<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woody-vines-amplify-the-effects-of-lightning-in-tropical-forests/">Tropical forests</a> are no longer the world's major global carbon sinks, as previously believed. Instead, boreal and temperate forests have taken up this role, according to an international research team coordinated by the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and INRAE.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Using a novel analysis technique for satellite images, the researchers meticulously mapped yearly fluctuations in global forest biomass over a span of a decade, from 2010 to 2019.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The results showed that tropical forests, although expansive and ancient, are now almost carbon-neutral due to the degradation brought about by deforestation, fires, and droughts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomass-and-carbon-sequestration">Biomass and carbon sequestration</h2>



<p>A surge in plant biomass signifies a boost in carbon sequestration, a key process in counteracting the climate crisis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The balance of this biomass carbon hinges on a delicate equilibrium between gains from plant growth and forest expansion and losses stemming from deforestation, natural disturbances, and other factors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Keeping track of these stocks is crucial for deciphering and forecasting climate change impacts, as well as assessing human-induced ecosystem modifications.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-imaging">Satellite imaging</h2>



<p>The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite, leveraging the L-band vegetation optical depth (L-VOD) techniques, was instrumental in estimating the above-ground carbon stocks at a global scale.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, challenges like radio interference from human activities and L-VOD's sensitivity to vegetative water content posed hindrances. The team's solution was an innovative double filter to offset these effects.</p>



<p>By employing this novel method and analyzing above-ground biomass data, the researchers were able to determine the overall biomass. </p>



<p>They meticulously calculated the spatial and temporal distribution of total biomass carbon from 2010 to 2019, creating detailed maps that charted the annual changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-stock-insights">Carbon stock insights</h2>



<p>The study revealed that terrestrial biomass carbon stocks experienced a surge of roughly 500 million tons of carbon annually from 2010 to 2019. </p>



<p>Surprisingly, it was the boreal and temperate forests that emerged as the prime contributors to this carbon sink, overshadowing tropical forests which have transformed into minor carbon sources due to deforestation and recurrent droughts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Old-growth tropical forests, where trees often surpass 140 years in age, are barely breaking even in terms of carbon. In contrast, the younger and middle-aged trees of the temperate and boreal forests, aged between less than 50 to 140 years, are proving to be the carbon champions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This revelation challenges the established prediction models that painted old-growth forests as significant carbon sinks, neglecting the nuances of forest demography and the debilitating effects of deforestation on tropical forests.</p>



<p>The study emphasizes the importance of considering forest degradation and age dynamics in predicting future carbon sinks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01274-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Boreal and temperate forests have emerged as the main carbon sinks 

Tropical forests are no longer the world's major global carbon...

<p>A new study led by the University of South Carolina (USC) has found that distinct variations in the attributes of wildflowers, depending on their respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/">pollinators</a>, are driven by a small number of key genetic differences.</p>



<p>Wildflowers exhibit unique sets of characteristics - termed “pollination syndromes” - that have evolved to cater to specific animal pollinators, such as insects or birds.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penstemons">Penstemons</h2>



<p>While most species within the Penstemon genus present wide, blue flowers, serving as landing spots for bees, evolution has led some species to develop narrow, red, tubular flowers, catering to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<p>The North American wildflower genus&nbsp;<em>Penstemon</em>&nbsp;displays remarkable floral syndrome convergence, with at least 20 separate lineages that have evolved from ancestral bee pollination syndrome (wide blue-purple flowers that present a landing platform for bees and small amounts of nectar) to hummingbird pollination syndrome (bright red narrowly tubular flowers offering copious nectar).&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Related taxa that differ in floral syndrome offer an attractive opportunity to examine the genomic basis of complex trait divergence,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>The objective of this research was to explore how these distinctive pollination syndromes are preserved genetically.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team sequenced the DNA of 229 plants from three related species of the Penstemon genus: <em>P. neomexicanus</em> and <em>P. virgatus</em>, which are bee-pollinated, and <em>P. barbatus</em>, adapted to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite the stark differences in floral attributes, the experts found a relatively small number of genetic differences between <em>P. barbatus</em> and its bee-pollinated relatives.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, plants from the same geographical vicinity exhibited greater genetic similarity compared to those from varied locations, regardless of the species. These findings suggest that a genetic blending occurs between wildflowers adapted to both bee and hummingbird pollination.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-pollinators-nbsp">Varied pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, the researchers identified 21 sites that showcased consistent differences among species with varied pollinators. These sites are dispersed throughout the genome, suggesting an increased likelihood of the disruption of complementary floral traits by recombination, resulting in hybrids with diminished success.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Interestingly, three of these identified genetic variances were located proximal to genomic regions that determine flower color, width, and nectar volume - traits distinctive to different pollination syndromes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp-flower-traits">&nbsp;Flower traits</h2>



