<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-impacts-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sexual dimorphism</a>, which is the observable difference in appearance between male and female members of a species, occurs widely across the animal kingdom, including in humans. An interesting variation of this is sex-limited polymorphism, where one sex exhibits more variation in a certain trait compared to the other. 



An international team of scientists has explored this concept by examining the genetic basis for color polymorphism in adult female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuckoos-are-unable-to-change-their-migrations-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cuckoos</a> of the genus Cuculus, which are known for their brood parasitic behavior. The research provides insights into the evolutionary development and practical implications of this trait variation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-female-cuckoo-colors">Genetic basis of female cuckoo colors</h2>



The scientists examined why adult female cuckoos, unlike their uniformly gray male counterparts, may exhibit either gray or rufous (reddish-brown) plumage. This variability is not only evident across different cuckoo species but also within populations of the same species.



Using genome-wide association analysis on nuclear DNA from both Common and Oriental cuckoos, the researchers aimed to pinpoint the genetic factors behind the females' diverse plumage in an attempt to understand the underlying pigmentation mechanisms and the evolutionary history of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-wonder-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untold-story-of-bird-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, unlike in mammals, it is the females that are heterogametic (ZW), differing from the homogametic males (ZZ). This led researchers to speculate that the observed color variation in female cuckoos might be linked to genes on the W chromosome. 



“We found that, instead of a single gene or set of genes, nearly all variations in the gray or rufous coloration were associated with the full length of the female-limited W chromosome,” said co-author Mark Haber, the executive director of the <a href="https://asrc.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Advanced Science Research Center</a> (CUNY ASRC) and a psychology professor at the <a href="https://www.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Graduate Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biochemical-processes-of-cuckoo-colors">Biochemical processes of cuckoo colors</h2>



The scientists also examined the biochemical processes of coloration, revealing that both the Common and Oriental cuckoos use two forms of melanin-based pigmentation - similar to that in human skin - to produce their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-songbirds-bright-colors-are-a-blessing-and-a-curse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a> variations. 



Further genomic analysis of these species traced the origin of the color polymorphism in female cuckoos to a mutation that occurred over one million years ago, long before these species diverged around 140,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-advantages-of-female-cuckoo-coloration-nbsp">Potential advantages of female cuckoo coloration&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of these color variations are profound. For instance, female cuckoos with the rarer rufous plumage might benefit from mimicking juvenile cuckoos to avoid male harassment during mating seasons.&nbsp;



Moreover, as brood parasites who lay their eggs in the nests of other bird species, rufous females could potentially escape detection by host species better than their gray counterparts, which might reduce the risk of being attacked by host parents.



“The fascinating idea that many other sex-specific traits, which are harder to study, might also be genetically determined in the matrilinear genome, similar to the color polymorphism in female cuckoos,” concluded senior author Jochen Wolf, an expert in evolutionary biology at LMU Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-cuckoo-birds">More about cuckoo birds</h2>



Cuckoo birds are known for their distinctive calls and unique breeding behavior, particularly their practice of brood parasitism. This involves laying their eggs in the nests of other bird species, leaving the unsuspecting host birds to raise the cuckoo's offspring.&nbsp;



As a result, the host species may inadvertently neglect their own young due to the demanding nature of the cuckoo chick, which often grows larger than its foster siblings.



Cuckoos are found across the world and are highly adaptable to various environments. The family Cuculidae, to which they belong, includes both brood-parasitic cuckoos as well as species that raise their own young. Their diet varies from insects to caterpillars, and some species also consume fruits and seeds.



The cuckoo's call, which gives them their name, is emblematic in culture and often signals the arrival of spring. The most commonly recognized call is that of the common cuckoo in Europe, famously captured in the phrase "cuck-oo." 



This sound has not only embedded them in folklore but also inspired the creation of the cuckoo clock, where the bird's call marks the passing hours.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl5255" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Female cuckoo colors provide evolutionary advantages

Sexual dimorphism, which is the observable difference in appearance between male and female members of a species, occurs widely across the animal kingdom, including in humans. An interesting variation of this is sex-limited polymorphism, where one sex exhibits more variation in a certain trait compared to the other.  An international team of scientists has explored this concept by examining the genetic basis for color polymorphism in adult female cuckoos of the genus Cuculus, which are known for their brood parasitic behavior. The research provides insights into the...

Male butterflies produce a chemical in their sex glands with a repulsive odor that they use to "claim their territory," according to a new study. After sex, the butterflies mark their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/blue-orchard-bees-respond-to-fires-by-producing-more-females/">female</a> mates with the revolting scent to deter other suitors from approaching.

Led by Professor Chris Jiggins of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, a team of scientists mapped the production of the scented chemical compound in the tropical butterfly Heliconius melponene.

The chemical made in the genitals of the male butterflies turned out to be identical to a chemical produced by flowers to attract butterflies. The researchers identified a gene that shows butterflies and flowers independently evolved the same chemical for different purposes.

"We identified the gene responsible for producing this powerful anti-aphrodisiac pheromone called ocimene in the genitals of male butterflies. This shows that the evolution of ocimene production in male butterflies is independent of the evolution of ocimene production in plants," explained study lead author Dr. Kathy Darragh.

"For a long time it was thought insects took the chemical compounds from plants and then used them, but we have shown butterflies can make the chemicals themselves - but with very different intentions. Male butterflies use it to repulse competitors and flowers use the same smell to entice butterflies for pollination."

Among thousands of species of butterflies, some live for a matter of just days or weeks. Heliconius melponene butterflies, which were studied in Panama, live for around six months. The females typically have few sexual partners. After a single mating, the females store the sperm and use it to fertilize their eggs over a number of months.

On the other hand, male Heliconius melponene butterflies have as many sexual partners as possible. Each time they mate, they transfer the odorous chemical in an effort to guarantee their sperm will be used to fertilize the offspring. 

While Heliconius melpomene was found to produce the strong smelling pheromone ocimene, another closely related species - Heliconius cydno - does not produce the chemical. 

If the smell of this pheromone has such a powerful effect, how do the butterflies know when to be attracted and when to keep moving? Dr. Darragh explained that context is key. "The visual cues the butterflies get will be important - when the scent is detected in the presence of flowers it will be attractive but when it is found on another butterfly it is repulsive to the males."

The new insight into the power of smell, also called chemical signaling, highlights the importance of scent as a form of communication.

"The butterflies presumably adapted to detect it and find flowers and they have then evolved to use it in this very different way. The males want to pass their genes onto the next generation and they don't want the females to have babies with other fathers so they use this scent to make them unsexy," said Professor Jiggins.

"Male butterflies pester the females a lot so it might benefit the females too if the smell left behind means they stop being bothered for sex after they have already mated."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male butterflies mark their mates with a revolting scent after sex

Male butterflies produce a chemical in their sex glands with...

Young Seychelles warblers have better health outcomes when their elderly parents have help raising them, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA). These songbirds live in small family groups, and parents have helpers who participate in incubating the eggs and providing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/unhealthy-foods-spoil-the-benefits-of-a-mediterranean-diet/">food</a> for the chicks.

The researchers found that this cooperation can help compensate for a decline in the ability of elderly parents to provide sufficient care for their offspring. Getting help at the nest means that the mothers will live longer, and also promotes social behavior in family groups with older parents.

The findings help explain why humans and other social species are often more successful when they cooperate in groups.

The team analyzed data collected on individual Seychelles warblers that had been observed on a tiny island in the Seychelles over the last 30 years.

"In many animal species, offspring from aging parents do not survive as well as offspring from younger parents," said study senior author Professor David S. Richardson.

"The cooperative nature of Seychelles warblers means care for offspring is often shared between the dominant breeding pair and a variable number of adult subordinate helpers that help with various aspects of rearing, including providing food for the offspring."

"The amount of care that dominant breeders provide is reduced when they are assisted by helpers and this lower parental investment can improve the parents own survival and future reproductive output."

In addition, the extra help from other group members helps to reduce offspring mortality. The chances of survival for young birds progressively declines as the age of the mother bird increases. These declines, however, are mitigated when helpers are present. 

According to the researchers, individual helpers do not simply provide more care in response to the lower provisioning of older birds, but are actually recruited by the older female breeders.

"Such late-life fitness benefits of breeding cooperatively lead to the prediction that older parents should be more inclined to recruit helpers to improve both their own survival and that of their offspring," explained study first author Dr. Martijn Hammers from the University of Groningen.

Female Seychelles warblers are more likely to assist with caretaking than males. Furthermore, the likelihood that subordinate females will be entrusted as helpers increases sharply with the age of the dominant female. As a result, older dominant females may produce more female offspring, but this theory has not yet been tested. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20563744">Evolution Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Older Seychelles warblers get help from babysitters

Young Seychelles warblers have better health outcomes when their elderly...

Despite the fact that more than 3,000 animals are classified as endangered and hundreds more are vulnerable, ecological scientists do not have tools that can reliably predict when specific populations are at risk. A team of experts has now developed a management technique that may ultimately help prevent species vulnerability or <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a>. 

The study, which was focused on the short-lived nature of ecosystem stability, demonstrates how management practices can better anticipate species vulnerability. The researchers have also introduced some modeling approaches to help identify potentially endangered populations.

Study lead author Dr. Tessa Francis is an aquatic ecologist at the Puget Sound Institute and the managing director of the Ocean Modeling Forum at the University of Washington.

"A species or an ecosystem may seem perfectly stable when it unpredictably becomes vulnerable, even in the absence of an obvious stressor," said Dr. Francis. "In some cases, modeling interactions between species or ecosystem dynamics can help managers identify potential corrective actions to take before the species or system collapses."

Ying-Cheng Lai, a professor of Electrical Engineering and Physics at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a>, was involved in the mathematical modeling process of the research.

"The Mexican gray wolf is an example of an endangered species that is experiencing a population resurgence in some areas, yet remains vulnerable in others," said Professor Lai. 

"The predator-prey relationship between the Mexican gray wolf and elk, mule, white-tailed deer, pronghorn, javelina, rabbits, and other small mammals is an example of how interspecies relationships can affect endangerment. In a general predator-prey relationship, a significant reduction in the prey population can make the predator endangered."

"These kinds of interactions, plus other factors such as the species decay rate, migration, the capacity of the habitat, and random disturbances, are included in the mathematical prediction model, and it turns out that, more common than usually thought, the system evolution dynamics can just be transient." 

According to Professor Lai, transients in ecosystems can be good or bad, and the researchers aim to develop control strategies to sustain the good ones and eliminate the bad ones.

"As we apply these mathematical models to understanding systems on realistic, ecologic time scales, we unveil new approaches and ideas for adaptive management," said Alan Hastings, who is a theoretical ecologist at UC Davis.

"The goal is to develop management strategies to both extend a positive ecosystem as long as possible and to design recovery systems to support resurgence from vulnerable states. Over time, as successful predictions are incorporated into the mathematical model, the tool will become more accurate."

However, mathematical models do not offer a solution for identifying potentially endangered animals on their own. 

"While models can be useful in playing out 'what ifs' and understanding hypothetical consequences of management interventions, just as important is changing the way we view ecosystems and admitting that things are often less stable than they appear," said Dr. Francis. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New models will help identify potentially endangered animals

Despite the fact that more than 3,000 animals are classified...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/">São Paulo State University</a> have found that large mammals fertilize the soil in tropical forests. In particular, animals like peccaries and tapirs boost levels of soil nitrogen, which is considered the most important nutrient for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diet-helps-protect-against-chronic-diseases/">plant</a> growth. 

A white-lipped peccary is a boar-like mammal found throughout Central and South America. These hoofed animals roam the forest in groups of 50 to 100, eating a wide variety of foods. In the Atlantic Rainforest along the coast of Brazil, peccaries prefer the fruit of jussara palm trees.  

The jussara palm is very prevalent in the Atlantic Rainforest, which is linked to an abundance of dung, urine, and soil trampling by peccaries, tapirs, and other frugivores. 

The researchers found that the level of ammonium, a form of soil nitrogen, was up to 95 percent lower in areas of forest without fruit-eating mammals. The findings highlight the critical role that frugivores play in the nitrogen cycle, and serve as yet another warning that important ecosystem services are lost when animals disappear.

"Any farmer knows how crucial the nitrogen cycle is to achieve high crop yields. Studies in other environments have already shown that the presence of ruminants stimulates the growth of grasses thanks to the effect of their excretions on the nitrogen cycle, including optimization of microorganism activity," explained study first author Nacho Villar.

"Our latest study has now shown that large fruit-eating mammals provide the same service in tropical forests."

The experts also determined that frugivores redistribute nitrogen and fertilize soil that would otherwise be poor in nutrients. The researchers estimate that the fertilized soil contains four times more ammonium and 50 times more nitrate compared to areas that are not fertilized by frugivores.

"Peccaries account for 80% to 90% of the total mammal biomass in the Atlantic Rainforest. Large groups of these animals roam extensive territories, fertilizing the forest," said Villar. "Tapir density is lower, so their contribution to the nitrogen cycle isn't as great, but the amount excreted by each individual is considerable, as is each animal's range as it disperses seeds." 

In a previous study, the São Paulo team described how peccaries and tapirs contribute to plant species diversity and abundance in the tropical rainforest. 

Next, the researchers will investigate whether the nitrogen boost provided by large mammals may boost the carbon absorption ability of plants. If this is the case, plant-animal interaction could play a major role in mitigating climate change.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652435">Functional Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fruit-eating mammals fertilize the soil in tropical forests

Scientists at São Paulo State University have found that large...

Glass frogs wave their hands and feet to attract mates. Some frog species have found ways to overcome the obstacle of loud rushing water that can drown out their mating calls. Frogs that live near roaring waterfalls and streams attempt to attract mates by waving a foot, flapping a hand, or bobbing their head. 

Frogs who use visual signals have been documented near rushing streams in the rainforests of India, Borneo, and Brazil. In an exciting new study from UC Berkeley, PhD candidate Rebecca Brunner has discovered the same "dancing" behavior among glass frogs in Ecuador. 

The study marks the first time that a glass frog has been known to use visual cues for communication in response to the acoustic environment.

"A handful of other frog species around the world use visual signaling, in addition to high-pitched calls, to communicate in really loud environments," said Brunner. "What's interesting is that these species are not closely related to each other, which means that these behaviors likely evolved independently, but in response to similar environments - a concept called convergent evolution."

Sachatamia orejuela glass frogs are native to the rainforests of Ecuador and Colombia. These frogs are almost exclusively found on rocks within the spray zones of waterfalls, where they become nearly invisible to predators.

Brunner was conducting fieldwork in an Ecuadorean rainforest stream recording the call of a Sachatamia orejuela glass frog when she first observed the visual cues. She noticed the frog was repeatedly raising its front and back legs.

"I was already over the moon because I had finally found a calling male after months of searching. Before our publication, there was no official record of this species' call, and basic information like that is really important for conservation," said Brunner. "But then I saw it start doing these little waves, and I knew that I was observing something even more special."

Balancing herself on a slippery rock, Brunner caught the phenomenon on film. As she recorded, the frog continued to wave its hands and feet and bob its head. A few meters away, Brunner discovered another male Sachatamia orejuela using the same cues.

"This is a really exhilarating discovery because it's a perfect example of how an environment's soundscape can influence the species that live there," said Brunner.

"We've found that Sachatamia orejuela has an extremely high-pitched call, which helps it communicate above the lower-pitched white noise of waterfalls. And then to discover that it also waves its hands and feet to increase its chances of being noticed - that's a behavior I've always loved reading about in textbooks, so it is beyond thrilling to be able to share another amazing example with the world."

Brunner hopes to return to Ecuador soon to continue her research, which is focused on the bioacoustics of various ecosystems and conservation.

"One of the best things about fieldwork is that nature is always full of surprises - you never know what discoveries you may happen upon. I hope our findings can serve as a reminder that we share this planet with incredible biodiversity. Conserving ecosystems that support species like Sachatamia orejuela is important not only for our well-being, but also for our sense of wonder."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/beh-overview.xml">Behaviour</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Glass frogs wave their hands and feet to attract mates

Glass frogs wave their hands and feet to attract mates....

Beekeepers in the United States and Canada are now losing 25 to 40 percent of their honey bee colonies annually. A major cause of colony collapse is queen bee failure, which occurs when queen bees lose their ability to maintain the worker bee population. 

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> set out to investigate why queen bees are failing faster than they did in the past. The experts found that when sperm viability is low, the expression of a protective immune protein is high.

According to study co-author Professor David Tarpy, the research has important implications for beekeepers and the farmers who rely on honey bees to pollinate their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-work-better-together-to-improve-crops/">crops</a>.

"Beekeepers have identified problem queens as a top management concern, but what's causing the problem is largely invisible. Queens go bad, and we don't know why," said Professor Tarpy.

Study lead author Alison McAfee explained that to have a healthy hive, honey bees depend on a healthy queen - the only female bee in a colony that can reproduce.

Early in life, the queen mates with many males and stores a lifetime supply of sperm in an abdominal organ called a spermatheca. 

As the sperm die out over time, the queen is unable to produce as many fertilized eggs and the colony's population enters into a state of decline.

"Queens have the potential to live for five years, but these days, half the time queens (in managed honey bee colonies) are replaced within their first six months because they are failing," said McAfee. "If a beekeeper is really lucky, a queen might live two years. Beekeepers need answers about why their queens are failing."

"The more we can find out about what is actually happening within these failed queens, the closer we can get to understanding why this queen failure is happening in the first place."

The researchers discovered that queen bees that were failing faster had significantly fewer sperm. Compared to those that were reproductively thriving, the failed queens tended to have higher levels of two specific viruses - sacbrood virus and black queen cell virus.

"The high levels of these viruses and poor sperm viability made us interested in seeing if there was a trade-off happening in the honey bee queen," explained McAfee. 

"There's a classical hypothesis in reproductive biology that you can't do everything well, so there's a trade-off between immunity and being able to reproduce. It's been found in quite a few other organisms, including insects, that there are such trade-offs."

The experts used mass spectrometry to compare the spermatheca of the healthy and failed queens. The analysis identified 2,000 different proteins, some of which were linked to sperm viability.

According to McAfee, one of the most important proteins linked to sperm viability was lysozyme, an enzyme that is part of the bees' immune systems.

"The queens with the highest sperm viability had the lowest abundance of lysozyme, indicating that they weren't investing resources in this kind of immune response," said McAfee. "That supports this idea that there's a trade-off between the queens being able to fight off infections and being able to maintain their stored sperm."

Professor Tarpy said the research could help researchers find the cause of queen failure, which may ultimately help identify bad queens before beekeepers use them.

However, the exact cause of queen failure still remains unclear. "The underlying mechanisms could be disease. They could be pesticides. They could be improper nutrition," said Professor Tarpy. "We don't know, so we are working our way backward to identify the causes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are queen honey bees failing faster?

Beekeepers in the United States and Canada are now losing...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a>, experts have unraveled the mystery of how the Galápagos Islands support the unique native <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/support-from-land-owners-could-protect-endangered-species/">wildlife</a> that inspired Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. The researchers determined that the local northward winds play a previously unrecognized role in supporting the regional ecosystem of the Galápagos Islands.

Despite having only modest rainfall and vegetation, the Galápagos Islands are known as a significant biodiversity hotspot. Scientists previously established that biodiversity in this region is driven by ocean upwelling, which supports the growth of the phytoplankton that form the base of the food chain. 

"The regional ecosystem is sustained by strongly seasonal oceanic upwelling event - upward surges of cool, nutrient-rich deep waters that fuel the growth of the phytoplankton upon which the entire ecosystem thrives," wrote the study authors. "Yet despite its critical life-supporting role, the upwelling’s controlling factors remain undetermined."

"Here, we use a realistic model of the regional ocean circulation to show that the intensity of upwelling is governed by local northward winds, which generate vigorous submesoscale circulations at upper-ocean fronts to the west of the islands."

By understanding the factors which control the life-supporting process of ocean upwelling, scientists can assess how sensitive or resilient the Galápagos ecosystem may be against climate change.

In collaboration with experts at the National Oceanography Centre and Universidad San Francisco de Quito in Ecuador, the Southampton team used a high-resolution computer model to analyze ocean circulation around the Galápagos Islands.

The analysis revealed that the intensity of upwelling around the archipelago is driven by local northward winds. To the west of the islands, the northward winds generate strong turbulence that drives the upwelling of deep waters toward the ocean surface. This pushes up the nutrients needed to sustain the Galápagos ecosystem.

"Our findings show that Galápagos upwelling is controlled by highly localized atmosphere-ocean interactions," said study co-author Alex Forryan. "There now needs to be a focus on these processes when monitoring how the islands' ecosystem is changing, and in mitigating the ecosystem's vulnerability to 21st -century climate change."

According to Professor Alberto Naveira Garabato, this new knowledge of where and how the injection of deep-ocean nutrients to the Galapagos ecosystem happens is informing plans to expand the Galápagos Marine Reserve, and improve its management against the mounting pressures of climate change and human exploitation.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Northward winds support the wildlife of the Galápagos Islands

In a new study from the University of Southampton, experts...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/">University of Otago</a> have discovered that an effective way to conserve New Zealand lizards is to isolate them after they are translocated. The study shows that the use of a penned release - enclosing the geckos in a pen to adapt to their new site - helps the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-lizards-are-surprisingly-adaptable-to-climate-extremes/">lizards</a> to become established.

"Globally, translocations of herpetofauna have been notoriously unsuccessful. Most previous translocations of green geckos have failed to result in population establishment," wrote the researchers

"However, recent penned releases of jewelled geckos have led to increased site fidelity, reduced dispersal, reduced home range sizes, and reduced minimum daily movements, facilitating population establishment." 

"The success of these penned releases prompted use of the method in a translocation of 19 barking geckos to Mana Island, New Zealand, the first application of the technique to this species."

The experts penned the area used by the lizards over three months, and then evaluated their behavior for two weeks after they were released.

"We aimed to determine whether barking gecko area use decreased over time, which can be an early indication of territory establishment," explained the researchers.

"Mean barking gecko area use decreased significantly throughout the study, supporting previous work on jewelled geckos that suggests penning is an effective tool for translocations of green geckos and may also be beneficial to other lizard taxa." 

According to study co-author Dr. Jo Monks, understanding the behavioral response of barking geckos to a penned release, helps to determine which techniques are most helpful for a new population of geckos to become established following translocations.

Many green gecko populations have declined as a result of predators, habitat modification, and poaching, yet little research has been conducted on the relationships between geckos and various environments.

"Protecting barking geckos and other reptiles of Aotearoa is important in its own right and for the mauri of ecosystems in which they have important roles as pollinators and seed dispersers as well as being predators of invertebrates and prey of larger animals," said Dr. Monks.

The study is published in the <a href="https://newzealandecology.org/nzje">New Zealand Journal of Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Isolation helps geckos become established in new areas

Scientists at the University of Otago have discovered that an...

Some guppies have no self-control. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers have found that guppies have varying levels of self-control. The experts report that Trinidadian guppies lack the ability to resist ill-natured impulses on an individual level, and also when compared to other guppy species. 

The team studied the behavior of Trinidadian guppies with a focus on "inhibitory control," or the capacity to suppress unhelpful impulses and urges.

For the investigation, the tiny fish were first taught how to swim into a cylinder to get food. Next, a cover was removed to make the cylinder transparent.

The researchers measured inhibitory control based on whether a guppy resisted the urge to swim directly toward the food. If they darted directly at the food, they bumped into the cylinder. Otherwise, they resisted this impulsive behavior and patiently swam around into the cylinder.

The study revealed that there was "consistent individual variation" among the guppies, and some had more self-control than others.

"Studies of inhibitory control have traditionally focussed on a few bird and mammal species, but we now know it exists in a wide range of animals," said Dr. Alessandro Macario.

"As well as finding consistent differences between individual guppies, the population of guppies we studied were, on average, half as able to control impulses as a different strain of guppies tested in a previous study under similar conditions."

"We can't be certain about the causes of this difference, but it's possible that the strain we studied had evolved in different social and environmental conditions - with less need for inhibitory control."

The study was focused on captive females, and each guppy was tested multiple times. Overall, the fish inhibited the urge to swim directly at the food in 28.5 percent of trials.

The fish showed no signs of improvement over time, but the researchers say this may have changed if the guppies had been tested for longer.

"Our study is a first step towards understanding how inhibitory control has evolved in guppies," said Professor Darren Croft. "Guppies live in small rivers alongside predators so, for example, they might need the ability to hide and resist the urge to leave that hiding place to get food."

"The next step in this research is to examine the extent to which this trait affects guppies' chances of survival or reproduction."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10958649">Journal of Fish Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some guppies have no self-control

Some guppies have no self-control. In a new study led...

Humans share many of the same behaviors as other mammals and birds that live in the same place in the world, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. The experts report that foraging humans reproduce, parent, and even organize their social groups in similar ways as neighboring <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/animals-needed-sleep-before-they-even-had-brains/">animals</a>.

The researchers analyzed data from more than 300 locations around the world. For almost all of the behaviors examined, humans were more likely to behave similarly to non-human species living in the same place compared to those living elsewhere.

"Previous research has explored how environmental conditions shape the behavior of closely related species. This is the first time a broad comparative perspective has been used to systematically compare very different species - humans, mammals, and birds - across a wide range of behaviours. Our evidence shows how remarkably pervasive and consistent the effect of the local environment is on behaviour," said Dr. Toman Barsbai.

"The similarities are not only present for behaviors directly relating to the environment, such as finding food, where we might expect a clear correlation, but also for reproductive and social behaviours, which might seem less dependent on the local environment."

For example, environments where humans get a significant proportion of their calories from hunting were found to have a much larger proportion of carnivorous mammals and birds. Similar associations were also identified in reliance on fishing, how far to travel to gather food, whether or not to store food, and whether or not to migrate between seasons.

When it comes to reproductive behavior, locations where humans have children later in life were found to have local mammals and birds that are older when they first reproduce. Other variables that correlated across species were the proportion of individuals having multiple partners, how far individuals move to live with new partners, and how likely couples are to split up. 

For both humans and non-human species, there were also places identified in the world where offspring care is more equally shared, certain social classes are more dominant, and where group sizes are larger.

The results of the study show that environmental factors have a major influence on how foraging human and animal populations behave, despite having very different backgrounds. It is not yet clear which specific environmental factors relate to specific behaviors, or what the mechanisms are linking them.

"We were surprised these associations appeared across humans, mammals, and birds," said Dr. Dieter Lukas. "Different species could be expected to sense and interact with their environments in very different ways. Even if they end up with the same behavior, they might have gotten there through different paths." 

"In particular, the flexibility that allows humans to adapt behavior to environments around the world is probably facilitated by relying on learning from other people and building on this information over generations."

The study focused on human populations who obtain most of their food by foraging in the environment where they live. 

"It would be interesting to see how many of these environmental restrictions shape other societies where individuals get food through agricultural specialization and trading," said author Dr. Andreas Pondorfer. 

"Agricultural intensification is often thought to buffer humans from the environment. Nevertheless, individuals in these populations might not be as buffered as we think and behaviours might still reflect adaptations that occurred before the adoption of agriculture."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans share many of the same behaviors as animals that live nearby

Humans share many of the same behaviors as other mammals...

Researchers have discovered a new strategy that bees use to cope with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-and-pollinator-connections-become-stronger-after-wildfires/">wildfires</a>. In the aftermath of a fire, blue orchard bees produce more female offspring, according to a new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>.

Female bees control the sex of their offspring. The eggs that they fertilize with sperm become females, while the non-fertilized eggs become males.

The study revealed that the percentage of female offspring was even higher in the most severely burned areas compared to areas that were moderately burned. 

"This is one of the first studies that has looked at how forest fire severity influences bee demography," said co-author Jim Rivers, who is an animal ecologist with the OSU College of Forestry. "Sex ratio varied under different fire conditions but the number of young produced did not, which indicates bees altered the sex of their offspring depending on the degree of fire severity."

Many of the flowering plants that make up native ecosystems and food chains depend on bees for pollination. If experts can gain a better understanding of how bees respond to wildfires, which are expected to increase in frequency in severity, they can develop more effective post-fire recovery strategies.

"We placed bees on different sites within recently burned mixed-conifer forest in southwestern Oregon and used them as a measuring stick to tell us how good the bee habitat was," said study lead author Sara Galbraith. "Adjusting offspring production toward the more expensive offspring sex shows a functional response to changes in habitat quality via an increased density of flowering plants."

Pollinators can benefit from canopy-reducing fires in dense conifer forest ecosystems. For example, flowering plant abundance usually increases for several years following a fire, which leads to more food resources. This ultimately boosts wild bee diversity and abundance.

Pollinators are an essential component of insect and plant biodiversity. Animal pollinators enhance the reproduction of nearly 90 percent of the Earth's flowering plants, including many food crops. 

The blue orchard bee, Osmia lignaria, is a solitary mason bee that is native to the United States and Canada. 

To investigate the relationship between fire severity and reproductive output of blue orchard bees, the researchers set up nest blocks containing a standardized number and sex ratio of adult bees, and then monitored the offspring across local and landscape scales

"In fire-prone landscapes, there is variation in species-level response to wildfire that serves to maintain ecosystem structure and function," said Rivers. "With the blue orchard bee and similar species, foraging females invest in larger progeny and more females when more resources are available."

The analysis showed that burned mixed-conifer forest provides floral resources for the blue orchard bee along a gradient of severity. An increase in these resources after high-severity fire prompts blue orchard bees to invest their energy in producing larger female offspring. 

"Our study revealed more female progeny than is typically observed with blue orchard bees," said Galbraith. "The greater proportion of females in areas surrounded by a more severely burned landscape indicates an investment in more female offspring because of greater resource availability."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/442">Oecologia</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Blue orchard bees respond to fires by producing more females

Researchers have discovered a new strategy that bees use to...

In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a>, researchers have discovered electric eels hunting in groups for the first time. The unexpected behavior was observed in a small lake in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/jaguars-in-the-amazon-are-threatened-by-climate-extremes/">Amazon</a> River basin that was filled with more than 100 adult electric eels.

The eels teamed up to herd small fish called tetras into tightly packed balls. Groups of up to 10 eels collaborated to launch an attack, surrounding the fish and shocking them into submission. 

"This is an extraordinary discovery," said study senior author David de Santana. "Nothing like this has ever been documented in electric eels."

The findings raise new questions about the lifestyle and behavior of electric eels, which were previously thought to be solitary predators. 

"Hunting in groups is pretty common among mammals, but it's actually quite rare in fishes," said de Santana. "There are only nine other species of fishes known to do this, which makes this finding really special."

The research is the latest of de Santana's ongoing investigation into freshwater fish diversity in South America. His expeditions to the remote waters of the Amazon and its many tributaries have uncovered 85 new species of electric fish. 

Last year, de Santana identified two new species of electric eels. One of the new species, Volta's electric eel, is capable of producing 860-volt electric shocks. This is not only the strongest electric discharge of any animal on Earth, but is also 210 volts higher than the previous record. 

The current study was focused on Volta's electric eels, which can reach lengths of 8 feet.

"If you think about it, an individual of this species can produce a discharge of up to 860 volts - so in theory if 10 of them discharged at the same time, they could be producing up to 8,600 volts of electricity," said de Santana. "That's around the same voltage needed to power 100 light bulbs."

De Santana's team first witnessed Volta's electric eels hunting in groups during a field expedition in August of 2012. Study first author Douglas Bastos discovered a small lake directly connected with the Iriri River. He was amazed to find that the lake held more than 100 adult electric eels.

Two years later, the team logged 72 hours of continuous observation of the eels congregating in this location along the Iriri River.

For most of the day and night, the eels layed almost motionless in the deeper end of the lake, only coming to the surface occasionally to take a breath. The scientists found that the eels became active at dusk and dawn - interacting with each other and then swimming in a large circle. 

The eels corralled thousands of the tiny tetras into tighter and tighter shoals as they herded them into shallow water. Once the tetras were trapped by the main group, de Santana said that bands of two to 10 eels would move in closer and then launch synchronized electric attacks on the prey ball. 

The electric shocks sent the tetras flying out into the air, and then they fell back into the water stunned and motionless. De Santana noted that each dawn or dusk hunting ritual took around one hour and contained between five to seven high-voltage attacks.

"This is the only location where this behavior has been observed, but right now we think the eels probably show up every year," said de Santana. "Our initial hypothesis is that this is a relatively rare event that occurs only in places with lots of prey and enough shelter for large numbers of adult eels."

According to de Santana, these large gatherings of electric eels are not likely to be very common. 

"These animals can be 8 feet long and produce 860-volt electric shocks; if 100 of them being in one place was a common occurrence, I think we would have heard about it before now."

With the Amazon under threat from deforestation, wildfires, and climate change, de Santana said there is a profound sense of urgency to accelerate biodiversity assessment in the region. 

"Electric eels aren't in immediate danger, but their habitats and ecosystems are under immense pressure. This paper is an example of how much we still don't know, how many organisms whose life histories we don't yet understand."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Biology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Electric eels found hunting in groups

In a new study led by the Smithsonian, researchers have...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...