2023, the ice on a fjord in western Greenland was joined by a peculiar arc," said NASA.



"The thin, white feature spans much of Itilliarsuup Kangerlua, a tributary fjord of the Uummannaq Fjord system in Western Greenland. It extends about 2.6 kilometers (1.6 miles) from the front of Kangilleq glacier."



While the origin of the arc remains unclear, experts have proposed some possible theories. Dan Shugar, a geomorphologist at the University of Calgary, suggests that the arc may be the result of a large iceberg that broke off from the front of the glacier.



"An iceberg breaking from the glacier - above or below the water’s surface - would displace water, creating a wave," explained NASA.



"Josh Willis, an oceanographer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and Mike Wood, a glaciologist at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, agree that a newly formed iceberg is a likely explanation."



The scientists also pointed to a different phenomenon that is known to displace water in the fjords around Greenland. According to Willis, there could be water pushing ice away from the glacier face caused by an underwater plume.



The image was captured by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Mysterious arc joins ice on a fjord in western Greenland

So what exactly is it that makes the Farallones a no-go zone? And why do those brave enough to make the crossing risk life and limb to do so? These islands, it turns out, have a long and brutal past, developing a deadly reputation long before the U.S. government declared them off-limits Photo Credit: Kevin Schafer/Getty Images

Deadly reputations

A young child’s body and <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain">brain</a> are literally designed to be playful, and this is crucial for neural development, says Dr. Jacqueline Harding, a renowned early childhood expert at Middlesex University and the director of <a href="https://www.tomorrowschild.co.uk/">Tomorrow’s Child</a>.



In her new book, "The Brain that Loves to Play," Dr. Harding emphasizes the indispensable role of play in fostering the holistic development of young children.



“Children are naturally wired to play and any sustained deviation from this masterful design comes at a price."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-play-and-learning">Play and learning</h2>



Dr. Harding challenges the long-standing dichotomy between play and learning, highlighting play's pivotal function in the educational spectrum of early childhood.&nbsp;



“At this very moment, his brain also starts to 'jump' and light up with joy as connections between neurons make impressive progress. Does this experience count as learning? Absolutely yes."



The book signifies joyous moments of play as monumental instances of cognitive progression. Dr. Harding advocates for the essential and inseparable integration of play into the learning processes of children ranging from birth to five years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuroscientific-foundations">Neuroscientific foundations</h2>



Dr. Harding provides insightful observations on how a child's brain inherently yearns and optimally flourishes through play.&nbsp;



She notes that engaging in playful activities and sensory experiences significantly facilitates the creation of new neural pathways, establishing a robust foundation for future learning and growth.&nbsp;



These neural pathways, carved through play before reaching six years of age, significantly influence the child's future learning capacities and opportunities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-perspectives-on-play">Traditional perspectives on play</h2>



The book invites readers to reassess and discard the outdated belief that dismisses play as a trivial recreational activity.&nbsp;



Instead, Dr. Harding supports a holistic perspective, asserting play as a fundamental element of a child's developmental architecture.



"There is no doubt, according to all the latest research, that the brain loves to play - and it is time that as adults we got on board with this notion too.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-induced-challenges">Pandemic-induced challenges</h2>



Dr. Harding’s book explores the acute challenges precipitated by the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly its detrimental effects on children's mental health.&nbsp;



In navigating through these unprecedented challenges, she emphasizes the urgency of prioritizing play and early intervention strategies to effectively support the children who have weathered through the storm of the pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-children-through-play">Supporting children through play</h2>



By simplifying complex terminologies and offering illustrative case studies, Dr. Harding empowers adults with practical knowledge and tools to seamlessly incorporate play into their daily interactions with children, fostering an environment conducive to both play and learning.



“As we emerge from a pandemic which has significantly impacted all our lives, there can be no better place to begin than considering how we can rewrite the narrative through support in the early years,” she says.



Dr. Harding also emphasizes that the book is not an exhaustive compilation of scientific findings but rather a practical guide for adults seeking to better understand the value of play in young children’s development.&nbsp;



“It is my belief that a greater awareness of how we can support children is vital for all who care for young children,” she says.



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Lighting up the brain: The power of play in child development

A young child’s body and brain are literally designed to...

Scientists have recently discovered the massive fossil of a trapdoor spider in Australia, providing significant insights into the ancient arachnids’ history and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-practices-could-greatly-reduce-species-extinction-risk/">extinction</a> patterns in the region.



The fossil was unearthed at a site in the Central Tablelands in New South Wales. It represents the second-largest spider fossil ever found.&nbsp;



The astonishingly large spider, which has been named Megamonodontium mccluskyi, was more than five times the size of its modern relatives.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dismal-fossil-record">Dismal fossil record</h2>



The researchers explained that it has been challenging to piece together the intricate history of Australian spiders.&nbsp;



"Mygalomorph spiders have been present on the Australian landmass since before the break-up of Gondwana. Today, mygalomorphs are represented on the continent by a diverse fauna of 12 families," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Despite this extensive evolutionary history, only one fossil mygalomorph spider has been found in Australia: Edwa maryae from the Triassic of Queensland."



"Presumably, this dismal fossil record is the result of a combination of the fragility of the animals and the tendency of females to stay within burrows, both of which prevent many spiders from entering the fossil record."&nbsp;



"The lack of fossils from Australia has made it difficult to decipher the evolutionary history of the group."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications-nbsp">Evolutionary implications&nbsp;</h2>



Matthew McCurry, a palaeontologist at UNSW, noted that only four spider fossils have previously been discovered in Australia.



“This discovery is so significant, it reveals new information about the extinction of spiders and fills a gap in our understanding," said McCurry. “The closest living relative of this fossil now lives in wet forests in Singapore through to Papua New Guinea."



“This suggests that the group once occupied similar environments in mainland Australia but have gone extinct as Australia became more arid.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megamonodontium-mccluskyi">Megamonodontium mccluskyi</h2>



Notably, Megamonodontium mccluskyi shares a resemblance with the present-day brush-footed trapdoor spiders found in western New South Wales. It marks an essential milestone for researchers studying the ancient biodiversity and ecological shifts in Australia. The newfound fossil is believed to be between 11 to 16 million years old.



The fossilized spider draws its name from Dr. Simon McClusky, the scientist credited with its discovery. This monumental finding is the result of the collaborative efforts of scientists from ANU, UC, and UNSW.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brush-footed-trapdoor-spiders">Brush-footed trapdoor spiders</h2>



"Brush-footed trapdoor spiders (Araneae: Barychelidae) are a diverse clade of mygalomorph spiders that have evolved several features, including tufts of setae that allow them to climb smooth surfaces," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Furthermore, their spinnerets are fairly short, which distinguishes them readily from the larger sympatric tarantulas (Theraphosidae). Australia is currently home to 10 genera of brush-footed trapdoor spiders, a center of biodiversity, if not also their origin."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-significance">Global significance</h2>



Robert Raven, a Queensland Museum arachnologist and the supervising author of the research, offered further context on the discovery’s global significance.&nbsp;



"Not only is it the largest fossilized spider to be found in Australia but it is the first fossil of the family Barychelidae that has been found worldwide," said Raven.&nbsp;



"There are around 300 species of brush-footed trapdoor spiders alive today, but they don't seem to become fossils very often. This could be because they spend so much time inside burrows and so aren't in the right environment to be fossilized."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-site">Discovery site</h2>



The spider fossil is now part of the Australian Museum’s palaeontology collection and is accessible online for research purposes, further facilitating the study of ancient arachnids. 



Interestingly, the discovery site, known as McGraths Flat near Gulgong, has also been identified as the location where a new fossilized jumping spider was recently found.



The research is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/advance-article/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad100/7274985">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.



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Prehistoric trapdoor spider was five times bigger than its modern relatives

Scientists have recently discovered the massive fossil of a trapdoor...

The long-held belief that jellyfish are simple creatures with limited cognitive abilities has been dramatically overturned.&nbsp;



A new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> reveals that Caribbean box jellyfish are far more advanced than previously thought, displaying complex learning abilities despite their rudimentary nervous systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-so-simple-nbsp">Not so simple&nbsp;</h2>



While jellyfish have inhabited our planet for over 500 million years, their reputation has mostly been that of uncomplicated beings.&nbsp;



This notion has been largely based on their primitive nervous systems, particularly when compared to organisms with advanced centralized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutrition-for-neurons-the-role-of-breast-milk-in-shaping-our-brains/">brains</a>. The research, however, challenges this perspective.



"It was once presumed that jellyfish can only manage the simplest forms of learning, including habituation – i.e., the ability to get used to a certain stimulation, such as a constant sound or constant touch," said study co-author Professor Anders Garm.