<p>The study provides evidence of occasional hybridization between neighboring bee- and hummingbird-pollinated Penstemon species, alongside an intense selection pressure to retain flower traits adapted to each type of pollinator.</p>



<p>“Although bee- vs. hummingbird-pollinated species are easily distinguished in the field, based on unmistakable differences in flowers and the overall stature of the plant, a surprisingly small number of genetic regions distinguish these different species at the genetic level,” concluded Carolyn Wessinger, an assistant professor of Evolution and Plant Biology at USC.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLoS Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Just a few genetic differences tailor flowers to specific pollinators

A new study led by the University of South Carolina...

<p>Climate change is a pressing global concern that is pushing various plant and animal species towards the brink of extinction. A new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> is focused on the survival of redwoods and oaks that thrive on California’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-impacts-97-percent-of-the-worlds-coastline/">coastline</a> and coastal mountains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-climate-crisis-nbsp">The climate crisis&nbsp;</h2>



<p>California's iconic redwoods and oaks face increasing challenges due to alterations in temperatures and rainfall patterns that are associated with human-caused climate change. Many of these species are currently teetering on the edge of their endurance limits.</p>



<p>Identifying suitable new habitats will soon become a matter of life or death for some California native species, noted study senior author Professor Lawren Sack. But if those trees could talk, where would they say they wanted to live?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-language-of-plants">Decoding the language of plants</h2>



<p>Professor Sack and his team of UCLA biologists sought answers within the plants themselves.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their research unraveled a "language" embedded in the leaves and woody stems of plants, indicating their optimal habitats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery holds promise for conservationists to better locate new regions for plant relocation and provide more effective protection for their existing habitats.</p>



<p>Traditionally, determining the best environment for plants was primarily based on their current habitats. This approach often falls short, especially in places like California where agriculture, industrialization, and urbanization have reshaped the natural habitats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In addition, climate change further complicates the relocation of these species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-scientific-model">New scientific model</h2>



<p>The study, which is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14422"><em>Functional Ecology</em></a>, used a statistical model to estimate the preferred climatic conditions for various plant species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This estimation is derived from several plant parameters, such as height, leaf composition, wilting point, and wood density.</p>



<p>The model does not just reveal what conditions the plant can tolerate, but pinpoints the climate it prefers. This can provide vital information about how well-matched a plant is with its native environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-a-plant-prefers-to-live">Where a plant prefers to live</h2>



<p>“Plant species can directly reveal to us their climate preference and their vulnerability to potential climate change in the ‘language’ of their leaves and wood,” said Professor Sack.</p>



<p>“Now that we know this, if you give us a leaf and a piece of wood, we can give a good scientific prediction of where the plant prefers to live."</p>



<p>“We are tuning in to what the plants are telling us about their preferences, in the language of their tissues and physiology, aiming to help them survive escalating climate challenges.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Professor Sack collaborated with UCLA postdoctoral scholar Camila Medeiros and an international team of researchers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team analyzed 10 distinct leaf and wood traits from more than 100 species in a range of environments mostly within the University of California Natural Reserve System.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-of-ecosystems-nbsp">Variety of ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The variety of ecosystems that were analyzed included desert, coastal sage scrub, chaparral, montane wet forest, mixed riparian woodland and mixed conifer broadleaf forest. These types of ecosystems cover about 70% of California’s land area.</p>



