Did you know that the gender of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doctors-are-stressed-at-work-and-at-home-during-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doctor</a> could influence your health outcomes? That's right, a new study has uncovered some fascinating – and potentially life-altering – differences between how male and female physicians practice medicine.



This intriguing finding opens up a conversation about the subtle differences in how male and female doctors practice medicine and their impact on patient care



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-doctors-and-patient-health">Female doctors and patient health</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> meticulously analyzed a massive collection of medical records – over 770,000 in total. This extensive dataset allowed them to spot trends and patterns that might not be visible in a smaller study. They honed in specifically on patients who had been hospitalized, as that's a critical point in the healthcare journey.



The study revealed that patients of both genders had slightly better survival chances within the 30-day period following their hospital stay if their attending physician was a woman. Importantly, this positive effect was even stronger when the patient was female.



Another key finding was that patients, regardless of gender, were less likely to need readmission to the hospital within 30 days of discharge when treated by a female physician.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-this-mean-female-doctors-are-better">Does this mean female doctors are better?</h2>



The situation isn't as straightforward as simply saying one gender makes a better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doctors-are-using-emoji-to-diagnose-patients-in-clinics-and-hospitals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doctor</a>. It's tempting to jump to conclusions, but this research doesn't support the idea that male doctors are inherently less skilled. 



The research underscores a key insight: male and female physicians often differ subtly in their patient care approaches. These nuanced, perhaps subconscious, differences in doctor-patient interactions and decision-making can significantly affect a patient's health and recovery.



Studies suggest that biases might sometimes creep in. Male doctors, though well-intentioned, might underestimate the severity of symptoms reported by female patients. This misjudgment could lead to less aggressive or delayed treatment, impacting the patient's outcome.



Some experts observe that female physicians might have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-lying-doctor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> styles better suited to building trust and rapport with female patients. 



Stronger doctor-patient communication could lead to more complete information sharing, better diagnoses, and more effective treatment plans.



Female patients may feel more at ease discussing sensitive or potentially embarrassing health issues with a female doctor. This increased comfort level could make them more likely to share vital details, allowing for better-informed medical decisions and positively influencing their health journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-female-physicians">Critical role of female physicians</h2>



This study opens a fascinating door, but it doesn't give us all the answers. We need to dig deeper to pinpoint the exact reasons why patients, particularly female patients, seem to have slightly better outcomes when treated by female physicians. 



Is it communication style? Implicit bias? A mix of factors? More research is crucial to answer these questions fully.



Sadly, even with their proven skills and contributions, female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-doctors-and-nurses-need-more-training-in-disaster-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doctors</a> often earn less than their male counterparts for the same work. This study is yet another reminder of the incredible value they bring to the healthcare system. 



Closing the pay gap isn't just about fairness; it's about recognizing the critical role female physicians play in improving health outcomes for everyone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The deeper we understand the factors behind these findings, the better we can design training and systems to improve patient care across the board. This benefits everyone, regardless of the gender of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doctors-work-cut-fake-news-online-misinformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doctor</a>.



When everyone is compensated fairly, it attracts the best and brightest to the medical field. Ensuring pay equity could mean an even stronger healthcare system for everyone.



“What our findings indicate is that female and male physicians practice medicine differently, and these differences have a meaningful impact on patients' health outcomes,” said Dr. Yusuke Tsugawa. He is the associate professor-in-residence of medicine in the division of general internal medicine and health services research at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and the study’s senior author. 



“Further research on the underlying mechanisms linking physician gender with patient outcomes, and why the benefit of receiving the treatment from female physicians is larger for female patients, has the potential to improve patient outcomes across the board," Tsugawa concluded.



While your doctor's gender shouldn't be the only factor in your decision-making, this study reminds us that it might carry more weight than we previously thought. If you're searching for a doctor, it's definitely worth considering whether a female physician might be a better fit based on your personal needs.



The study is published in the peer-reviewed journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M23-3163" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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Female doctors show significantly better patient health outcomes

Did you know that the gender of your doctor could influence your health outcomes? That's right, a new study has uncovered some fascinating – and potentially life-altering – differences between how male and female physicians practice medicine. This intriguing finding opens up a conversation about the subtle differences in how male and female doctors practice medicine and their impact on patient care Female doctors and patient health Researchers at UCLA meticulously analyzed a massive collection of medical records – over 770,000 in total. This extensive dataset allowed...

The first genetic study of ancient Crusaders shows that European soldiers in the Crusades were fierce warriors that also mixed with locals and raised families. 

However, even though Crusade soldiers had children and families, they left no significant genetic legacy, and their influence over the region was short lived.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> analyzed DNA extracted from nine skeletons believed to belong to<a href="https://www.earth.com/video/skeleton-reveals-hints-leprosy-spread-medieval-europe/"> Crusaders dating back to the 13th century</a> that were recently unearthed by archeologists.

The study was published in the American Journal of Human Genetics.

“The Crusaders travelled to the near East and had relationships with the local people, with their sons later joining to fight their cause,” said Marc Haber, the lead author of the study. “However, after the fighting had finished, the mixed generation married into the local population and the genetic traces of the Crusaders were quickly lost.”

During the Crusades, which were fought between 1095 and 1291, hundreds of thousands of Christian Europeans invaded the near East in an attempt to claim the region. 

Written documents of nobility that were recruited to the Crusades provide some record of who was involved in the wars, but no written documents exist for the soldiers who lived and died in the near East at the time.

The remains were found in a burial pit in Sidon, Lebanon where the bodies had been burned and buried, and markings on the bones showed signs of significant blunt force injuries which indicate a violent death.

In the pit with the bones, researchers discovered a coin and European shoe buckles which led archeologists to think that the pit was a burial site for Crusade soldiers.

Carbon dating and DNA analysis helped confirm this theory, and researchers from the Wellcome Sanger Institute tackled the incredibly challenging task of extracting DNA from the ancient bones.

The researchers worked with archeologists to transfer nine skeletons from Lebanon to Cambridge where small amounts of surviving DNA 800 years old were meticulously extracted in an ultra-sterile lab. Such DNA extraction was only made possible in recent years thanks to advancements in DNA sequencing technology.

After sequencing the DNA, the researchers found that three of the skeletons belonged to Europeans of diverse origins and four were near Easterners who had fought side by side with the European soldiers.

Two of the individuals had mixed European and near East genetic ancestry.

“Historical documents tell us the names of the nobility who led the Crusades, but the identities of the soldiers remained a mystery,” said Chris Tyler-Smith, a co-author of the study. “Genomics gives an unprecedented view of the past and shows the Crusaders originated from western Europe and recruited local people of the near East to join them in battle. The Crusaders and near Easterners lived, fought and died side by side.”

Despite the fact that descendants of crusaders and locals fought in the Crusades, DNA sequencing of local Lebanese people who lived 2,000 years ago shows that the Crusaders didn’t leave much of a lasting genetic legacy, a fact further emphasized by the sparse traces of European DNA in Lebanese population’s today.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Crusaders paired up with near Easterners but left no lasting genetic legacy

The first genetic study of ancient Crusaders shows that European...

During its peak in Peru a thousand years ago, the Wari empire would have spanned the distance from New York City all the way to Jacksonville. When experts at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> investigated how the empire managed to remain intact for 500 years, they discovered that a steady supply of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beer-iron-age/">beer</a> may have been the secret to success. 

“This study helps us understand how beer fed the creation of complex political organizations,” said study lead author Ryan Williams. “We were able to apply new technologies to capture information about how ancient beer was produced and what it meant to societies in the past.”

Nearly twenty years ago, Williams was part of a team that discovered an ancient Wari brewery in Cerro Baúl in the mountains of southern Peru. “It was like a microbrewery in some respects. It was a production house, but the brew houses and taverns would have been right next door,” explained Williams. 

The beer they brewed was a light beverage called chicha, which was only good for about a week after it was made. People gathered at festivals in Cerro Baúl to drink it, and the gatherings were an important part of the society. The political elites would attend, drinking chicha from three-foot-tall ceramic vessels that were decorated to look like Wari gods and leaders.

“People would have come into this site, in these festive moments, in order to recreate and reaffirm their affiliation with these Wari lords and maybe bring tribute and pledge loyalty to the Wari state,” said Williams.


The team analyzed the traces of beer left in the vessels and also examined the chemical makeup of the clay vessels themselves. The analysis revealed that the vessels were made of clay that came from nearby and that the beer was made from pepper berries, which can grow even in drought conditions. Both of these factors would have contributed to a steady supply of beer.

According to the study authors, an uninterrupted beer supply helped maintain the stability of Wari society, which included diverse groups from all over Peru. “We think these institutions of brewing and then serving the beer really formed a unity among these populations, it kept people together,” said Williams.

The study provides insight into how shared identity and cultural practices help to stabilize societies, which is becoming increasingly relevant today. 

“This research is important because it helps us understand how institutions create the binds that tie together people from very diverse constituencies and very different backgrounds,” said Williams. “Without them, large political entities begin to fragment and break up into much smaller things. Brexit is an example of this fragmentation in the European Union today. We need to understand the social constructs that underpin these unifying features if we want to be able to maintain political unity in society.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://sustainability.com/">Sustainability</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Donna Nash

A steady supply of beer helped an ancient Peruvian empire remain united

During its peak in Peru a thousand years ago, the...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/naturally-occurring-hormone-memory-loss/">Memory decline</a> is an unfortunate but natural part of the aging process and not always indicative of a more serious condition like Alzheimer's or dementia. 

Still, memory decline can still certainly make day to day life difficult. But researchers from the <a href="https://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine</a> may have found a potential treatment for reversing age-related memory decline in a new study published in the journal Neurology.

The team found that stimulating the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for memory decline, of older adults improved memory to such a degree that older adults scored the same as younger groups in memory tests. 

“Older people's memory got better up to the level that we could no longer tell them apart from younger people,” said Joel Voss, a lead investigator of the study. “They got substantially better.”

16 participants, aged 64 to 80, took part in the study and the researchers used Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to target the hippocampus.

The hippocampus is where connections are made and form a memory, according to the researchers.

“It's the part of the brain that links two unrelated things together into a memory, like the place you left your keys or your new neighbor's name,” said Voss. “Older adults often complain about having trouble with this.”

In older adults, the hippocampus is smaller, and the researchers applied the magnetic stimulation to a spot above the left ear by the parietal lobe which communicates directly with the hippocampus.

“We stimulated where brain activity is synchronized to the hippocampus, suggesting that these regions talk to each other,” said Aneesha Nilakantan, the first author of the study.

Before going through the TMS therapy, participants both young and old were asked to complete memory tasks to assess memory ability. The participants had to learn relationships between paired items and later recall these pairings.

Older adults remembered less than 40 percent of the correct pairings.

Next, the older adults had repetitive high-frequency stimulation applied to the same spot for 20 minutes a day, five days in a row.

After the five days of treatment, the participants were tasked with a new memory test, and scores were the same regardless of age.

Next, the researchers want to test how TMS impacts the memory of participants in the early stages of Alzheimer’s.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain stimulation could help improve memory for older adults, study finds

Memory decline is an unfortunate but natural part of the...

There has been a recent surge in research examining the impacts of screen time on children and adolescents amid rising concerns that too much time in front of smartphones and constant access to social media is disrupting development and increases the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlimited-screen-time-depression/">behavior, mental, and mood disorders</a>. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-teen-well-being/">Conflicting results</a> make it difficult to come to a consensus of whether screen time is linked to behavioral and developmental problems in children and teens. But now, a new study has found that for preschoolers, two more hours of screen time is connected to attention problems. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/medicine/">University of Alberta’s Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry</a> reviewed data from Canada’s national CHILD Cohort Study which included information on health, lifestyle, environment and genetic risk factors for 3,500 children and their families. 

The CHILD study followed the children from birth to adolescence, and parents also answered questions on daily screen time and completed behavior screenings to assess anxiety, depression, inattention, and sleep disturbances. 

Overall, three-year-olds spent 1.5 hours a day watching TV or movies, playing games on a tablet or phone, or spending time on a computer. When the children were five, 1.4 hours a day were spent in front of screens. 

Children who had more than two hours of screen time each day were five times more likely to exhibit major behavioral problems and were seven times more likely to show signs of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 

“The two big takeaways from this study are that children exposed to more screen time, at either age three or five years, showed significantly greater behavioural and attention problems at age five, and that this association was greater than any other risk factor we assessed, including sleep, parenting stress, and socioeconomic factors,” said  Sukhpreet Tamana, the first author of the study. 

The researchers found that participating in organized sports or having an outlet involving structured activity and getting enough sleep helped buffer against the negative impacts of too much screen time. 

“A lot of the things that you do through organized activities are really important for young kids early on,” said Tamana. “It sets the stage for development amongst children. I think in lieu of screen time, it would be beneficial for parents to increase opportunities for other structured activities instead.”

The researchers detailed their findings in the journal PLOS ONE. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Screen time linked to behavioral problems in preschoolers

There has been a recent surge in research examining the...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/">Earth Institute at Columbia University</a> have turned to ancient urine to work out the details of the transition from hunting to herding during the Neolithic Revolution, which occurred around 10,000 BC. The urine salts, the scientists claim, can help them map out the pace of change when humans first began domesticating animals in ancient Turkey.

“This is the first time, to our knowledge, that people have picked up on salts in archaeological materials, and used them in a way to look at the development of animal management," said lead author Jordan Abell, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/">University of Columbia Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>.

Prior to using urine salts, researchers relied on bone fragments and fossilized dung to estimate population size in ancient settlements, however, this process can be difficult. 

"We thought, well, humans and animals pee, and when they pee, they release a bunch of salt," Abell said. "At a dry place like this, we didn't think salts would be washed away and redistributed."

Using the salts, scientists were able to calculate the density of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-humans-swapping-genes/">humans</a> and animals at the Turkey settlement at any specific time. Around 10,000 years ago, they found a jump in the number of animals and people at the settlement — from about zero to approximately one person per one animal for every 10 square meters. This finding suggests that domestication may have happened quicker than previously thought, perhaps within just 1,000 years.

The team looked at over 113 samples from the site in question, calculating sodium, nitrate, and chlorine salt levels along the way. They watched as the amount of urine salts increased over time, with the largest spike occurring between 10,000 and 9,700 years ago. Abell says that these findings support the theory that the ancient humans began as hunters of sheep and goats, then they corralled a few and then corralled a larger number, finally keeping domesticated goats and sheep on the periphery of the settlement.

The findings appear in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

The researchers hope to eventually be able to discern human urine from livestock urine. However, even without being able to do so, using urine salts as a method for tracking population have been proven useful in arid areas where dung and bone fragments may be lacking.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Güne Duru

Transition from hunting to herding discovered in ancient urine

Researchers from the Earth Institute at Columbia University have turned...

According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, over 800 million tons of dairy products are made from cow’s milk every year. For the very first time, a study published by the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> has produced a comprehensive database of all the known compounds in bovine milk.

For more than 10,000 years, dairy milk has driven both economic and agricultural developments worldwide. Although previous studies have identified thousands of components in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-milk-dairy-products-9000-years/">milk</a>, the data are not organized. Furthermore, the composition of milk varies by breed of cow, type of feed, and other factors.

There have been targeted chemical analyses that provided scientists with large amounts of data on milk compounds in the past. However, none of these studies have fully identified and quantified the makeup of bovine milk. To investigate, a research team at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> led by David Wishart conducted research that has produced the most clear information to date.


The researchers used an approach that combined both experimental technologies and literature text-mining. The team examined commercially purchased skim, one percent, two percent, and whole milk with four different types of spectrometry. During this phase of the study, the experts identified and measured substances in milk such as metal ions, vitamins, organic acids, and amino acids. 

For the computer analysis phase, the researchers used a series of digital tools to find published information on dairy compounds. Ultimately, the team created the <a href="http://www.mcdb.ca/downloads">Milk Composition Database</a>, which has more than 2,300 metabolite entries. Notably, over 160 of these substances were reported for the first time in cow's milk. 

The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/jafcau">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What exactly is in cow’s milk?

According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, over...

Are smartphones, constant access to the internet, and social media really shortening attention spans? There has been growing concern that the onslaught of information that we are bombarded with on a day to day basis is impacting our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-addiction-drugs/">focus and attention spans</a>.

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.tu-berlin.de/">Technische Universität Berlin</a>, <a href="https://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Human Development</a>, <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/">University College Cork</a>, and the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english">Technical University of Denmark</a> sought to empirically answer these questions. 

The study was published in the journal Nature Communications, and the results show that our collective attention is changing. 

People are not necessarily losing their attention spans, but as a collective whole, we are jumping from headline to headline and hashtag to hashtag at a rapidly increasing pace. 

“It seems that the allocated attention in our collective minds has a certain size, but that the cultural items competing for that attention have become more densely packed,” said Sune Lehman, a co-author of the study. “This would support the claim that it has indeed become more difficult to keep up to date on the news cycle, for example.” 

The researchers reviewed and analyzed Twitter data from 2013 to 2016, books from Google Books dating back as far as 100 years, 40 years worth movie ticket sales, and 25 years of cited scientific studies. Data from Google Trends, Reddit, and Wikipedia was also analyzed for the study. 

The analysis showed that over time people spent less time focused on a movie, book, or headline. In other words, the amount of time a cultural item spends in the limelight these days is getting shorter and shorter. 

Take Twitter hashtags, for example. Hashtags can be a great way to discover new and trending topics and stay up to date with the latest news. In 2013, a top trending hashtag stayed in the top 50 for around 17.5 hours, but this dropped 11.9 hours in 2016. 

The researchers found similar patterns when it came to top box office movies and the number of Reddit comments on an individual submission. 

“We wanted to understand which mechanisms could drive this behavior,” said Phillip Hovel, a fellow co-author of the study. “Picturing topics as species that feed on human attention, we designed a mathematical model with three basic ingredients: ‘hotness,’ aging and the thirst for something new.” 

The model showed that as more and more content is produced and published in quicker and quicker time frames, people spend less and less time on one specific piece or item. 

The race for content is a kind of competition for who can capture the collective attention next and for how long. 

As a whole, the research shows we are quick to lose interest in something but how the information age is impacting individual attention spans remains to be seen. 

“Our data only supports the claim that our collective attention span is narrowing,” said Lehman. “Therefore, as a next step, it would be interesting to look into how this affects individuals, since the observed developments may have negative implications for an individual's ability to evaluate the information they consume.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Information overflow is shortening our attention spans, research shows

Are smartphones, constant access to the internet, and social media...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> have found that the legalization of gay marriage across the United States has significantly impacted the evolving attitudes of Americans toward <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/india-decriminalized-homosexuality/">homosexuality</a>. The study revealed that the state legislation has reduced anti-gay bias in many parts of the country.

Study senior author Eric Hehman is a professor in the Department of Psychology. He explained that the findings provide evidence that public policy can shape social norms and alter attitudes.

Massachusetts became the first U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage in 2004, followed by 34 other states and Washington, D.C. Ultimately, in 2015, the Supreme Court ruled that gay couples could marry nationwide. Since this ruling, poll results have shown that support for same-sex marriage has steadily increased.

Professor Hehman is an expert in how individuals perceive one another and how stereotypes and biases influence our behavior. He set out to investigate whether state legislation had an impact on anti-gay bias.

“The idea that norms shape attitudes has been around in social psychology for many years,” said Professor Hehman. “We wanted to measure if laws and policies can also act as norms and potentially change deeply rooted biases.”

The team was able to map trends in anti-gay bias over the course of the 11 years that different states were adopting same-sex marriage. The researchers examined changing regional anti-gay biases of about one million respondents on a website known as Project Implicit. Next, they compared the trends from before and after gay marriage was legalized in each state. 

Bias against the gay community was found to be slightly decreasing prior to same-sex marriage legalization. After same-sex marriage was accepted, however, the rate of anti-gay bias was found to decline at roughly double the previous rate.


Professor Hehman also discovered a “backlash effect” in the 15 states that did not pass same-sex marriage legalization locally. Across these states, anti-gay bias increased immediately after the Supreme Court ruling.

The outcome of the research suggests that attitudes and legislation may be mutually reinforcing, and evolving attitudes toward same-sex marriage may have provided the momentum for both state and federal legalization.

“In other words, representative governments can contribute to and/or intensify change in the attitude of citizens by passing legislation,” said Professor Hehman. “We have some evidence that the laws caused this change in bias, but it is possible the effect goes in both directions.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Legalization of same-sex marriage linked to reduced anti-gay bias

Researchers at McGill University have found that the legalization of...

Empathy allows us to put ourselves in another person’s shoes and understand the feelings, emotions, and perspectives of our peers. And humans aren’t the only species that experience empathy, as recent studies have found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-feel-empathy/">rats empathize with other rats</a> in pain. 

Arunas L. Radzvilavicius, a Postdoctoral Researcher of Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, theorizes that empathy is the key to cooperation and our prosperous human societies. 

Cooperation is a cornerstone of human society, as we cooperate at work, at school, and all agree to cooperate with the rules, laws, and social norms put in place through the years. 

Radzvilavicius set out to explore human cooperation and altruism and find out how these skills evolved to benefit our survival as a species. 

In a recent piece for <a href="https://theconversation.com/empathy-is-the-secret-ingredient-that-makes-cooperation-and-civilization-possible-115105">The Conversation</a>, Radzvilavicius explains how he and his colleagues used evolutionary game theory to model empathy and cooperation in human society. 

Past research has stated that social norms drive cooperation and how we perceive another’s reputation influences how they are treated in society. 

The idea that we help people with a good reputation depends on the assumption that people will always agree on who has a good or bad reputation, when in reality this is hardly the case. From community to community, people’s perceptions about what is good or bad differs. 

To get to the bottom of human altruism, Radzvilavicius used evolutionary models to simulate a realistic human society with relative views on morality. 

Interestingly, factoring in moral relatively made societies more selfish and less cooperative. 

As we know societies overall are not selfish and so there had to be something that Radzvilavicius was overlooking with these models. 

Teaming with colleagues from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> and the <a href="http://www.uh.edu/">University of Houston</a>, Radzvilavicius included the capacity for empathy in the models and found that cooperation increased. 

“Even initially uncooperative societies in which everyone judged each other based mostly on their own selfish perspectives, eventually discovered empathy – it became socially contagious and spread throughout the population,” Radzvilavicius writes. “Empathy made our model societies altruistic again.” 

How empathy evolved remains a mystery according to Radzvilavicius, but the research shows that empathy plays a key role in human cooperation.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human societies have been able to thrive because of empathy

Empathy allows us to put ourselves in another person’s shoes...

According to a new study by linguists at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/english/">Radboud University</a> and the University of Edinburgh, many individuals associate colors with the same vowel sounds. Even though speech and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/navy-pink-turquoise-relaxation/">color</a> are not perceived by the same sensory organs, most people share a particular system for linking vowels to colors.

Some individuals, including Russian-born novelist Vladimir Nabokov, have a condition where certain colors or sounds trigger different senses. Nabokov saw colors when he heard vowel sounds. For example, he perceived the color yellow when hearing “ee” and ebony when hearing “aa.”

Even though only one in 25 people have synaesthesia, the current study has found that many more share the same intuitions about “sound colors.” The investigation, which was focused on an online test of over 1,000 participants, revealed that most people selected the same colors to correspond with 16 different combinations of vowels. 

The majority of participants matched “i” with green or yellow, “e” with green, and “a” with pink or red. Darker colors, such as purple-blue, were selected most often for “o,” and “u” was usually associated with blue or red.

“There seems to be a logic to how we link sound and color, and the structure of language has an important role in this process,” explained study co-author Mark Dingemanse. “Our findings showed that with lighter colors (yellow, green) associated with more front vowels, or vowels that come from the front of the mouth.”

[caption id="attachment_1871345" align="aligncenter" width="660"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/color-association.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1871345" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/color-association.jpg" alt="" width="660" height="139" /></a> Vowel-color associations in two non-synesthete subjects (left) and in two synesthetes (right), Image Credit: Mark Dingemanse Radboud University[/caption]

“Darker colors (e.g., red, brown, blue) were associated with back vowels and redder colors were associated with low front vowels,” Dingemanse added. “If color associations were purely dependent on acoustical factors, the colors would neatly run into one another like in a rainbow. Instead, we see that sounds are grouped according to the way that our language carves up the vowel space.”

“A few blue spots and then suddenly a red one, with no transition of blue-purple-red. You could say that the vowels have to pass through the sorting machine that is our language before we can link colors to them, even in synaesthetes, for whom associations like these are involuntary.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.psychonomic.org/page/BRM">Behavior Research Methods</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People often link certain vowel sounds to the same colors, study finds

According to a new study by linguists at Radboud University...

Creating technology to desalinate salt water could help provide <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/socioeconomic-groups-unsafe-drinking-water/">safe drinking water</a> to the billion people around the world who lack access to it. However, traditional desalination systems are too expensive to set up and operate, particularly in low-income countries and remote areas.

In a groundbreaking new study, researchers at the University of Maryland's <a href="https://eng.umd.edu/">A. James Clark School of Engineering</a> have developed a critical component that may lead to affordable small-scale desalination. They have successfully demonstrated the use of an inexpensive solar evaporator that is made of wood. 

According to study senior author Liangbing Hu, an associate professor of Materials Science and Engineering, the evaporator generates steam with high efficiency and with a minimal need for maintenance. 

Professor Hu said that the technique used by the device, known as interfacial evaporation, “shows great potential in response to global water scarcity because of its high solar-to-vapor efficiency, low environmental impact, and portable device design with low cost. These features make it suitable for off-grid water generation and purification, especially for low-income countries.”

Interfacial evaporators made of thin materials are able to float on saline water and absorb solar heat on top. The evaporators continuously pull up the saline water from below and convert it to steam on the top surface, leaving behind the salt, explained Professor Hu. On the other hand,  he said that salt can build up on the evaporative surface over time and negatively affect performance until it is removed. 

Professor Hu and his team minimized the need for this maintenance with a device made out of basswood that exploits the wood's natural ability to carry water and nutrients up the tree.

Study lead author Yudi Kuang said the wood’s natural channels are supplemented by drilling millimeter-wide channels through a thin cross-section of the wood. The top surface is then briefly exposed to high heat, which carbonizes the surface for greater solar absorption.

While operating, the device draws up salty water through the wood's natural micron-wide channels as it absorbs solar energy. Salt is spontaneously exchanged from these tiny channels through natural openings along their sides to the vastly wider drilled channels, and then dissolves back into the water below.

“In the lab, we have successfully demonstrated excellent anti-fouling in a wide range of salt concentrations, with stable steam generation with about 75% efficiency,” said Kuang.

“Wood is an intriguing material scaffold, with its unique hierarchically porous structure, and it is a renewable, abundant and cost-effective resource,” said Professor Hu. “In our lab, the fundamental understanding of biomaterials (especially wood) leads us to achieve extraordinary performance that is competitive with widely used but non-sustainable materials.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15214095">Advanced Materials</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: John T. Consoli/University of Maryland

Solar evaporator could help provide drinking water to remote areas

Creating technology to desalinate salt water could help provide safe...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College of London</a> have discovered that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/families-buried-together-stone-age/">Stone Age</a> Britons were mostly wiped out and replaced with European invaders about 6,000 years ago. 

After analyzing DNA from ancient Neolithic skeletons found in Britain, experts saw that they were almost all descended from farmers of the Aegean, located between modern day Turkey and Greece. They also displayed DNA links with people form the Iberian peninsula, located in modern day Spain and Portugal.

Furthermore, scientists conclude that it was this European invasion that introduced farming to Britain, thus explaining why farming in Britain developed about 1,000 years later than in its continental neighbors.

“The transition to farming marks one of the most important ecological shifts in human evolution,” the authors note in their study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0871-9">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6924447/Neolithic-Britons-learned-farm-prehistoric-people-Europe-arrived.html">per Daily Mail</a>. “The processes by which this transition occurred have been a matter of intense debate for over a century.” The experts agree that there was little interbreeding between the Britons and the Europeans. 

They continued, “In contrast to other European regions, the transition to farming in Britain occurred with little introgression from resident foragers — either during initial colonization or throughout the Neolithic. This may reflect low Late Mesolithic population density in Britain and/or an introduction of farming by populations who had mastered the technologies needed to thrive in northern and western continental Europe during the previous two millennia.”

Farming in continental Europe was brought to the area by Aegean Neolithic people via both the Mediterranean and Central into Northern Europe. Neolithic cultures in Britain did not pop up until about 4,000 BC, about 1,000 years after farming was established in Europe. These new findings explain the origins of these Neolithic Britons and how they were colonized by those who had farming skills.

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By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stone Age Britons were wiped out by Mediterranean invaders

Researchers from the University College of London have discovered that...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...