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By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root systems</a>, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods.



For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">draw carbon dioxide</a> out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-game-changing-ai-tool-that-creates-plants">SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants</h2>



Talmo Pereira and Professor <a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/wolfgang-busch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Busch</a> from Salk’s <a href="https://www.salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI software initially designed for tracking animal movement, to the study of plants. 



Their research introduces a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-022-01426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new protocol</a> for using SLEAP to analyze plant root phenotypes, such as depth, width, and mass.



"This collaboration is truly a testament to what makes Salk science so special and impactful," says Pereira. "We're not just 'borrowing' from different disciplines -- we're really putting them on equal footing in order to create something greater than the sum of its parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlining-plant-analysis-with-ai">Streamlining plant analysis with AI</h2>



Prior to SLEAP, analyzing plant and animal characteristics was a labor-intensive process that slowed scientific progress. 



Researchers had to manually flag parts of images frame-by-frame, part-by-part, and pixel-by-pixel before older AI models could process the data.



SLEAP's unique combination of computer vision and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> allows researchers to skip this intermediary step, jumping straight from image input to defined plant features. 



This approach significantly reduces analysis time and human error while emphasizing accessibility and ease of use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-roots-digging-deep-into-plant-biology">sleap-roots: Digging deep into plant biology</h2>



The Salk team developed sleap-roots, a downloadable toolkit for SLEAP that enables the software to process biological traits of root systems, such as depth, mass, and angle of growth. 



The toolkit, available as open-source software, was tested on various plants, including soybeans, rice, canola, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>.



"We created a robust protocol validated in multiple plant types that cuts down on analysis time and human error, while emphasizing accessibility and ease-of-use -- and it required no changes to the actual SLEAP software," says Elizabeth Berrigan, a bioinformatics analyst in Busch's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-secrets-of-climate-saving-plants">Deciphering the secrets of climate-saving plants</h2>



By connecting phenotypic data, such as a plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep root system</a>, with genotype data obtained through genome sequencing efforts, researchers can identify the genes responsible for creating desirable traits. 



This step is crucial in Salk's mission to create plants with AI that hold on to more carbon for longer periods, as these plants will require root systems designed to be deeper and more robust.



"We have already been able to create the most extensive catalogue of plant root system phenotypes to date, which is really accelerating our research to create carbon-capturing plants that fight climate change," says Busch, the Hess Chair in <a href="https://pbio.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Science at Salk</a>. 



"SLEAP has been so easy to apply and use, thanks to Talmo's professional software design, and it's going to be an indispensable tool in my lab moving forward," Busch concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hidden-world-of-plant-root-systems">Understanding the hidden world of plant root systems</h2>



To further clarify, plant root systems are intricate networks of roots that play a crucial role in anchoring plants to the soil, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing essential compounds. 



There are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two main types of root systems</a> exist in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems. 



<ul>
<li>Taproot systems feature a single, dominant root that grows vertically downward, with smaller lateral roots branching off from it. </li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Fibrous root systems, on the other hand, consist of numerous small roots that grow outward from the base of the plant, forming a dense network.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Functions of root systems</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-follow-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Root systems</a> perform several critical functions for plants:



<ul>
<li>Anchoring: Roots secure plants to the soil, providing stability and preventing them from toppling over.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Absorption: Fine root hairs absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, which are then transported to the rest of the plant.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Storage: Some plants, such as carrots and beets, use their roots to store carbohydrates and other essential compounds.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Factors influencing root growth</h3>



Several factors influence the growth and development of plant root systems:



<ul>
<li>Soil type: Different soil types, such as sandy, loamy, or clay soils, affect root growth and distribution.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Water availability: Plants adapt their root systems in response to water availability, with some species growing deeper roots to access water in times of drought.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Nutrient availability: The presence or absence of essential nutrients in the soil can impact root growth and architecture.</li>
</ul>



Healthy root systems are essential for overall plant health and productivity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Well-developed roots</a> enable plants to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, leading to stronger growth and increased resilience to stresses such as drought or disease. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-climate-saving-plants">AI and the future of climate-saving plants</h2>



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots have the potential to revolutionize plant research worldwide. The Salk team has already begun discussions with NASA scientists hoping to utilize the tool to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-sequestering plants</a> on Earth and to study plants in space.



In summary, the Salk Institute's pioneering research in plant-based carbon capture, powered by the innovative SLEAP software and sleap-roots toolkit, paves the way for a greener future. 



As scientists continue to refine and expand these tools, they accelerate the development of climate-saving plants with optimized root systems capable of storing more carbon for longer periods. 



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots invite researchers worldwide to join the fight against climate change, fostering global collaboration and innovation. 



With the Harnessing Plants Initiative at the forefront, Salk scientists are rooting for change, digging deep into plant biology, and branching out to make a lasting impact on our planet's future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/plantphenomics.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Phenomics</a>.



-----



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AI is creating new plants that can help fight climate change

By focusing on root systems, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods. For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants Talmo Pereira and Professor Wolfgang Busch from Salk’s Harnessing Plants Initiative have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-flowers-are-critical-for-the-survival-of-bumble-bees/">Flowers</a> possess an invisible feature that attracts bumblebees, according to a new study led by the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. The experts report that bumblebees may use the humidity of a flower to tell them about the presence of nectar.

The researchers determined that bumblebees are able to accurately detect different levels of dampness next to the surface of the flower.

"Our study shows that bumblebees not only use this sensory information to make choices about how they behave, but are also capable of learning to distinguish between humidity patterns in a similar way to how they learn to recognize the color or smell of a flower," said study co-author Professor Natalie Hempel de Ibarra.

To investigate, the researchers designed artificial flowers with levels of humidity similar to those of flowering plants.

"Bumblebees showed a spontaneous preference for flowers which produced higher floral humidity. Furthermore, learning experiments showed that bumblebees are able to use differences in floral humidity to distinguish between rewarding and non rewarding flowers," explained the study authors.

"Our results indicate that bumblebees are sensitive to different levels of floral humidity. In this way floral humidity can add to the information provided by flowers and could impact pollinator behaviour more significantly than previously thought."

According to study lead author Dr. Michael Harrap, it is known that different species of plants produce flowers that have distinct patterns of humidity, which differ from the surrounding air.

"Knowing that bees might use these patterns to help them find food shows that flowers have evolved a huge variety of different ways of attracting pollinators, that make use of all the pollinators' senses."

"If humidity patterns are important for attracting pollinators, they are likely to be one of several different signals (such as colour, scent and pattern) that a flower is using at the same time, and could help the bee to identify and handle the flower more efficiently," said study co-author Dr. Sean Rands.

"The effectiveness of humidity patterns may depend upon the humidity of the environment around the flower; climate change may affect this environmental humidity, which in turn could have a negative effect on a visiting bee because the effectiveness of the humidity pattern will be altered."

The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bumblebees are attracted to the humidity of flowers

Flowers possess an invisible feature that attracts bumblebees, according to...

The Amazon rainforest faces a much higher risk of extreme drought than previously expected, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>. Without urgent action to curb greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emissions-from-food-production-have-been-underestimated/">emissions</a>, the eastern portion of the rainforest is set to experience severe drying by the end of this century.

The extreme drought will release massive amounts of carbon dioxide, and further exacerbate warming and drying in a vicious reinforcing feedback loop that will affect large portions of the rainforest.

"Understanding how the Amazon water cycle may change under future warming scenarios is crucial for predicting how the forest, and its store of terrestrial carbon, may respond," explained the study authors.

"The Amazon hydrological cycle has become increasingly seasonal since the 1990s, and floods and droughts have become more extreme. Although vegetation models simulated a relatively stable carbon sink over the Amazon since 1990, strong precipitation anomalies disrupt carbon sequestration, and ground-based measurements suggest the rate of forest carbon uptake is in decline." 

Existing climate models disagree on whether the Amazon, the world's largest tropical rainforest, will become wetter or drier in the coming decades. 

The researchers analyzed the results of 38 Amazon climate models. They found that only a third of the 38 models correctly represented the factors that regulate evapotranspiration, which is the process by which forests transfer water from the soil to the atmosphere.

When they focused on the smaller number of climate models, the team was able to reduce the uncertainty in projected rainfall changes over the Amazon by 50 percent. This group of models predicted severe drying in the eastern Amazon over the next 80 years. By contrast, the models showed rainfall increases in the western Amazon basin.

The researchers predict rainfall reductions in the east that are comparable to those linked to the major droughts of 2005 and 2010. These events caused widespread tree mortality and had major impacts on Amazon communities.

"People in Brazil and across the globe are rightly concerned about what the future holds for the Amazon, and its valuable store of carbon and biodiversity," said study lead author Dr. Jessica Baker. "The Amazon is at risk from the twin threats of deforestation and climate change."

"This new study sheds light on how the Amazon climate is likely to change under an extreme warming scenario. It should ring alarm bells for governments around the world that this vital global resource must not be taken for granted."

"Protecting and expanding existing forests - which absorb and store carbon - is of paramount importance to combatting climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extreme drought will impact large parts of the Amazon

The Amazon rainforest faces a much higher risk of extreme...

Most models for viral transmission focus on humans spreading viruses that infect other humans. However, other factors may also be at play when it comes to transmission of viruses like the one that causes COVID-19, including tree pollen.

Researchers noticed a correlation between the increase of pollen and an increase in COVID-19 infections. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a>, Talib Dbouk and Dimitris Drikakis set out to investigate how pollen distribution may assist in the spread of SARS-COV-2 and other viruses.

The experts used a computer model to show how pollen moves in a willow. The computer model recreated a realistic tree producing pollen amidst a gathering of roughly 100 people, some of which were infected by COVID-19. 

"This included thousands of tree leaves and pollen grain particles, hundreds of stems and a realistic gathering of a crowd of about 100 individuals at about 20 meters from the tree," explained Dbouk.

As the tree pollen was caught in the wind and spread through the crowd of people, some of the particles attached to COVID-19 particles, carrying them farther than they would have traveled alone. 

Every grain of pollen can carry hundreds of virus particles, and a tree can populate a cubic meter of air with 1,500 grains on some days. The research suggests that pollen could have a significant impact on virus transmission, changing normal human to human dynamics.     

"In the case of high pollen grains concentrations in the air or during pollination in the spring, the social distance of 2 meters does not hold as a health safety measure for an outdoor crowd," explained the study authors. "Thus, the public authorities should revise the social distancing guidelines."

Although this study focused mainly on COVID-19 transmissions, the researchers hope that the paper increases interest in fluid dynamics of trees. 

They plan on carrying out more research on how these dynamics affect human respiration under different atmospheric conditions next.    

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trees spread COVID-19 through pollen

Most models for viral transmission focus on humans spreading viruses...

Usually, when a plant cell is pierced, it pops like a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-has-darkened-coastal-waters-off-belize/">water</a> balloon. This is why researchers were baffled about the long strands of flavonoid "wool" coming from inside the cells of an alpine cushion plant with pretty yellow flowers known as Dionysia tapetodes. 

"The leaves are covered in tiny hairs called trichomes. Each trichome has a spherical shaped glandular cell at the end - like a stalk with a single round cell at the tip - and we could see the threads emerging straight out of the glandular cell," said study co-author Dr. Raymond Wightman. "But we know that plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall that protects and retains pressure within the cell. Poking holes through the cell membrane and cell wall would cause the cell to burst - like puncturing a water balloon."

According to study co-author Paul Aston of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, many alpine plants have interesting adaptations.

"The woolly farina threads seem to cover the entire leaf surface with long threads even connecting leaf-to-leaf," said Aston. "Nobody knew what this wool was or how it was made and so we thought that this would be an interesting specimen to study."

"There are many things that plants make that we do not yet know about - this is especially true for alpine plants where we see many unusual adaptations to the harsh high altitude environments they live in."

Part of the Primula family, the plant is native to the rugged mountains of Turkmenistan, part of Iran and the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Other members of its family have leaves covered in a powder of flavonoid "dust" thought to perhaps be related to the hair-like strands of wool found on Dionysia tapetodes. 

The flavonoids are important for plant metabolism but D. tapetodes lacks flavonoid powder, instead being covered with very fine strands a fraction the thickness of human hair. 

Using advanced electron microscopy techniques, the Cambridge team looked closely at the hairs emerging from the cells and discovered a tiny gap in cell walls allowing the hairs to breach the walls. 

"The plant manufactures the fiber inside the cell and then threads it through the gaps that are just wide enough for it," said study co-author Dr. Matthieu Bourdon.

The chemistry at play is fairly demanding as well, one scientist compared the ability to build flavones into a continuous strand to squeezing a continuous strand of toothpaste from a tube. 

It is not yet known what purpose this ‘wool’ serves but scientists suspect it to be an adaptation to the harsh alpine environment that the plant is found in, whether for cold or to block UV radiation. There is still much not known about this plant and its novel adaptations. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Plant Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alpine plant makes its own wooly cover

Usually, when a plant cell is pierced, it pops like...

A study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> is providing brand new insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-plants-have-a-burst-of-activity-at-dawn/">plants</a> evolve unique defense mechanisms known as specialized metabolites. The experts found that these protective chemicals are shaped by a combination of genetics, geography, and environmental conditions.

"Plants produce diverse metabolites to cope with the challenges presented by complex and ever-changing environments. These challenges drive the diversification of specialized metabolites within and between plant species," wrote the researchers.

"However, we are just beginning to understand how frequently new alleles arise controlling specialized metabolite diversity and how the geographic distribution of these alleles may be structured by ecological and demographic pressures."

Each plant has a unique profile of specialized metabolites that are linked to genetic variants that have evolved over years in response to environmental conditions.

"We already know that environmental pressures such as the type of herbivores that prey on plants influences the specialised metabolites plants produce," said study first author Ella Katz. 

"We wanted to understand how the intersection of environmental pressure, demography and genomic complexity gives rise to the pattern of metabolic variation across a plant species."

To investigate, the experts measured the variation in specialized metabolites across almost 800 seed samples of the model plant species Arabidopsis thaliana collected from across Europe.

The researchers analyzed three locations in the plant genome known to influence A. thaliana's survival fitness. They also examined the entire genome to find genes linked to metabolite production. 

The researchers found large variability in the types of specialized metabolites, or chemotypes, in central Europe compared to northern Europe. They identified two predominant chemotypes that were clearly separated by geography.

The study also suggests that the relationship between environmental conditions and specialized metabolites varies across different regions in Europe. For example, even if higher levels of precipitation were linked to a certain chemotype in southern Europe, it would not be the same in northern Europe.

"Our work provides a new perspective on the complexity of the forces and mechanisms that shape the generation and distribution of specialized metabolites and affect the plant's ability to survive in a changing environment," said study senior author Professor Daniel Kliebenstein. 

"Using a larger plant population from other locations around the world will enable us to deepen our understanding of the evolutionary mechanisms that determine the variation in a population."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How plants develop specialized metabolites for survival

A study from UC Davis is providing brand new insight...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> describes how plants get an early start to their day, bursting with activity just after dawn. While it was known that gene activity peaks at sunrise in plants, the experts wanted to gain a better understanding of what controls this peak. 

Early morning light plays an important role in coordinating circadian rhythm and various growth processes in plants. By staying aligned with day-night cycles, plants can control the timing of their day, such as when to open flowers for pollinators or make the best use of sunlight.

Within an hour of dawn, plant genes that control light, stress, and growth hormones become strongly active. To investigate this genetic activity, the researchers focused on the small flowering plant thale cress, collecting samples every two minutes from dawn to measure gene expression.

"We set out to characterize 'dawn burst' dynamics in more detail, focusing on the expression of transcription factor genes. We found three distinct gene expression waves within two hours after dawn. The first of these occurs just 16 minutes after dawn and lasts only 8 minutes," explained study first author Dr. Martin Balcerowicz.

"Many of these genes are known to be sensitive to light and temperature, but we wanted to find out specifically how the transcription of these genes is coordinated." 

"Interfering in photoreceptor signaling, the circadian clock and chloroplast derived light signals did cause problems in some genes' expression, but there was a large proportion of genes still unaffected. This indicated to us that some of the upstream pathways are redundant and that additional regulators are in play."

The team ultimately identified a network that regulates genes at dawn, with two key regulators of light signaling - HY5 and BBX31. These genes appeared to play a central role during the dark-to-light transition at dawn.

"In fact, multiple BBX genes form part of the dawn burst alongside BBX31, HY5 and its homologue HYH," said Dr Balcerowicz. "These genes include both positive and negative regulators of the light response. We found that they act downstream of phytochrome and cryptochrome photoreceptors to control a light-induced subset of dawn burst genes, with HY5 and BBX31 having largely antagonistic roles."

"This observation strengthens the idea that HY5 and BBX genes act in concert to fine-tune light responses in the context of the day-night cycle."

Study senior author Dr. Daphne Ezer is a lecturer in Computational Biology at the University of York who investigates gene-environment interactions through the analysis of gene networks. 

"By studying gene networks we can interpret how plants integrate light and temperature signals in the early morning to entrain the circadian clock," explained Dr. Ezer. 

"Taken together, our results show that phytochrome and cryptochrome signaling is required for fine-tuning the dawn transcriptional response to light, but separate pathways can robustly activate much of the programme in their absence."

"Characterizing the peak we see in gene expression that results from the onset of light is useful in helping us to understand how plants respond to light and, in particular, for crops grown under artificial lighting, how this dawn burst impacts longer term on growth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-plant/home">Molecular Plant</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals why plants have a burst of activity at dawn

A new study from the University of Cambridge describes how...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, researchers are shedding new light on how plants distinguish between microbes that are beneficial to them and those that cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-bacteria-causes-fatal-wilt-disease-in-palms/">disease</a>. 

Plants are constantly exposed to different types of microbes, including harmful pathogens and mutualists that promote plant growth and development. For example, most land plants form mutually beneficial relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve nutrient uptake. 

"Maintaining a balance in plant disease resistance where plants can fight off pests and pathogens but still engage with microbes that can help with nutrient uptake is essential for the health of our crops," explained study co-author Dr. Cara.

The experts set out to investigate the process that allows plants to fight off pathogens without also killing beneficial microbes, and without wasting energy on commensals that cause no harm or benefit.

According to Dr. Haney, this question is so broad that the review actually raises more questions than it answers. "We attempted to highlight much of what was known, but also what wasn't known and to provide paradigms and models that could be frameworks going forward."

The researchers explored three principles - chemical selection with metabolites, dual receptor recognition, and tuning of an immune thermostat.

Plants first use metabolite compounds like chemical signals to recruit beneficial bacteria and restrict pathogens, but not all pathogens are excluded. 

Study co-author Dr. David Thoms theorizes that once the plant and microbe are in contact, a "dual input model" is used by the plant to distinguish the type of microbe present and whether it is a mutualist, commensal, or a pathogen. 

Microbes are detected by receptor proteins on the surface of plant cells. When receptor proteins detect chitin, the plant knows that a fungal microbe is present. 

At the same time, chitin and other microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPS) are often shared among microbes. This means they are insufficient signals to distinguish commensals from pathogens, according to Dr. Thoms.

"Unlike most animals, plants do not have an adaptive immune system. However, plant genomes contain many more innate immune receptors than animals," explained study co-author Dr. Yan Liang. "Plants also use similar receptors to sense signaling molecules from beneficial microbes, environments, as well as their own cells." 

The experts propose that additional receptors use a second layer of information to identify pathogens versus mutualists. Symbiosis receptors can identify signaling molecules specifically produced by beneficial microbes, while immune receptors can identify pathogen proteins intended to shut down a plant's defense mechanisms. 

"I think it's cool that plants can perceive so many types of MAMPs across different kingdoms of life and I think one use of that is recognizing where the microbe is coming from to give the appropriate physiological response," said Dr. Thoms.

"Many living things, ranging from plants to humans, are faced with the challenge of engaging with beneficial microbes while restricting pathogens," noted Dr. Haney. 

