During their lifespans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-plants-can-be-easily-confused-with-edible-ones/">plants</a> release through their stems and leaves a wide range of biological particles, including fungal spores, pollen, bacteria, viruses, algae, and cell debris. When reaching the atmosphere, these particles can act as the nuclei for ice crystals or cloud droplets, thus having a significant environmental and climatic impact.&nbsp;



Although scientists have long been familiar with this process, little has been known about how the composition of this microbiome changes throughout a plant’s life cycle. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> has investigated the biological particles produced during the life cycle of&nbsp;Brachypodium distachyon, a wild but commonly used model grass.



“Airborne biological aerosols are an integral part of the atmosphere–biosphere interface and significantly impact the environment and Earth’s climate,” wrote the study authors. “Primary biological particles such as fungal spores, bacteria, and fragments of plant debris are emitted directly from the biosphere into the atmosphere. The phyllosphere (aboveground plant surfaces) is one of the major habitats for different microbes.”



In order to understand the dynamics of this process over the life cycle of&nbsp;B. distachyon, the scientists collected particles at eight different developmental stages – from the emergence of leaves to the last season of plant life – and analyzed particle morphology, elemental composition, and abundance of functional groups through various types of microspectroscopy platforms.&nbsp;



The researchers found a variety of spores, bacteria, plant fragments, and other types of biological particles in the plants’ phyllosphere. While fungal spores were most abundant during the stage just before flowering, bacteria took the lead during the flowering and fruit development stages.



Better understanding the differences in the composition and morphology of biological particles during plants’ life cycles provides new, more reliable insights on the structural, functional, and biochemical properties of plant systems, as well as on their complex interactions with microbial communities. Further research is needed to clarify all the environmental and climatic implications of these processes.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.0c00144">ACS Earth and Space Chemistry</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants release a variety of biological particles into the air

During their lifespans, plants release through their stems and leaves...

The Corn Belt is a region in the midwestern United States that is dominated by agriculture, including western Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, and eastern Kansas. A new study led by <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a> has found that climate change will make the U.S. Corn Belt unsuitable for cultivating corn and other major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-crops-could-reduce-climate-impacts/">crops</a> by 2100. 



According to the researchers, this transition will be inevitable without major technological advances in agricultural practices, as well as significant diversification beyond the major commodity crops that currently make up the bulk of U.S. agriculture.



“Climate change is happening, and it will continue to shift U.S. cultivation geographies strongly north,” said study author Emily Burchfield, an environmental scientist at Emory. “It’s not enough to simply depend on technological innovations to save the day. Now is the time to envision big shifts in what and how we grow our food to create more sustainable and resilient forms of agriculture.”



Currently, 80 percent of U.S. agricultural lands are cultivated with only five types of crops – alfalfa, corn, hay, soy, and wheat. By drawing upon historical land-use data classifying where these crops are grown, Professor Burchfield developed computational models to project biophysically driven shifts in cultivation to 2100 under low-, moderate-, and high-emissions scenarios. The results revealed that, even under moderate-emissions scenarios, the cultivation geographies of these major crops will all shift strongly north, with the Corn Belt becoming unsuitable to the cultivation of corn by the end of the century.



“These projections may be pessimistic because they don’t account for all of the ways that technology may help farmers adapt and rise to the challenge,” Professor Burchfield&nbsp;said. “But relying on technology alone is a really risky way to approach the problem. If we continue to push against biophysical realities, we will eventually reach ecological collapse.”



In her opinion, a better solution would be for agricultural systems to diversify beyond this handful of major crops. “One of the basic laws of ecology is that more diverse ecosystems are more resilient,” explained Professor Burchfield. “A landscape covered with a single plant is a fragile, brittle landscape. And there is also growing evidence that more diverse agricultural landscapes are more productive.”



“We need to switch from incentivizing intensive cultivation of five or six crops to supporting farmers’ ability to experiment and adopt the crops that work best in their particular landscape. It’s important to begin thinking about how to transition out of our current damaging monoculture paradigm toward systems that are environmentally sustainable, economically viable for farmers, and climate-smart."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac6c3d">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The U.S. Corn Belt will take a hard hit from climate change

The Corn Belt is a region in the midwestern United...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-reduces-the-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/">Vitamin D</a> deficiency is linked to a number of health concerns across the world, and it is often recommended to increase intake by eating more fruits and vegetables. In a new study John Innes Centre, researchers have found a way to maximize vitamin D in tomatoes through gene editing.&nbsp;



Our bodies produce vitamin D after exposure to UVB light, but food is the biggest source. The new biofortified crop could help millions of people with vitamin D deficiency, which is linked to higher risk of cancer, dementia, and many leading causes of mortality. Recent studies have also identified a link between vitamin D deficiency and increased severity of Covid-19 infection.&nbsp;



During the winter months, and also at higher latitudes, people need vitamin D from their diet or supplements because the sun is not strong enough for the body to produce it naturally.&nbsp;



Tomato leaves contain provitamin D3, one of the building blocks of vitamin D at very low levels. Provitamin D3 does not normally accumulate in ripe tomato fruits. The researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to revise the genetic code of tomato plants so that provitamin D3 accumulates in the tomato fruit.&nbsp;



The leaves of the edited plants contained up to 600 ug of provitamin D3 per gram of dry weight. The recommended daily intake of vitamin D is 10 ug for adults.&nbsp; This may not sound beneficial as tomato leaves are usually discarded. However, the leaves of the edited plants can be used to manufacture vitamin D3 supplements.&nbsp;



“We’ve shown that you can biofortify tomatoes with provitamin D3 using gene editing, which means tomatoes could be developed as a plant-based, sustainable source of vitamin D3,” said study co-author Professor Cathie Martin.



“Forty percent of Europeans have vitamin D insufficiency and so do one billion people world-wide. We are not only addressing a huge health problem, but are helping producers, because tomato leaves which currently go to waste, could be used to make supplements from the gene-edited lines.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The gene-editing had no effect on growth, development or yield of the tomato plants. One tomato contained levels of vitamin D that were equivalent to two medium sized eggs or 28 grams of tuna. Vitamin D in ripe fruit could be further increased by extended exposure to UVB, for example during sun-drying.&nbsp;



“The Covid-19 pandemic has helped to highlight the issue of vitamin D insufficiency and its impact on our immune function and general health," said study first author Dr. Jie Li.



"The provitamin D enriched tomatoes we have produced offer a much-needed plant-based source of the sunshine vitamin. That is great news for people adopting a plant-rich, vegetarian or vegan diet, and for the growing number of people worldwide suffering from the problem of vitamin D insufficiency.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomatoes could become an important source of vitamin D

Vitamin D deficiency is linked to a number of health...

Plants respond very strongly to touch and other external stimuli, and researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> have now discovered new details about the genetic basis for such stress responses. This breakthrough could ultimately lead to higher yields and improved stress resistance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-grass-could-protect-crops-against-deadly-pathogens/">crops</a>, noted the experts.&nbsp;



"Through millions of years of evolution, plants have gained a sophisticated molecular machinery to sense and respond to a plethora of environmental stimuli. So far, plant responses to biotic and abiotic factors have been extensively studied and characterized at the molecular level. Nonetheless, insights on how plants respond to mechanical cues, like rain, wind, touch, and bending, are just beginning to unfold," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Mechanical stimuli instantly activate a plant's molecular defense system, and this powerful response can contribute to plants becoming more resistant later. While scientists have been aware of this innate response since the days of Darwin, many questions still remain today. In the new study, the experts looked at complex networks which support the strengthening of plant defenses through external influences.



“We exposed the plant thale cress to soft brushing, after which thousands of genes were activated and stress hormones were released. We then used genetic screening to find the genes that were responsible for this process," explained study co-author Olivier Van Aken.



Ultimately, the researchers identified three new proteins that play a key role in the plant response to touch.



“Our results solve a scientific mystery that has eluded the world's molecular biologists for 30 years. We have identified a completely new signaling pathway that controls a plant's response to physical contact and touch. Now the search for more paths continues," said study co-author Essam Darwish.



“Given the extreme weather conditions and pathogen infections that climate change leads to, it is of utmost importance to find new ecologically responsible ways to improve crop productivity and resistance," concluded Van Aken.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals new clues about how plants respond to touch

Plants respond very strongly to touch and other external stimuli,...

Junipers,,Berries,

Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-be-smart-while-foraging-for-food/">foraging</a> – the activity of finding, gathering, and harvesting wild plants. However, since many of the plants found in the wild are highly poisonous, although they look similar to various edible plants, knowing which plant species to avoid and which to gather and consume is crucial. Geoff Dann, a British writer and foraging teacher, has now outlined some of the biggest risks novice foragers are facing when searching for wild plants.&nbsp;



According to Dann, the best advice is never to eat anything found in the wild that we are not absolutely sure what it is. “I guess the most important rule is ‘Pay attention to what you are doing,’ followed by ‘If in doubt, leave it out,’” he said.



Dann warned foragers about four plant species – dead man’s fingers, lords and ladies, foxglove, and deadly nightshade – which, even if they look similar to other edible species, are in fact very dangerous, and can cause severe illness and death.



Dead men’s fingers (Oenanthe crocata) has toxic roots and stems that look very much like parsley, and even more poisonous roots which look and smell exactly like parsnips. Consuming this plant can trigger spasmodic convulsions, often followed by sudden death. Similarly, lords and ladies (Arum maculatum), a plant whose leaves closely resemble edible sorrel and wild garlic, can cause intense pain and irritation upon contact with the soft tissue of the mouth and throat.



Another plant Dann warns foragers about is the common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), which is often mistaken for members of the edible borage family. However, since it contains glycosides, the foxglove can cause skin irritation on contact, as well as headaches, vomiting, convulsions, delirium, and cardiac arrest if consumed. Finally, the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladona), which sports attractive and delicious-looking black berries, leads to severe disruptions of the nervous system and eventually death by respiratory arrest if consumed.



“Identifying plants requires much more than just visual properties – smell, habitat, and location are all important. If you are going to learn how to forage, then you need to learn how to identify wild species yourself, and you need to know what can be confused with what,” concluded Dann.



In his recent book - <a href="https://www.geoffdann.co.uk/edible-plants-the-book/">Edible Plants: A forager’s guide to the wild plants and seaweeds of Britain, Ireland and temperate Europe</a>&nbsp;– Dann describes in great detail a large number of edible plants, including the black nightshade, the Japanese knotweed, or the three-cornered leek.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic plants can be easily confused with edible ones

Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in foraging –...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has shed new light on how plant life became established on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-endured-rapid-global-warming-300-million-years-ago/">Earth</a> 470 million years ago. The experts found two genes that seem indispensable for allowing plants to defend themselves against fungal attacks – a crucial ability that paved the way for all terrestrial plant life.



When plants evolved from aquatic algae to survive on land nearly half a billion years ago, they needed to build defenses against the massive population of fungi colonizing the Earth.&nbsp;



“It is estimated that 100 million years prior, fungi crept across Earth’s surface in search of nourishment and most likely found it in dead algae washed up from the sea,” said study senior author Mads Eggert Nielsen. “So, if you, as a new plant, were going to establish yourself on land, and the first thing you encountered is a fungus that would eat you, you needed some sort of defense mechanism.”



According to the scientists, the essence of this defense mechanism can be narrowed down to two genes, PEN1 and SYP122, which help blocking the invasion of fungi.&nbsp;



“We found out that if we destroy these two genes in our model plant thale cress (Arabidopsis), we open the door for pathogenic fungi to penetrate. We found that they are essential to form this cell wall-like plug that defends against fungi. Interestingly, it appears to be a universal defense mechanism that is found in all terrestrial plants,” Dr. Nielsen explained. The same mechanism was also identified in liverwort, a direct descendent of one of the Earth’s first land plants.



While fungi posed a major obstacle for early plants, they were also a prerequisite. As soon as plants adapted to survive fungal attacks, the next problem they faced was finding nutrients. While nutrients such as phosphorous or nitrogen were easy to access in the water, the newly evolved land plants faced significant difficulties in extracting nutrients bound in the rocky land that was widespread on Earth half a billion years ago.&nbsp;



On the other hand, fungi could extract such nutrients, and entered into a symbiotic relationship with the first land plants, which, in their turn, provided fungi with the carbohydrates they could not find otherwise. Thus, the defense mechanisms plants developed simply stopped fungi from invading, but did not kill them.&nbsp;



“Since a fungus can only gain partial entry into a plant, we believe that a tipping point arises where both plant and fungus have something to gain. Therefore, it has been an advantage to maintain the relationship as is. The theory that plants tamed fungi to colonize land is not ours, but we are providing fodder that supports this idea,” explained Dr. Nielsen.



The results of this study – published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/73487#s3">eLife</a> – could be used to make crops more resistant to fungal attacks, which is currently a major problem for farmers.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants tamed fungi to colonize land half a billion years ago

A recent study led by the University of Copenhagen has...

Flavonoids are compounds produced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-grow-plants-in-lunar-soil-for-the-first-time/">plants</a> and thought to confer significant health benefits on humans. In plants, they act as essential pigments and are responsible for the colors found in buds, petals, fruits and autumn leaves. Flavonoids are found in many brightly colored fruits and vegetables, including blueberries, parsley, red grapes, cranberries, cherries and citrus fruits.



Research conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> set out to test whether supplementing people’s diets every day with cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon) could help improve memory and brain function in older individuals, and thereby reduce age-related neurodegeneration. Cranberries are rich in anthocyanins, a particular group of plant flavonoids that act as antioxidants.



“Dementia is expected to affect around 152 million people by 2050. There is no known cure, so it is crucial that we seek modifiable lifestyle interventions, such as diet, that could help lessen disease risk and burden," explained lead researcher Dr. David Vauzour.



“Past studies have shown that higher dietary flavonoid intake is associated with slower rates of cognitive decline and dementia,” he continued. “And foods rich in anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, which give berries their red, blue, or purple colour, have been found to improve cognition. Cranberries are rich in these micronutrients and have been recognized for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.”



The researchers investigated the impact of eating 100g of cranberries each day for 12 weeks. The 60 participants, all cognitively healthy individuals between the ages of 50 and 80, were divided into two groups. One group took 100g of freeze-dried, powdered cranberry (equivalent to 1 cup of berries) as a supplement every day, while the other group received a placebo.&nbsp;



After 12 weeks, it was found that participants who had consumed the cranberry powder showed significantly improved memory of everyday events (visual episodic memory), neural functioning and delivery of blood to the brain (brain perfusion). These results have been published by the researchers in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



“We found that the participants who consumed the cranberry powder showed significantly improved episodic memory performance in combination with improved circulation of essential nutrients such as oxygen and glucose to important parts of the brain that support cognition – specifically memory consolidation and retrieval," said Dr. Vauzour.



“The cranberry group also exhibited a significant decrease in LDL or ‘bad’ cholesterol levels, known to contribute to atherosclerosis – the thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a build-up of plaque in the inner lining of an artery,” he added. “This supports the idea that cranberries can improve vascular health and may in part contribute to the improvement in brain perfusion and cognition.”



This study is one of the first to examine cranberries and their long-term impact on cognition and brain health in humans, and the researchers hope that their findings will be used to inform future strategies for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia.&nbsp;



“Demonstrating in humans that cranberry supplementation can improve cognitive performance and identifying some of the mechanisms responsible is an important step for this research field,” said Dr. Vauzour. "The findings of this study are very encouraging, especially considering that a relatively short 12-week cranberry intervention was able to produce significant improvements in memory and neural function."



The experts feel that their study establishes an important foundation for future research in the area of cranberries and neurological health.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cranberries help improve memory and brain function in older adults

Flavonoids are compounds produced by plants and thought to confer...

Taxonomic tree: