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By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root systems</a>, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods.



For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">draw carbon dioxide</a> out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-game-changing-ai-tool-that-creates-plants">SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants</h2>



Talmo Pereira and Professor <a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/wolfgang-busch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Busch</a> from Salk’s <a href="https://www.salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI software initially designed for tracking animal movement, to the study of plants. 



Their research introduces a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-022-01426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new protocol</a> for using SLEAP to analyze plant root phenotypes, such as depth, width, and mass.



"This collaboration is truly a testament to what makes Salk science so special and impactful," says Pereira. "We're not just 'borrowing' from different disciplines -- we're really putting them on equal footing in order to create something greater than the sum of its parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlining-plant-analysis-with-ai">Streamlining plant analysis with AI</h2>



Prior to SLEAP, analyzing plant and animal characteristics was a labor-intensive process that slowed scientific progress. 



Researchers had to manually flag parts of images frame-by-frame, part-by-part, and pixel-by-pixel before older AI models could process the data.



SLEAP's unique combination of computer vision and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> allows researchers to skip this intermediary step, jumping straight from image input to defined plant features. 



This approach significantly reduces analysis time and human error while emphasizing accessibility and ease of use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-roots-digging-deep-into-plant-biology">sleap-roots: Digging deep into plant biology</h2>



The Salk team developed sleap-roots, a downloadable toolkit for SLEAP that enables the software to process biological traits of root systems, such as depth, mass, and angle of growth. 



The toolkit, available as open-source software, was tested on various plants, including soybeans, rice, canola, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>.



"We created a robust protocol validated in multiple plant types that cuts down on analysis time and human error, while emphasizing accessibility and ease-of-use -- and it required no changes to the actual SLEAP software," says Elizabeth Berrigan, a bioinformatics analyst in Busch's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-secrets-of-climate-saving-plants">Deciphering the secrets of climate-saving plants</h2>



By connecting phenotypic data, such as a plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep root system</a>, with genotype data obtained through genome sequencing efforts, researchers can identify the genes responsible for creating desirable traits. 



This step is crucial in Salk's mission to create plants with AI that hold on to more carbon for longer periods, as these plants will require root systems designed to be deeper and more robust.



"We have already been able to create the most extensive catalogue of plant root system phenotypes to date, which is really accelerating our research to create carbon-capturing plants that fight climate change," says Busch, the Hess Chair in <a href="https://pbio.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Science at Salk</a>. 



"SLEAP has been so easy to apply and use, thanks to Talmo's professional software design, and it's going to be an indispensable tool in my lab moving forward," Busch concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hidden-world-of-plant-root-systems">Understanding the hidden world of plant root systems</h2>



To further clarify, plant root systems are intricate networks of roots that play a crucial role in anchoring plants to the soil, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing essential compounds. 



There are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two main types of root systems</a> exist in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems. 



<ul>
<li>Taproot systems feature a single, dominant root that grows vertically downward, with smaller lateral roots branching off from it. </li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Fibrous root systems, on the other hand, consist of numerous small roots that grow outward from the base of the plant, forming a dense network.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Functions of root systems</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-follow-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Root systems</a> perform several critical functions for plants:



<ul>
<li>Anchoring: Roots secure plants to the soil, providing stability and preventing them from toppling over.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Absorption: Fine root hairs absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, which are then transported to the rest of the plant.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Storage: Some plants, such as carrots and beets, use their roots to store carbohydrates and other essential compounds.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Factors influencing root growth</h3>



Several factors influence the growth and development of plant root systems:



<ul>
<li>Soil type: Different soil types, such as sandy, loamy, or clay soils, affect root growth and distribution.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Water availability: Plants adapt their root systems in response to water availability, with some species growing deeper roots to access water in times of drought.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Nutrient availability: The presence or absence of essential nutrients in the soil can impact root growth and architecture.</li>
</ul>



Healthy root systems are essential for overall plant health and productivity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Well-developed roots</a> enable plants to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, leading to stronger growth and increased resilience to stresses such as drought or disease. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-climate-saving-plants">AI and the future of climate-saving plants</h2>



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots have the potential to revolutionize plant research worldwide. The Salk team has already begun discussions with NASA scientists hoping to utilize the tool to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-sequestering plants</a> on Earth and to study plants in space.