"Now, we see that jellyfish have a much more refined ability to learn, and that they can actually learn from their mistakes. And in doing so, modify their behavior."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The focus of this research was the Caribbean box jellyfish, Tripedalia cystophora. Despite having only about a thousand nerve cells, these jellyfish displayed sophisticated learning mechanisms that allowed them to adapt their behavior based on experiences. Remarkably, they achieve this advanced learning at a rate similar to that of fruit flies and mice.



The team's experiments highlighted how these jellyfish use visual contrasts to gauge their distance from mangrove roots, enabling them to avoid potential harm.&nbsp;



What's even more fascinating is their ability to adjust their behavior based on changes in contrast conditions due to various environmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-associative-learning-nbsp">Associative learning&nbsp;</h2>



"Our experiments show that contrast, i.e., how dark the root is in relation to the water, is used by the jellyfish to assess distances to roots, which allows them to swim away at just the right moment. Even more interesting is that the relationship between distance and contrast changes on a daily basis due to rainwater, algae and wave action," said Professor Garm.



"We can see that as each new day of hunting begins, box jellyfish learn from the current contrasts by combining visual impressions and sensations during evasive maneuvers that fail."



"So, despite having a mere one thousand nerve cells – our brains have roughly 100 billion – they can connect temporal convergences of various impressions and learn a connection – or what we call associative learning. And they actually learn about as quickly as advanced animals like fruit flies and mice."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



This research is redefining our understanding of the capabilities of simple nervous systems. It presents the intriguing idea that advanced learning might have been a fundamental evolutionary advantage from the very inception of nervous systems.



"For fundamental neuroscience, this is pretty big news. It provides a new perspective on what can be done with a simple nervous system. This suggests that advanced learning may have been one of the most important evolutionary benefits of the nervous system from the very beginning," said Garm.



Further studies are now focusing on identifying the specific nerve cells responsible for this learning in jellyfish.&nbsp;



This knowledge could ultimately lead to a broader understanding about memory processes across different species and might even contribute to our comprehension of complex conditions like dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-supermodel-system-nbsp">A supermodel system&nbsp;</h2>



The research team has also shown where the learning is happening in these box jellyfish. This has given them the unique opportunity to study the precise changes that occur in a nerve cell when it is involved in advanced learning.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"We hope that this can become a supermodel system for looking at cellular processes in the advanced learning of all sorts of animals," said Professor Garm.



"We are now in the process of trying to pinpoint exactly which cells are involved in learning and memory formation. Upon doing so, we will be able to go in and look at what structural and physiological changes occur in the cells as learning takes place."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-memory-works-nbsp">Learning how memory works&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Garm said that the team will eventually look for the same mechanisms in other animals, to see if this is how memory works in general.&nbsp;



"Understanding something as enigmatic and immensely complex as the brain is in itself an absolutely amazing thing. But there are unimaginably many useful possibilities."&nbsp;



"One major problem in the future will undoubtedly be various forms of dementia. I don’t claim that we are finding the cure for dementia, but if we can gain a better understanding of what memory is, which is a central problem in dementia, we may be able to lay a building block to better understand the disease and perhaps counteract it."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Jellyfish can learn from past experiences - even without a central brain

The long-held belief that jellyfish are simple creatures with limited...

Lunar,Base,,Spatial,Outpost.,First,Settlement,On,The,Moon.,Space

China has recently expressed interest in the idea of constructing bases within lunar caves, as these environments may offer unique protections for astronauts stationed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>.&nbsp;



Lunar caves could provide valuable protection from a myriad of hazards such as cosmic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-been-kickstarted-by-a-stormy-and-active-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar radiation</a>, meteorites, extreme temperature variations, and impact ejecta.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lava-tubes-nbsp">Lava tubes&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> (LRO) has identified hundreds of lunar "skylights" - openings into lava tubes formed through ancient volcanic activity on the Moon’s surface.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-protection-nbsp">Natural protection&nbsp;</h3>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-surprising-facts-you-didnt-know-about-lava-tubes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lava tubes</a>, or pyroducts, might exist in substantial sizes, potentially several hundred meters in diameter, offering significant space for establishing bases. Astronauts inside these tubes would benefit from the natural protection offered by the thick rock ceilings of these structures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation">Formation</h3>



The formation of these lava tubes is attributed to the cooling of lava that once flowed across the lunar surface, leaving behind empty tubes after the molten material drained away.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-environment-nbsp">Pristine environment&nbsp;</h3>



Although lunar volcanism's exact timeline remains uncertain, the tubes represent ancient, untouched structures, potentially providing a pristine environment for scientific exploration and habitation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-regulation-nbsp">Temperature regulation&nbsp;</h3>



Temperature regulation is a crucial advantage of these lunar caves. The Moon experiences extreme temperature swings, with one side facing temperatures as high as 127°C (260°F) in sunlight and the dark side plummeting to -173°C (-280°F).&nbsp;



The steady-temperature environment within the lava tubes presents a more hospitable and manageable setting for both astronauts and their equipment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation">Radiation</h3>



Radiation on the lunar surface is about 150 times more powerful than on Earth, posing a severe risk to humans.&nbsp;



However, the several meters of rock overhead in the lunar caves can act as a substantial barrier, offering effective protection from this deadly hazard. The caves also minimize the risk of impacts from meteorites and other debris.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fieldwork-in-china">Fieldwork in China</h2>



At a conference, Zhang Chongfeng from the <a href="https://www.sast.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology</a> presented a study delving into the underground world of these lava tubes, according to state-run news outlet <a href="https://english.news.cn/20230925/6cde7085c8a949fb9c785af1858770f3/c.html">Xinhua</a>.



According to Zhang, his team has conducted fieldwork in several lava caves in China to build up their understanding of lunar lava tubes.



Zhang said there is a certain similarity between lava tubes on Earth and the Moon, explaining that they can be divided into the vertical entrance tube and the slope entrance tube.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robotic-exploration-nbsp">Robotic exploration&nbsp;</h2>



China plans to deploy robotic systems designed to explore lunar caves, starting with the one in Mare Tranquillitatis. The primary probe, equipped to navigate challenging terrains, will carry scientific instruments.&nbsp;



Auxiliary vehicles, designed to perform various functions including reconnaissance and providing energy support, will accompany the main probe. These might include multi-legged crawlers, rollers, and bouncing probes, all equipped with scientific instruments.



Plans are also underway for flight-capable robots that can autonomously navigate through the lunar tubes using microwave and laser radars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-research-base-nbsp">Underground research base&nbsp;</h2>



Following successful exploration missions, China envisions establishing a long-term underground research base within one of the lunar lava tubes. This base would incorporate residential and research facilities, supported by an energy and communication center at the entrance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-lunar-missions">Future lunar missions</h2>



Though China has been somewhat reserved in sharing information about their space activities, it is evident that their space exploration endeavors are on the rise.&nbsp;



In Spring 2023, China announced plans to begin construction of a Moon base by 2028, though it is unclear whether this refers to a lunar lava tube base.&nbsp;



Ding Lieyun, a top scientist at Huazhong University of Science and Technology, told the China Science Daily: "Eventually, building habitation beyond the Earth is essential not only for all humanity's quest for space exploration but also for China's strategic needs as a space power."



In anticipation of future lunar missions, Chinese researchers have been actively studying various lunar regions, including Mare Tranquillitatis and Mare Fecunditatis, with a focus on their volcanic features and potential suitability for hosting lunar bases.



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China aims to use lunar caves to build an underground moon base

China has recently expressed interest in the idea of constructing...

NASA was recently forced to pause its examination of the Bennu asteroid samples that landed on Earth this week, following the discovery of unexplained black dust within the container.&nbsp;



The samples, originally gathered from the surface of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mission-prevent-earth-collision-asteroid-bennu-lands-utah/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid Bennu</a> in 2020 during NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/">OSIRIS-REx</a> mission, made their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/osiris-rex-safely-delivers-rock-samples-from-asteroid-bennu-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landing</a> in the Utah desert last Sunday.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unknown-substances-on-bennu-sample">Unknown substances on Bennu sample</h2>



Upon opening the canister, which held approximately eight ounces of debris, scientists discovered unknown substances on the Touch and Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism (TAGSAM) located above the avionics deck.&nbsp;



A photograph taken by the scientists clearly showed that the interior of the silver lid was marked with black material. NASA announced that this dust is set for a preliminary analysis to verify whether it originates from asteroid Bennu.



“The TAGSAM, which holds the bulk of the sample, will be carefully opened in the coming weeks,”&nbsp;experts from NASA declared.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-securely-transferring-the-sample">Securely transferring the sample</h2>



The residue observed on the avionics deck, detected on Tuesday, is presumed to have originated during the collection process. NASA reported that this issue was resolved, enabling the secure transfer of the sample, but confirmation by scientists is pending.



Dante Lauretta, the OSIRIS-REx principal investigator, captured the image of the sample canister following the successful lid removal, adhering to the stipulated curation process.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The information acquired from the OSIRIS-REx mission is anticipated to enhance our understanding of potentially hazardous asteroids and contribute to future asteroid deflection strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curation-facility-nbsp">Curation facility&nbsp;</h2>



For thorough examination and preservation, the asteroid samples are to be managed at a newly established curation facility. This facility is overseen by NASA’s <a href="https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/">Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science</a> division (ARES), situated at the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/">Johnson Space Center</a> in Texas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-osiris-rex">OSIRIS-REx</h2>



Launching in 2016, the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft embarked on a $1 billion mission, reaching Bennu in 2018 and collecting samples in 2020 using a vacuum-equipped arm. By the time it returned, the spacecraft had traversed four billion miles.&nbsp;



Despite entering the atmosphere at 27,650 mph, it was vital to prevent the sample from contamination, slowing it to 11 mph using a parachute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-mission-nbsp">Recovery mission&nbsp;</h2>



NASA orchestrated a meticulous recovery mission in Utah, involving helicopters and a temporary clean room.&nbsp;



The OSIRIS-REx spacecraft deposited the sample container into Earth’s orbit on Sunday before proceeding to its next destination.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-extraterrestrial-sample-nbsp">Large extraterrestrial sample&nbsp;</h2>



The retrieved pebbles and dust are the largest extraterrestrial sample since the lunar missions and offer invaluable insights into the formation of Earth and life, giving us “an extraordinary glimpse” into the past 4.5 billion years, according to NASA Administrator Bill Nelson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bennu-nbsp">Bennu&nbsp;</h2>



Bennu, currently orbiting the sun 50 million miles away from Earth, is roughly the size of the Empire State Building.&nbsp;



The asteroid is a fragment of a larger space rock and is considered the most hazardous object in the Solar System due to its potential collision course with Earth, expected to come dangerously close to our planet in September 2182.&nbsp;



The observations and data from OSIRIS-REx will be instrumental in any future asteroid-deflection efforts. The spacecraft is now on course to reach asteroid Apophis in 2029.



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Mysterious black dust found on Bennu asteroid samples forces NASA to pause

NASA was recently forced to pause its examination of the...

A new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1236256" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Sports and Active Living</a> sheds light on the way swimming lessons are taught to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-green-space-linked-to-adhd-in-children/">children</a>, suggesting there's significant room for improvement to enhance children’s intrinsic motivation to swim.&nbsp;



The research was led by Carola Minkels, a doctoral student in the Department of Human Movement Sciences at Free University Amsterdam.&nbsp;



“Here we show that swimming lessons in the Netherlands poorly support the intrinsic motivation of children: their need for autonomy is thwarted, while their needs for competence, and relatedness are only weakly supported," said Minkels.



“Fortunately, we also show that teachers can be taught to better support these needs if they adopt a swim teaching program explicitly designed for this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



While swimming is not just a potentially life-saving skill but also a means of a full-body workout promoting cardiovascular and lung health, it has been observed that few children continue with swimming after learning the basics in high-income countries.&nbsp;



In the Netherlands, for example, while a significant percentage of children earn their basic and advanced swimming diplomas, 70% of swimming teachers believe their former students seldom swim post-certification, leading to potential deterioration in their acquired skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swimming-lessons">Swimming lessons</h2>



"Regularly recurring practice is necessary to preserve swimming skills, and to master swimming in more challenging environments, such as strong currents and waves," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Since most children in Western countries acquire swimming skills during swimming lessons, these lessons also offer an ideal opportunity to stimulate children to adopt swimming as a sporting activity, be it at a swimming club or in unorganized form."&nbsp;



"To this end, swimming lessons should be focused not only on the acquisition of swimming skills to become water safe, but also on developing motivation for and pleasure in swimming."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-determination-theory-nbsp">Self-determination theory&nbsp;</h2>



Minkels and her colleagues based their research on the self-determination theory of human motivation and personality, which asserts that individuals are more likely to enjoy and persist in activities when they are self-motivated.&nbsp;



This theory proposes that autonomy (the need to control one’s actions and goals), competence (the need to feel effective in one’s behavior), and relatedness (the need to belong to a social group) are critical factors shaping self-determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



The researchers observed 128 swimming lessons at 42 schools, taught by different instructors. Of these, 25% of instructors were trained in the EasySwim program, designed with self-determination theory in mind, whereas the remaining 75% were not.&nbsp;



The lessons varied in duration and size but were all aimed at novice swimmers between the ages of four and ten. Following each lesson, the instructors were rated on a seven-point scale regarding their support or thwarting of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The findings revealed that while competence and relatedness were somewhat supported, autonomy was significantly lacking in the teaching styles observed.&nbsp;



“Instructors scored significantly lower on the employment of autonomy in swimming lessons than on the employment of competence and relatedness,” the authors noted. 



