When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down.



Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pan_paniscus/">Pan paniscus</a> (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/">showing</a> that 22 stem from specific muscles.



Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of <a href="https://www.lw.uni-leipzig.de/institut-fuer-biologie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology</a> leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 



The team borrowed the Facial Action Coding System, a 1978 catalog that labels every visible muscle shift with a numeric action unit, then upgraded the scheme for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/">bonobos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-expressions-to-communicate">Bonobos use expressions to communicate</h2>



“This adaptation of <a href="https://www.animalfacs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChimpFACS</a> for bonobos fills an important gap in our ability to study facial expressions across different primate species,” said Dr. Correia‑Caeiro, who is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 



The new manual lets scientists compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/">bonobo</a>, chimpanzee, and human faces move for move.



Humans can muster about 30 action units, yet bonobos rival their chimpanzee cousins with 22, demonstrating the social weight of facial cues rather than sheer anatomical range. 



The catalog even adds a rarely recorded brow‑lowering move, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7790396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU41</a>, that deepens the <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/glabella-1536895880#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glabella</a> without the human‑exclusive corrugation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-mirror-spoken-language">Bonobo expressions mirror spoken language </h2>



The team sifted through roughly 55 hours of high‑definition <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12169169/#supplemental-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> featuring 241 bonobos in zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild, coding each frame by hand.



The footage revealed three independent ear gestures, ears forward, ears elevated, ears flattened, expanding the expressive palette beyond eyes and mouth. 



The researchers also spotted brief lid‑tightening blinks that accompany nose wrinkles, hinting at graded intensity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/">bonobo</a> signals.



The experts noticed that some action units, such as cheek‑raisers and glabella‑lowerers, often fire in rapid succession - suggesting combination rules that mirror syllables in spoken language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bonobos-needed-their-own-system">Why bonobos needed their own system</h2>



Despite their similarities to chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/">bonobos</a> have distinct facial features that complicate direct comparison. 



Subtle traits, like lighter lip coloration, reduced brow-ridge prominence, and more flexible lower lips, affect how facial movements appear and are perceived. These differences can confuse coders if using chimpanzee references alone.



Without a dedicated coding system, earlier studies on bonobos varied wildly in the number of described expressions, from just 5 to as many as 46. 



That inconsistency made it hard to compare results or identify patterns. A tailored toolkit ensures more reliable tracking and opens the door to rigorous, reproducible analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-expressions-helps-bonobo-care">Decoding expressions helps bonobo care</h2>



“By better understanding their facial expressions, we can more accurately evaluate their emotional states and overall well‑being,” Correia‑Caeiro explained. Caretakers can now read those signals with new confidence.&nbsp;



Bonobos are endangered, with population estimates hovering between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals according to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15932/102331567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>.



Knowing when a captive ape is tense or relaxed helps zoos tweak enrichment schedules, separate clashing individuals sooner, and design habitats that cut social friction before it spirals into injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-and-social-units">Bonobo expressions and social units</h2>



Shared action units let scientists trace which facial abilities pre‑date the split between humans and the Pan lineage six million years ago. 



A 2020 multi‑species <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/19273293/Measuring_the_evolution.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> argues that facial mobility scales with social complexity, placing bonobos near the top of the primate scale.



Bonobos live in female‑bonded, relatively tolerant groups, so extra facial nuance may diffuse conflicts without resorting to violence, offering a living model for hypotheses on early human cooperation.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-021-01692-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NetFACS project</a> applies network analysis to thousands of coded faces, revealing that great‑ape expressions form dense interaction graphs where muscle combos shift with context. 



In bonobos, preliminary graphs show tighter clustering of play‑related units than threat units, hinting that relaxed social atmospheres encourage richer facial “vocabularies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-complexity-and-social-evolution">Facial complexity and social evolution</h2>



Computer‑vision engineers are training algorithms on the new bonobo library, aiming for real‑time welfare dashboards that flag stress before keepers can see it. 



The advanced systems could eventually watch forest camera traps, letting conservationists gauge mood across remote populations without intrusive tagging.



Comparative biologists plan to pit bonobo, chimpanzee, and human FACS data against group size, food‑sharing rates, and dominance styles. 



If facial complexity tracks tolerance as predicted, the findings could rewrite textbooks on primate social evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Facial expressions of bonobos offer a window into their lives

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down. Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to Pan paniscus (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and showing that 22 stem from specific muscles. Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have found that climate change will likely cause mason bees to become locally extinct in Arizona and other warm climates.


Study lead author Paul CaraDonna is an assistant professor of Plant Biology and Conservation and a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.chicagobotanic.org/">Chicago Botanic Garden</a>.


“The projected temperatures appear to be pushing this species up against its physiological limits,” said Professor CaraDonna. “This is evidence that we might see local extinction in the warmer parts of this species' range, which is pretty sobering.”

This particular species of mason bee, also known as the “blueberry mason bee,” is native to northern Mexico and the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-trees-vanishing-us/">United States</a>. It is a solitary bee that builds its nest inside of dead tree stumps. 

The blueberry mason bee is a primary pollinator of manzanita shrubs in the wild, which means that the bee’s effect on the ecosystem is likely underestimated.

“Native pollinators are a really important part of what makes nature run smoothly,” said CaraDonna. “It's estimated that close to 90 percent of all flowering plants benefit from animal pollination. That ends up at around more than 300,000 plant species worldwide.”


The researchers conducted a field experiment over the course of two years, setting up three different types of nesting environments in Arizona's Santa Catalina Mountains. 

One-third of the nests were painted black to absorb more radiant heat in order to simulate the hotter climate that is predicted to begin in 2040. To represent the climate of the 1950's, one-third of the nests were painted with a white, reflective paint. The remaining nests were treated with a transparent coat of paint as a control group.


“It's pretty low-tech, but it works,” said CaraDonna. “The field site is so remote that something more high-tech with solar panels or a power source was out of the question.”

In nests that simulated the past and current climates, the bees went through normal stages of early development, metamorphosis, and adult diapause. 

The bees in the warmer nests, however, experienced many alarming changes including extremely high mortality rates. In the first year, 35 percent of the bees died, while 70 percent of the bees were lost in the second year. On the other hand, only around two percent of bees died in the other groups.

The bees exposed to the warmer temperatures emerged from diapause for over 50 days, but only 10 to 15 days is typical. This group of bees also developed smaller bodies and had lower body fat.

“For insects, size is a big deal,” said CaraDonna. “Bigger is usually better. It means you have greater energy stores, which essentially means you can weather more storms. As a bee, that means you are likely able to reproduce more, which has implications for the stability of the population.”


CaraDonna speculates that the mason bees may move farther up into the mountains to cooler climates as the temperatures rise, but this will take them away from the manzanita plants, which are their main source of food.

“This mason bee is probably one of the best pollinators for this plant species, so if you take away the pollinator, you might take away the plant in the longer term,” said CaraDonna. “We need to understand how nature works and see how it responds to important sources of variation. Otherwise, we don't have the ability to keep it safe.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652435">Functional Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change will drive bees to local extinction in some places

Researchers at Northwestern University have found that climate change will...

Researchers have analyzed the DNA of dogs and wolves to look for the genes that separate the vicious, nocturnal animals from the friendly, easy-going companions. 

Dr. Amanda Pendleton is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Human Genetics at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. Working in the lab of Dr. Jeffrey Kidd, her team has been reviewing current domestication research and analyzing the dog genome to get a better understanding of evolution and disease among the species. 

“We convinced ourselves that previous studies found many genes not associated with being a dog but with being a breed dog.” said Dr. Pendleton. She explained that breed dogs, which mainly emerged around 300 years ago, are not fully representative of the genetic diversity found in dogs around the world

The researchers collected DNA from wolves, ancient dogs buried around 5,000 years ago, and from 43 so-called village dogs. They used statistical methods to separate genetic changes associated with the development of specific breeds from those that resulted from early domestication efforts.

Overall, the study identified 246 possible genetic domestication sites, most of which had not yet been identified. Further analysis revealed that these genes influenced brain function, development, and behavior. 

Furthermore, the genes found by the experts appeared to support what is known as the neural crest hypothesis of domestication. 