<p>“The correspondence of leaf and wood traits with species’ climates is striking,” said Medeiros.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, species native to warmer, drier climates tend to be shorter in stature, with thicker and denser leaves and lower wilting points - traits that enable them to continue photosynthesis when water is scarce and to grow faster when water is more readily available.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-physiology-and-climate-nbsp">Plant physiology and climate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The reflection of species’ preferred climate in their wood and leaves evidently arose from millennia of evolution that matched plant physiology to climate across California,” said Medeiros.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We also found that many plants in the ecosystems we sampled were occupying locations that differed in climate from what we estimated to be their optimal niche."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"As climate change ensues, we think this will tend to aggravate the sensitivity of many species, including common trees like the California buckeye and shrubs like the purple sage and California lilacs.”</p>



<p>The study is the first of its kind to determine whether plants’ functional traits can be used to accurately predict their climate preferences.</p>



<p>“Some previous studies analyzed individual approaches one by one, but our study was new in simultaneously applying all of them, and this gave us unprecedented predictive power,” said Medeiros.</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Plants have a way of telling us what climate they can survive in

Climate change is a pressing global concern that is pushing...

<p>A team of marine biologists led by the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> and the <a href="https://www.kth.se/en">KTH Royal Institute of Technology</a> has recently predicted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/">ocean acidification</a> will nearly triple by the end of this century.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This significant environmental shift could affect vital marine life such as fleshy seaweeds, which play a crucial role in promoting biodiversity across over a third of the world’s coastlines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fate-of-seaweeds">Fate of seaweeds</h2>



<p>The experts investigated the potential fate of seaweeds in oceans that are undergoing rapid acidification. They exposed a common fleshy seaweed species to the acidification levels anticipated by 2100.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analyses revealed that this increased acidification altered the seaweed’s chemical balance, weakened its structure and tissues, and decreased its likelihood of survival.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-changes">Unprecedented changes</h2>



<p>“Climate change is resulting in unprecedented changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through the emission of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide,” the authors wrote. “Almost a third of that CO2 is taken up by the ocean, which has profound effects on seaweeds.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ocean-acidification">Future ocean acidification</h2>



<p>To simulate the conditions of future ocean acidification, the researchers cultivated <em>Fucus vesiculosus</em>, a common brown fleshy algae, in water enriched with dissolved CO2 for a span of 90 days.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The concentration of carbon dioxide was adjusted to mirror the levels of acidification projected for the year 2100, which is almost threefold the current levels of acidification in the oceans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes-nbsp">Structural changes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Throughout the experiment, both the visible growth and microscopic structural changes of the seaweed were closely observed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers measured how well the seaweed performed photosynthesis, analyzed its chemical composition, evaluated its thallus strength, and monitored its response to mechanical stress by mimicking waves to assess its vulnerability to damage or detachment in the ocean (a metric called “drag”).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results">Mixed results</h2>



<p>Comparison of these findings with data from <em>F. vesiculosus</em> grown in non-acidified water led to mixed results.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The seaweed cultivated in acidified water surprisingly demonstrated greater growth, more efficient photosynthesis, and no significant rise in drag.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, such seaweed had reduced thallus strength, less compact tissues, a more porous overall structure, and diminished levels of calcium and magnesium - essential elements contributing to the strength and flexibility of a plant’s structure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result, seaweeds in acidified water seemed to be more susceptible to breakage and had a higher mortality rate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Negative effects of ocean acidification on the tissue structure and breaking strength of seaweeds like <em>F. vesiculosus</em> could have drastic effects on coastal ecosystems,” the scientists explained.</p>



<p>“Such changes could lead to an overall decrease in seaweed coverage, with corresponding negative effects on organisms that depend on these habitats for food and shelter.”</p>



<p>Further studies are needed to explore whether the repercussions of ocean acidification are consistent across all fleshy seaweed species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“If this proves to be a general mechanism affecting fleshy seaweeds, the expectation is that ocean acidification will have critical structuring effects on rocky-shore ecosystems given how widely distributed and fundamental brown seaweeds are across one-third of the coastlines of the world,” the authors concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.056"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Ocean acidification endangers ecologically important seaweed

A team of marine biologists led by the University of...

Farmer,Plantation,Checking,Quality,By,Tablet,Agriculture,Modern,Technology,Concept.

<p>Researchers have ushered in a new era in plant science by creating a technology that brings the once-fictitious idea of human-plant communication to reality. This recently developed technology enables humans to ‘talk’ to plants and receive communication back from them, using light-based messaging. This incredible breakthrough was achieved by a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.slcu.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University</a> (SLCU) </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-initiating-plant-defense-mechanisms">Initiating plant defense mechanisms</h2>



<p>The experiments conducted by Alexander Jones’ research team at the university involved using light as a messenger to talk to plants. The light activates the natural defense mechanisms in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco plants</a> (<em>Nicotiana benthamiana</em>), showcasing that light can be a stimulus triggering plants’ immune responses. </p>



<p>This implies that light, a universal medium of communication for humans, can now serve as a bridge for interspecies interaction between humans and plants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-highlighter-created-to-talk-to-plants">Highlighter: Created to talk to plants</h2>



<p>Before this discovery, the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> team engineered fluorescent light-based biosensors that could visually communicate real-time cellular activities in plants, revealing dynamics of critical plant hormones and how plants react to environmental stresses, effectively allowing plants to ‘talk’ to humans.</p>



<p>The latest development, Highlighter, is a tool documented in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002303" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a> that uses specific light conditions to activate the expression of a target gene in plants, allowing humans to trigger defense mechanisms in plants. </p>



<p>Dr. Jones explains, “If we could warn plants of an impending disease outbreak or pest attack, plants could then activate their natural defense mechanisms to prevent widespread damage.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-agricultural-challenges">Addressing agricultural challenges</h2>



<p>This innovation holds promise for revolutionizing agricultural practices and humanity's relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-pass-down-memories-to-help-offspring-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. It could allow warning plants about approaching extreme weather events or pest attacks, enabling them to adjust growth patterns, conserve water, or activate defense mechanisms. </p>



<p>This advanced communication with plants can lead to more sustainable and efficient farming practices, reducing dependency on chemicals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-optogenetics">Science of optogenetics</h2>



<p>Bo Larsen, the engineer behind Highlighter, has incorporated a light-controlled gene expression system or optogenetics system from a prokaryotic system into a eukaryotic system tailored for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fibonacci-spirals-an-unexpected-twist-in-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. </p>



<p>Optogenetics uses light stimuli to control specific processes, enabling scientists to control biomolecular processes at a cellular level. It has revolutionized several fields, including neuroscience, by isolating the functions of individual neurons. </p>



<p>However, applying optogenetics to plants has been challenging due to plants' inherent abundance of photoreceptors and their need for a wide spectrum of light for growth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-highlighter">Development of Highlighter</h2>



<p>In the creation of Highlighter, collaboration with experts like J. Clark Lagarias from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> and others from the <a href="https://www.npl.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Physical Laboratory</a> was crucial to overcome challenges and to refine the technology. The system developed is minimally invasive, using light signals for activation and inactivation, unaffected by the usual light-dark cycling in growth chambers.</p>



<p>This technology has already demonstrated control over plant immunity, pigment production, and a yellow fluorescent protein. Dr. Jones emphasized that “Highlighter is an important step forward in the development of optogenetics tools in plants,” and it opens new avenues for crop improvement and research in plant biology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-to-plants-what-the-future-holds">Talking to plants -- what the future holds</h2>



<p>The ramifications of this development are profound. A growing toolbox for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, with diverse optical properties, not only answers fundamental plant biology questions but also unlocks potential opportunities for crop improvement. </p>



<p>Dr. Jones visualizes a future where different light conditions could trigger various responses, such as immune response or precise timing of specific traits like flowering or ripening, in plants.</p>



<p>The innovations emerging from the Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University are propelling us into a future where humans and plants coexist in a symbiotic relationship of mutual communication and understanding, optimizing agricultural practices and revealing unexplored facets of plant biology. </p>



<p>This breakthrough in human-plant communication signifies a monumental leap in our quest for harmonious coexistence with the plant kingdom, pointing towards a future where sustainable and efficient farming becomes a global reality.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>

New invention enables humans to 'talk' to plants using light

Researchers have ushered in a new era in plant science...

<p>The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might be dismissed as mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">fungi</a>, thanks to their peculiar mushroom-like structures. However, these aren't your average mushrooms. They are actually inflorescences, small gatherings of flowers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-parasitism-nbsp">Extreme parasitism&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Rather than simply taking nutrients from host plants using a haustorium, as seen in many parasitic species, Balanophora takes parasitism to another level. It encourages the host plant's vascular system to grow into its tuber.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This results in an unprecedented underground organ formed from both the host and parasite tissue. It's within this chimeric tuber that Balanophora steals nutrients from its host.</p>



<p>Dr. Xiaoli Chen of <a href="https://www.bgi.com/global" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BGI Research</a> and her team set out to explore the evolutionary origins of these subtropical parasites. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-genomes">Shrinking genomes</h2>



<p>In collaboration with Dr. Sean Graham, a botanist from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, Dr. Chen compared the genomes of Balanophora and Sapria, another extreme parasitic plant. While they belong to different families and have varying appearances, their genomic narratives turned out to be surprisingly similar.</p>



<p>According to the study, both Balanophora and Sapria displayed record shrinkages for flowering plants, losing 28 and 38 percent of their genomes, respectively, as they evolved to full-blown parasitism.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The extent of similar, but independent gene losses observed in Balanophora and Sapria is striking,” said Dr. Chen. “It points to a very strong convergence in the genetic evolution of holoparasitic lineages, despite their outwardly distinct life histories and appearances, and despite their having evolved from different groups of photosynthetic plants.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-nbsp">Unexpected discovery&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Both plants displayed an almost total loss of genes associated with photosynthesis, which is not surprising given that they give up their photosynthetic ability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, what was unexpected was the discovery of the loss of genes vital for other biological functions such as root development, nitrogen absorption, and flower development regulation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In essence, these parasites seemed to have discarded a significant amount of gene families typically found in green plants, only retaining crucial genes or their copies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-gene-loss">Strategic gene loss</h2>



<p>An astonishing revelation was the parallel loss of genes related to the synthesis of a significant plant hormone - abscisic acid (ABA) - in both plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Even in the absence of these genes, ABA hormone accumulation was found in Balanophora's flowering stems, with ABA signaling response genes still intact in both parasites.</p>



<p>"The majority of the lost genes in Balanophora are probably related to functions essential in green plants, which have become functionally unnecessary in the parasites,” said Dr. Graham.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“That said, there are probably instances where the gene loss was actually beneficial, rather than reflecting a simply loss of function. The loss of their entire ABA biosynthesis pathway may be a good example. It may help them to maintain physiological synchronization with the host plants. This needs to be tested in the future."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Highlighting the broader context, Dr. Huan Liu of BGI Research mentioned the 10KP project, which aims to sequence 10,000 plant genomes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The study of parasitic plants deepens our understanding of dramatic genomic alterations and the complex interactions between parasitic plants and their hosts," said Dr. Liu.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The genomic data provides valuable insights into the evolution and genetic mechanisms behind the dependency of parasitic plants on their hosts, and how they manipulate host plants to survive."</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01517-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Plants</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Extreme parasitism: Balanophora convinces a host to grow into its tissue

The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might...

<p>Imagine the sheer magnitude if entire countries like France, Germany, and Spain were fully covered in forests, and then, almost suddenly, all those trees disappeared. This is the scale of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> from 2001 to 2020, with implications that are hard to fathom.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staggering-effects">Staggering effects</h2>



<p>The detrimental effects of deforestation are staggering. First, deforestation significantly drives climate change, contributing anywhere from six to 17 percent of the worldwide greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, since trees act as carbon sinks, they draw CO2 out of the atmosphere, which has a cooling effect on the planet. Finally, forests are also sanctuaries of biodiversity.</p>



<p>“Climate change and biodiversity make this a global problem, not a local problem,” said <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) economist Ben Olken and senior author of a recent study describing way of tackling global biodiversity. “Deciding to cut down trees or not has huge implications for the world.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-issue">Monitoring the issue</h2>



<p>However, the economic allure of deforestation is undeniable, leading to its unabated continuation. With technological advancements in the past 25 years, we can now monitor this issue more closely.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Devices like the Landsat satellites have revolutionized our ability to track changes in forests since 2000 with incredible detail.</p>



<p>“Part of this revolution in measurement is accuracy, and the other part is coverage,” explained lead author Clare Balboni, an assistant professor of Economics at the <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/">London School of Economics</a> (LSE).&nbsp;</p>



<p>“On-site observation is very expensive and logistically challenging, and you’re talking about case studies. These satellite-based data sets just open up opportunities to see deforestation at scale, systematically, across the globe.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-problem">Understanding the problem</h2>



<p>But how could global deforestation be curbed effectively? According to the experts, a first step in this direction is understanding the problem.</p>



<p>Several intellectual heavyweights from the past, including renowned MIT economist Paul Samuelson in the 1970s, devised models that viewed forests as sustainable resources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The primary purpose behind these models was to optimize the balance between deforestation and reforestation. However, the current wave of deforestation, especially in tropical regions, exhibits a different trend. Regrowing forests is not the norm anymore.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-dilemma">Economic dilemma</h2>



<p>As Balboni and Olken stress, the economic reasons behind deforestation have evolved. The immediate profits now stem not just from lumber but from clearing woods to make way for agriculture.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, in Brazil there is a positive correlation between rising agricultural prices and deforestation rates, while in Indonesia, surging global palm oil prices have pushed companies to convert forests into palm orchards.</p>



<p>This rampant deforestation poses an economic dilemma: The global consequences of climate change due to deforestation are external costs imposed on the masses by a few.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The relevance of global externalities is very important, and the conceptualization of alternate land uses is very important,” Olken said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-solution">What is the solution?</h2>



<p>Various solutions to effectively curb deforestation have been proposed, ranging from levying taxes on those responsible to compensating landowners to preserve forests. The <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/">UN’s REDD+ program</a>, for example, involves Payments for Environmental Services (PES). Yet, its efficacy varies across regions and situations.</p>



<p>“There’s mixed evidence from many of these [studies],” says Balboni, emphasizing the need to evaluate each policy’s real-world impacts.</p>



<p>While paying individuals might seem a straightforward solution, this method faces significant challenges in some parts of the world.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, while cash subsidies in Indonesia led to a 30 percent reduction in deforestation in certain areas, a similar scheme in Mexico had unintended consequences, inadvertently promoting further deforestation.</p>



<p>The seemingly straightforward method of outrightly banning deforestation also has its complexities. Even with designated protected regions, illegal deforestation often simply shifts to other unprotected areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unconventional-approaches-nbsp">Unconventional approaches&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, some unconventional approaches have been more successful. For instance, in Brazil, the Amazon Soy Moratorium, where grain traders pledged not to source soy from deforested areas, significantly curtailed deforestation without merely shifting it elsewhere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Similarly, a 2008 policy in Brazil tightened the criteria for availing agricultural loans, demanding adherence to environmental norms. This led to a dramatic 60 percent reduction in deforestation over almost ten years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predominant-challenges">Predominant challenges</h2>



<p>When dissecting the root causes of deforestation, Balboni and Olken pinpoint two predominant challenges. Firstly, the ambiguity in forest land ownership often exacerbates deforestation. Secondly, political dynamics play a significant role in forest conservation (or the lack thereof).</p>



<p>Politics and policy intertwine deeply when it comes to deforestation. Analyzing the Amazon between 2001 and 2005, the experts found that conservation policies significantly curbed deforestation in Brazil compared to neighboring regions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, a change in political leadership in 2014 saw a resurgence in deforestation. Another example is Brazil’s satellite-based DETER system. A study showcased that municipalities that increased its usage saw a 25 percent reduction in deforestation from 2006 to 2016.</p>



<p>“The research there is aiming to understand what the political economy drivers are, with the idea that if you understand those things, reform in those countries is more likely,” Olken explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-research-nbsp">Evolving research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>As the world grapples with the deforestation crisis, Balboni and Olken believe that evolving research could be of great help for finding ways to stop massive forest losses. However, the onus now lies on merging accumulated knowledge with actionable policy measures.</p>



<p>“To the extent that there’s ambiguity across different contexts with different findings, part of the point of our review piece is to draw out common themes - the important considerations in determining which policy levers can [work] in different circumstances. That’s a fast-evolving area," said Balboni.</p>



<p>"We don’t have all the answers, but part of the process is bringing together growing evidence about [everything] that affects how successful those choices can be."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-090622-024705"><em>Annual Review of Economics</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Global deforestation crisis: How can we stop massive forest losses?

Imagine the sheer magnitude if entire countries like France, Germany,...

Taxonomic tree: