Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-flying-squirrel-spotted-after-more-than-four-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> manage the traumas? 



Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-traumas-shorter-squirrel-lives">Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives</h2>



Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, is deeply involved in studying the survival factors of red squirrels. Her recent study highlights a significant finding: young red squirrels that encounter numerous traumas during their first year typically experience a reduction in their adult lifespan. 



Specifically, in the challenging conditions of the Yukon, such early life stress leads to an average lifespan reduction of at least 14 percent. This research underscores the critical impact of early developmental conditions on the longevity of these animals.



"The ecosystem red squirrels inhabit in this region is unique. Every three to seven years, their favorite food – seed from cones of white spruce trees – is produced in superabundance during what we call a food boom," Petrullo said.



"We found that these booms, even though rare, can interrupt the biological embedding of early-life adversity. If a squirrel had a harsh first year of life, if they were lucky enough to experience a food boom in their second year of life, they lived just as long – if not longer – in spite of early-life adversity."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-food-boom">What is a food boom?</h2>



A food boom is a sudden and significant increase in the availability of food resources within an animal's environment. There are multiple causes behind food booms. Some food sources experience cyclical booms and busts. For example, trees that produce nuts or seeds might only have huge yields every few years.



Additionally, favorable weather conditions can lead to increased plant growth, insect populations, or other food sources for animals. The removal of a predator or the introduction of a new prey species can disrupt the balance and make more food available for some animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-boom-benefits">Food boom benefits</h2>



Even with a rough beginning, plentiful food sources can repair damage caused by early-life stress in animals. The research shows that squirrels who had difficult early lives, and later experienced a surge in food availability, had lifespans comparable to (or even exceeding) squirrels who never had to experience hardship. 



This implies that the benefits of a food boom extend beyond simple nutrition. A possible explanation is that abundant food favorably alters the animal's surroundings by decreasing the need for competition and ultimately improving chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



"Our findings in red squirrels echo what we know about how early-life adversity can shorten adult lifespan in humans and other primates," said Petrullo. 



The main takeaway from this research is the concept of resilience. Similar to squirrels, individuals vary in their ability to cope with the lingering effects of early life trauma. The study proposes that later positive experiences are significant in determining the extent to which early stress affects an individual.



Squirrels are often subjects in laboratory studies due to their physiological similarities to humans. However, Lauren Petrullo emphasizes the value of studying these animals in their natural surroundings. This approach provides a clearer view of how stress, resilience, and environmental factors interact dynamically outside the controlled conditions of a lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-a-new-challenge-to-squirrel-trauma">Climate change: A new challenge to squirrel trauma</h2>



The survival strategies of red squirrels, particularly their reliance on periodic food booms, have developed to thrive within a specific climatic context. Unfortunately, the escalating issue of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-squirrels-adapting-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> poses a significant threat to these patterns. 



Rising temperatures have the potential to disrupt the timing and abundance of these crucial food booms. If these natural events become less frequent or less predictable, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> that encounter significant challenges early in life may find themselves even more vulnerable to the adverse effects of their harsh environments. This could result in increased mortality rates and impact the overall population stability of the species.



"As food boom patterns begin to change, the pathways that connect early-life experiences and lifespan may change as well, potentially offering important insight into how animals may adapt to increasingly challenging environments," said Petrullo.



This research isn't just about squirrels and their trauma. It's a captivating story about survival, where even in harsh conditions, there's always hope. Just like a lucky food boom can alter a squirrel's fate, our own paths might hold life-changing opportunities. 



As scientists continue to study these resilient creatures, we may not only discover the secrets to their success, but also gain valuable insights to enhance our own well-being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2681" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Early trauma cuts life short for squirrels, but this can be reversed

Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do squirrels manage the traumas? Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience. Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the University of Arizona, is deeply involved in studying...

Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-use-tools/">primates</a> can change their accent to avoid conflict with other groups, according to a new study. The researchers investigated the behavior of 15 groups of tamarins in the Brazilian Amazon, and found that one species adopts the calls of another species to improve communication in shared territory. 

Focused on pied tamarins and red-handed tamarins, the study is the first to identify this behavior in primates.

Pied tamarins are critically endangered and have one of the smallest ranges of any primate in the world, while red-handed tamarins are found throughout the northeastern Amazon.

The study revealed that when groups of red-handed tamarins enter shared territory, they adopt the long calls used by the pied tamarins. The experts believe this behavior is used to avoid territorial disputes over resources.

"When groups of tamarins are moving quickly around mature Amazonian forest it can sometimes be difficult to tell the species apart, but during our research we were surprised to discover they also sound the same in the areas of the forest they cohabit," said study lead author Tainara Sobroza of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia.

"We found that only the red-handed tamarins change their calls to those of the pied tamarins, and this only happens in places where they occur together. Why their calls converge in this way is not certain, but it is possibly to help with identification when defending territory or competing over resources."

Study co-author Dr. Jacob Dunn is an associate professor in Evolutionary Biology at <a href="https://aru.ac.uk/">Anglia Ruskin University</a> (ARU).

"We have long known that when closely related species overlap in their geographic ranges, we are likely to see interesting evolutionary patterns. One famous example is the Galapagos finches, studied by Darwin, whose beaks evolved to specialise on different foods on the islands to avoid competition," said Dr. Dunn.

"In some cases, rather than diverging to become more different from one another, some closely related species converge to show similar traits. Our study is the first to show asymmetric call convergence in primates, with one species' call becoming the 'lingua franca' in shared territories."

"Because these tamarin species rely on similar resources, changing their 'accents' in this way is likely to help these tiny primates identify one another more easily in dense forest and potentially avoid conflict."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/265">Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tamarins change their accent in shared territory to avoid conflict

Some primates can change their accent to avoid conflict with...

Wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinctly-different-chinook-salmon-are-part-of-the-same-population/">Chinook</a> salmon are more likely to be infected with Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) the closer they are to salmon farms. This finding indicates that farms are spreading the virus to wild salmon - a theory that is further supported by the results of a recent genomic analysis.

Dr. Gideon Mordecai is a viral ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> who led the study.

"Both our genomic and epidemiological methods independently came to the same conclusion, that salmon farms act as a source and amplifier of PRV transmission," said Dr. Mordecai. "Because separate lines of independent evidence all point to the same answer, we're confident in our finding."

In collaboration with researchers from the Strategic Salmon Health Initiative, the UBC team traced the origins of PRV to Atlantic salmon farms in Norway and found that the virus is now widespread across salmon farms in British Columbia.

After sequencing 86 PRV genomes, the researchers estimated that the lineage of the virus that is now present in the Northeast Pacific diverged from the virus in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 30 years ago. This suggests that the introduction of PRV to British Columbia, and the infection of wild Pacific salmon, is a relatively recent phenomenon.

"There is much confusion about where PRV is originally from, whether it is transmitted between farmed and wild salmon, and how different lineages of the virus cause different severities of disease," said Dr. Mordecai. "This study's genome sequencing clearly indicates PRV is not native to B.C. waters - it originated in the Atlantic Ocean and has been spread around the world through salmon aquaculture."

The genomic analysis revealed that there has been a growth in the number of PRV infections in British Columbia in recent decades. This corresponds with the expansion of salmon aquaculture and high rates of viral infection in salmon farms.

"Our finding that PRV is transmitted between farmed and wild salmon is particularly relevant given recent field and laboratory studies showing the lineage of PRV in B.C. is likely to cause disease in both Pacific and Atlantic salmon," said Dr. Mordecai. 

The virus is associated with a disease in Chinook salmon that causes blood cells to rupture, leading to kidney and liver damage that can be deadly. 

"Our study reaffirms that a more precautionary approach to managing salmon farming in BC is warranted," said study co-author Dr. Andrew Bateman of the Pacific Salmon Foundation. "The PRV findings, in particular, support calls to transition from open-net salmon farming towards farming technology that doesn't allow disease transfer between farmed and wild salmon, protecting BC's wild Pacific salmon from serious risk in the process."

Professor Jeffrey Hutchings of Dalhousie University is a leading Canadian fisheries scientist who was not involved with the research. 

"The study provides foundational information necessary to assess the risk of salmon aquaculture on wild fish, as recommended by the Auditor General of Canada's 2018 Report on Salmon Farming, which criticized DFO's ability to manage aquaculture in a precautionary manner," said Professor Hutchings. 