“The neural crest hypothesis posits that the phenotypes we see in domesticated animals over and over again - floppy ears, changes to the jaw, coloration, tame behavior - can be explained by genetic changes that act in a certain type of cell during development called neural crest cells, which are incredibly important and contribute to all kinds of adult tissues,” explained Dr. Pendleton. 

One gene in particular called RAI1 stood out as the study's highest-ranked gene.

“RAI1 is a good entry point into studying brain function because its mutation results in a brain disorder,” said Dr. Shigeki Iwase. 

“Studies suggest that this protein controls the expression of several genes involved in circadian rhythms. One of the unique features in these conditions is the problem these patients have with sleep.” 

The alteration of this gene may help explain why domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-domesticated-america-10000-years/">dogs</a> are not nocturnal creatures like most wolves. 

Some of the other genes identified in Dr. Kidd’s lab correspond with human syndromes that result from the improper development of neural crest cells, including facial deformities and hypersociability. For this reason, dog genetics can provide valuable insight into human development as well.

“We are using these changes that were selected for by humans for thousands of years as a way to understand the natural function and gene regulatory environment of the neural crest in all vertebrates,” said Dr. Kidd.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What makes dogs so compatible to hang out with humans?

Researchers have analyzed the DNA of dogs and wolves to...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.royalholloway.ac.uk/">Royal Holloway University</a> have found that bee colonies actually thrive in urban areas. Bumblebees that relocated to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reduce-congestion-city-taxis/">city</a> produced more offspring and grew populations around three times larger compared to those in rural areas.

A team including PhD student Ash Samuelson set out to discover why bees move into urban areas in the first place.

“We found that bumblebee colonies placed in agricultural areas produced significantly fewer reproductive offspring than those in villages or city sites,” said Samuelson.

“This means that these colonies would be less able to pass their genes onto the next generation. We also found that agricultural colonies were smaller and had less stored food, which may have contributed to the lower reproductive success.”

According to the experts, threats such as pesticides, land-use changes, parasites, and disease may have made city gardens and green spaces much safer habitats for bumblebees. The widespread loss of wildflowers and crops is also pushing bees out of their traditional habitats.

Study co-author Dr. Richard Gill is a senior lecturer in the Department of Life Sciences at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>.

“Understanding how human-induced land use change affects bumblebees is vital in developing the best mitigation strategies to protect our future pollination service providers,” said Dr. Gill.

“These results suggest that we may need to focus more attention on supporting bumblebees in areas of heavy agricultural practices.” 

The team captured 176 foraging queens from Windsor Great Park and relocated them across 114 sites in and around London. 

The bumblebee colonies in the city showed many improvements, including an increase in the amount of food stored, more offspring, and a greater ability to avoid parasites. 

The 10-week study is believed to be the first of its kind to demonstrate a link between reproductive success and urbanization.


“Reductions in forage availability in modern agricultural landscapes have been identified as a potential major driver of bee population declines,” wrote the study authors.

“Accordingly, we found less stored pollen and nectar in agricultural colonies than in city or village colonies, suggesting forage availability may be a contributing factor to poor performance at agricultural sites.”

Currently, the Ministry of Justice and the Environment Agency are collaborating with the charity Buglife to identify sites where wildflower habitats could be cultivated including prisons and seawalls.

“Although it seems counterintuitive that the ‘unnatural’ environment of a city is beneficial to bees, we have to remember that modern agricultural areas are also very far from the habitats in which these bees evolved,” said Samuelson.

“So while we were surprised by the magnitude of the effect of urbanization on bee colony success, the fact that bees performed poorly in farmland reflects the increasingly apparent realization that intensive agriculture has negative impacts for wildlife.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bumblebees actually thrive living in cities

Researchers at Royal Holloway University have found that bee colonies...

Only found on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-lost-borneo/">orangutan</a> is one of human’s closest living relatives, and has become a symbol for critically endangered species everywhere as their numbers dwindle. But as this symbol of nature’s vulnerability due to human actions, a new study in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> states that this ideation of the orangutan overlooks how human actions have fundamentally shaped the orangutan over thousands of years, and impacted conservation efforts in the process.

“It was often assumed that environmental factors like fruit availability were primarily responsible for most features of modern-day orangutans, such as the fact that they usually live at low densities and have a restricted geographic distribution,” says Stephanie Spehar, an associate professor of anthropology at the <a href="https://uwosh.edu/">University of Wisconsin Oshkosh</a>. “However, the orangutan that existed before modern humans arrived in Southeast Asia 70,000 years ago may have been quite different. Our synthesis of fossil, archeological, genetic and behavioral evidence indicates that long-term interactions with humans shaped orangutans in some pretty profound ways.”

In their study, researchers found that orangutans used to be much more abundant and widespread, as orangutan teeth are among the most common animal remains found in China, Thailand, and Vietnam. The species appears to have survived many environmental changes, and potentially lived in a wider range of environments than the modern orangutan we know today.

It also appears that when the orangutan population was significantly reduced roughly 20,000 years ago, the reduction was closely linked to indicators of human impact. Specifically, humans had now developed projectile weapons that made hunting tree-dwelling prey much easier. “It suggests that Paleolithic humans were probably hunting orangutans regularly – and as orangutans reproduce very slowly, it doesn’t take much to put a dent in their populations,” says Spehar.

Given that orangutans are only found on two islands nowadays, it is likely that the ecology and behavior of the species is a result of adaptation to environmental factors and long-term human pressures – especially hunting. And recent behavioral studies suggest that the species’ adaptability could be greater than previously thought. “For example, we always thought that orangutans were mostly arboreal, but when we started putting camera traps in the forest, it turned out that they also walk extensively on the ground in some areas,” says Erik Meijaard, co-director of <a href="http://www.borneofutures.org/about.html">NGO Borneo Futures</a> and co-author of the paper. 

Further research looking into orangutan survivability in heavily human-impacted habitat (i.e. oil palm and forestry plantations) shows that the species is able to adjust their behavior to survive in these areas. “These insights are important, because they show us how even well-studied species can be misunderstood due to our preconceptions,” says Douglas Sheil, a tropical ecologist at the <a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en">Norwegian University of Life Science</a> and co-author of the paper. “This also is a crucial realization for orangutan conservation. If we had known sooner that orangutans survive in selectively logged forests, we could have developed conservation strategies that incorporate these habitats much earlier. This could have saved many thousands of orangutans.”

Luckily, this research shows that orangutans are able to survive in a much larger area of this landscape than once thought. Given that there are only 800 individuals left in fragmented forest areas, it’s important that this new knowledge be applied as soon as possible. The authors of the study are asking for a multifaceted approach to orangutan conservation, which would reduce hunting and increase habitat quality and connectivity in human-dominated areas. This approach would require developing appropriate policies, as well as enforcing existing laws and promoting cooperation amongst the people who can influence the lives of these apes.

“This offers hope,” says March Ancrenaz, director of French NGO <a href="http://www.hutan.org.my/">Hutan</a> and coauthor on the paper. “If we humans manage things correctly, there can be room for the orangutan in the Anthropocene.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: HUTAN/KOCP (Kinabatangan Orang-utan Conservation Programme)

Long-term interactions with humans changed orangutans forever

Only found on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the...

Hawaii has certainly been in the news recently – as it should be, given the severity of the volcanic activity currently taking place on the island of Hawaii (also known as “The Big Island”). The prolonged eruption of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vog-kilauea-eruption-health-threat/">Kilauea</a> has been devastating to the local ecosystems, but as it turns out, these ecosystems had been struggling long before the volcano erupted.

A new study in <a href="http://www.americanornithologypubs.org/loi/cond?code=coop-site">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a> details the dire state of the bird populations of Hawaii, and presents guidance on what actions should be taken to help the native birds. With 21 species of forest birds left on the islands, almost two-thirds are endangered or threatened. The researchers state that the current conservation status of both wildlife and vegetation on the island is almost entirely due to human activity.

One of the problems with reversing these trends is that both funding and resources are limited, and the actions required to make an impact require a lot of support and coordination. More than 60 stakeholders in Hawaiian bird conservation collaborated to put together a plan of action. This plan is focused on research and management approaches that can begin immediately, with the largest threats being identified as habitat loss, invasive plants, non-native predators, and introduced diseases. Additionally, climate change is projected to exacerbate all of these threats.

“Our challenge in Hawaii is how do we conserve forest birds from multiple threats with just a fraction of the resources needed to fully address all the threats,” says lead author Eben Paxton. “Our solution was to bring researchers and managers together to share ideas, and as a community, identify priority research and management needs necessary to save these unique species. We believe these priorities will help focus resources where most needed and bring together different organizations to work together for the maximum benefit of the birds.”

Since resources are so limited, the stakeholders agreed on eight main priorities and several actions specific to the island of Kauai. Alongside helping Hawaii and its endemic birds, the goal of this report was to make Hawaii a model for other areas that are also in need of major conservation efforts.

The report also suggests enhancing citizen science and captive breeding in Hawaii, paired with continued monitoring and translocations of birds to unoccupied habitat. Unfortunately, only time will tell if these actions are able to save the native bird species of the islands.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Lucas Behnke

Over half of Hawaiian forest birds are endangered or threatened

Hawaii has certainly been in the news recently – as...

Researchers at <a href="http://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> have developed a composite material that can mimic the vibrant color changes of chameleons. The material contains crystals and dyes that can be manipulated to change colors and patterns when exposed to visible or ultraviolet light.

Many animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glowing-patterns-chameleons/">chameleons</a> and frogs can shift their colors in response to changes in their environment. While experts have studied this phenomenon extensively, it has not yet been interpreted well enough to be translated into artificial applications.

“This is an exciting stage in this field of study, as we are increasingly able to adapt the color-changing mechanisms that some animals use to artificial devices,” said study first author Miki Sakai. 

“If these artificial color-changing materials can equal or surpass the vibrant displays that some animals such as octopuses and frogs make, it could have exciting applications in the development of new display technologies.”

Inspired by the elaborate color transformations that takes place in the skin cells of certain frogs, the team layered their new material with components that have unique responsibilities.


The dyes, for example, contribute color that can be adjusted by mixing them to different extents. In addition, some of the dyes change color upon exposure to light.

Spherical crystals are also incorporated into the material. Rather than directly influencing the color, the crystals have microscopic structures that interfere with the light. 

Finally, a black pigment and different background colors are integrated into the system to alter the colors displayed by the other components of the material.

“We examined the influences of the different components in the system, such as by changing the size of the crystals, switching the background from white to black, or performing exposure to visible or ultraviolet light,” explained study co-author Yukikazu Takeoka. 

“We found these changes resulted in different colors being displayed across the material, resembling the way in which some organisms can change color in response to various factors in their environment.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16136829">Small</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New material mimics the color transformation of chameleons

Researchers at Nagoya University have developed a composite material that...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.asm.org/">American Society for Microbiology</a> has found that the presence of humans changes the structure and function of gut microbial communities among non-human primates. The investigation, which was focused on wild and captive baboons, is one of the first to provide insight into the pre-antibiotic resistome of primates.


Dr. Gautam Dantas is a professor of Pathology and Immunology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University</a> and the study's lead researcher.


“The gut microbiomes of baboons look very different from humans, and within the baboon sets, the microbiomes of the captive baboons were different from the wild ones, supporting the hypothesis that something about captivity and human contact shifts the microbiomes,” said Dr. Dantas.

“There is a gradient in the compositional differences of the gut microbiomes between humans with different lifestyles, with people living in developed nations and cities having similar microbiomes and then microbiomes looking less and less similar the further away you move toward the agrarian and hunter-gatherer lifestyle. This study shows you can now put non-human primates on that same gradient too.”


The team used wild versus captive nonhuman primates as a model for the human microbiome. The analysis revealed that antibiotic resistance would still exist even without human-induced antibiotic selection pressure. The researchers also demonstrated that the microbiomes of animals in wild populations are very distinguishable.

“As soon as you have contact with humans and human medicines, you shift the composition of the microbiome toward an industrialized human state and you enrich for antibiotic resistance, which tells us that this is a great risk factor,” said Dr. Dantas.

"It is very difficult to find what the pre-antibiotic resistome looks like. That is what motivated this study.” 

One of the biggest obstacles in understanding how antibiotics affect the human microbiome is the challenge of finding human samples that have never been exposed to antibiotics.

For the current study, Dr. Dantas teamed up with several anthropologists who had access to wild and captive primate populations. “We were very fortunate to get not just the samples, but the intellectual contributions of the anthropologists,” said Dr. Dantas.

The team sequenced DNA using fecal samples from baboons in regions of Zambia where the animals had minimal contact with humans and compared them to samples from captive baboons in the Southwest National Primate Research Center. Next, the researchers mapped the metagenomic data against databases of resistance genes, which allowed them to identify both known and unknown resistance genes.

The experts found some antibiotic resistance genes that had never been identified. Wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-tactics-steal-food/">baboons</a> had a small number of resistance genes, which were lower than captive baboons and even lower than humans.

According to the researchers, it is not the first time that resistance genes have been found in animal populations that have not been exposed to human-produced antibiotics. 

“Antibiotics are molecules that have been produced by soil bacteria for hundreds of millions of years. In the 1930s and 1940s, humans figured out how to bioprospect these molecules and produce them on a large scale and that changed the face of treating infectious diseases. Then resistance started increasing in pathogens, but resistance has existed in other bacteria for eons,” explained Dr. Dantas. 

“We believe that the wild baboons represent an ancestral state of antibiotic resistance and they have resistance genes, not because they have seen any human produced antibiotics, but rather, the ancient antibiotic resistance genes likely came from exchange with microbes from environments like the soil.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://msystems.asm.org/">mSystems</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild baboons have different immune systems than captive baboons

A new study from the American Society for Microbiology has...

Koko, the western lowland gorilla who died late last week, surprised and inspired the public throughout her lifetime. With her recent passing comes an opportunity for us to continue to explore and expand our knowledge of animal intelligence and sentience.

The founding of the United States brought about the first animal cruelty law passed in 1641 by the Puritans of Massachusetts. This law identified animals as “brute creature[s]”, reflecting the largely held belief at that time that animals operated simply as machines. Animal cruelty was only illegal against animals owned by another person because animal cruelty was seen as destroying someone’s property.

Since then, our understanding of animal intelligence and emotional capabilities has grown. Koko was a huge part of this change in viewpoint. Since “Project Koko” began in 1972, she challenged our ideas on what animals are capable of.

Not only did Koko know over 1,000 signs, displaying an intelligence level of a human toddler, but she also showed a broad range of emotions, previously only assumed to be held by humans.

Koko expressed grief at multiple points in her life. When her pet cat died, Koko signed “cat, cry, have, sorry, Koko, love”. Her trainers noted that she seemed upset by the kitten’s death for years afterwards. She also regularly used emotionally charged words such as happy, sad, afraid and mad.

Koko has even shown self-awareness throughout her lifetime by using personal pronouns, discussing her own emotions and making value judgments. Her most famous example of self-awareness came from a photograph she took of herself which was featured on the cover of <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>. In fact, Koko was the first gorilla to pass the mirror self-recognition test which researchers use as one indicator of self-awareness.

Some have questioned the results of Project Koko. Critics say that researchers may have solicited certain responses from Koko. Even if this was true, Koko’s ability to interpret the researchers’ desires shows a high level of cognition.

Western lowland gorillas are far from the only species that display human-like features. We now know that elephants can grieve the death of their friends and even visit the grave sites after the death. Cows form close friendships with other cows. Even pigeons have been able to sense space and time, as we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigeons-smarter-space-time/">recently reported</a>.

If animals are far more intelligent and emotional than we previously predicted, it brings about many questions. One question that has been making headlines in the news is whether these sentient species can legally be defined as persons.

<a href="https://www.nonhumanrights.org/">The Nonhuman Rights Project</a> is currently working to secure legal rights for great apes, elephants, dolphins and whales. They argue that these species display a level of self-awareness and autonomy that warrants legal rights.

The argument is certainly intriguing. Some animals, such as Koko, have the intelligence level of a human toddler.

People possess certain qualities such as self-awareness, compassion and grief but science continues to show that we may not be the only ones with these qualities. Even people who cannot grasp these qualities, such as comatose and infant humans, are considered people.

The idea has gained traction in other countries. An Argentina court recently ruled that an orangutan held in captivity has the legal right to life, liberty and freedom. The orangutan will now be sent to a sanctuary or another home outside of the zoo.

While its not clear whether Project Koko has taught us whether gorilla’s deserve legal personhood, she has certainly created a lasting impact on our understanding of animal sentience.

--
By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Ron Cohn, <a href="https://www.koko.org/">The Gorilla Foundation</a>

How Koko the gorilla changed how we view animal intelligence

Koko, the western lowland gorilla who died late last week,...

Paleontologists from the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> have discovered the remains of a new species of marine lizard in Puglia, Italy. The fossil, which is believed to be between 70 and 75 million years old, belongs to a type of lizard that is related to snakes and mosasaurs called a dolichosaur.

Study lead author Ilaria Paparella explained that marine lizards are essentially small, long-bodied animals that have longer necks and tails compared to regular lizards. 

“They have paddle-like hands and feet for swimming but could also move on land,” said Paparella.

The researchers named the species Primitivus manduriensis after the Manduria variety of red wine grapes which are native to the Puglia region. 

The new fossil is the youngest known specimen of dolichosaurs, and extends the record of this group's existence by about 15 million years longer than what was previously realized. Until now, the long <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-toxic-lime-green-blood/">lizards</a> were thought to have gone extinct around 90 million years ago.

The remains were retrieved in a location that was once covered in shallow water. According to the experts, the lizard had fallen to the bottom of the water where it was covered in sediment soon after its death. This helped to preserve the remains so well that the team was able to analyze skin and muscle tissue samples.

“There need to be very special conditions for soft tissue to be preserved on a fossil,” said Paparella. “The location where the Primitivus manduriensis was found has a great deal of potential. We hope to get permits from the Italian authorities to conduct further fieldwork.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Fabio Manucci

New species of ancient marine lizard found in Italy

Paleontologists from the University of Alberta have discovered the remains...

Animals that live in dry and sometimes barren landscapes rely on watering holes where everyone from massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/">elephants</a> and hippos to gazelles and antelope goes to drink. 

For some animals, watering holes are not just a place get hydrated, but they can also be prime hunting spots because of how many other animals congregate in one place. 

Now, a new study found that these conditions can increase the spread of disease, and sick animals in dry landscapes behave differently from species in other less water deprived environments. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/welcome.html">German Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a>, and published in the journal British Ecological Society journal Functional Ecology.

When an animal is sick, it typically causes lethargy and isolation, where the individual sleeps more and eats less. Because of this lethargy, the animal doesn’t come in as much contact with healthy animals and so the disease doesn’t become widespread. 

However, in dry environments where water is scarce, diseases could have the opposite effect in individuals and actually, cause sickness to spread. 

“For this purpose, we simulated a population of virtual animals living in dry landscapes in which they regularly visit a single waterhole for drinking,” said Mathias Franz, a member of the research team. We observed that sick individuals, who we assumed to be more lethargic, stayed closer to the waterhole. Because healthy individuals also visit the waterhole regularly, we found that lethargy leads to an increase in encounters between sick and healthy individuals.”

Unlike in areas with ample sources of water, dry environments drive the spread of disease because sick individuals have more contact with healthy individuals. 

The results are important not just for estimating the spread and evolution of pathogens in areas with limited drinking water, but also for assessing how droughts and water shortages caused by climate change could trigger diseases to spread and cause declines in animal populations. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dry environments cause disease to spread more quickly

Animals that live in dry and sometimes barren landscapes rely...

Mosquitoes are known to host some of the world’s most dangerous viruses, but a team of scientists say they could soon be used to eradicate malaria. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/malaria-india-mosquitoes-cattle/">Malaria</a> kills roughly 830,000 people every year, and according to the <a href="http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/malaria/en/">World Health Organization</a>, nearly half of the world’s population is at risk from Malaria. 

The UK group <a href="https://www.oxitec.com/oxitec-to-apply-new-generation-of-self-limiting-mosquito-technology-to-malaria-spreading-mosquitoes/">Oxitec</a>, which previously developed a bioengineered mosquito that could potentially stop the spread of the Zika and dengue fever in South America, have now created a second generation “friendly mosquito” whose purpose is eradicating malaria. 

According to <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/engineered-mosquitoes-backed-bill-and-melinda-gates-wipe-out-malaria-990338">Newsweek</a>, Oxitec is creating a kind of vector control by using engineered male mosquitoes whose female offspring will die before reaching adulthood. 

Male mosquito offspring will live into adulthood and pass on the gene to other female mosquitoes, causing their female offspring to die and so on. Only female mosquitoes require a blood meal and thereby pass on diseases to humans when feeding. 

Oxitec created self-limiting gene technology which was successfully proven to reduce the spread of dengue fever, and now the company recently announced that it will be expanding its friendly mosquito to target malaria. 

A four million dollar donation from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation makes the new Oxitec project possible. 

“With the support and partnership of the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, Oxitec is entering the fight against malaria with a powerful, innovative vector control technology,” said Grey Frandsen, CEO of Oxitec. “We’ve built a strong, proven biological engineering platform capable of developing self-limiting mosquito strains that can be used to combat specific disease-spreading species. We’re now leveraging that platform to contribute to the fight against mosquitoes that transmit malaria.” 

The Gates have been dedicated to eradicating malaria and have donated billions to improving global healthcare and reducing poverty, according to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/aug/15/bill-gates-charity-donation-microsoft-shares-foundation">the Guardian. </a>

Oxitec will begin field trials in 2020, although the company has already faced pushback from local communities in the Florida Keys who banned trials in their areas due to concerns about genetic modification. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Could genetically engineered mosquitoes eradicate malaria?

Mosquitoes are known to host some of the world’s most...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has found that the earliest forms of life on Earth grew larger as a means of species distribution. The experts found that the most successful complex organisms living more than half a billion years ago did not get bigger as a means of competing, but grew larger so that they were able to expand their colonies across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-underestimated-how-quickly-oceans-are-losing-oxygen/">ocean</a>.

During the Ediacaran period, which ended around 541 million years ago, organisms appeared for the first time that were larger than microscopic in size. Some of these complex organisms, such as rangeomorphs, grew as tall as two meters. 

Rangeomorphs may have been some of the first animals to exist, but they did not have organs or mouths or any method of mobility. This means that they most likely depended on absorbing nutrients in the water around them.

Today, plants get bigger as a result of intense competition for resources such as light, and taller trees or plants have an obvious advantage. 

“We wanted to know whether there were similar drivers for organisms during the Ediacaran period,” said study lead author Dr. Emily Mitchell. “Did life on Earth get big as a result of competition?”

The investigation was focused on fossils from Mistaken Point in southeastern Newfoundland, which is one of the richest sites of Ediacaran fossils in the world.


Early research assumed that there was heavier competition for nutrients at different water depths. The current study has demonstrated, however, that the Ediacaran oceans were very well-stocked with food.

“The oceans at the time were very rich in nutrients, so there wasn't much competition for resources, and predators did not yet exist,” said Dr. Mitchell. “So there must have been another reason why life forms got so big during this period.”

The researchers used spatial analysis techniques to analyze entire populations of Ediacaran organisms. They found that there was no correlation between height and competition for food.

“If they were competing for food, then we would expect to find that the organisms with stems were highly tiered,” explained study co-author Dr. Charlotte Kenchington. “But we found the opposite: the organisms without stems were actually more tiered than those with stems, so the stems probably served another function.”

The researchers believe that the stems grew longer to enable the greater dispersion of offspring, which rangeomorphs produced by expelling small propagules. The tallest individuals were surrounded by the largest clusters of offspring, indicating that the benefit of height was the development of bigger colonies.

“While taller organisms would have been in faster-flowing water, the lack of tiering within these communities shows that their height didn't give them any distinct advantages in terms of nutrient uptake,” said Dr. Mitchell. “Instead, reproduction appears to have been the main reason that life on Earth got big when it did.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Emily Mitchell

First complex life on Earth grew larger in order to spread out

A new study led by the University of Cambridge has...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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