Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-flying-squirrel-spotted-after-more-than-four-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> manage the traumas? 



Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-traumas-shorter-squirrel-lives">Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives</h2>



Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, is deeply involved in studying the survival factors of red squirrels. Her recent study highlights a significant finding: young red squirrels that encounter numerous traumas during their first year typically experience a reduction in their adult lifespan. 



Specifically, in the challenging conditions of the Yukon, such early life stress leads to an average lifespan reduction of at least 14 percent. This research underscores the critical impact of early developmental conditions on the longevity of these animals.



"The ecosystem red squirrels inhabit in this region is unique. Every three to seven years, their favorite food – seed from cones of white spruce trees – is produced in superabundance during what we call a food boom," Petrullo said.



"We found that these booms, even though rare, can interrupt the biological embedding of early-life adversity. If a squirrel had a harsh first year of life, if they were lucky enough to experience a food boom in their second year of life, they lived just as long – if not longer – in spite of early-life adversity."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-food-boom">What is a food boom?</h2>



A food boom is a sudden and significant increase in the availability of food resources within an animal's environment. There are multiple causes behind food booms. Some food sources experience cyclical booms and busts. For example, trees that produce nuts or seeds might only have huge yields every few years.



Additionally, favorable weather conditions can lead to increased plant growth, insect populations, or other food sources for animals. The removal of a predator or the introduction of a new prey species can disrupt the balance and make more food available for some animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-boom-benefits">Food boom benefits</h2>



Even with a rough beginning, plentiful food sources can repair damage caused by early-life stress in animals. The research shows that squirrels who had difficult early lives, and later experienced a surge in food availability, had lifespans comparable to (or even exceeding) squirrels who never had to experience hardship. 



This implies that the benefits of a food boom extend beyond simple nutrition. A possible explanation is that abundant food favorably alters the animal's surroundings by decreasing the need for competition and ultimately improving chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



"Our findings in red squirrels echo what we know about how early-life adversity can shorten adult lifespan in humans and other primates," said Petrullo. 



The main takeaway from this research is the concept of resilience. Similar to squirrels, individuals vary in their ability to cope with the lingering effects of early life trauma. The study proposes that later positive experiences are significant in determining the extent to which early stress affects an individual.



Squirrels are often subjects in laboratory studies due to their physiological similarities to humans. However, Lauren Petrullo emphasizes the value of studying these animals in their natural surroundings. This approach provides a clearer view of how stress, resilience, and environmental factors interact dynamically outside the controlled conditions of a lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-a-new-challenge-to-squirrel-trauma">Climate change: A new challenge to squirrel trauma</h2>



The survival strategies of red squirrels, particularly their reliance on periodic food booms, have developed to thrive within a specific climatic context. Unfortunately, the escalating issue of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-squirrels-adapting-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> poses a significant threat to these patterns. 



Rising temperatures have the potential to disrupt the timing and abundance of these crucial food booms. If these natural events become less frequent or less predictable, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> that encounter significant challenges early in life may find themselves even more vulnerable to the adverse effects of their harsh environments. This could result in increased mortality rates and impact the overall population stability of the species.



"As food boom patterns begin to change, the pathways that connect early-life experiences and lifespan may change as well, potentially offering important insight into how animals may adapt to increasingly challenging environments," said Petrullo.



This research isn't just about squirrels and their trauma. It's a captivating story about survival, where even in harsh conditions, there's always hope. Just like a lucky food boom can alter a squirrel's fate, our own paths might hold life-changing opportunities. 



As scientists continue to study these resilient creatures, we may not only discover the secrets to their success, but also gain valuable insights to enhance our own well-being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2681" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Early trauma cuts life short for squirrels, but this can be reversed

Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do squirrels manage the traumas? Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience. Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the University of Arizona, is deeply involved in studying...

One of the biggest challenges biologists face today is understanding and managing the complex ways in which pathogens proliferate and travel. In recent decades, a wide number of pathogens are seriously affecting – and often devastating – plant pollinators. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotics-used-on-food-crops-may-be-starving-bees/">Bees</a>, for instance, have faced massive waves of deadly infections from parasites such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/crithidia-bombi">Crithidia bombi</a>. Since insect pollinators are responsible for crucial ecosystem services estimated at well over $200 billion worldwide per year, their pathogen-induced decline has raised serious concerns, leading some scientists and policy-makers to call the situation a veritable “insect apocalypse.”



A research team from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has recently been awarded a $2.4 million grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) in order to study the complex interplay among pathogens, pollinators, and the types of food that pollinators consume. This project will be conducted across a variety of scales – from the molecular to the community-wide – and is likely to have immediate applications for ecosystem protection and agricultural practices worldwide. &nbsp;



Biologists do not yet have a clear understanding of what role plants play in the interaction between pathogens and pollinators, or what function the quantity and quality of food available to pollinators may play in the insects’ ability to cope with disease. 



While flowers provide essential nutrients for pollinators, they can also be sites of disease transmission. At the same time though, some varieties of nectar and pollen could help pollinators fight disease.



“Our ultimate goal with this grant is to figure out what sort of plant composition, available as food sources for the pollinators, reduces infection,” explained project leader Lynn Adler, a professor of Biology at UMass Amherst.



Professor Adler’s previous research has found that sunflower pollen seems to be particularly efficient in helping the pollinators that consume it resist a wide-range of diseases. However, it is not yet clear why this is the case. 



For the new project, Professor Adler has assembled an interdisciplinary team of scientists, including mathematical modelers, biochemists, molecular biologists, and ecologists, to answer this and related questions, by studying the molecular, cellular, organismal, species, and community-level interactions of plants, pollinators, and pathogens. 



Moreover, Professor Adler and her team will use part of the funding to train a new generation of biologists and ecologists, who could play important roles in future investigations of the mysteries of life on Earth.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can pollen protect pollinators from pathogens?

One of the biggest challenges biologists face today is understanding...

An international team of scientists has compiled a dataset of shark movements and interactions with game <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/">fishes</a>. The research. published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19395582">Ecological Applications</a>, outlines how the scientists were able to track sharks using acoustic telemetry paired with machine learning.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s so rare to observe multi-species interaction in the ocean,” said Lucas Griffin, the paper’s co-lead author and a postdoctoral researcher in environmental conservation at <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">UMass Amherst</a>.



Many sharks like hammerheads and bull sharks range over large areas of the ocean and are hard to track. There is anecdotal evidence from fishing vessels that suggests that predation by sharks is rising, but there is no scientific evidence of this.&nbsp;



The researchers focused on the Florida Keys, where they tagged 257 fishes, including 73 sharks, and deployed almost 300 acoustic receivers. When one of the tagged animals came within range of a receiver, its location at a certain date and time were recorded.&nbsp;



This approach gave the experts raw data on the migratory patterns and ecology of the fishes. The research team then analyzed the research with a machine learning algorithm to more fully understand what was happening.&nbsp;



“Combining acoustic telemetry and machine learning helped us to answer a host of questions about predators and prey,” said Grace Casselberry, the paper’s other co-lead author and a graduate student in the program in marine sciences and technology in UMass Amherst’s Department of Environmental Conservation.&nbsp;



According to the analysis of the data, it appears that tarpon and permit return to the same places every year to spawn and the sharks follow them. “They seem to remember where and when the tarpon and permit aggregate,” said Cassleberry.



The scientists said that this research would not have been possible without the cooperation of many agencies and universities, in Florida as well as in the Bahamas.&nbsp;



“We also worked extensively with the local fishing-guide community to help tag game fish and sharks, and figure out where to place the receivers,” said Griffin.&nbsp;



“Our lab very much embraces a collaborative and cooperative spirit,” said co-senior author Professor Andy Danylchuk. “We are grateful for our research partners and hope our science will help to hone conservation and management strategies for both game fish and sharks.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tracking sharks to answer questions about predator and prey

An international team of scientists has compiled a dataset of...

Over the past 70 years, researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> have observed changes in the morphology of birds. These physical changes are considered a response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-far-reaching-climate-impacts-of-deforestation/">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



Results of the study showed two different types of changes: birds either decreased in body mass, or increased in body length. These changes are likely to be physical strategies to facilitate heat loss to the environment.



In the 19th century, a theory called the Bergmann’s rule was formulated. The theory suggests that birds and mammals that live in cold climates are larger than those who live in warmer climates. This is because smaller bodies can permit more heat loss, which is an advantage in warm regions, whereas larger bodies can minimize heat loss, which is ideal in colder climates.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Based on Bergmann’s rule, scientists have predicted that global warming will lead to a reduction in animal size. This excludes birds living in the human environment (such as pigeons and house sparrows) which could increase in size due to food availability.



For the study, the research team relied on a bird collection in the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at University. Approximately 8,000 adult specimens of 106 different species were analyzed. This included migratory birds, resident wild birds and birds that live near humans. A statistical model was used to assess the morphological changes in the birds' body mass, body length and wing length.



"Our findings revealed a complicated picture. We identified two different types of morphological changes: some species had become lighter – their mass had decreased while their body length remained unchanged; while others had become longer – their body length had increased, while their mass remained unchanged. We think that these are two different strategies for coping with the same problem, namely the rising temperatures," explained lead researcher Shahar Dubiner.



These findings were observed across the country, regardless of nutrition. A difference was identified, however, between the two strategies. For example, changes in body length were observed more in migrant birds, while changes in body mass were more typical of non-migratory birds. These migratory birds are from all over the world, such as Asia, Europe, and Africa, suggesting a global phenomenon.&nbsp;



“We found that the bodies of more than half of the bird species adapted to changing conditions by becoming either longer or thinner, thereby facilitating heat loss. We are concerned, however, that this flexibility might not suffice as temperatures continue to rise," said the study authors.&nbsp;



The research team still has many unanswered questions about this phenomenon.&nbsp;



"Should we be concerned? Is this a problem, or rather an encouraging ability to adapt to a changing environment? Such morphological changes over a few decades probably do not represent an evolutionary adaptation, but rather certain phenotypic flexibility exhibited by the birds," said Dubiner.



"We are concerned that over such a short period of time, there is a limit to the flexibility or evolutionary potential of these traits, and the birds might run out of effective solutions as temperatures continue to rise."&nbsp;



The paper was published in the scientific journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14668238">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Physical changes in birds linked to global warming

Over the past 70 years, researchers at Tel Aviv University...

Humans are known to sometimes bond when paired randomly with others, such as with roommates or coworkers. New research published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a> suggests the same is true of vampire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">bats</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Study senior author Gerald Carter is a professor of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



“The process of how social bonds form is this fundamentally mysterious thing that a lot of people are interested in, but have very different interpretations of how it happens,” said Carter.&nbsp;



“We’re trying to build vampire bats as a system where we can directly test these interpretations. In this experiment, we forced them together for a short amount of time and then measured their grooming rates, which increased by a specific amount over a period of time. It just hasn’t really been done before.”



The researchers collected 21 bats from three distant roosts and placed them together in a new colony. Initially, all of these vampire bats were allowed to mingle as they saw fit and groom each other as they would. Then the scientists split the bats into smaller groups of three, each from a different site, now living together for seven days. These new groups formed internal bonds, Imram Razik, a graduate student at Ohio State explained,&nbsp;&nbsp;



“From early on, they had potential to start grooming relationships, and then we did the forced proximity phase to see if we could increase the rates of grooming in random pairs. We then measured grooming during the post-treatment phase to compare pre- versus post-treatment grooming,” said Carter.&nbsp;



Next, pairs of these bats that were forced to live together were observed and compared to both bats that weren’t forced to live together and came from separate colonies and those from the same colony that already knew each other. The researchers looked at grooming behavior of these different bat groups.&nbsp;



The results, captured on infrared cameras, showed that the bats who were forced to live together groomed more often than the control or even bats who lived in the same colonies.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It was a striking pattern,” Carter said. “One thing you might imagine is that, after these bats are in their ‘college dorm room’ together, they stay together for a little while afterward but that quickly goes away – but we didn’t see that. The test bats were still grooming each other more than the control bats even at the end of the experiment, nine weeks later.”



The researchers compared this result to that of dormitory room mates, where two random people are paired together but then seek each other out later because of that pairing.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vampire bats bond after being randomly paired up

Humans are known to sometimes bond when paired randomly with...