"As a result, paradigms in plant-microbe interactions may shed light on eukaryotic interactions with microbes in diverse organisms."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/journal/mpmi">Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How plants distinguish between good and bad microbes

In a new study from the American Phytopathological Society, researchers...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>, experts have brought a 70-year-old fungus back to life to understand more about coffee wilt disease. The researchers re-animated cryogenically frozen samples of the fungus to investigate how the disease evolved and how to prevent it from spreading.

The fungus associated with coffee wilt disease has been causing devastating outbreaks in sub-Saharan Africa since the 1920s. It currently affects two of Africa's most popular types of coffee, Arabica and Robusta.

The new study reveals that the fungus enhanced its ability to infect coffee plants by acquiring genes from a related fungus that causes wilt disease in other crops, including Panama disease in bananas.

According to the researchers, this discovery could help farmers reduce the risk of emerging new disease strains. For example, coffee beans could be planted separately from other crops. Farmers could also work to prevent the build-up of plant debris that may harbor the fungus.

In collaboration with the University of Oxford and the agricultural not-for-profit CABI, the experts report that studying historical samples in CABI's culture collection could provide a wealth of insights into how crop diseases evolve and help to find new, sustainable ways to fight them. 

"Using ever-higher volumes of chemicals and fungicides to fight emerging crop diseases is neither sustainable nor affordable for many growers," said study first author Lily Peck.

"If we can instead understand how new types of diseases evolve, we can give growers the knowledge they need to reduce the risk of new diseases emerging in the first place."

The coffee wilt fungus caused two serious outbreaks of the disease in the 1920s-1950s and the 1990s-2000s. The fungus also killed 55,000 Robusta coffee trees in Tanzania in 2011, destroying the equivalent of over 22 million cups of coffee.

Beginning in the 1920s, coffee wilt disease infected a wide range of varieties. After the disease was brought under control in the 1950s, it reemerged in the 1970s. Two separate disease populations have been identified - one specifically infects Arabica coffee in Ethiopia, and the other infects Robusta coffee in east and central Africa. 

For the current study, two fungal strains from the original outbreak were re-awakened in a secure lab at CABI. The team also activated two coffee-specific fungal strains, the most recent of which was frozen in 2003. Genetic testing was used to look for evidence of how the strains evolved to target specific types of coffee.

The experts discovered that the newer fungi have larger genomes than the earlier strains. They also identified genes that helped the fungi overcome plants' defenses. The genes turned out to be very similar to those known from a different, closely related fungus that impacts over 120 different crops, including bananas in sub-Saharan Africa.

Strains of the banana-infecting fungus are known to be able to swap genes, but the potential transfer of their genes to a different species of fungi has not been seen before. 

The researchers noted that the two fungal species often live in close proximity on the roots of coffee and banana plants, and so it is possible that the coffee fungus gained these advantageous genes from its normally banana-based neighbor.

Coffee and bananas are often grown together, and coffee plants take advantage of the shade provided by the taller banana plants. The researchers said their findings suggest that growing crops with closely related diseases separately could reduce the possibility of new coffee-killing fungal strains evolving.

Currently in the lab, the researchers are using the re-animated strains to examine how the fungus infects coffee plants. The insights could be applied to different crop plants, where other closely related plant pathogens could make similar leaps and create new diseases. 

Going forward, the experts plan to replicate the study with other diseases stored in CABI's collection, which includes 30,000 specimens collected over the past 100 years.

"The historical approach shows us what happens to a plant pathogen before and after a new outbreak of disease occurs. We can then study the mechanisms of evolution and improve predictions of how similar outbreaks could occur in the future," said Professor Timothy Barraclough.

"Our aim is to replicate this study for many plant pathogens, eventually drawing up a 'rule book' of how pathogenicity evolves, helping us to prevent future outbreaks where possible."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Genomics</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coffee-killing fungus has acquired genes from its relatives

In a new study from Imperial College London, experts have...

In a new study from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/">University of Freiburg</a>, researchers have been investigating how plants cope with extreme drought that coincides additional stress, including competition with invasive species. The research is shedding new light on how entire ecosystems will respond to climate change.

"Interaction effects of different stressors, such as extreme drought and plant invasion, can have detrimental effects on ecosystem functioning and recovery after drought. With ongoing climate change and increasing plant invasion, there is an urgent need to predict the short- and long-term interaction impacts of these stressors on ecosystems," explained the researchers.

The investigation was focused on a field study in the Park Tapada Real in the small Portuguese town of Vila Viçosa. The team examined how cork oak, Quercus suber, responds to two coinciding stressors - extreme drought and competition with the invasive plant species gum rockrose. 

"The factors interacted more dynamically than we expected," study co-author Simon Haberstroh, who conducted the research for his doctoral thesis. 

The researchers found that during wet years, the interacting stressors did not cause any significant changes in the cork oak. In dry conditions, the factors either amplified or buffered each other. 

"In an average precipitation year, the interaction effects of both stressors were neutral. However, the combination of imposed drought and shrub invasion led to amplifying interaction effects during an extreme drought by strongly reducing tree transpiration. Contrarily, the imposed drought reduced the competitiveness of the shrubs in the following recovery period, which buffered the negative effects of shrub invasion on Q. suber," explained the study authors. 

"Our results demonstrate the highly dynamic and non-linear effects of interacting stressors on ecosystems and urges for further investigations on biotic interactions in a context of climate change pressures."

The researchers were surprised to find that cork oak, despite the double burden, was able to recover better than had been expected after extreme drought. 

"These new research findings contribute to better understanding and more expedient care of ecosystems," said Haberstroh. "Using them we can, for example, develop rules for particularly dry years, which is a central issue in times of climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14698137">New Phytologist</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do plants handle competition during extreme drought?

In a new study from the University of Freiburg, researchers...

A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has discovered how to turn food waste into robust construction materials that retain their edible nature. Pulverized banana peels, cabbage leaves, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-livestock-methane-emissions/">seaweed</a> were used to create materials that have the strength of concrete.

Study senior author Yuya Sakai is a sustainable construction materials specialist and a professor in the Institute of Industrial Science at The University of Tokyo.

"Our goal was to use seaweed and common food scraps to construct materials that were at least as strong as concrete," said Professor Sakai. "But since we were using edible food waste, we were also interested in determining whether the recycling process impacted the flavor of the original materials."   

The experts tested out a heat-pressing technique that is used to compress wood powder into construction materials. In place of wood, the team pulverized a variety of vacuum-dried food waste items, including onion and banana peels.

According to the researchers, the processing technique involved mixing the food powder with water and seasonings, then pressing the mixture into a mold at high temperature.

"With the exception of the specimen derived from pumpkin, all of the materials exceeded our bending strength target," said study co-author Kota Machida. "We also found that Chinese cabbage leaves, which produced a material over three times stronger than concrete, could be mixed with the weaker pumpkin-based material to provide effective reinforcement."

The World Food Program estimates that one-third of the world's food is wasted every year, valued at $1 trillion. With this in mind, the researchers said it is crucial for develop methods for recycling food waste. 

The experts noted that since the new materials are strong enough for construction projects yet still edible, there could be a number of creative applications to come from this research.

The study is published by <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jsms">The Society of Materials Science</a> of Japan. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Food waste can be recycled into construction materials

A team of scientists at the University of Tokyo has...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, experts have demonstrated that a mixture of beer byproducts and manure can be used as an eco-friendly alternative to pesticides. These organic materials were found to preserve healthy soil microorganisms and increase crop yields.

Researchers from the Neiker Basque Institute for Agricultural Research and Development have been testing byproducts from beer production and the agricultural industry to replace soil fumigants. Many fumigants are known to contain chemicals that are harmful to human health and the environment. 

The current study was focused on the byproducts rapeseed cake and beer bagasse, along with fresh cow manure.

"Rapeseed cake and beer bagasse are two potential organic treatments which have shown really positive results in previous studies," said lead author Maite Gandariasbeitia.

"Their high nitrogen content promotes the activity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil, which helps to break down organic matter like manure and kill off nematodes and other parasites which damage crops."

Plant parasitic nematodes impact crop yields by causing wilting, stunting, and nutrient deficiency.

"Root-knot nematodes are a type of common soil parasite which penetrate a plant's root tissue to lay their eggs and this activity causes galls, or knot-like swellings, to form on the root," explained Gandariasbeitia.

"This damage negatively impacts root development and means the crop can't take up nutrients efficiently, slowing plant growth and ultimately, leading to reduced yields for farmers."

To reduce nematode populations in the soil, the experts tested a mixture of beer bagasse and rapeseed cake with fresh cow manure. The researchers found a significant reduction in galling on plant roots after the first treatment.

After one year, crop yields increased on the treated plots by around 15 percent compared to the control plots. In addition, the beer byproduct and manure treatment boosted populations of beneficial microorganisms in the soil, which was exhibited by a significantly higher soil respiration rate.

The agricultural byproducts could be used to control other soil parasites as well, while promoting sustainable food systems to reduce waste from the agricultural industry. 

According to Gandariasbeitia, further research is needed to explore other potential organic treatments that could be used in a similar way.

"There are still many questions to answer so that we can gain a better understanding of what happens in the soil during and after these biodisinfestation treatments."

"This can help us to really elucidate what characteristics we should be looking for in other potential organic treatments to be effective in tackling soil parasite populations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems">Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beer byproducts and manure used to increase crop yields

In a new study published by Frontiers, experts have demonstrated...

In a new study from the <a href="https://microbiologysociety.org/">Microbiology Society</a>, researchers are describing a previously unknown type of bacteria that causes a fatal wilt disease in palms. 

The experts discovered the new bacteria species, Candidatus Phytoplasma dypsidis, while investigating a disease outbreak in a botanical garden in Queensland, Australia.

A few years ago, several ornamental palms in the Cairns Botanic Gardens died mysteriously. Dr. Richard Davis and colleagues from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment analyzed a sample from one of the diseased plants.

Genetic testing showed that the bacterium was similar to other species of Candidatus Phytoplasma, many of which are responsible for disease epidemics in palms elsewhere. However, the new strain was different enough to be distinguished as an independent species. 

"When the laboratory testing indicated it was something close to, but not the same as, devastating palm pathogens overseas, we were very surprised," said Dr Davis.

"At first we thought it was most likely an unrelated fungal disease. Almost as an afterthought, I suggested we screen for phytoplasma because there are some very bad phytoplasma diseases of palms moving around the world, including in neighboring Papua New Guinea."

So far, Candidatus Phytoplasma dypsidis has infected 12 different species of palms, including Cocos nucifera, which produces coconuts. 

"Although palms are not grown as a cash crop in Australia, they are important ornamental garden and amenity plants. Coconuts and other palms are an economically significant component of Australia's tourism industry in the tropics," said Dr Davis.

"Palms take on a much greater significance in most of the countries near Australia, in south east Asia and the Pacific, where coconuts are 'the tree of life'. It is important to raise awareness of a new disease threat, such as this, so that regional biosecurity measures can be prioritized."

The experts speculate that the bacteria and wilt disease is being spread from plant to plant by insects which feed on phloem, the tissue which transports nutrients around the plant. 

"It seems certain from our observations of how this thing has spread through the local area, that there must be an insect vector. Finding out what vector species are involved is a vital next research priority."

"Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific island countries and territories have an enviable plant and animal health status compared to much of the rest of the world. Because we are islands, we have escaped many significant plant disease threats that have traveled around the world, over history," explained Dr. Davis.

"As biosecurity plant pathologists for the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, our team's main role is to look out for and detect incursions of exotic plant pathogens. We usually do this in remote parts of Australia's north, so to come across something much closer to home in the suburbs of Cairns, in far North Queensland, Australia, was unusual. However, we have no evidence to suggest this is an incursion from overseas because it is a unique organism. It may well be indigenous to Australia and some as yet unknown factor has triggered a disease outbreak."

Dr. Davis is concerned that the new wilting disease could spread outside of Cairns and affect palm populations further north. "North of Cairns, we have threatened ecological communities of fan palms which are of great environmental significance." 

The researchers will continue to monitor the spread of Candidatus Phytoplasma dypsidis, and will investigate a number of questions that remain, such as whether the bacteria is capable of infecting other types of plants, including bananas and other crops.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem">International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Newly discovered bacteria causes fatal wilt disease in palms

In a new study from the Microbiology Society, researchers are...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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