"The work by Mordecai, Miller, and colleagues on PRV provides the most compelling, scientifically objective evidence to date that wild salmon in BC are at increased risk of disease because of open net-pen Atlantic salmon aquaculture."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Salmon virus has spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific

Wild Chinook salmon are more likely to be infected with...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers have discovered that the embryos of many different animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-fate-of-two-bird-species-could-help-save-others/">species</a> rely on acoustic signals during development in a phenomenon that they refer to as "acoustic developmental programming." The embryos are essentially dependent upon sound cues to prepare them for the outside world. 

"Acoustic developmental programming occurs when a sound informs embryos about the environment they'll encounter postnatally and changes their development to better suit this environment," said study lead author Mylene Mariette, a postdoctoral researcher at Deakin University.

While the scientific evidence is just now becoming established, this newly discovered phenomenon seems to be rather widespread among animals, explained the experts.

"We have found evidence of this happening in birds, where parental calls can warn embryos about heatwaves or predators," said Mariette. "Before that, there was also evidence that cricket nymphs use male songs to predict the level of competition for mates. However, what is most striking from the evidence we've gathered is how common it is for embryos across species to rely on sound information."

"For example, across all animal groups that lay eggs, such as insects, frogs, reptiles and birds, embryos use sound or vibration to know when the best time is to hatch. This suggests that acoustic developmental programming is likely to happen in many animal species and for a whole range of conditions. But, until recently, we did not know it was happening."

Mariette became interested in acoustic developmental programming while studying how zebra finch parents communicate to coordinate their parental duties. "I noticed that when a parent was alone incubating, it would sometimes produce a strange high-pitched call."

To investigate whether the calls had implications for the developing embryos, Mariette captured audio recordings in nests and played them to eggs incubated artificially in the lab. 

The study revealed that the finch parents were producing specific calls when it was very hot out. The nestlings inside of the eggs respond by adjusting their development to prepare for the heat.

"I became very curious about how just hearing a sound before hatching could alter development," said Mariette.

She started searching for documented evidence of embryos using sound in other animals. While it is not yet clear exactly how it works, the new report describes some potential mechanisms.

"In crickets, when developing nymphs hear many sexy songs, female develop quickly to make the most of the opportunity, whereas males delay metamorphosis to grow bigger and invest more in reproduction," said Mariette. 

"In zebra finches, embryos exposed to parental heat calls grow less to reduce the physiological damage of heat exposure, which then allows them to produce more babies at adulthood. But embryos cannot decide to change their development, it just happens. This is because sound directly impacts behavior and physiology, without any conscious processing." 

"This is why, for example, music triggers spontaneous emotions of sadness or happiness, without us having to remember which movie that soundtrack came from, or in fact without us even noticing our reaction to the music."

"It seems to occur on its own, because there are direct connections in the brain between the auditory pathway and the areas that control emotion, reflex learning, and hormone production, so the higher cortical areas do not need to decode the information." 

Mariette explained that sound experienced early in life could trigger the same spontaneous reactions and, in fact, have long-lasting effects, because this is when the brain is developing and consolidating connections. "For the same reason, the downstream effects on physiology and then morphology can persist for life."

The researchers will continue to study the physiological traits in zebra finches that may be affected by heat-calls. "It is quite amazing that sound alone can prepare babies for heat, particularly given the alarming rate of climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sound cues help embryos prepare for the outside environment

In a new study published by Cell Press, researchers have...

The ancestors of modern whales made their transition from land to sea about 53 million years ago. At one point during the middle of this transition, whales had a mouth full of both teeth and baleen, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.sdsu.edu/">San Diego State University</a>.

Modern blue whales, humpback whales and gray whales have teeth in the womb but are born toothless. Baleen replaces the teeth for filter feeding small fish and tiny shrimp-like krill. The disappearing embryonic teeth are evidence of a time when ancient whales had teeth and consumed larger prey. 

For the current investigation, the researchers used high-resolution computed tomography (CT) to scan a 25 million year-old fossilized whale skull that belonged to Aetiocetus weltoni, an evolutionary "cousin" of modern whales. The analysis revealed that Aetiocetus had both teeth and baleen at the same time in adulthood.

Baleen decomposes and is rarely preserved intact in fossils, so the scientists turned to digital reconstructions with CT imaging to search for evidence of the elastic substance in Aetiocetus. They identified grooves and holes on the roof of the mouth that were consistent with baleen in modern mysticetes.

"We have found evidence that supports a co-occurrence of teeth and baleen, indicating the tooth-to-baleen transition occurred in a stepwise manner from just teeth, to teeth and baleen, to only baleen," said Ekdale.

"Our study provides tangible fossil evidence of a major shift in feeding behavior from a raptorial carnivorous feeding mode to a bulk filter-feeding mode for obtaining food, among the largest animals that have ever lived in earth's oceans. Krill are around 1/600th the size of blue whales. That's like us humans eating nothing larger than sesame seeds floating in a pool."

Some researchers questioned how Aetiocetus managed to process its food, considering that the baleen could get in the way of teeth in the mastication process. However, the position of the holes observed in Aetiocetus suggests that the baleen was not in the "line of fire" where it would interfere with the function of the teeth.

"While the tiny holes on the palate of Aetiocetus may look similar at a superficial level to other mammals, we can clearly demonstrate that this anatomy is related to baleen in baleen whales," said study co-author Thomas Deméré.

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some ancient whales had both teeth and baleen

The ancestors of modern whales made their transition from land...

Road verges present an opportunity to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">bees</a>, trees, and wildflowers, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. In Great Britain, for example, road verges make up a land area the size of Dorset that could be managed to provide habitats for wildlife. 

The researchers used Google Earth and Google Street View to estimate that road verges in Great Britain account for almost 1,000 square miles of land. About 27 percent of the verges are frequently mowed, 41 percent are left as wild grassland, and 19 percent is woodland. The experts report that there are "significant opportunities" to improve verges by reducing mowing and planting trees.

"Our key message is that there's a lot of road verge in Great Britain and we could manage it much better for nature," said study lead author Ben Phillips.

"About a quarter of our road verges are mown very regularly to make them look like garden lawns - this is bad for wildlife."

Previous research has shown that mowing just once or twice per year produces more flowers for pollinators, allows plants to set seed, and creates better habitats for other animals.

"Some parts of verges need to be mown regularly for safety, but many verges could be mown much less, and this could save money due to reduced maintenance costs," said Phillips.

"We found that only a quarter of frequently mown verges had trees, so there's potential to add trees and shrubs, which will also help to capture carbon."

"But tree planting must be done carefully to avoid damaging flower-rich grass verges, and to prevent any impacts on visibility for drivers, or damage to infrastructure from roots and branches."

Overall, the researchers note that planting trees in road verges could provide a wide range of benefits for people, nature, the environment, and could also contribute toward the UK government's tree-planting ambitions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/landscape-and-urban-planning">Landscape and Urban Planning</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Road verges could be used to support wildlife

Road verges present an opportunity to support bees, trees, and...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a> has revealed how some Anolis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-can-create-their-very-own-love-language/">lizards</a>, or anoles, can submerge themselves underwater for up to 16 minutes at a time. The anoles have adapted their own natural version of a scuba tank by "rebreathing" air that is trapped between their skin and the surrounding water.

"Rebreathing had never been considered as a potential natural mechanism for underwater respiration in vertebrates," said study co-author Professor Luke Mahler. "But our work shows that this is possible and that anoles have deployed this strategy repeatedly in species that use aquatic habitats."

Anoles live along neotropical streams and frequently dive underwater for refuge. While documenting this behavior with a GoPro in Costa Rica, Professor Lindsey Swierk was shocked to see an anole submerge itself for such long periods. 

"It's easy to imagine the advantage that these small, slow anoles gain by hiding from their predators underwater - they're really hard to spot!" said Professor Swierk. "But the real question is how they're managing to stay underwater for so long."

The researchers conducted experiments to study underwater respiration in several distantly related species of semi-aquatic anoles. They found that the lizards can respire underwater by 'rebreathing' exhaled air that is held in a bubble that clings to their snout.

"We found that semi-aquatic anoles exhale air into a bubble that clings to their skin," said study lead author Chris Boccia. "The lizards then re-inhale the air, a maneuver we've termed 'rebreathing' after the scuba-diving technology."

The experts believe that the function of the anoles' hydrophobic skin may have shifted throughout evolution to facilitate rebreathing in species that regularly dive. The team's findings strongly suggest that specialized rebreathing is adaptive for semi-aquatic habitat specialists. 

The researchers used an oxygen sensor inside the bubbles to determine whether anoles were consuming oxygen from them. Just like a scuba tank, the oxygen concentration in an anole's air bubble was found to decrease over the length of the dive.

"The finding that different species of semi-aquatic anoles have evolutionarily converged to extract oxygen from their rebreathed air bubbles leads to other exciting questions," said Professor Swierk. 

"For example, the rate of oxygen consumption from the bubble decreases the longer an anole dives, which could possibly be explained a reduction in an anole's metabolic rate with increased dive time," added study co-author Alexandra Martin.

The researchers are planning future projects to better understand the evolution of the physiology related to rebreathing. 

"Anoles are a remarkable group of lizards, and the number of ways that this taxon has diversified to take advantage of their environments is mind-boggling," said Swierk.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Anole lizards have adapted their own version scuba diving

A new study led by Binghamton University has revealed how...

Clownfish develop their stripes at different rates depending on the species of sea anemone in which they live, according to a new study. The research also revealed that thyroid hormones are responsible for how quickly the stripes appear, through changes in the activity of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grass-crops-steal-genes-from-their-neighbors-to-evolve-faster/">gene</a> called duox.

Study senior author Professor Vincent Laudet leads the Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit at the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology</a> Graduate university (OIST).

"Metamorphosis is an important process for clownfish - it changes their appearance and also the environment they live in, as clownfish larvae leave life in the open ocean and settle in the reef," said Professor Laudet.

"Understanding how metamorphosis changes depending on the sea anemone host can help us answer questions not only about how they adapt to these different environments, but also how they might be affected by other environmental pressures, like climate change."

The study was initially focused on the clownfish species Amphiprion percula in Kimbe bay, Papua New Guinea. In this region, clownfish live either in the magnificent sea anemone, Heteractis magnifica, or the more toxic giant carpet anemone, Stichodactyla gigantea.

The experts noticed that juvenile clownfish living in the giant carpet anemone gained their adult white bars faster than clownfish living in the magnificent sea anemone.

"We were really interested in understanding not only why bar formation occurs faster or slower depending on the sea anemone, but also what drives these differences," said study first author Dr. Pauline Salis.

In an experiment in the lab, the team worked with the clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris, a close relative of Amphiprion percula. The researchers treated larval clownfish with various doses of thyroid hormones, which are known to trigger metamorphosis in frogs.

The study revealed that the higher the dose of thyroid hormones, the faster the clownfish developed their white stripes. By contrast, when the clownfish were treated with a drug that stopped thyroid hormones from being produced, bar formation was delayed.

Dr. Salis noted that levels of thyroid hormones were much higher in the clownfish from the giant carpet anemone than in the clownfish from the magnificent sea anemone. To investigate what caused these higher levels of thyroid hormones, the team measured gene activity.

"The big surprise was that out of all these genes, only 36 genes differed between the clownfish from the two sea anemone species," said Professor Laudet. "And one of these 36 genes, called duox, gave us a real eureka moment."

The findings suggest that increased activity of duox leads to higher levels of thyroid hormones, as well as a faster rate of stripe formation, in clownfish living in the giant carpet anemone.

For scientists, the research raises new questions, including the ecological reason for variation in the rate of white bar formation. The researchers said that one possible explanation is that since the giant carpet anemone is more toxic, thyroid hormone levels increase as a response to stress.

"Here at OIST, we're starting to delve into some possible explanations," said Professor Laudet. "We suspect that these changes in white bar formation are just the tip of the iceberg, and that many other differences are present that help the clownfish adapt to the two different sea anemone hosts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Clownfish get their stripes at different rates depending on their host

Clownfish develop their stripes at different rates depending on the...

A team of conservation scientists led by <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">UNSW Sydney</a> has managed to bring a group of wallabies back from the brink of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a> using a strategy known as "headstarting."

The wallabies were placed within a protected area to grow into adulthood without the threat of their main predators,  feral cats, and then released back into the wild.

Study lead author Alexandra Ross explained that juvenile wallabies under three kilograms, which is smaller than a rugby football, are easy prey for feral cats.

"Previous studies have shown that more than half of these young bridled nailtail wallabies were killed by feral cats before they could reach adulthood," said Ross.

"But when you look at the numbers of adults, the survival rate goes up to 80 percent - which shows that size is a good predictor of survival."

"So we figured if we can just get them through that tough period - when they're still little and an easy size for a cat to prey on - by putting them in feral-free protected areas, then we could make a positive difference to the population numbers."

Out of 56 wallabies that were raised within the protected area between 2015 and 2018, 89 percent survived long enough to be released back into the wild. 

Study co-author Professor Mike Letnic said that headstarting is a cost-effective intervention when compared to other, more complex strategies that involve the creation of large nature reserves, like the one created in Sturt National Park in 2019.

"Aly's headstarting project involved fencing off an area about 10 hectares which was big enough to hold about 30 or 40 wallabies at a time," said Professor Letnic.

"We're basically growing them from football size to medicine ball size before releasing them back into the wild, which can take anywhere from a few months to a year."

"For the most part they're fending for themselves in the headstart exclosure just like they do in the wild, except without the threat of feral animals. But they're not completely protected - they can still get eaten by eagles which means there is still some predator recognition."

According to Ross, the population of bridled nailtail wallabies more than doubled following the three years of headstarting in Avocet Nature Refuge, which is the largest increase that had been observed in this particular population since monitoring began in 2011.

"Before we started the headstarting strategy, we estimated the core Avocet population at 16 individuals," said Ross. "When we did a recount in 2018 after three years of gradually releasing headstarted wallabies that had reached the right size, the estimate of the total population of bridled nailtail wallabies - both inside and outside the headstarting exclosure - was 47."

"This clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of the headstart exclosure as a conservation strategy."

The researchers calculated how the wallaby population would fare with or without varying lengths of headstarting scenarios. The projections showed that, if headstarting was ceased, the population would become extinct within two to 52 years.

"What this tells us is that until we find a way to eliminate feral cats in the wild, headstarting may be the only way to keep this population at a sustainable level."

The wallaby headstarting project was the very first of its kind for a land-based mammal, and raises new hope for other potential endangered species among which the size of juveniles may be a factor in population survival.

"One of the great things about headstarting is it's relatively cheap, doesn't interfere too much with animals' awareness of predators, and can get good results in a short time," said Ross.

"And there are plenty of other mammal species around the world that could benefit. Any species that is particularly vulnerable in the early life stage could potentially thrive under a headstarting strategy."

Up until now, headstarting has been used with some success with birds, fish, reptiles, and seals, and there is no reason why it shouldn't also be implemented for terrestrial mammals, concluded the researchers.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Headstarting strategy saved an endangered wallaby population

A team of conservation scientists led by UNSW Sydney has...

Heat-induced male infertility will cause some species to fall victim to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/zombie-fires-becoming-more-common-as-the-climate-warms/">climate</a> change earlier than expected, according to an alarming new study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a>. The experts report that male fertility losses at high temperatures may affect as many as half of all species. 

"Our work emphasizes that temperature-driven fertility losses may be a major threat to biodiversity during climate change," said Dr. Tom Price. "We already had reports of fertility losses at high temperatures in everything from pigs to ostriches, to fish, flowers, bees, and even humans. Unfortunately, our research suggests they are not isolated cases, and perhaps half of all species will be vulnerable to thermal infertility."

Previous research on temperature tolerance has been primarily focused on identifying the heat thresholds that are lethal to organisms, rather than investigating the temperatures at which organisms can no longer breed.

"Our findings strongly suggest that where species can survive in nature is determined by the temperature at which males become sterile, not the lethal temperature," explained lead researcher Dr. Steven Parratt.

"Unfortunately, we do not have any way to tell which organisms are fertile up to their lethal temperature, and which will be sterilised at cooler temperatures. So, a lot of species may have a hidden vulnerability to high temperatures that has gone unnoticed. This will make conservation more difficult, as we may be overestimating how well many species will do as the planet warms."

The study was focused on 43 fruit fly species. The experts found that in nearly half of the species, male fertility was lost at temperatures that were below lethal thresholds. For example, Drosophila lummei males were found to become sterile at four degrees below their lethal limit. 
The researchers constructed a model for one of the Drosophila species using temperatures projected for 2060. The study revealed that more than half of areas with temperatures below the lethal level will still be hot enough to compromise male fertility.
"We now urgently need to understand the range of organisms likely to suffer thermal fertility losses in nature, and the traits that predict vulnerability," explained Dr. Price. "We must understand the underlying genetics and physiology, so we can predict which organisms are vulnerable, and perhaps produce breeds of livestock more robust to these challenges."

Dr. Simon Kerley is the of the Head of Terrestrial Ecosystems at the Natural Environment Research Council. He said the study turns our thinking of the role, rate, and impact of climate change on its head. 

"It really starts to shed light on the hidden and subtle impact of the changing conditions on the myriad of animals that we perhaps take for granted and have not previously considered 'at risk' from our changing climate. Importantly, it alerts us to the understanding this risk could occur sooner than we thought."

"This piece of work takes biology, at its most fundamental level, and explores it in a well-known and understood laboratory animal, but then takes that crucial extra step of relating it to the real world and the potential impact if may have on global biodiversity."

"With the COP15 and COP26 conferences taking place this year, this study serves as a timely reminder of the need to research and better understand the relationship between climate change and biodiversity loss. The Natural Environmental Research Council will continue to fund this vital research, and UKRI as a whole will work as part of the global effort to safeguard the natural environment for generations to come."

The study involved collaborators from the University of Leeds, University of Melbourne, University of Zürich, and Stockholm University and was funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC).

The work is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heat poses a hidden threat to male fertility in many species

Heat-induced male infertility will cause some species to fall victim...

A new study from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> has uncovered the mating secrets of honeybee drones. The researchers used radar technology to reveal that male honeybees, also known as drones, swarm together in specific aerial locations to mate with queens.

The lifetime goal of a male honeybees is to mate with a queen bee in mid-air. These drones are believed to gather in massive groups of up to 10,000 individuals in mating congregation areas.

The tracking data showed that drones alternated between periods of straight and convoluted looping flight patterns within a single flight. Upon further investigation,  the researchers discovered that phases of looping flight were associated with four distinct aerial locations where drones congregated. Remarkably, the specific congregational sites were consistent over a two year period.

It remains a mystery how the drones find these congregation areas. Considering that their average lifespan is only around 20 days, new generations of bees could not find these areas by simply following older drones. 

"Our findings suggest drones locate congregation areas as early as their second ever flight, without apparent extensive search. This implies that they must be able to get the information required to guide them to a congregation from observing the landscape close to their hive. In the future, we will look at how they accomplish this feat," explained study co-author Professor Lars Chittka.

The researchers propose that drone congregation areas could function like 'leks,' mating systems in which large numbers of males gather solely in an attempt to mate. Lek systems are most well known in vertebrates like deer, and males typically stick with a location.

"By using harmonic radar technology to track the bees, we found that individual flight paths show a clear change of behavior from straight flight to looping flight," said study lead author Dr. Joe Woodgate. "Periods of looping flight were clustered in particular locations and repeatable over two years, confirming that stable drone congregation areas, similar to 'leks' in other species, do exist."

"We show that drones frequently visited more than one congregation area on a single flight. This is the first evidence for males of any species routinely moving between lek-like congregations and may represent a new form of lek-like mating system in honeybees."

Within these congregation areas, the experts noted some similarities between the behavior of drones and swarms of mosquitoes. 

The researchers observed that when drones are making looping flight in one congregational area - the farther they go from the center, the harder they accelerate back toward it. This creates an apparent force, drawing bees toward the center and leading to a stable, coherent swarm.

"We believe that bee-inspired robotics will play a role in improving robotics and artificial intelligence in the future," said Dr. Woodgate. "Understanding how bees select and find distant goals based on their explorations of their surroundings will be important for this."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honeybee drones have congregational sites for mating

A new study from Queen Mary University of London has...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> has revealed that 33 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-did-not-hold-modern-mammals-back-from-evolving/">mammal</a> species respond negatively to human presence and struggle to live alongside people. By contrast, 58 percent of mammals were found to live successfully in places with higher levels of human disturbance.

The researchers analyzed data from 3,212 camera traps to show how human activities may be shifting the makeup of mammal communities across North America.

The team was particularly interested in understanding how mammals respond to different types of human disturbance, and whether these responses are linked to traits such as body size, diet, and reproductive success. 

In previous work, the researchers observed how wildlife in the Santa Cruz Mountains respond to human disturbance. They found that species like pumas and bobcats are less likely to be active in areas where humans are present, while deer and wood rats become bolder and more active. 

The experts set out to investigate which mammals are best equipped to live alongside humans on a larger scale. They combined their local camera trap data with that of researchers throughout the United States, Canada, and Mexico. 

Overall, the team tracked 24 species across 61 regionally diverse camera trap projects to look for trends on a continental scale.

"We've been very interested for a long time in how human disturbance influences wildlife, and we thought it would be interesting to see how wildlife in general are responding to similar anthropogenic pressures across North America," said study senior author Professor Chris Wilmers.

The findings showed that grizzly bears, lynx, wolves, and wolverines were less likely to be found in more developed areas, and were less active at these sites. Moose and martens were also less active in areas with a higher development footprint.

On the other hand, raccoons and white-tailed deer were more likely to spend time in developed areas, and were also more active in these spaces. 

Overall, mammals that were smaller, faster-reproducing, and had generalist diets were the most positively associated with human disturbance. Black bears, bighorn sheep, and wolverines were more likely to be found in areas frequented by humans, while deer, bobcats, grey foxes, pumas, and wolves were more active in these sites. 

The study results indicate that most mammals are willing to tolerate some level of human recreation in order to remain in high quality habitats. 

However, the research also shows that there is a limit to how much human disturbance animals can withstand. For example, red foxes were the only animals in the study that seemed to continue to be more active or present at medium to high levels of human disturbance.

In order to maintain suitable habitats that support diversity in mammal populations for the future, it will be important to understand the cutoff at which the costs of having humans nearby outweigh the benefits, explained the researchers.

"From a management perspective, I think the thresholds that we've started to identify are going to be really relevant," said Suraci. "This can help us get a sense of how much available habitat is actually out there for recolonizing or reintroduced species and hopefully allow us to more effectively coexist with wildlife in human-dominated landscapes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some mammals actually benefit from human disturbance

A new study from UC Santa Cruz has revealed that...

A study published by <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us">Wiley</a> has found extremely high levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tap-water-contaminants-2/">contaminants</a> in killer whales. The researchers identified new types of flame retardants that accumulate in the tissues of killer whales near Norway and are also passed on to nursing offspring.

"The study is shedding new light on how predators in the top of the food chain are affected by environmental contaminants, which has remained largely unknown," wrote the study authors.

"Little is known of the movement or presence of unregulated, emerging contaminants in top predators. The aim of the present study was to conduct the first screening of legacy and emerging contaminants in multiple tissues of killer whales from Norway and investigate tissue partitioning and maternal transfer." 

"Blubber was collected from 8 killer whales in 2015 to 2017, in addition to muscle from 5 of the individuals, and kidney, liver, heart, and spleen from a neonate."

In addition to flame retardants, the experts detected man-made chemicals called perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the tissues of adult killer whales. This chemical has been linked to reproductive and endocrine effects in wildlife. 

The researchers also found polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the blubber of 7 of the 8 killer whales in the study. PCBS were detected at levels that exceeded the proposed threshold for toxicological effects in marine mammals. The manufacturing of PCBs was banned in 1979.

"Top predators such as the killer whale (Orcinus orca) are considered sentinel species for marine ecosystem health, and many killer whale populations have been evaluated as being at risk from the harmful effects of legacy POPs, such as PCBs," wrote the study authors. 

"Levels of pollutants in top predators give not only an indication of ecosystem health, but of the persistence of chemicals, passive mobility in the environment, and active biotransport with migrating animals."

"Our results are relevant for the continued environmental monitoring of contaminants in the Arctic."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15528618">Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Killer whales are accumulating high levels of contaminants

A study published by Wiley has found extremely high levels...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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