A new study has confirmed that antibiotic resistant bacteria, as well as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-eyespots-reuse-genes-that-pattern-limbs-and-wings/">genes</a> that play a key role in bacterial resistance, can be transmitted between healthy dogs and cats and their owners. The research will be presented at this year’s <a href="https://www.eccmid.org/">European Congress of Clinical Microbiology &amp; Infectious Diseases</a> (ECCMID) in Lisbon, Portugal.



“Our findings verify not only the sharing of antibiotic resistant bacteria but also of resistance genes between companion animals and their owners in the community, underscoring the need for continuous local surveillance programs to identify the potential risk to human health," said study co-author Dr. Juliana Menezes from the University of Lisbon.



Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria are commonly found in the intestinal tracts of most mammals, including humans. The majority of these bacterial strains are harmless, but some can cause threatening infections, such as blood poisoning. According to the researchers, the role of companion animals as potential reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria is a growing concern.



The primary concern is the potential for infections caused by highly resistant strains, which can persist despite treatment with powerful antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporins.



In collaboration with Dr. Sian Frosini from the Royal Veterinary College and colleagues, Dr. Menezes set out to determine whether there is a crossover between healthy companion animals and their owners. The researchers also wanted to investigate how these resistant bacteria are generally spread.&nbsp;



For the study, the experts analyzed stool&nbsp;samples from healthy people, and from the cats and dogs that live with them, across households in Portugal and the UK. Genetic sequencing was used to identify the bacteria and drug resistance genes present in each sample.



In four Portuguese households, resistance genes found in pets matched those found in their owner’s stool samples. In two of these households, the microbes in pets matched E. coli strains found in their owner’s stool sample.



“Sometimes the bacteria may not be shared, but their resistance genes can be,"&nbsp; explained Dr. Menezes. “These genes are found in mobile bits of DNA, meaning that they can be transferred between different bacterial populations in animal and humans.”



“Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, antibiotic resistance was one of the biggest threats to public health because it can make conditions like pneumonia, sepsis, urinary tract and wound infections untreatable. Although the level of sharing from the households we have studied is low, healthy carriers can shed bacteria into their environment for months, and they can be a source of infection for other more vulnerable people and animals such as the elderly and pregnant women." 



"Our findings reinforce the need for people to practice good hygiene around their pets and to reduce the use of unnecessary antibiotics in companion animals and people.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antibiotic resistant bacteria can jump between healthy pets and owners

A new study has confirmed that antibiotic resistant bacteria, as...

Dogs derived originally from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-humans-in-ways-that-wolves-never-will/">wolves</a> and, although the exact timing of domestication is not known, paleogeneticists estimate that the two species diverged genetically some 33,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum. We will never know what motivated our ancestors to allow wild wolves to approach closer to their living areas and to their particularly vulnerable young but, ultimately, humans began to utilize wolves for services, such as guarding, and the process of domestication began.&nbsp;



This means that wolves were the first species to be domesticated, preceding the domestication of food or livestock species, such as sheep and goats, by at least 4–5 thousand years.&nbsp;



Once humans started favoring certain wolves for their behavioral docility and friendliness, and breeding them selectively, many aspects of wolf anatomy, morphology and behavior began to change. &nbsp;Today, it is noticeable that dogs have very expressive faces, when compared to wolves. The anatomy of the facial musculature in dogs allows them to move their eyebrows in a way that wolves cannot, giving rise to that irresistible puppy-dog face that can melt an owner’s heart.&nbsp;



A new study on the facial musculature of dogs and wolves now provides scientific evidence that dogs have indeed gone through anatomical changes that allow them to be more expressive with their faces.&nbsp;



“Dogs are unique from other mammals in their reciprocated bond with humans which can be demonstrated though mutual gaze, something we do not observe between humans and other domesticated mammals such as horses or cats,” said Anne Burrows, PhD, professor in the department of physical therapy at Rangos School of Health Sciences at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, and the study’s senior author. “Our preliminary findings provide a deeper understanding of the role facial expressions play in dog-human interactions and communication.”



The new study investigated the anatomy of tiny muscles, called mimetic muscles, in the faces of dogs and wolves. These muscles are used to form facial expressions, both in canids and in humans. Mimetic muscles may contain “fast-twitch” or “slow-twitch” muscle fibers. In humans these muscles are predominantly composed of fast-twitch myosin fibers that allow rapid contraction but cannot sustain protracted activity. This explains why we can rapidly adopt a smile for the camera, but cannot hold this expression for long without tiring. Muscles with more “slow-twitch” fibers are better for sustained contraction as they don’t tire as quickly.



The researchers compared the myosin fiber composition of two different facial muscles from wolves and dogs. They found that the dog muscles from a range of different breeds contained between 66 and 95 percent fast-twitch fibers while wolves averaged around 25 percent.&nbsp; In contrast, dog facial muscles only averaged 10 percent slow-twitch myosin fibers while wolves averaged 29 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The relative presence of fast-twitch fibers in dogs mirrors the range found in human facial muscles, suggesting that humans may have selected for dogs in the past that were capable of more rapid and expressive facial movements.&nbsp;They may have found dogs with a wider range of rapid facial expressions, especially around the eyes, more appealing, and would have favored this characteristic through thousands of years of selective breeding.



“These differences suggest that having faster muscle fibers contributes to a dog’s ability to communicate effectively with people,” said Burrows. “Throughout the domestication process, humans may have bred dogs selectively based on facial expressions that were similar to their own, and over time dog muscles could have evolved to become ‘faster,’ further benefiting communication between dogs and humans.”



The fast-twitch muscle fibers not only facilitate the small, rapid changes in expression that dogs display, but are also ideal for the short, powerful muscle contractions involved in barking. Wolves, on the other hand, need slow-twitch fibers for the extended muscle movements involved in howling.&nbsp;



Burrows will present the research at the annual meeting of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.anatomy.org/">American Association for Anatomy</a>, to be held during the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.experimentalbiology.org/">Experimental Biology (EB) 2022 meeting</a> in Philadelphia between 2 and 5 April. The research team also included Madisen Omstead, laboratory manager for the Rangos School of Health Sciences department of physical therapy.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Puppy dog eyes emerged during domestication

Dogs derived originally from wolves and, although the exact timing...

Jellyfish vision anatomy is quite variable, ranging from complex eyes to simpler ones to no eyes at all. This is why jellyfish seemed to be a perfect model for exploring the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-change-the-evolution-of-life-around-us/">evolution</a> of eyes. All of this indicates that the different eyes of various jellyfish evolved independently from each other. Scientists hope that by researching the convergent evolution of jellyfish eyes they can better understand evolution genetically, cellularly and morphologically.&nbsp;



“Eyes evolved multiple times independently within the jellyfish,” explained Paulyn Cartwright of the <a href="https://ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a>. “We’ve known for a while that there is not a single origin of eyes in all animals but were surprised at how many times they evolved independently in jellyfish.”



The scientists now plan on creating a genetic comparison of the ways in which each type of jellyfish eye evolved to produce a phylogenetic tree.&nbsp;



“Jellyfish are a really nice system for this, because they have a diversity of eyes, ranging from simple clusters of light-sensing cells to very complex eyes - camera-type eyes that can form images and have a lens, a cornea and a retina - so superficially, they can look identical to vertebrates,” said Cartwright.



The scientists plan to analyze many of the few thousand extant species of jellyfish, looking at the shared genetics and difference in basic genetic building blocks found in their eyes.&nbsp;



“Cells themselves have their own characteristics, and they’re really an outcome of many, many different genes being expressed - so sometimes we might miss an overall pattern by looking at individual genes,” Cartwright said.&nbsp;



“But if we look at all the genes that are expressed at the cell and what that particular outcome is, that might give us a different level of information. That’s why it’s great to look at all those different levels and see what is similar and what’s changed to really help us understand this very complicated question."



"Jellyfish are a great system to do this because they’re so amenable to these types of experiments. We can look at individual genes and how they’re expressed; we can look wholesale at all the genes that are expressed in those cells; and then we can see what is similar at the morphological level between those and what’s different.”



Part of the research will include a trip to Panama, a hotspot for jellyfish diversity. Because there are thousands of jellyfish species, sorting out their genetics and phylogeny is a tall order. Adding to the challenge is the fact that finding and collecting small jellyfish, some of which hide deep in the ocean can be hard. If the scientists are successful though, they may glimpse one small faucet of the mystery of life on earth.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jellyfish eyes catch a glimpse of evolutionary history

Jellyfish vision anatomy is quite variable, ranging from complex eyes...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.4012">Ecosphere</a> has found that spotted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hyena-scavenging-brings-health-and-economic-benefits/">hyenas</a> (Crocuta crocuta) are able to adjust to a reduced presence of migratory prey in their territories induced by climate change. An observation-based dataset spanning three decades has revealed that, although the substantial increase in annual rainfall during this period halved the presence of migratory herbivores inside the hyenas’ territories in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, it did not affect female hyenas’ access to prey and the successful nursing of their offspring.



Changes in the timing and amount of precipitation can alter vegetation growth and hence the distribution of migratory herbivores, such as the zebras or blue wildebeest from Tanzania’s Serengeti ecosystem. Ultimately, such climate changes may influence the location of feeding areas for predators like the spotted hyenas, who feed upon these herbivores.



However, by daily monitoring three clans of spotted hyenas from 1990 to 2019, researchers from the <a href="https://www.izw-berlin.de/en/home.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a> in Germany (Leibniz-IZW) and the <a href="https://www.cefe.cnrs.fr/en/">Center for Functional and Evolutionary Ecology</a> in France (CEFE) have made a surprising discovery: spotted hyenas seemed perfectly able to adjust their foraging behavior to shifts in migratory prey presence in their territories that were linked to climate-related changes.&nbsp;



The scientists found that, although increases in rainfall volume over the years were correlated with a decrease in the presence of migratory herbivores, maternal den attendance of hyenas (the presence of lactating hyenas with entirely milk-dependent offspring at communal dens) did not decrease, matching periods of high prey abundance.



“The presence of mothers at the communal den is a key behavior directly related to cub survival. Spotted hyenas in the Serengeti National Park reproduce throughout the year. Their cubs entirely depend on milk for their first six months of life,” explained study co-authors Dr. Marion East and Professor Heribert Hofer, senior scientists at the Leibniz-IZW.



“When large aggregations of migratory herbivores occur in the clan territory, all lactating mothers feed inside the territory and nurse their cubs daily. When migratory herds are absent, there is no other prey around and females fuel milk production by regularly commuting to distant areas to feed on migratory herbivores. After one to several days, they return to the communal dens to nurse their cubs.”



According to the researchers, these findings suggest that hyenas may not so much rely on expectations of where aggregations of migratory herds should be at a given time, but rather employ other means of locating good foraging locations when commuting, such as observing the movements and behaviors of well-fed members of their clan, or using established commuting routes that cross many territories.



Thus, hyenas appear particularly well-suited to cope with changes in the presence of their prey in their territories induced by climate change. “This indicates a high plasticity in the response of this keystone predator to environmental variability,” concluded study co-author Dr. Sarah Cubaynes, a scientist at CEFE.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spotted hyenas change their foraging behavior to adapt

A new study published in the journal Ecosphere has found...

A new longitudinal study led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> has found that deep in the Panamanian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-rainforest-is-creeping-closer-to-a-tipping-point/">rainforest</a> – a region belonging to the so-called “Neotropics” - bird populations have been declining over the past 44 years. According to the researchers, 70 percent of understory bird species have declined between 1977 and 2020, with the vast majority of them being down by half or even more.



“Many of these are species you would expect to be doing fine in a 22,000-hectare national park that has experienced no major land use change for at least 50 years,”&nbsp;said study lead author Henry Pollock, a postdoctoral researcher in Ecology at the University of Illinois. “It was very surprising.”



According to Dr. Pollock, loss of birds from any habitat can threaten the integrity of the entire ecosystem, since the birds play fundamental ecological roles such as seed dispersion, pollination, or insect consumption. Declines in bird populations could endanger tree reproduction and regeneration, thus impacting the entire structure of the forest.



Over the past 43 years, the scientists captured more than 15,000 unique birds representing nearly 150 species and gathered sufficient data to closely follow the dynamics of 57 of these species. They noted marked declines in 40 of these species (70 percent), and 35 species lost at least half of their initial populations. During this period, only a species of hummingbird and one species of puffbird appeared to increase.



“At the beginning of the study in 1977, we'd catch 10 or 15 of many species. And then by 2020, for a lot of species, that would be down to five or six individuals,” said Pollock.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Dr. Pollock and his colleagues noted declines across three broad categories: common forest birds, species which migrate seasonally across different elevations, and “edge” species living in the transition zones between open and closed-canopy forests.



While the declines among the last two groups were easily explained by increased forest fragmentation in the past years, the decline among common species is the less understood and most alarming phenomenon.&nbsp;



“The bottom line is these are birds that should be doing well in that forest. And for whatever reason, they aren’t. We were very surprised,” said study co-author Jeff Brawn, a professor of Sustainability at the University of Illinois.



The scientists hypothesize that some of the causes leading to these declines include changing amounts of rainfall, food resources, and reproductive rates, many of which can be tied to climate change.



“Almost half the world’s birds are in the Neotropics, but we really don’t have a good handle on the trajectories of their populations. So, I think it's very important that more ecological studies be done where we can establish trends and mechanisms of decline in these populations. And we need to do it damn quick,” Professor Brawn concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2108731119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bird populations are declining in the Neotropics

A new longitudinal study led by the University of Illinois...

Birds are important visitors to coffee plantations because they prey on insects, like the coffee berry borer, that would otherwise harm the coffee beans or plants. In addition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weeds-are-much-more-valuable-to-pollinators-than/">pollinating insects</a> are crucial for the fertilization of the coffee flowers, so they are also welcome visitors to coffee farms. But a new study, conducted by scientists from Latin America and the U.S., indicates that these two natural forces have more of an impact when they work together.&nbsp;



“Until now, researchers have typically calculated the benefits of nature separately, and then simply added them up,” said lead author Alejandra Martínez-Salinas of the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) in Costa Rica. “But nature is an interacting system, full of important synergies and trade-offs. We show the ecological and economic importance of these interactions, in one of the first experiments at realistic scales in actual farms.” &nbsp;



Researchers manipulated visits by insects and birds to the coffee plants on 30 different coffee farms in the U.S. and Latin America. They excluded birds by covering the plants with large nets, and excluded pollinating insects using small lace bags that were placed over the flowers.&nbsp;



The experts set up four experimental scenarios: allowing bird activity alone (pest control), bee activity alone (pollination), no bird or bee activity at all, and finally, leaving trees in a natural condition, where bees and birds were free to pollinate and eat insects at will.



The results, published today in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, show that the combined positive effects of birds and bees on fruit set, fruit weight, and fruit uniformity – all important factors in determining quality and price – were greater than the sum of their individual contributions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Overall, the study indicated that without birds and bees (and other pollinating insects), the average yield declined nearly 25 percent. This represents a reduction in income of roughly $1,066 per hectare, which would be highly significant for the $26 billion coffee industry. All those involved, including consumers, farmers, and corporations that prepare and package coffee, depend on nature’s unpaid labor for this popular product.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“These results suggest that past assessments of individual ecological services - including major global efforts like IPBES [Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services] - may actually underestimate the benefits biodiversity provides to agriculture and human wellbeing,” said Taylor Ricketts of the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/">University of Vermont</a>. “These positive interactions mean ecosystem services are more valuable together than separately.”&nbsp;



The researchers were very surprised to find that many of the birds providing pest control in the coffee plantations in Costa Rica were migrants that had flown thousands of miles from Canada and the U.S. In fact, some spent their summers in Vermont, exactly where the UVM scientists taking part in this study hailed from.



The team is also studying how changing farm landscapes impact the ability of birds and bees to deliver benefits to coffee production. They are supported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service through the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act.&nbsp;



“One important reason we measure these contributions is to help protect and conserve the many species that we depend on, and sometimes take for granted,” said Natalia Aristizábal, a PhD candidate at UVM’s Gund Institute for Environment and Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources. “Birds, bees, and millions of other species support our lives and livelihoods, but face threats like habitat destruction and climate change.”&nbsp;



In addition to Martínez-Salinas (Nicaragua), Ricketts (USA), Aristizábal (Colombia), the international research team from CATIE included&nbsp;Adina Chain-Guadarrama (México), Sergio Vilchez Mendoza (Nicaragua), and Rolando Cerda (Bolivia).&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The birds and the bees boost coffee production

Birds are important visitors to coffee plantations because they prey...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">Coral</a> reefs are often described by scientists as the rainforests of the ocean, since they host a high diversity of species and play a fundamental role in the proper functioning of marine ecosystems. Recently, climate change and local threats such as overfishing have caused a marked global decline in corals, making researchers ponder whether our planet will still have healthy, functional reefs in the near future. However, it is not yet clear what makes a coral reef functional.



By analyzing more than 500 coral reefs worldwide, a new study led by the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawai’I at Mānoa</a> has argued that five key functions performed by fish communities residing in coral reefs – the removal of algae, predation, biomass production, and the cycling of phosphorous and nitrogen – are inherently interconnected and need to remain in a delicate balance in order for the reefs to function properly. According to the scientists, while the performance of these processes is influenced by the community structure of fishes in any given reef, no reef can maximize all of the processes simultaneously.



“Imagine a coral reef fish community swirling with small fishes that feed on algae,” said study lead author Nina Schiettekatte, a postdoctoral fellow at UH Mānoa. “This community will be characterized by high algal consumption and high biomass production, but it will have low phosphorus cycling because these species excrete very little phosphorus.”



The discovery that no coral reef can excel in all functions led researchers to wonder whether there is a certain set of species that is more important than others in maintaining reef stability and health. Surprisingly, they found that no single species was consistently important in all locations where it was found, but half of all species played a crucial role in at least one location.



“This means that there are no global super-hero fish species for ecosystem functioning,” said study co-author Sébastien Villéger, a researcher at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.occitanie-est.cnrs.fr/fr">National Center of Scientific Research</a> (CNRS) in Montpellier, France. “But there are many local super heroes.”



“This work really changes the way we need to think about coral reef conservation,” added study co-author Simon Brandl, an assistant professor of Marine Ecology at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>. “Since we cannot maximize all aspects of functioning, we clearly need to develop a more nuanced approach to conserving coral reefs that considers local species, ecosystem dynamics, and stakeholder needs.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01710-5">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coral reefs must strike a delicate balance in order to function

Coral reefs are often described by scientists as the rainforests...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en">University of Lisbon</a> reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-does-not-always-decrease-food-diversity/">urbanization</a> impacts the personalities of individual shrews. The greater white-toothed shrew is expanding its range in Europe and has been identified as invasive on some islands in Ireland. In order to predict where else shrews may emerge, it is important to understand how these small mammals adapt so rapidly to new environments.



"Urban environments differ in many aspects from natural or rural ones and thus pose challenges for many animal species. Some of these challenges have been connected to the observation that urban individuals of many animal taxa are bolder and more aggressive than their rural conspecifics," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Apart from average behavioral differences between rural and urban populations, the variation of such behaviours within these populations may differ, enabling them to deal with the spatially and temporally heterogeneous habitats within cities. Here we tested average differences in behavior as well as the components of variation in these behaviors in rural and urban populations of shrews."



Beyond confirming that urban shrews are more active and aggressive, the researchers have discovered that shrews from urban environments differ more in their individual behavior than those in rural environments.



“Possibly, such diverse city personalities are caused by the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity in urban environments,” explained study first author Sophie von Merten.



The shrews that were observed for the study came from a diverse assortment of sites, ranging from small patches of vegetation on a busy university campus to city parks or green spaces located next to a noisy highway. Furthermore, the same results were found in two different species of shrews: the greater white-toothed shrew and the common shrew.



“The fact that similar results were found in two species that are so different to each other hints at a general pattern," said study co-author Professor Leszek Rychlik. “As cities are continuously growing around the globe, studies like ours are important to better understand of the consequences of urbanization on wild animals. Ultimately this might help us to protect biodiversity."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



Image Credit: Ana Cerveira



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

City shrews have bigger personalities

A new study from the University of Lisbon reveals that...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...