In summary, the Salk Institute's pioneering research in plant-based carbon capture, powered by the innovative SLEAP software and sleap-roots toolkit, paves the way for a greener future. 



As scientists continue to refine and expand these tools, they accelerate the development of climate-saving plants with optimized root systems capable of storing more carbon for longer periods. 



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots invite researchers worldwide to join the fight against climate change, fostering global collaboration and innovation. 



With the Harnessing Plants Initiative at the forefront, Salk scientists are rooting for change, digging deep into plant biology, and branching out to make a lasting impact on our planet's future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/plantphenomics.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Phenomics</a>.



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AI is creating new plants that can help fight climate change

By focusing on root systems, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods. For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants Talmo Pereira and Professor Wolfgang Busch from Salk’s Harnessing Plants Initiative have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI...

The whitebark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-altitudes-no-longer-protect-pine-trees-from-disease/">pine</a> is one of the few trees that can survive in the cold, wind-swept heights of the Rocky Mountains and other western mountain ranges, clinging to steep slopes for centuries, even in the most extreme environments. However, on Wednesday, December 14, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> announced that they will protect this iconic tree under the Endangered Species Act, warning that the whitebark is currently facing a variety of menaces, including a deadly fungus, a hungry beetle, massive wildfires, and a changing climate.



“As a keystone species of the West, extending ESA protections to the whitebark pine is critical to not only the tree itself, but also the numerous plants, animals, and watersheds that it supports,” said Matt Hogan, a regional director at the agency.



The whitebark pine plays a major role in high-altitude ecosystems, slowing runoff from melting snow, and providing food for a variety of animals, ranging from squirrels to grizzly bears. Now, an invasive fungus called the white pine blister rust is sweeping through the tree’s range of over 80 million acres in the United States and Canada, greatly endangering the pines. In addition, other threats include a native beetle that burrows into its bark, as well as fiercer wildfires fueled by a warming climate.



“The listing means that whitebark pine is the first widely distributed tree that the federal government has clearly pegged as a climate casualty — sadly, as climate change worsens, it will not be the last,” said Sylvia Fallon, a senior director of the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resources Defense Council</a>, an advocacy group that already petitioned the agency to protect the tree over a decade ago.



With this new listing, officials and scientists hope to spark new research into how to save this species and take protective measures against those who chop down the tree on federal lands. Moreover, by growing and planting seedlings which are resistant to the fungus, the pine could be restored in many areas of its range.



“We do have the tools to restore whitebark pine,”&nbsp;concluded Diana Tomback, the policy and outreach coordinator at the <a href="https://whitebarkfound.org/">Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation</a>.&nbsp;



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Iconic whitebark pine trees are endangered

The whitebark pine is one of the few trees that...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> have discovered that apple waste can be fed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-chickens-cancer-therapies/">chickens</a> to boost their health. According to the experts, the study demonstrates the potential for apple pomace to improve gut and intestinal health.



“Apples are one of the top fruits produced in the United States and we have long been aware of their health benefits,” said study lead author Cydney Jackson.



“In our study, we were able to see how an apple - specifically, the Empire apple developed at Cornell in the 1940s - improved the intestinal health of production broilers, and we observed signs for the overall good health of the bird."



For the investigation, the team injected juice, pulp and other waste from Empire apples into chicken eggs. After the eggs hatched, the researchers collected samples for analysis.



The results showed that the apple pomace supported the growth of potentially beneficial gut bacteria, boosted microbes in the large intestine, improved the bioavailability of iron, and increased the chick’s transport system for amino acids.



“Apples are comprised of bioactive constituents such as phytochemicals and prebiotics that could help intestinal health and the gut microbiome,” said study senior author Professor Elad Tako.



According to the U.S. Apple Association, approximately 33.4 million bushels of apples were produced in 2021-2022, including nearly 175,350 metric tons of apple pomace. This waste is typically tossed into landfills, where it is damaging to the environment.



“Pomace is treated like industrial waste now. If we can potentially use the pomace, which is rich in nutrients, we can add it to the diet of broilers,” said Professor Tako. “We can improve the nutrition in their feed and achieve productivity in a more natural way – and potentially reduce the use of added dietary chemicals.”



The study authors noted that this was an initial study to demonstrate the potential for adding apple waste to chicken feed. They said that further research, including long-term studies, are needed.&nbsp;



Funding for the research was provided by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14234955">Nutrients</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Apple waste can improve the intestinal health of chickens

Researchers at Cornell University have discovered that apple waste can...

During war, factories often retool to support the needs of the combatants. For instance, assembly lines change course from producing car parts to machine guns, or from building washing machines to aircraft engines. According to a new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-memory-of-drought/">plants</a> are capable of shifting from peacetime to wartime production too.



Plants are frequently under attack from viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. Each year, over 15 percent of crop yields are lost to bacterial and fungal diseases, costing the global economy about $220 billion. However, when a plant senses an imminent microbial invasion, it makes radical changes in the composition of its proteins to help them fight the invaders.



Since, unlike animals, plants do not have specialized immune cells which can travel through the bloodstream to the site of the infection, each plant cell needs to be able to stand and fight for itself, quickly shifting into battle mode. When microorganism attack, cell plants rapidly change their priorities from growth to defense, by starting to synthesize new proteins while suppressing the production of others.



To build a new protein, genetic instructions in the DNA packed inside a cell’s nucleus are translated into mRNA, which then travels to the cytoplasm, where ribosomes “read” the message and translate it into a protein. The scientists found that, when plants are infected, certain mRNA molecules are translated into proteins faster than others. These proteins have in common a region at the front end of the RNA strand with recurring letters in its genetic code, where the nucleotide bases adenine and guanine repeat themselves. This region works with other structures within the cell to activate “wartime” protein production.



Thus, when plants detect a pathogen attack, the molecular signposts responsible for signaling the usual starting point for ribosomes to land on and read the mRNA are removed, stopping the cells from making their typical “peacetime” proteins, and use instead the region of recuring adenine and guanine nucleotides for docking. “They basically take a shortcut,” explained study senior author Xinnian Dong, a distinguished professor of Biology at Duke.



These processes turn fighting infection into a balancing act for plants. When they allocate more resources for defense, less will be available for photosynthesis and other activities, which can often lead to collateral damage, causing plants with over-active immune systems to suffer stunted growth.



Further research is needed to clarify how plants strike this delicate balance in order for scientists to find new ways to engineer disease-resistant crops without compromising yields.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.06.037">Cell</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Plants reprogram their cells to fight pathogens

During war, factories often retool to support the needs of...

People who drink black tea on a frequent basis may lower their risk of mortality by as much as 13 percent, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.nih.gov/">National Institutes of Health</a>. The experts found that the reduced mortality risk was greatest among individuals who drank two or more cups of black tea per day.



Previous studies have suggested that both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-tea-compound-may-be-a-powerful-weapon-against-cancer/">green tea</a> and coffee have similar health benefits. While the exact mechanisms, remain unclear, green tea and coffee seem to reduce mortality by preventing chronic diseases.



"Tea is frequently consumed worldwide, but the association of tea drinking with mortality risk remains inconclusive in populations where black tea is the main type consumed," wrote the NIH researchers. "In contrast, published studies in populations where black tea drinking is more common are limited with inconsistent findings."



To investigate, study lead author Dr. Maki Inoue-Choi and colleagues set out to evaluate the associations of tea consumption with all-cause mortality. The team also wanted to examine whether common tea additives (milk and sugar) or genetic variants affect the rate at which people metabolize caffeine.



The study was focused on nearly half a million men and women aged 40 to 69 years who participated in the U.K. Biobank. Among these individuals, 85 percent reported drinking tea on a regular basis, and 89 percent of the frequent tea drinkers reported drinking black tea.&nbsp;



An analysis of the data revealed that individuals who drank two or more cups of black tea each day had a 9 to 13 percent lower risk of premature death from all causes. These health benefits were found regardless of added sugar and other factors that may influence caffeine metabolism.&nbsp;



"Higher tea intake was associated with lower mortality risk among those drinking two or more cups per day, regardless of genetic variation in caffeine metabolism," wrote the researchers. "These findings suggest that tea, even at higher levels of intake, can be part of a healthy diet."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/journal/aim">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Drinking black tea lowers mortality risk from all causes

People who drink black tea on a frequent basis may...

Seasonal changes in leaf cover have a big impact on the local climate in forested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-animals-bigger-on-the-rainy-side-of-the-mountain/">mountain</a> regions, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/">University of Tsukuba</a>.



"Nocturnal temperature inversion (NTI) is an important factor characterizing the local climate in mountainous areas. In central Japan, most of the mountain slopes are covered by forests, but the effects of their leaf expansion/fall on the NTI variations in basins have not been clarified," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Since the forest canopy shields the forest floor from sunlight and reduces temperature variations throughout the day, the effects may also alter the surrounding climate at night.



"However, previous studies have not fully considered the contribution of mountain forests to the nocturnal local climate in downstream areas," said study senior author Professor Kenichi Ueno. "This is what we set out to investigate."



In particular, the researchers wanted to examine how leaf expansion may influence nocturnal temperature inversion (NTI) in mountain basins. Leaf expansion refers to the stage in deciduous plants when leaves expand from buds to mature leaves.



The researchers conducted a three-year study of leaf area index (LAI) on a forested mountain slope site in a small basin. The team observed sudden shifts in the development of the nighttime cold-air pool over the basin that were related to leaf expansion and leaf fall.&nbsp;



"Our results indicated that changeability in daytime forest heat storage can offset nighttime radiative cooling from the forest canopy," explained Professor Ueno. "In short, our research has revealed that the cycle of tree leaf growth and leaf shedding in mountain forests has an observable effect on the local climate."



"The estimated timings of leaf expansion/fall at the catchment scale based on the effective cumulative temperature almost coincided with the NTI changes," wrote the researchers. "Micrometeorology observations showed that NTI at the forest floor and downslope winds at the adjacent grassland strengthened during the dormant (leafless) season in the nighttime when the radiative cooling is strong."



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jmsj">Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Leaf cover affects the climate in mountain forests

Seasonal changes in leaf cover have a big impact on...

Thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-their-roots-to-sense-manganese-deficiency/">plants</a> and animals are classified as being "data deficient" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Data deficiency means that there is not adequate information to assess the extinction risk of these species. Now, a new study has revealed that more than half of all lesser-known species may be threatened with extinction.



“We looked at species that are relatively poorly known, but where at least the geographical distribution is known. These species tend to be threatened with extinction more often than ones that we know more about,” explained study co-author Professor Francesca Verones from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU).



Overall, the IUCN has listed 20,469 species as being data deficient. The research team used machine learning to calculate the risk of extinction for 7,699 of the little-known species, explained study co-author Jan Borgelt.



Compared with individual cases that the researchers analyzed manually, the computer model-created probabilities were extremely accurate.



“We found that as many as 85 percent of the amphibians that we have limited knowledge of are in danger of becoming extinct. For other groups, like mammals and reptiles, this applies to around half of the species,” said Borgelt.



Even though species unknown to us often face an uphill battle, the consolation is that new knowledge can be of great use if used correctly, said Borgelt. “More areas could become worthy of protective measures if we take species that we have little data on into account."



Borgelt also emphasized that the intention behind using the models is not to replace the work conducted by researchers, but to provide a first estimate of the risk of species becoming extinct in cases where there is not yet enough data.



"The Red List assesses extinction risks and reports Red List categorization for more than 140,000 species based on a set of quantitative criteria10 relying for instance on extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population trends, or population size," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"However, the sheer amount of known and unknown species globally, the dynamic nature of threats and trends, and limited human resources for undertaking such Red List assessments turn this critical endeavour into a Sisyphean task."



"Consequently, only a small proportion of known species have been assessed for their conservation priority so far, unevenly distributed across space, time and taxa."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03638-9">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Data deficient species are often the most threatened

Thousands of plants and animals are classified as being "data...

A new project led by <a href="https://www.staffs.ac.uk/">Staffordshire University</a> and funded by <a href="https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en">Horizon Europe</a> aims to contribute forensic intelligence to help protecting endangered species such as wolf, bear, lynx, or sturgeon from remote parts of Europe. Over the next three years, the NATURE FIRST project will bring together 12 global partners to safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> and protect the habitats of many animal species that are currently threatened by human activities, by developing proactive and preventive capabilities for nature conservation and law enforcement through a combination of forensic intelligence and remote sensing technologies.



Spanning Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Serbia and Spain, this project will focus on regions such as the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube Delta, the Stara Planina Mountains, the Os Ancares and the O Courel, by drawing upon real-time data from satellites, drones, cameras, and other technological devices to closely monitor these locations.



“The overall aim is to halt and reverse the decline of biodiversity in Europe. We want to improve natural habitats where certain species are an incredibly important part of the ecosystem. To achieve this, we need a better understanding of why and where biodiversity is declining and what the key triggers are,” explained Claire Gwinnett, a professor of Forensic and Environmental Science at Staffordshire.



“As most of the threats and pressures on biodiversity are man-induced, this project will combine ecology and forensic science. This novel approach will use remote sensing technologies, machine learning and wildlife forensic methods to detect and recognize traces of human activities that negatively affect the environment.”



The regions that the scientists will investigate cover vast land masses that can’t be easily monitored from the ground. Thus, the use of advanced technologies to detect biodiversity threats - such as poaching of flora and fauna, trafficking and trading of rare animals and plants, or setting fires to forests and other natural areas for agricultural and commercial purposes – is essential for preserving biodiversity.



“The aim of the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 is to ensure that ecosystems are healthy, resilient to climate change and rich in biodiversity so that they can keep delivering the range of services essential to the prosperity and well-being of all of us. We are excited to be taking positive steps to help achieve this by working with such a fantastic group of global partners,” Gwinnett concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Forensics could be used to safeguard biodiversity

A new project led by Staffordshire University and funded by...

As we face the consequences of climate change there is renewed impetus to restore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-in-protected-indigenous-lands-are-healthy-and-resilient/">forests</a> so that they can once again provide ecosystem services, such as protecting species, sequestering carbon and securing livelihoods. But planting trees in areas that have been disturbed or denuded is costly, as is the maintenance of the new saplings after planting. This makes it especially important to understand the best conditions for successful reforestation.&nbsp;



A new study by a large international team of scientists has reviewed the success of reforesting programs at 176 sites in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. The researchers scoured the literature for published records of tree survival and growth data in areas where forest restoration has been attempted. They synthesized the evidence of forest recovery and the efficacy of tree planting as an intervention for ecosystem restoration.&nbsp;



In particular, the researchers used data on planted tree survival, planted tree size and/or growth, and area-based metrics of forest structure and diversity in planted and unplanted adjacent plots. They also collected data on other variables, such as location, duration of monitoring, disturbance history, site condition prior to planting, restoration methods, diversity of trees planted, planting density, and height of trees at planting. This was to identify the factors most closely correlated with the success of the replanting initiatives.&nbsp;



Overall, the researchers compiled data from 221,199 planted trees at sites across South and Southeast Asia. Of these trees, 207&nbsp;224 were monitored in terms of survival, while data on growth was collected for 102&nbsp;412 trees. In total, 625 tree species (252 genera; 81 families) were planted but species richness of plantings at individual sites was typically low (median of only three species planted per site). Although the maximum study duration was 33 years, only 49 (28 percent) sites conducted surveys at 5 years or more after planting, and the median study length was only two years.



The results of their analysis, published in the&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0090">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>, make for sobering reading. They found that, on average, 18 percent of planted saplings died within the first year, and that this mortality rose to 44 percent after five years. However, survival rates varied greatly between sites and species, with some sites seeing over 80 percent of trees still alive after five years, while at others a similar percentage had died.



Policy makers are aware that forest restoration is a powerful tool to tackle biodiversity loss and climate change, as growing trees lock away carbon and support important habitats. Reforestation projects are also used widely for carbon offsetting. While the main measurement used to gauge success is often the number of trees initially planted, this research shows that many of these trees are not surviving long-term. In addition, the ultimate goal of restoration is the structural and compositional recovery of the whole plant community and broader ecosystem, and monitoring often ceases before this can be assessed fully.&nbsp;



The analysis was not able to identify exactly what was responsible for different success rates at the various sites. Tree survival was not significantly correlated with climatic variables, soil type, species planted, or planting densities, but was highly dependent on the particular site of the reforestation project. This indicates that there are environmental, methodological and social factors that operate and affect whole sites, making restoration outcomes context specific.&nbsp;



“The large variability in survival we found across sites could be for a number of reasons, including planting densities, the choice of species, the site conditions, extreme weather events or differences in management and maintenance. Local socio-economic factors may also be important," said Dr Lindsay Banin, co-lead author based at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">U.K. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology</a>.



“What’s clear is that success is very site-dependent – we need to understand what works and why, and share that information, so we can bring all sites up to the level of the most successful and harness the full potential for restoration. There’s likely no one-size-fits-all approach and restoration action should be tailored to local conditions. This will help ensure the scarce resources and land available to restoration are used to best effect,” she added.



The researchers found that planting taller saplings did give better survival rates, and that reforestation efforts were more successful in areas where some established trees remained than in areas that had been fully deforested. Saplings planted in areas with existing mature trees had roughly a 20 percent higher chance of survival. Furthermore, there was evidence that active restoration provides faster results than simply letting nature take its course. Sites that included tree planting activities gained forest cover more quickly than sites that were left to regenerate naturally.



“The sites where active restoration is most needed – those that have already been cleared of trees – are also those where restoration is most risky and prone to higher numbers of trees dying," said study co-author Professor David Burslem. "We need to understand better how to improve the survival chances of saplings on these sites, to ensure restoration has positive outcomes. But the study also provides a warning, to protect our remaining forests as much as possible, both because restoration outcomes are uncertain and to provide the diverse seed sources needed for restoration activities.”



“Replanting is only going to be an answer to excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere if we can guarantee that carbon is being successfully drawn out of the atmosphere and locked away – and be able to quantify the amounts and timescales involved," said study co-author Professor Robin Chazdon. "This is why assessing restoration outcomes over the long-term, and gathering information that helps to maximize success rates, are so important. We need the focus to shift away from simply planting trees toward growing them and helping our forests thrive.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Half of plants used in reforestation projects do not survive

As we face the consequences of climate change there is...

Invasive plant species can have devastating effects on local ecosystems, comparable to those wrought by climate change. However, scientists do not yet know how many of such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive species</a> there are in the world. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> is the first to comprehensively pinpoint the various unknowns which should be addressed in order to effectively manage invasive plant species around the globe.



According to the experts, the most cost-effective method of stopping invasive species is to put a halt on their introduction. However, in order for this to happen, managers need to know exactly which plants are invasive. While lists of invasive plants worldwide include species reported by scientists, currently unreported species still pose a significant risk.&nbsp;



“Trade and climate change have facilitated the widespread movement of species around the globe,” said&nbsp;study lead author Brittany Laginhas, a doctoral student in Geospatial Analytics at the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> who completed this research during her graduate studies at UMass Amherst. “In some cases, these species will establish and spread in their new environment, causing devastating ecological and economic damages. Basic information on invasive species, including which species are invasive, where they have invaded, and their timing of invasion, is critical for developing strategies to prevent their spread and subsequent damages.”



Together with her colleagues, Laginhas mined a database of 5,893 studies dating back to 1959 that reported 3,008 invasive species. However, statistical modelling suggests that there should be in fact 4,721 species, although the identity of the remaining 1,713 remains a mystery.



According to the researchers, so many invasive species are currently missing from scientific accounts mostly due to a systemic and geographically uneven undercount. For instance, while North America has been relatively well studied, Central and South America and Oceania have not been given similar attention. “There are vast differences in the studies conducted across different continents,” said study co-author Matthew Fertakos, a graduate student in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at UMass Amherst. “We have statistical methods that can help tell us how many species there&nbsp;should&nbsp;be, but real data is always better than an estimation.”



Unfortunately, a comprehensive map of the world’s invasive species cannot be generated in the laboratory alone. “We need floristic surveys, where researchers actually go out into the field, especially in the places that have been understudied, like Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America, and identify the exact species causing problems,” concluded senior author Bethany Bradley, a professor of Environmental Conservation at the same university.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eap.2776">Ecological Applications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How many invasive plant species are in the world?

Invasive plant species can have devastating effects on local ecosystems,...

The Devonian Period that occurred between 419 and 358 million years ago, prior to the evolution of terrestrial life, is well-known for mass extinction events during which an estimated 70 percent of life on Earth was decimated. Now, a team of scientists from <a href="https://www.iupui.edu/">Indiana University Purdue University-Indianapolis</a> has argued that the evolution of tree <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deeper-plant-roots-could-boost-soil-carbon-storage/">roots</a> may have triggered this series of catastrophic extinctions which rocked the Earth’s oceans during this period.



“Our analysis shows that the evolution of tree roots likely flooded past oceans with excess nutrients, causing massive algae growth,” said study co-author Gabriel Filippelli, a biogeochemist at IU. “These rapid and destructive algae blooms would have depleted most of the oceans’ oxygen, triggering catastrophic mass extinction events.”



The process described by the scientists – known as “eutrophication” – is remarkably similar to the modern, albeit smaller-scale phenomena currently fueling “dead zones” in the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, as excess nutrients from fertilizers and other agricultural runoff trigger massive algal blooms which consume most of the water’s oxygen. However, the past events were likely caused by tree roots instead, which pulled large amounts of nutrients during times of growth, and abruptly dumped them into water during times of decay.



By chemically analyzing stone deposits from ancient lake beds, the scientists confirmed previously identified cycles of higher and lower amounts of phosphorous (a chemical element found in all life on Earth), as well as wet and dry cycles based upon signs of “weathering” - or soil formation - caused by root growth, with greater weathering indicating wet cycles with more roots and less weathering dry ones with fewer roots. Most importantly, the researchers found that the dry cycles coincided with higher levels of phosphorous, suggesting that dying tree roots released their nutrients into the Earth’s waters during those periods. Thus, the decay of tree roots seems to be the main suspect behind the Devonian mass extinctions.



Fortunately, modern trees don’t cause similar destruction, since nature has evolved better mechanisms to balance out the impact of rotting wood, and the depth of contemporary soils can retain more nutrients than the thin layer of dirt which covered ancient Earth. However, current pollution from fertilizers, manure, and other organic waste, has now placed the Earth’s oceans once more on the edge of anoxia – a complete lack of oxygen that could have disastrous consequences for marine life.



“These new insights into the catastrophic results of natural events in the ancient world may serve as a warning about the consequences of similar conditions arising from human activity today,” Fillipelli concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/GSAB.S.XXXX">Geological Society of America Bulletin</a>.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tree roots may have driven mass extinctions

The Devonian Period that occurred between 419 and 358 million...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-research-tomatoes-production/">Tomatoes</a> account for 22 percent of vegetables intake in Western diets. Previous research has linked consumption of tomatoes with reduced risk of developing various health conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases and certain cancers. However, tomatoes’ impact on the gut microbiome – the community of microorganisms living in the intestinal tract – has not yet been assessed.&nbsp;



Now, a research group led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has found that two weeks of eating a diet heavy in tomatoes increased the diversity of gut microbes and altered gut bacteria toward a more favorable profile in young pigs. These findings could be tested in humans too, in order to identify health-related links between tomato consumption and changes to the human gut microbiome.



“It’s possible that tomatoes impart benefits through their modulation of the gut microbiome,”&nbsp;said study senior author Jessica Cooperstone, an assistant professor of Horticulture and Crop Science at OSU. “Overall dietary patterns have been associated with differences in microbiome composition, but food-specific effects haven’t been studied very much. Ultimately, we’d like to identify in humans what the role is of these particular microorganisms and how they might be contributing to potential health outcomes.”



The scientists fed ten recently weaned piglets with a standard diet, and other ten with the standard diet fine-tuned so that ten percent of the food consisted of a freeze-dried tomato powder - with the amount of fiber, sugar, protein, fat, and calories identical in both diets.&nbsp;



The control and study pig populations were kept separately, and the researchers minimized the time spent with the pigs in order to ensure that any microbiome changes could be attributed solely to the chemical compounds in the tomatoes. Microbial communities were collected from fecal samples both before the study and seven and 14 days after the diet was introduced.



By using a method called “shotgun metagenomics,” the scientists sequenced all microbial DNA from the samples. The analysis revealed two main changes in the microbiomes of pigs fed the tomato-heavy diet: the diversity of microbes in their guts increased, and the concentration of two types of bacteria common in the mammal microbiome shifted to a more favorable profile. More specifically, the higher ratio of the phyla Bacteroidota compared to Bacillota has been found to be linked with more positive health outcomes.



“This was our first investigation as to how tomato consumption might affect the microbiome, and we’ve characterized which microbes are present, and how their relative abundance has changed with this tomato intervention,” Cooperstone said.



“To really understand the mechanisms, we need to do more of this kind of work in the long term in humans. We also want to understand the complex interplay – how does consuming these foods change the composition of what microbes are present, and functionally, what does that do? A better understanding could lead to more evidence-based dietary recommendations for long-term health,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02506-22">Microbiology Spectrum</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomatoes improve the health of the gut microbiome

Tomatoes account for 22 percent of vegetables intake in Western...

Plants reduce their pollen development under mild heat conditions in anticipation of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-fueling-more-extreme-heatwaves/">heatwaves</a>, according to a new thesis paper by Stuart Jansma, a PhD candidate at Radboud University. This response to warm weather can have a negative impact on fruit and seed production, and may have serious consequences as heatwaves become more common due to climate change.&nbsp;



Heat can damage pollen, prevent fertilization, and ultimately halt the production of fruits and seeds. While previous studies focused on heat shock by exposing plants to extreme heat for several hours at a time, Jansma wanted to study the effect of mild heat on a longer timescale.



For a few days, tomato plants were placed in an environment of 30°C to 34°C, which is six degrees higher than the ideal temperature for a tomato plant. Jansma studied how the plants responded on a molecular level. The results showed that mild heat triggers a different response in plants than heat shock.



“Plants react slightly less strongly when exposed to mild temperatures. The interesting thing is that this reaction to mild heat is not really necessary for the plant’s survival. You could say that the plant is ‘overreacting’; it’s anticipating a scenario with even hotter days to follow,” explained Jansma.



The experiment revealed that longer periods of mild heat affected the production of plant hormones, the conversion of sugars, and the folding of proteins. The combination of these changes led to reduced pollen development.&nbsp;



“The plant no longer focuses on reproduction, but arms itself against external stress factors," explained Jansma. “In principle, you don’t need that much pollen to fertilise a plant, but when the percentage of living pollen is low, the dead pollen block access to the pistil, thus preventing fertilization.”



“Every day that a plant ‘expects’ the warm weather to last for another week, it won’t produce any fruit. With climate change, warm days are growing in number, which only exacerbates the problem. To counter this effect, we could switch off the plants’ active reaction using genetic modification. However, this would require adjusting current European legislation.”



Jansma will present his PhD thesis at Radboud University on September 15.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants overreact to warmer weather and stop producing fruit

Plants reduce their pollen development under mild heat conditions in...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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