Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-flying-squirrel-spotted-after-more-than-four-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> manage the traumas? 



Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-traumas-shorter-squirrel-lives">Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives</h2>



Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, is deeply involved in studying the survival factors of red squirrels. Her recent study highlights a significant finding: young red squirrels that encounter numerous traumas during their first year typically experience a reduction in their adult lifespan. 



Specifically, in the challenging conditions of the Yukon, such early life stress leads to an average lifespan reduction of at least 14 percent. This research underscores the critical impact of early developmental conditions on the longevity of these animals.



"The ecosystem red squirrels inhabit in this region is unique. Every three to seven years, their favorite food – seed from cones of white spruce trees – is produced in superabundance during what we call a food boom," Petrullo said.



"We found that these booms, even though rare, can interrupt the biological embedding of early-life adversity. If a squirrel had a harsh first year of life, if they were lucky enough to experience a food boom in their second year of life, they lived just as long – if not longer – in spite of early-life adversity."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-food-boom">What is a food boom?</h2>



A food boom is a sudden and significant increase in the availability of food resources within an animal's environment. There are multiple causes behind food booms. Some food sources experience cyclical booms and busts. For example, trees that produce nuts or seeds might only have huge yields every few years.



Additionally, favorable weather conditions can lead to increased plant growth, insect populations, or other food sources for animals. The removal of a predator or the introduction of a new prey species can disrupt the balance and make more food available for some animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-boom-benefits">Food boom benefits</h2>



Even with a rough beginning, plentiful food sources can repair damage caused by early-life stress in animals. The research shows that squirrels who had difficult early lives, and later experienced a surge in food availability, had lifespans comparable to (or even exceeding) squirrels who never had to experience hardship. 



This implies that the benefits of a food boom extend beyond simple nutrition. A possible explanation is that abundant food favorably alters the animal's surroundings by decreasing the need for competition and ultimately improving chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



"Our findings in red squirrels echo what we know about how early-life adversity can shorten adult lifespan in humans and other primates," said Petrullo. 



The main takeaway from this research is the concept of resilience. Similar to squirrels, individuals vary in their ability to cope with the lingering effects of early life trauma. The study proposes that later positive experiences are significant in determining the extent to which early stress affects an individual.



Squirrels are often subjects in laboratory studies due to their physiological similarities to humans. However, Lauren Petrullo emphasizes the value of studying these animals in their natural surroundings. This approach provides a clearer view of how stress, resilience, and environmental factors interact dynamically outside the controlled conditions of a lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-a-new-challenge-to-squirrel-trauma">Climate change: A new challenge to squirrel trauma</h2>



The survival strategies of red squirrels, particularly their reliance on periodic food booms, have developed to thrive within a specific climatic context. Unfortunately, the escalating issue of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-squirrels-adapting-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> poses a significant threat to these patterns. 



Rising temperatures have the potential to disrupt the timing and abundance of these crucial food booms. If these natural events become less frequent or less predictable, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a> that encounter significant challenges early in life may find themselves even more vulnerable to the adverse effects of their harsh environments. This could result in increased mortality rates and impact the overall population stability of the species.



"As food boom patterns begin to change, the pathways that connect early-life experiences and lifespan may change as well, potentially offering important insight into how animals may adapt to increasingly challenging environments," said Petrullo.



This research isn't just about squirrels and their trauma. It's a captivating story about survival, where even in harsh conditions, there's always hope. Just like a lucky food boom can alter a squirrel's fate, our own paths might hold life-changing opportunities. 



As scientists continue to study these resilient creatures, we may not only discover the secrets to their success, but also gain valuable insights to enhance our own well-being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2681" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Early trauma cuts life short for squirrels, but this can be reversed

Life in the wilds of the Yukon is a relentless test of survival. For the red squirrels that inhabit this territory, danger lurks around every corner - freezing temperatures, scarce resources, and hungry predators. So how do squirrels manage the traumas? Why do some squirrels live longer, healthier lives than others? Scientists are discovering fascinating answers that even have implications for our understanding of human stress and resilience. Early traumas, shorter squirrel lives Lauren Petrullo, a researcher at the University of Arizona, is deeply involved in studying...

The removal of dairy cows from the United States would only make a small contribution to reducing greenhouse gas <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-caused-an-unprecedented-drop-in-co2-emissions/">emissions</a> while detrimentally impacting the country's supply of essential nutrients. This is the conclusion of a recent study conducted by scientists at <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> and the U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center.

Dairy production has been linked to about 1.6 percent of the overall greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. At the same time, the dairy industry is responsible for supplying the protein requirements of 169 million people, the calcium requirements of 254 million people, as well as the energy requirements of 71.2 million people.

A growing collection of research has explored the potential for a shift away from animal products - and toward plant-based alternatives - to increase food production and reduce greenhouse gas emissions on a global scale. 

The current study investigated the effects of dairy product removal on emissions and nutrient availability in the United States under various removal scenarios, including depopulation, current management, and retirement. 

In the first scenario, consumers would stop using dairy products, resulting in the depopulation of the animals. Current management means that cattle management would remain the same and the milk would either be exported or used for products other than human food. Under the third condition, retirement, cattle would be reduced to numbers that could be supported by available pastureland.

Overall, the dairy cow removal scenarios reduced the availability of essential micronutrients such as vitamins A, D, B 12, and choline. At the same time, these conditions did not reduce harmful emissions relative to the current production system. 

"Land use was a focus in all animal removal scenarios because the assumptions surrounding how to use land made available if we remove dairy cattle greatly influence results of the simulations," said study lead author Dr. Robin R. White. 

"If dairy cattle are no longer present in U.S. agriculture, we must consider downstream effects such as handling of pasture and grain land previously used for producing dairy feed, disposition of byproduct feeds, and sourcing fertilizer."

The results of the study suggest that the removal of dairy cows from U.S. agriculture would only reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 0.7 percent, while substantially lowering the available supply of essential nutrients for the growing American population.

"Production of some essential nutrients, such as calcium and many vitamins, decreased under all reallocation scenarios that decreased greenhouse gas emissions, making the dairy removal scenarios suboptimal for feeding the U.S. population," said Professor White. 

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/">Journal of Dairy Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dairy cows contribute more to nutritional needs than to harmful emissions

The removal of dairy cows from the United States would...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> have discovered a unique pterosaur that is unlike any other pterosaur species that has ever been described. The unusual creature was about the size of a turkey with a long, toothless <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cross-mating-finches-exchanged-genes-and-beak-shape/">beak</a> that was slender. 

This beak was such an unexpected find that it was initially thought to be part of the fin spine of a fish. In collaboration with experts at the University of Bath, the Portsmouth team noticed the unusual texture of the bone, which is only seen only in pterosaurs. The scientists realized that they were looking at a piece of beak.

"We've never seen anything like this little pterosaur before. The bizarre shape of the beak was so unique, at first the fossils weren't recognized as a pterosaur," said study co-author Professor David Martill.

A detailed search of the site in Morocco where the beak was recovered produced additional fossils of the animal, which the team ultimately determined was a new species of pterosaur that is now known as Leptostomia begaaensis. 

"Just imagine how delighted I was, while on field work in Morocco, to discover the lower jaw to match the upper jaw found by Dr. Longrich of this utterly unique fossil animal," said study lead author and PhD student Roy Smith.

There are more than 100 known species of pterosaurs, which are winged reptiles related to dinosaurs. Pterosaurs are extremely diverse, ranging from groups as small as a sparrow to those as large as a fighter jet.

Leptostomia begaaensis used its beak to probe dirt and mud for hidden prey, hunting like present-day sandpipers in search of worms and crustaceans. 

"The pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight and they staged a major radiation in the Cretaceous," wrote the study authors.

"Cretaceous pterosaurs occupied many of the niches occupied today by birds, including aerial insect hawkers, piscivores, and filter feeders. The diversity of this radiation remains poorly known due to the uneven stratigraphic and geographic distribution of pterosaur fossils." 

Professor Martill noted that the diets and hunting strategies of pterosaurs were also diverse, likely including meat, fish, and insects. He added that the giant 500-pound pterosaurs probably ate whatever they wanted.

"Some species hunted food on the wing, others stalked their prey on the ground. Now, the fragments of this remarkable little pterosaur show a lifestyle previously unknown for pterosaurs," said Professor Martill.

Using a computerized tomography (CT) scan, the scientists discovered an incredible network of internal canals for nerves that helped L. begaaensis detect prey underground.

"Leptostomia may actually have been a fairly common pterosaur, but it's so strange - people have probably been finding bits of this beast for years, but we didn't know what they were until now," said study co-author Dr Nick Longrich. He added that the new species shows how, more than a century after pterosaurs were first discovered, there is still so much to learn about them.

"We're underestimating pterosaur diversity because the fossil record gives us a biased picture. Pterosaur fossils typically preserve in watery settings - seas, lakes, and lagoons - because water carries sediments to bury bones," said Dr. Longrich.

"Pterosaurs flying over water to hunt for fish tend to fall in and die, so they're common as fossils. Pterosaurs hunting along the margins of the water will preserve more rarely, and many from inland habitats may never preserve as fossils at all."

"There's a similar pattern in birds. If all we had of birds was their fossils, we'd probably think that birds were mostly aquatic things like penguins, puffins, ducks and albatrosses. Even though they're a minority of the species, their fossil record is a lot better than for land birds like hummingbirds, hawks, and ostriches."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cretaceous-research">Cretaceous Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New species of pterosaur had a long, skinny beak for hunting

Scientists at the University of Portsmouth have discovered a unique...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, experts have investigated the distribution and conservation status of forest elephants in the tropical West African country of Côte d’Ivoire, which translates in English to the "Ivory Coast." The researchers found that the remaining <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/">elephant</a> populations are small and isolated, and that their chances of survival are uncertain. 

In precolonial times, Côte d'Ivoire was likely home to one of the largest elephant populations in West Africa, which is how the country earned its name. Recent estimates suggest that over the last several decades, the number of elephants in this region has dropped from more than 1,100 individuals to less than 360 today. 

The primary reason for the drastic decline of elephants on the Ivory Coast is habitat loss, as forests are cleared for agriculture. In addition, as populations become more isolated, they also become more vulnerable to poachers.

Prior to this investigation, the most recent assessment of Côte d'Ivoire elephants was at least a decade old. For the current study, a team led by Sery Gonedelé Bi analyzed dung counts, records of human-elephant conflicts, media reports, and survey data obtained from 2011 to 2017.

In the 25 protected areas that were surveyed, the presence of elephants was confirmed in only four areas, where elephant density was found to be low. More than half of the protected areas had been completely converted to farms and human settlements. 

The most well-preserved regions had a higher probability of hosting an elephant population. The presence of elephants could be predicted by human population size, habitat degradation, and the proportion of forest converted to cocoa plantation. 

"The large majority of the protected area of Côte d'Ivoire has lost its entire elephant populations as a consequence of the lack of conservation measures. Out of the 25 protected areas surveyed, forest elephants of Côte d'Ivoire are now confined into small populations in four protected areas," wrote the study authors.

"Aggressive conservation actions including law enforcement for the protection of their remaining habitat and ranger patrolling are needed to protect the remaining forest elephant populations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephants are vanishing from the Ivory Coast

In a new study published by PLOS, experts have investigated...

In Europe, concerns are growing that American signal crayfish will wipe out other populations, including Britain's endangered white-clawed crayfish. A new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> reveals that trapping the invasive animals is not helping to control them. 

The idea that "trapping to eat" American signal crayfish may control their numbers has caught on in recent decades. However, scientists are warning that this will inadvertently lead to the further spread of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-species-assemblages-cause-local-extinctions/">species</a> - not to mention the trapping of protected native crayfish.

"Invasive signal crayfish from the US were introduced to England in the 1970s. Since then they have spread rapidly, displacing native crayfish, impacting fish and damaging ecosystems," said study co-author Eleri Pritchard.

"While celebrity chefs and conservation charities have, with good intentions, promoted trapping and foraging as a way to control American signal crayfish, our research shows trapping to be ineffective. We are also concerned that trapping risks spreading the fungal pathogen, called crayfish plague, which is lethal to native European crayfish."

The researchers found that trapping is also not effective in determining signal crayfish numbers, considering that most are too small to catch using standard baited traps.

The research was focused on surveying populations in an upland stream in North Yorkshire, UK. The experts set out to compare the effectiveness of three methods: baited funnel trapping, handsearching, and the triple drawdown technique, which involves draining a section of stream to calculate crayfish numbers. 

The study showed that the triple drawdown method was the best for determining the size of crayfish populations. Using this technique, the scientists estimated signal crayfish densities of up to 110 per square meter. This estimate far exceeds the numbers calculated in similar streams using traps.

The researchers discovered that only two percent of the individuals were big enough to be caught in standard traps. They explained that signal crayfish can become sexually mature before reaching a size large enough to be trapped.

"We now have strong data to show that trapping does not help to control invasive crayfish. On the contrary, there is growing evidence that trapping furthers the spread," said study co-author Paul Bradley.

"In the short-term, conservation efforts should re-focus on promotion of aquatic biosecurity, and in the longer-term we need further research to better understand the invasion biology of American signal crayfish. This will help to inform more effective and sustainable approaches to the management and control of this problematic invasive species."

The scientists strongly recommend that recreational trapping is stopped. They want to shift the focus to initiatives like the UK's national Check Clean Dry campaign, which is aimed at educating the public. 

"Signal crayfish have a devastating impact on our waters, harming fish populations, increasing economic costs for fisheries and causing a nuisance for anglers," said Dr. Emily Smith. 

"These findings present a new chapter in management practices, providing invaluable intelligence for fisheries and angling clubs, supporting them in refining practical solutions to controlling this highly aggressive species."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive crayfish cannot be controlled through trapping

In Europe, concerns are growing that American signal crayfish will...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>, experts have determined that carnivores living near people are eating so much human <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-more-accurately-recall-the-location-of-high-calorie-foods/">food</a> that it has become a threat to their ecosystems. The researchers found that more than half of the diets of these animals come from human sources, and the consequences could put North America's carnivore-dominated ecosystems at risk.

The study is the most comprehensive of its kind to evaluate how major carnivores like gray wolves, coyotes, and bobcats have changed their diets in response to people.

The researchers analyzed the diets of seven predators across the Great Lakes region. Bone and fur samples of more than 700 species were collected from diverse sites, ranging from remote national parks to metropolitan areas like Albany, New York. The study revealed that the closer the carnivores lived to cities and farms, the more human food they ate.

Evolution shaped predators to compete for different resources, but having a common food source will put new species in conflict with each other. The ecological balance between different carnivores, and between predators and prey, could be completely disrupted. 

The amount of food eaten by the animals varied by location to a great degree. In the most human-altered habitats, an average more than 25 percent of the carnivores' diets came from human sources, and some species indulged more than others. Bobcats, for example, ate a relatively small amount of human food. 

"But what you see is that the sort of generalist species that you might expect - coyotes, foxes, fishers, martens - in human-dominated landscapes, they're getting upwards of 50 percent of their diet from human foods," said study lead author Phil Manlick. "That's a relatively shocking number, I think."

The study revealed that relying on human food sources increased how much carnivores overlapped in their competition for food. Heavy reliance on human food could also make the carnivores vulnerable to human attacks near towns, or change how and when they hunt traditional prey.

Considering the geographic extent of the study and the large number of species involved, the trend of human-sourced food in carnivore diets is widespread, and the consequences are not yet clear.

"When you change the landscape so dramatically in terms of one of the most important attributes of a species - their food - that has unknown consequences for the overall community structure," said Professor Jon Pauli. "And so I think the onus is now on us as ecologists and conservation biologists to begin to understand these novel ecosystems and begin to predict who are the winners and who are the losers."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carnivores that eat human foods are altering their ecosystems

In a new study from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, experts...

Nearly a century ago, scientists discovered an aquatic mouse in a stream in Ethiopia with water-resistant fur and broad feet for wading in the water. No one has ever found another mouse belonging to this species, which is now thought to be <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-species-assemblages-cause-local-extinctions/">extinct</a>. 

However, in a new study, scientists have identified close relatives of the mysterious mouse, including two previously unknown species. 

Study co-author Julian Kerbis Peterhans is a researcher at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> who has studied the rodents for more than three decades. 

"These two groups of mice have been confused with one another for a century," said Peterhans. "They've been so elusive for so long, they're some of the rarest animals in the world, so it's exciting to finally figure out their family tree."

The genus represented by the single specimen collected in Ethiopia is known as Nilopegamys. The relatives of Nilopegamys, which are rare animals found in the Congo Basin and western Africa, belong to the genus Colomys. The name Colomys roughly translates to "stilt mouse" because of its elongated feet for wading and foraging in shallow streams.

"These mice are long-footed, kind of like a kangaroo. They sit up on their haunches, and they wade through shallow streams with their whiskers on the water's surface detecting movements, like sonar," said Peterhans. 

"When I caught my first one some 30 years ago, it was the most beautiful African mouse I'd ever seen, it had water repellent fur that's very thick and lush and warm and cozy. They're incredibly soft, and they have this remarkable snow-white belly."

The mice prefer shallow streams where they can use their whiskers to help them hunt, but they are also found in rivers and swamps.

"To cross one of the rivers where I caught a Colomys, you have to use walking sticks, the water's up to your waist," said study co-author Terry Demos. "And you can have torrential rain in the tropics, so sometimes half the traps get swept away, and you have to go downriver to try to find them."

The research is the first of its kind to evaluate Colomys throughout its broad range. Drawing from field studies and museum collections, the team compared the physical traits of the mice and conducted DNA testing. 

The analysis revealed that within the Colomys genus, there were two new species that had not yet been described, which are now known as Colomys lumumbai and C. wologizi. 

"The new species we named are part of a global effort to understand the biodiversity of African rainforests and highlight the critical areas to be preserved," said Demos. "There are vast areas of the Congo Basin that have barely been explored in the last seventy years, places that are hard to access due to political instability. We're not even completely sure how these animals are distributed, there are big gaps."

Study lead author Professor Tom Giarla managed to extract DNA from a piece of dried tissue on the skull of the 93-year-old specimen, which ultimately revealed that Nilopegamys is the closest known relative of Colomys. 

"It's underappreciated how little is known about the biodiversity of small mammals, especially in tropical parts of the world. We're not discovering a whole lot of new lions, tigers, and bears, but there's an incredible potential for discovery of new species of small mammals because they're tough to find," said Professor Giarla.

"And they're sort of underappreciated animals - they're really cool when you start to learn about their ecology. These are semi-aquatic mice, so they're not just your average, everyday rodents."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New aquatic mice have long feet to wade in rivers and streams

Nearly a century ago, scientists discovered an aquatic mouse in...

Fossils that were recovered from a lignite mine in China indicate that monkeys existed in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-in-the-sahara-linked-to-a-megadrought-in-asia/">Asia</a> at the same time as apes 6.4 million years ago. According to an international team of researchers, the remains most likely belong to ancestors of monkeys that exist in the same region today. 

Study lead author Nina G. Jablonski is a professor of Anthropology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.

"This is significant because they are some of the very oldest fossils of monkeys outside of Africa," said Professor Jablonski. "It is close to or actually the ancestor of many of the living monkeys of East Asia. One of the interesting things from the perspective of paleontology is that this monkey occurs at the same place and same time as ancient apes in Asia."

The fossils were linked to an extinct genus of Old World monkeys called Mesopithecus pentelicus. The team studied a jawbone and a proximal femur bone, as well as a calcaneus, or heel bone.

"The significance of the calcaneus is that it reveals the monkey was well adapted for moving nimbly and powerfully both on the ground and in the trees," said Professor Jablonski. "This locomotor versatility no doubt contributed to the success of the species in dispersing across woodland corridors from Europe to Asia."

The lower jawbone and proximal femur bone indicate that the individual was a female, explained the researchers. They theorize that M. pentelicus was probably a "jack of all trades" who was able to navigate in the trees and on land. The analysis of the teeth revealed that the monkeys could eat a wide variety of fruits and flowers.

"The thing that is fascinating about this monkey, that we know from molecular anthropology, is that, like other colobines (Old World monkeys), it had the ability to ferment cellulose," said Professor Jablonski. "It had a gut similar to that of a cow."These monkeys can eat low-quality food that is high in cellulose and obtain sufficient energy by fermenting the food and using the fatty acids that are made available from the bacteria. A similar pathway is used by other animals, including cows, goats, and deer.

"Monkeys and apes would have been eating fundamentally different things," said Professor Jablonski. "Apes eat fruits, flowers, things easy to digest, while monkeys eat leaves, seeds and even more mature leaves if they have to. Because of this different digestion, they don't need to drink free water, getting all their water from vegetation."

"These monkeys are the same as those found in Greece during the same time period. Suggesting they spread out from a center somewhere in central Europe and they did it fairly quickly. That is impressive when you think of how long it takes for an animal to disperse tens of thousands of kilometers through forest and woodlands."

While there is evidence to suggest that the species emerged in Eastern Europe and spread out from there, the researchers say the exact patterns are unknown. What they do know, however, is that the dispersal was rapid in evolutionary terms. 

At the end of the Miocene when these monkeys were leaving Eastern Europe, apes were vanishing from everywhere except in Africa and parts of Southeast Asia.

"The late Miocene was a period of dramatic environmental change," said Professor Jablonski. "What we have at this site is a fascinating snapshot of the end of the Miocene - complete with one of the last apes and one of the new order of monkeys. This is an interesting case in primate evolution because it testifies to the value of versatility and adaptability in diverse and changing environments. It shows that once a highly adaptable form sets out, it is successful and can become the ancestral stock of many other species."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-human-evolution">Journal of Human Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossils reveal that monkeys were in Asia 6.4 million years ago

Fossils that were recovered from a lignite mine in China...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> have identified a previously unknown <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-species-assemblages-cause-local-extinctions/">species</a> of toothless, two-fingered dinosaurs that resembled parrots around 68 million years ago. The research is providing new insight into dinosaurs known as oviraptors, which were thriving at this point in time.

The research was focused on the analysis of remarkably well-preserved skeletons of O. avarsan that were unearthed by the Edinburgh-led team in the Gobi Desert. 

The unusual new species, Oksoko avarsan, had one less finger on each forearm than other closely-related oviraptors, which had three-fingers. According to the researchers, the loss of one finger may have been an adaptation that helped dinosaurs spread during the Late Cretaceous Period.

Along with its two functional digits, O. avarsan grew to be around two meters in length. They were covered in feathers and had a large, toothless beak similar to the type seen in parrots today. 

The discovery that the dinosaurs could evolve forelimb adaptations suggests the animals could alter their diets and lifestyles, which enabled them to diversify and multiply, according to the team.

Across the evolutionary history of oviraptors, the researchers identified the reduction in size, and eventual loss, of the third finger. The experts discovered that the dinosaurs' arms and hands changed drastically as they migrated into new geographic areas - specifically as they spread throughout North America and the Gobi Desert.

The study revealed that, like many other prehistoric species, O. avarsan was social at a young age. The fossil remains of four young dinosaurs were preserved resting together.

"Oksoko avarsan is interesting because the skeletons are very complete and the way they were preserved resting together shows that juveniles roamed together in groups," said study lead author Dr. Gregory Funston. "But more importantly, its two-fingered hand prompted us to look at the way the hand and forelimb changed throughout the evolution of oviraptors - which hadn't been studied before. This revealed some unexpected trends that are a key piece in the puzzle of why oviraptors were so diverse before the extinction that killed the dinosaurs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Parrot-like dinosaurs adapted new arms as they migrated

Experts at the University of Edinburgh have identified a previously...

As the world is transformed by climate change, identifying new assemblages of species is critical for protecting them from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mammal-extinctions-are-driven-almost-exclusively-by-humans-not-climate-change/">extinction</a>. In a new study led by John Pandolfi and Dr. Timothy Staples of the <a href="https://www.coralcoe.org.au/">ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies</a>, scientists looked at how the assemblages of plankton species have changed over the past 66 million years across the world's oceans.

The researchers have used the findings of their study to develop the first-ever method for detecting new communities of species in all types of ecosystems.

"A novel ecological community is one with combinations of species that are different to any past observations from that site," said Professor Pandolfi. "These different species combinations can be due to new species arriving in the community, existing species leaving, or species becoming rarer or more common."

"We found that when novel communities formed, existing species were twice as likely to disappear from the community permanently, representing a 'local' extinction. Species in the novel community were also more likely to be new arrivals that had never been observed in the community before."

One place where new assemblages have appeared is across communities of coral reefs in the Caribbean. Two types of branching coral that once dominated the region are now rare, and new coral species have emerged in their place. 

Branching corals were lost due to the impacts of overfishing, changes in water quality, and climate change. The transformation of reef assemblages leads to different inhabitants and functions. 

"The challenge is to manage at risk or vulnerable areas like this where novel communities exist, or where they're in the process of forming," said Professor Pandolfi.

"To do this we need to understand the changes in species composition we see in novel communities, as well as what is driving these changes. To achieve these goals, we need to be able to reliably identify when a novel community has emerged."

The study has produced the first standardized, quantitative methodology for determining the existence of novel ecological communities based on a database of marine plankton over millions of years.

"We came up with a measure of novelty that can be used with community data from any time scale, organism or ecosystem, so comparative approaches to the study of novelty are now possible," said Dr. Staples. "In this study, we applied our methodology to the past 66 million years, but it would work just as well on much shorter time frames."

Using a global set of microfossil data from deep sea drilling cores, the researchers examined the marine plankton record. Professor Pandolfi said that while novelty was rare, extinction was an important component. Furthermore, after novel communities emerged, subsequent communities were more likely to transform into new assemblages.

"Novelty begets novelty," said Professor Pandolfi. "And the likelihood of extinction was higher when novel communities emerged." He said the pressures that cause communities to become novel in the first place need to be relieved. "Otherwise we may end up with cascading novelty, where the emergence of novel communities drives further novelty, including the loss of existing, native, species."

According to Professor Pandolfi, this means when a novel community is identified it needs attention and effective preventive management. He noted that future studies need to identify novel communities within vulnerable ecosystems, such as the Great Barrier Reef. "At the end of the day that's where we want to go to test this."

"Modern novel ecological communities may need to be managed effectively to prevent the propagation of subsequent novel communities, because of the associated risk of increased extinction," said Professor Pandolfi. "We can't just throw in the towel and let those ecosystems degrade, we need to arrest this progression."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New species assemblages cause local extinctions

As the world is transformed by climate change, identifying new...

Worldwide, many species of snakes are in a state of decline as a result of habitat loss, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-that-try-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change-face-hidden-dangers/">climate</a> change, and infectious diseases. In a new study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>,  scientists have teamed up with military service members to investigate the prevalence of an emerging snake disease.

With the help of personnel on military bases across 31 states in the U.S., the researchers analyzed snake samples to detect a fungal pathogen which causes ophidiomycosis, a potentially deadly disease.

The study revealed that the fungus is much more widespread that what was previously known. The team identified infected snakes on military bases in 19 states and Puerto Rico.

"Ophidiomycosis - formerly known as 'snake fungal disease' - is an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola," said study lead author Dr. Matt Allender. "It has been documented in over 15 genera of wild and captive snakes. Infection with the pathogen causes a wide range of clinical signs in snakes, from difficulty shedding skin, to crusts and ulcers on the head and body, and even death in some cases."

"We looked for this pathogen in samples from 657 snakes and found that 17% were infected. Our findings include the first reports of this disease in Oklahoma, Idaho and Puerto Rico."

The health and abundance of snakes are important to human health, as snakes control populations of small mammals that carry and amplify pathogens that also cause disease in humans such as hantavirus and Lyme disease, said Dr. Allender. He noted that natural lands on military bases provide an unexpected sanctuary for many threatened or endangered species.

The research was focused on swab samples that represented 58 species of snakes. The researchers used a tool they developed to amplify DNA molecules so they could measure the extent of infection. The biologists who collected the samples inspected the snakes for scabs or other signs of disease. 

The fungal pathogen was detected in samples from 113 snakes, including copperheads, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, Puerto Rican boas, sidewinders, and whip snakes. 

According to the researchers, adult snakes were the most likely to be diagnosed with ophidiomycosis. "Snakes from Georgia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia all had greater odds of ophidiomycosis diagnosis, while snakes from Idaho were less likely to be diagnosed with the disease," they noted.

Dr. Allender explained that the pattern of infection likely reflects a larger distribution of the disease in snakes in the eastern U.S. than previously thought, and its possible expansion from east to west. The disease was first confirmed in 2006 in a population of timber rattlesnakes in New Hampshire.

"Ophidiomycosis has potentially serious consequences for the success of snake conservation efforts in North America, threatening biodiversity across several habitats," said Dr. Allender.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

An emerging snake disease is much more widespread than expected

Worldwide, many species of snakes are in a state of...

A study published by the <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/">British Ecological Society</a> has produced one of the first examples of sophisticated tool use by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-droplets-on-plant-leaves-provide-nutrition-for-insects/">insects</a>. When faced with the risk of drowning, black imported fire ants used sand to draw liquid out of containers.

In lab experiments, the ants were presented with small containers of sugar water. They were able to float and feed on the surface at first, but then the researchers reduced the surface tension. At this point, the ants began adding grains of sand to the container.

Study lead author Dr. Aiming Zhou is an associate professor at Huazhong Agricultural University in Wuhan, China.

"We found the ants used sand to build a structure that could effectively draw sugar water out of the container to then be collected," said Dr. Zhou."This exceptional tool making skill not only reduced the drowning risk of ants, but also provided a larger space for them to collect sugar water."

The sand deposits turned out to be so efficient that they could syphon almost half of the sugar water out of the containers in five minutes.

The experts manipulated the surface tension of the sugar water by adding surfactant. When the surfactant concentrations exceeded 0.05 percent, and the ants could no longer float, they automatically responded by building the sand structures. According to the researchers, the structures were never observed in containers of pure sugar water, which indicates that the ants were using an adaptable approach to tool use.

The findings demonstrate the ability of black imported fire ants to use tools to forage, and show that they can recognize an increased foraging risk and can adjust their tool use in response.

Study 

"We knew some ant species are able to use tools, particularly in collecting liquid food; however, we were surprised by such remarkable tool use displayed by black imported fire ants," said study co-author Dr. Jian Chen. "Our findings suggest that ants and other social insects may have considerable high cognitive capabilities for unique foraging strategies."

The use of tools, which indicates cognitive sophistication, has mostly been observed in primates and birds. Tool use by invertebrates has not been as well studied.

Further research is needed to look for this behavior among other ant species. "Our study is the first to touch on this interesting topic," said Dr. Chen. "We hope our paper will motivate others to do the related investigations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652435">Functional Ecology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ants show signs of cognitive sophistication

A study published by the British Ecological Society has produced...

Wild animals are constantly facing dangerous situations with uncertain outcomes. There are many circumstances when the survival of a wild animal depends on a single decision, and some individuals are willing to take more risks than others.

Every day that they strike out into unknown territory to search for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shift-from-meat-to-plant-based-food-could-offset-years-of-emissions/">food</a>, animals could be attacked and killed by a predator. In a new study from <a href="https://www.uni-jena.de/">Friedrich-Schiller-Universitaet Jena</a>, researchers determined that animals living in difficult conditions are willing to take more frequent risks later in life, and these risks are often driven by a lack of food. 

"Just as there are humans who are more cautious and others who take more risks, among animals of a particular species there are also individuals that are more or less risk-averse," said study co-author Professor Holger Schielzeth. 

While these differences are innate to some degree, they are also influenced by an individual's development. The researchers have determined that an animal's risk appetite is decisively influenced by the nutritional conditions it experiences while growing up. 

Study lead author Nicholas Moran and his team analyzed more than 120 experimental studies that involved over 100 animal species. One common theme found throughout the studies was that all of the animals - spiders, fish, birds, and amphibians - had experienced phases of good and bad nutrition. Their risk appetite was measured later in life.

"On the one hand, one could assume that animals that have always enjoyed good circumstances and are therefore in a better condition would have more to lose and would therefore be more risk-averse," said study co-author Professor Klaus Reinhold. On the other hand, he noted, a better nutritional status could mean that an animal would escape more easily from a risky situation, and would therefore be more likely to take a risk.

The analysis clearly showed that an insufficient food supply causes animals to engage in higher-risk behavior. The willingness to take risks increased by an average of 26 percent in animals that had experienced hunger earlier in life.

"We were surprised that this result was so clear and unambiguous," said Professor Schielzeth. Despite widespread variation in the strength of the effect among different species, Professor Schielzeth believes that this correlation could also exist in humans, at least to some extent.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1469185x">Biological Reviews</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals who have suffered from hunger will take more risks

Wild animals are constantly facing dangerous situations with uncertain outcomes....

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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