However, instructors trained under the EasySwim program displayed higher scores in supporting autonomy, indicating that it’s possible to teach instructors to nurture all three critical needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The experts recommend a shift in the teaching style employed by swimming instructors, advocating for an approach that strongly supports autonomy, competence, and relatedness. 



They believe that this teaching style will not only improve swimming skills in children but will also inspire them to enjoy swimming and continue practicing the sport long after their formal education ends.&nbsp;



“Motivation is a prerequisite for all forms of learning, including motor learning. A more motivating teaching style is therefore more likely to improve the swimming capability of children," said Minkels.



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Swimming lessons fail to promote pleasure and motivation in kids

A new study published in Frontiers in Sports and Active...

Big,Sun,Eruption,-,Elements,Of,This,Image,Furnished,By

Every glimmer of the northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-spectacle-northern-lights-may-be-visible-in-17-states-next-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lights</a> – also known as aurora borealis - has its origins in a specific area on the solar surface. As a result of escalating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-eruption-caught-on-camera/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a>, the upcoming year and a half are set to be replete with such celestial glimmers.



Since the end of 2022, a dramatic surge in the observation of sunspots - a pivotal metric for predicting the aurora borealis - has exceeded prior projections. This upswing has, in certain instances, expanded the observable scope of this natural light display.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalation-in-solar-storms">Escalation in solar storms</h2>



If it persists, scientists anticipate that the next 18 months could usher in the strongest northern lights activity of both the upcoming decade and the preceding 20 years. This amazing spectacle will be observable more frequently and from a broader array of locations worldwide and drift further south.



“Skywatchers are excited,” said Mark Miesch, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).



In 2019, the <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/solarcycle25/2022/07/27/solar-cycle-25-is-exceeding-predictions-and-showing-why-we-need-the-gdc-mission/">Solar Cycle 25 Prediction Panel</a>, a globally represented scientific assembly backed by NASA and NOAA, which predicts sunspot activities, had initially projected a below-average count of approximately 110 to 115 sunspots at its peak.&nbsp;



However, revised models from various experts indicate a potential substantial escalation in solar activity.



According to the scientists, there will be a significant rise in solar activity until the autumn of 2024. It is during this period that the probability of witnessing the aurora borealis is at its pinnacle, according to Miesch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-weather-and-northern-lights">Space weather and Northern lights</h2>



Sunspots, characterized by their darker appearance, reduced temperature, and heightened magnetic activity on the solar surface, give rise to <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/multi-talented-satellite-can-monitor-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a>. This occurs when magnetic anomalies propel particles into the cosmos, a phenomenon known as coronal mass ejection. 



These particles traverse with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> over 94 million miles before they encounter breaches in the Earth’s magnetic field, leading to collisions with the atmospheric elements and resulting in the radiant hues that fill the sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-visibility-range-of-aurora-borealis">Extended visibility range of aurora borealis</h2>



Typically, the aurora borealis is most prominent near the Polar regions, where the Earth's magnetic fields are relatively weaker.&nbsp;



However, the increased solar activity has already extended the visibility range of the lights this year. Recent sightings have been reported as far south as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and even Arizona.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-disturbances-nbsp">Magnetic field disturbances&nbsp;</h2>



Yet, solar weather is not the sole contributing factor. According to Miesch, the spring and autumn equinoxes induce amplified disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field.&nbsp;



This amplification results from the alignment of the Earth’s magnetic field to expose its most vulnerable segments towards the sun and thus granting space particles a more straightforward entry into our planet’s atmosphere.



“When there’s a big disturbance in the magnetic field, then you are more likely to see aurora at lower latitudes,” Miesch told NBC News.



As a consequence, this alignment would nearly double the chances of witnessing the northern lights in the following days.



The documentation of sunspots stands as one of the most enduring observational datasets, with records tracing back to the 17th century.



“Sunspots are our window to the past to compare current activity to what it was centuries ago,” Miesch told NBC.



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Solar storms are getting stronger and northern lights will be seen further south

Every glimmer of the northern lights – also known as...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Photo Credit: Michael Macor/The San Francisco Chronicle via Getty Images / Jan Roletto/NOAA

San Francisco - Farallon Islands