A new study reveals that bees and other pollinators are not just attracted to colorful petals or the sweet scent of nectar. The hidden bullseyes in the flower pattern play a significant role in attracting bees.



Hibiscus flowers, for instance, possess an invisible pre-pattern during the early stages of petal formation. This blueprint dictates the size of their bullseyes, a feature that directly impacts their attractiveness to pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-and-flower-patterns">Bees and flower patterns</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>'s Sainsbury Laboratory have unearthed some compelling findings. It turns out, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> are quite choosy. 



Bees have a clear preference for larger bullseyes and buzz faster towards artificial flower discs with larger bullseyes. This preference may enhance the efficiency of both bees and blossoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-patterns-the-making-of-bullseyes">Hidden patterns: The making of bullseyes</h2>



The researchers ventured into the mysterious world of petal designs. Using a small hibiscus plant as a model, they compared closely related plants with identical flower sizes but differently sized bullseyes.



Dr. Edwige Moyroud, a leading researcher at the Sainsbury Laboratory, has been studying the mechanisms underlying pattern formation in petals. She noted that a pre-pattern sets up on the petal surface early in the flower’s formation, long before any visible color shows up on the petal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-bullseye-patterns">Evolution of bullseye patterns</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Lucie Riglet further investigated how these bullseye patterns form and evolve. She discovered that the pre-pattern begins as a small, crescent-shaped region, even before the bullseye is visible on tiny petals that are less than 0.2mm in size.



"At the earliest stage we could dissect, the petals have around 700 cells and are still greenish in color, with no visible purple pigment and no difference in cell shape or size," noted Dr. Riglet.



"When the petal further develops to 4,000 cells, it still does not have any visible pigment, but we identified a specific region where the cells were larger than their surrounding neighbors.&nbsp;This is the pre-pattern.”&nbsp;



The cells that Dr Riglet studied are essential as they mark the position of the bullseye boundary, the line on the petal where the color changes from purple to white. And what happens without a boundary? No bullseye.



Dr. Argyris Zardilis developed a computational model that delivered additional insights. These models showed that hibiscus can change bullseye dimensions very early during the pre-patterning phase by adjusting cell expansion or division later in development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-patterns-from-a-bee-s-perspective">Flower patterns from a bee's perspective</h2>



Dr. Riglet explored the impact of the bullseye patterns on pollinators, using artificial flower discs that mimic the dimensions of the three different bullseyes.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> not only preferred the medium and larger bullseyes over the small bullseye, they were also 25% quicker visiting these larger flower discs," said Dr. Riglet.



"Foraging requires a lot of energy and so if a bee can visit 4 flowers rather than 3 flowers in the same time, then this is probably beneficial for the bee, and also the plants."



These pre-pattern strategies in flowers could have deep evolutionary roots, possibly influencing the diversity of flower patterns across different species. 



The research team, led by Dr. Edwige Moyroud, continues to dig into the signals that generate these early patterns and explore similar pre-patterning mechanisms in other plant organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture">Implications for agriculture</h2>



The newfound understanding of bullseye patterns' impact on pollinator behavior holds significant implications for both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation and agriculture</a>.



Enhancing our knowledge of these floral designs can aid in developing strategies to bolster pollinator visits, which is vital for the success of crops reliant on pollination. 



By aligning agricultural practices with these insights, farmers could potentially boost yields by modifying or selecting plant varieties with optimal bullseye patterns that are more attractive to pollinators, thereby improving pollination efficiency and crop production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-into-bullseye-patterns">Future research into bullseye patterns </h2>



The scope of research into bullseye patterns is set to expand, opening new avenues for discovery. Future studies may explore the genetic underpinnings that determine the formation and variability of these patterns in different floral species.



Unraveling the genetic and environmental factors that modulate bullseye dimensions can lead to unprecedented insights into plant-pollinator coevolution. 



Furthermore, exploring the application of computational models across diverse plant species could unveil universal principles of pattern formation, informing not only botanical science but also biomimetic design in technology and art.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-bullseyes-and-biodiversity">Bees, bullseyes, and biodiversity</h2>



This research not only advances our understanding of plant biology but also reinforces the intricate bonds between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-flowers-can-save-bees-and-boost-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants and their environments</a>. 



The precision of natural designs plays a crucial role in species survival and evolution. The H. trionum, for example, with larger bullseye sizes, possibly attracts more pollinators, enhancing its reproductive success.



So, the next time you admire a flower, remember there's more to it than meets the eye. Beneath the surface beauty, there's a world of complex, precise patterns - nature's very own masterpiece.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp5574" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bees prefer flowers with large bullseyes

A new study reveals that bees and other pollinators are...

In an astounding revelation, scientists have shed new light on the contributing factors behind Amazon rainforest carbon emissions. 



Using high-resolution aerial scans and cutting-edge computational modeling, the researchers have identified wildfires, storms, and selective logging as the dominant culprits.



These disturbances, once thought to have a lesser impact, surprisingly outweigh traditional clear-cutting practices in terms of Amazon carbon loss.



This new understanding challenges long-held assumptions and highlights the urgent need to address multiple drivers of degradation to protect the Amazon’s crucial role in regulating Earth's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-drivers-of-amazon-carbon-loss">Unveiling the drivers of Amazon carbon loss</h2>



Instead of relying on conventional methods, the researchers used drones equipped with state-of-the-art light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors.



These sophisticated devices allowed the experts to accurately map and measure tree biomass and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a> across vast stretches of Brazilian forests.



"Here, we estimate changes of forest aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks attributed to both human-induced degradation and natural disturbances, and the postdisturbance regrowth over an area of active land use change in the southern Brazilian Amazon," noted the researchers.



With the backing of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the scientists uncovered alarming findings. Of the estimated 90.5 million tons of carbon lost annually, a staggering 60 million tons were attributed to forest degradation caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-in-old-growth-amazon-forests-increased-by-152-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>, storms, and selective logging.



In contrast, only about 24 million tons could be traced back to clear-cutting, challenging the traditional view of deforestation as the primary driver of carbon loss in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dynamics-in-forests">Carbon dynamics in forests </h2>



Study co-author K.C. Cushman is an environmental scientist and expert in data analytics at the <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwxY-3BhAuEiwAu7Y6sz_5c-_3HT-Qu7Wo4kTAuc8pjs6xQqv5i_IiLOxqGcEn-S4Su1nfFRoCAa8QAvD_BwE">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>.



"It's important to calibrate models to local conditions to achieve the best estimates," noted Cushman. "Tree shape varies a lot from one setting to another even if it's the same species."



The research highlights the urgency of addressing these newly uncovered triggers for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> carbon emissions.



Cushman and his team are now applying similar cutting-edge methodologies to study carbon dynamics in forests across the U.S. Southeast and also in tropical regions, further broadening the understanding of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-forest-degradation-in-the-atlantic-rainforest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest degradation</a>.



While clear-cutting was once considered the primary villain behind carbon emissions in rainforests, the new findings shift the focus to other key contributors.



Coordinated action is urgently needed to safeguard the planet's rainforests, which play an essential role in stabilizing Earth's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-carbon-loss-and-global-warming">Amazon carbon loss and global warming</h2>



The Amazon rainforest is often referred to as the “lungs of the Earth” due to its vast capacity to absorb and store carbon dioxide, acting as a critical buffer against climate change. 



Covering an estimated 5.5 million square kilometers, the Amazon plays a crucial role in regulating the planet’s climate by sequestering massive amounts of carbon from the atmosphere, which helps mitigate global warming.



Recent findings emphasize that disturbances such as wildfires, storms, and selective logging significantly disrupt this delicate balance, leading to a surge in carbon emissions. 



These destructive forces not only release stored carbon but also weaken the forest's ability to regenerate and continue functioning as a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-can-flip-forests-from-carbon-sinks-to-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sink</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efforts-to-mitigate-climate-change">Efforts to mitigate climate change </h2>



Protecting the Amazon’s integrity is not just a regional issue but a global necessity. As the Amazon continues to lose its ability to act as a carbon sink, efforts to mitigate climate change could face serious setbacks. 



Without immediate intervention, the degradation of this invaluable ecosystem could accelerate, pushing the world closer to climate tipping points.



In light of these new insights into the hidden drivers of carbon emissions, scientists and policymakers are calling for a more comprehensive approach to Amazon rainforest conservation. 



Efforts must move beyond simply preventing clear-cutting and should address forest degradation caused by smaller-scale but equally destructive activities. 



Integrating advanced technologies like LiDAR into conservation strategies will be vital in monitoring and managing forest health. 



Local communities, governments, and international organizations must collaborate to enforce stricter logging regulations, prevent wildfires, and restore degraded areas to safeguard the Amazon’s ecological and carbon-regulating functions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310157121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hidden triggers of Amazon carbon emissions revealed

In an astounding revelation, scientists have shed new light on...

It is a well-established fact that the ozone layer shields our planet from harmful ultraviolet radiation, playing a vital role in protecting life on Earth. 



Preserving this layer stands as a golden feather in the environmental preservation cap, representing one of humanity’s greatest successes in global environmental cooperation.



However, when ozone managed to take residence at the ground level, it ceased to be a silent guardian; it became a dangerous threat to both the environment and public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-ground-level-ozone">Impacts of ground-level ozone </h2>



Ground-level ozone is a harmful combination of pollutants emitted from human activities such as industrial processes, vehicle emissions, and deforestation. 



Under the unforgiving glare of sunlight, ozone pollution is causing considerable disturbance to our ecosystems.



Not only does it pose serious health risks to humans, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, but it also interferes with plants' ability to absorb carbon dioxide, undermining their role in mitigating climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-and-stunted-forest-growth">Ozone and stunted forest growth</h2>



New research published in the journal Nature Geoscience paints an alarming picture of the growing threat posed by ground-level <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-may-endanger-millions-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone pollution</a>. It is significantly stunting the annual growth of tropical forests, with an average reduction of 5.1% in new growth.



The situation is even more severe in Asia, where certain regions are experiencing a dramatic 10.9% decline in new forest growth, highlighting the unequal impact of ozone pollution across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduction-in-forest-carbon-storage">Reduction in forest carbon storage </h2>



According to Dr. Alexander Cheesman from <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a> and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, tropical forests play a crucial role in offsetting carbon dioxide emissions. "Our study shows that air pollution can jeopardize this critical ecosystem service."



The study estimates that ozone pollution has prevented the capture of a staggering 290 million tons of carbon annually since 2000.



This significant loss of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> sequestration capacity underscores the detrimental effect ozone pollution is having on tropical forests, which are critical for absorbing excess atmospheric carbon and mitigating the impacts of climate change.



"The resulting cumulative loss equates to a 17% reduction in carbon removal by tropical forests so far this century," said Dr. Cheesman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-pollution-and-forest-restoration-efforts">Ozone pollution and forest restoration efforts</h2>



Urbanization, industrialization, and increased burning of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a> have escalated emissions of "precursor" molecules, such as nitrogen oxides, that lead to ozone formation. 



"Ozone concentrations across the tropics are projected to rise further due to increased precursor emissions and altered atmospheric chemistry in a warming world," said Dr. Flossie Brown, co-lead author of the study.



These rising ozone levels pose a significant threat to current and future forest restoration efforts, particularly in areas critical to mitigating climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-air-quality">Improving air quality</h2>



"We found that areas of current and future forest restoration are disproportionately affected by this elevated ozone. It is clear that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-and-bushes-near-highways-improve-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> will continue to play an important but often overlooked part in the way forests absorb and store carbon," said Dr. Brown. 



Improving air quality is vital for enabling forests to effectively absorb and store carbon, noted study co-author Professor Stephen Sitch.



"Embracing a future with greater environmental protection would lead to reduced ground-level ozone, improved air quality, and the additional benefit of enhanced carbon uptake in tropical forests," said Professor Stitch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dual-nature-of-ozone">The dual nature of ozone</h2>



Ozone exists in two forms: one as a protective shield in the stratosphere and the other as a harmful pollutant at ground level. 



While stratospheric ozone is essential for blocking harmful ultraviolet radiation, ground-level ozone (also known as tropospheric ozone) forms when pollutants from vehicles, industrial activities, and fires react with sunlight.



This ground-level ozone acts as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a>, trapping heat and contributing to climate change.



Ozone pollution is not only a threat to tropical forests but also to a wide range of ecosystems. In addition to stunting forest growth, ozone can damage crops, reduce agricultural productivity, and affect water quality by altering plant and soil interactions.



The broader ecological consequences of ozone pollution are becoming clearer, signaling an urgent need for stricter air quality regulations and the reduction of emissions that lead to its formation. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01530-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ozone pollution is stunting tropical forest growth

It is a well-established fact that the ozone layer shields...

Cannabis agriculture is experiencing a revolution brought on by genetic research, propelling a new era in the cultivation and production of this globally sought-after crop.



At the heart of this transformation is the ability to manipulate plant genetics for optimized growth and productivity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-genetics-and-enhanced-production">Cannabis genetics and enhanced production </h2>



A recent breakthrough centers around a key gene called CsMIKC1, which influences the number of flowering sites in Cannabis sativa.



The role of this gene in the development of the inflorescence, the flowering part of a plant, presents brand new opportunities for enhancing productivity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infectious-pathogen-has-spread-to-90-percent-of-cannabis-farms-in-california/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis farming</a>.



Through meticulous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene editing</a> and functional analysis, scientists have uncovered the substantial impact of CsMIKC1 on flower production. The discovery could lead to transformative change in agricultural practices.



The research may ultimately pave the way to the creation of highly productive and resilient cannabis strains that are custom-designed to maximize both medicinal and industrial uses. This would help to address the growing global demand for specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabinoids-as-pesticides-study-reveals-potential-of-hemp-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabinoids</a> and hemp-based products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-demand-for-cannabis-products">Global demand for cannabis products</h2>



The perceived value of Cannabis sativa is largely hinged on its cannabinoids, derived chiefly from female inflorescences. However, optimizing flower and grain yield has been a daunting task due to inadequately explored genetic control of inflorescence development. 



As the global demand for cannabis-derived products escalates, it is vital to understand the regulatory mechanisms that lie beneath the surface.



Research into the genetic influences on inflorescence development can lay the fundamental groundwork for developing strategies to meet global production requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflorescence-in-cannabis-sativa">Inflorescence in Cannabis sativa</h2>



A collaborative team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.caas.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a> has gained significant insights into the genetic makeup of inflorescence.



"Female inflorescence is the primary output of medical cannabis. It contains hundreds of cannabinoids that accumulate in the glandular trichomes," noted the researchers. "However, little is known about the genetic mechanisms governing cannabis inflorescence development."



The experts identified the CsMIKC1 gene as a controlling factor in cannabis flowering. They examined how mutations and overexpression of CsMIKC1 influenced flower and grain production. The study highlights the gene’s potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amplifying crop yields</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-genetic-network">Extensive genetic network </h2>



In their investigation, the scientists identified a key quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 8 linked to the number of inflorescences per branch, leading to the discovery of the CsMIKC1 gene. 



This gene works as a transcription factor, influencing inflorescence growth by interacting with proteins CsBPC2 and CsVIP3. 



When the CsMIKC1 gene was overexpressed in transgenic plants, there was a significant hike in the number of inflorescence, flower production, and grain yield. 



Conversely, mutants with CsMIKC1 showed stunted growth and lower yields, highlighting the regulatory significance of this gene. 



The study also revealed the influence of ethylene signaling pathways on CsMIKC1. By mapping key genes regulated by CsMIKC1, the researchers identified an extensive genetic network that governs inflorescence formation, providing crucial insights for future crop enhancement strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-crop-performance">Optimizing crop performance </h2>



Study co-author Dr. Jianguang Su is an expert at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.



“The identification of CsMIKC1 as a regulator of inflorescence development marks a significant step forward in cannabis genetics. This gene is crucial in determining flower yield, which has profound implications for both medicinal and industrial uses," said Dr. Su. 



"By utilizing genetic modification techniques, we can develop targeted approaches to optimize crop performance, enhancing the Cannabis industry’s potential. This research not only deepens our understanding but also opens up exciting possibilities for developing high-yielding strains.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cannabis-cultivation">The future of cannabis cultivation</h2>



Looking ahead, it's clear that the discovery of CsMIKC1 and its influence on inflorescence development opens up a whole new domain for genetic engineering to boost cannabis yields.



This newfound knowledge can stimulate the creation of novel cultivars with improved flower and grain production, optimizing agricultural efficiency. 



Furthermore, the involvement of ethylene signaling pathways presents opportunities for refined agronomic practices, such as ethylene treatments, to further amplify flower yield.



These advancements hold enormous promise to escalate cannabis production, keeping pace with the accelerating demand for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-may-be-a-highly-effective-treatment-for-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicinal</a> and industrial applications globally.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/hr/article/11/8/uhae161/7691881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horticulture Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cannabis production may soon get a major boost

Cannabis agriculture is experiencing a revolution brought on by genetic...

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to an astonishing array of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Many of these species are restricted to specific regions, but the reasons behind this have long puzzled scientists. 



Now, a new international study, led by the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Center for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> (UKCEH), offers fresh insights into the Amazon's evolution during the last Ice Age, between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-ecosystems-of-the-amazon">Fragile ecosystems of the Amazon</h2>



The research challenges long-standing beliefs about how the Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> responded to climatic changes during the Ice Age. 



The findings suggest that the Amazon is far more sensitive to environmental fluctuations than previously thought, providing yet another reminder of the dangers posed by rapid, human-induced climate change and large-scale land use shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnected-refuge-for-specialized-species">Interconnected refuge for specialized species</h2>



For years, scientists have debated whether, during the Ice Age, the Amazon was divided into isolated “forest islands” known as refugia, or whether the forest remained continuous, similar to its current expanse.&nbsp;



The UKCEH-led study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44185-024-00056-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biodiversity</a>, offers a new perspective: while forest islands existed, they were connected by woodlands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazons-rainforests-are-at-risk-of-transforming-into-dry-grassy-savannas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">savannas</a>. This allowed certain adaptable animals to move between different habitats, while acting as a barrier for more specialized species that rely on specific ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-of-the-amazon">Biodiversity of the Amazon</h2>



The vegetation and climate of a region play a key role in natural evolution. As environmental conditions changed, animals across the Amazon adapted, leading to the emergence of new species in different areas. This process explains why the Amazon hosts such a diverse range of life today.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate changes</a> in the past played a huge role in shaping how the Amazon forest looked and where it grew. Similar changes are coming very soon and much faster,” said lead author Douglas Kelley, a land surface modeler at UKCEH. 



“Previously, fluctuations in climate took thousands of years to happen, enabling plants and animals to adapt, but now significant global warming is happening within decades due to increasing human-driven greenhouse gas emissions.”



The research team included scientists from institutions such as the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/forest-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ontario Forest Research Institute</a>, Kiel University in Germany, the UK’s Met Office, and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-biodiversity-of-the-ice-age-nbsp">Amazon biodiversity of the Ice Age&nbsp;</h2>



By combining advanced climate and vegetation modeling with fossilized pollen records from sediment, the experts were able to create detailed predictions of the types of plants that thrived in the Amazon during the Ice Age. Previous research had largely relied on single techniques, but this study incorporated a broader range of data and methods.



Crucially, the researchers considered the gaps between areas where fossilized pollen has been found and analyzed whether animals could have moved between these habitats.&nbsp;



Computer and statistical models predicted what types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-vegetation-database-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> likely existed in these in-between areas, verifying the team's predictions with the plant types recorded in adjacent regions.



During the Ice Age, the Amazon’s forest cover was dramatically reduced due to the colder, drier climate. Lower levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, along with dry conditions, limited tree growth and led to more frequent wildfires, which destroyed large portions of the forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-nature-of-the-research-nbsp">Innovative nature of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Hiromitsu Sato of the Ontario Forest Research Institute highlighted the innovative nature of the team's approach.&nbsp;



“We believe our study, involving integrated modeling methods, provides the best evidence to date on the origins of the rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-impact-of-fire-on-amazon-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the Amazon,” said Dr. Sato.



“Using land surface modeling to provide crucial information on biodiversity is a new and very exciting innovation that could be used in future to investigate the history of species where there is a shortage of data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-amazon-diversity-of-the-past">Understanding Amazon diversity of the past</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to explore how various groups of Amazonian species - such as monkeys, frogs, antbirds, butterflies, and lianas - diverged over thousands of years in response to changing environments.&nbsp;



By continuing to investigate the intricate relationship between climate, vegetation, and species evolution, the team hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the Amazon’s past - and how this knowledge can inform efforts to protect its future in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How the Amazon became a biodiversity hotspot

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to...

With carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rising sharply over recent decades, scientists and policymakers alike are becoming increasingly concerned about the long-term impact on global climate patterns. 



As the effects of climate change become more pronounced, there is a growing urgency to develop effective strategies for capturing and holding carbon. 



One promising approach focuses on the role of soil in carbon sequestration, where innovative farming practices can help reduce atmospheric CO2 by trapping it within the earth’s natural processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-practices-and-soil-carbon-storage">Farming practices and soil carbon storage</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.k-state.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas State University</a> (K-State) are investigating how various farming practices can influence the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon stored in soil</a>, a crucial factor in mitigating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



The study seeks to uncover how long-term agricultural techniques, particularly in no-till farming systems, impact the soil's ability to capture and retain carbon over time.



To gain deeper insights, the team utilized advanced imaging technologies at two of the world’s most cutting-edge research facilities: the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan (USask) and the Advanced Light Source in Berkeley, California. 



By analyzing soil from a Kansas cornfield that has been farmed using no-till methods for 22 years, they aimed to determine how different nitrogen management strategies influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertilizers-and-long-term-study-results">Fertilizers and long-term study results</h2>



During the 22-year period, the farm employed a range of soil nitrogen management practices, each with distinct impacts on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> and carbon storage. 



These practices included the use of no fertilizer, chemical fertilizers, and organic options like manure or compost fertilizers. 



By comparing these different methods, the researchers aimed to identify which practices are most effective in enhancing soil quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability in agricultural systems</a>.



The findings, published in the Soil Science Society of America Journal, offer valuable insights into the mechanisms of soil enrichment, providing a clearer picture of how specific farming practices can enhance the soil's ability to act as a carbon sink.



“We were trying to understand what the mechanisms are behind increasing soil carbon storage using certain management practices,” said Dr. Ganga Hettiarachchi, professor of soil and environmental chemistry. “We were looking at not just soil carbon, but other soil minerals that are going to help store carbon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-sequestration-and-imaging-insights">Carbon sequestration and imaging insights</h2>



Consistent with findings from previous research, the K-State team discovered that soil treated with organic matter, such as manure or compost fertilizer, demonstrated significantly higher carbon storage than soil treated with either chemical fertilizers or none at all. 



This highlights the potential of organic fertilizers not only to improve soil health but also to play a critical role in capturing and storing atmospheric carbon.



What sets this study apart is the use of ultrabright synchrotron light, a powerful tool that enabled the researchers to examine the soil structure at a microscopic level. 



This advanced technology allowed the team to visualize precisely how carbon molecules interact with the soil, revealing that much of the carbon was preserved in small pores and had bonded with minerals - an important factor in long-term carbon sequestration.



“It was preserved in pores, and some carbon had attached itself to minerals in the soil," noted Dr. Hettiarachchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-diversity-and-carbon-storage">Microbial diversity and carbon storage</h2>



The experts also uncovered another important benefit of using manure or compost as a soil treatment: it led to higher levels of microbial carbon compared to soil treated with chemical fertilizers or left untreated.



This increase in microbial carbon is a clear indicator of greater microbial diversity and activity within the soil. 



A thriving microbial community is essential for soil health, as these microorganisms play a critical role in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and overall soil structure, all of which contribute to enhanced carbon storage and long-term soil fertility.



“To my knowledge, this is the first direct evidence of mechanisms through which organic enhancements improve soil health, microbial diversity, and carbon sequestration,” said Dr. Hettiarachchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-sustainable-agriculture">Implications for sustainable agriculture</h2>



Because synchrotron imaging is non-destructive, the team could observe soil aggregate (clumps) in its natural state, without needing to disrupt the soil structure. This allowed them to look at the carbon chemistry in situ.



“Collectively, studies like this are going to help us move forward to more sustainable, regenerative agriculture practices that will protect our soils and environment while helping to feed growing populations,” concluded Dr. Hettiarachchi. 



“Understanding the role of different minerals, chemicals, and microbes will also help improve models for predicting how various farming practices affect soil carbon storage.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/saj2.20701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Organic farming practices boost soil carbon storage

With carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rising sharply over...

We've all had that refreshing gulp of beer on a warm summer night or after a long, tiring day at work, but seldom do we associate beer with gut health. 



After all, it's usually the star of social gatherings, not dietary plans. But raise your glasses high and toast to this new and thought-provoking research from Dalian Medical University that reveals beer as not just a social lubricant, but potentially a gut-health enhancer.



The research's beacon, Dr. Jianxin Li, presents beer as more than just a frothy indulgence. He suggests that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/no-evidence-that-beer-goggles-are-real-but-liquid-courage-is-definitely-a-thing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-old beverage</a>, often referred to as 'liquid bread', could be providing more than just a welcome chill on a balmy evening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-as-a-historical-delight">Beer as a historical delight</h2>



It's pretty hard to imagine a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world without beer</a>, and history confirms its long-standing relationship with humanity. Traces of beer consumption date back to around 9,000 years ago in China. 



From ancient Babylonian feasts to present-day festivities, beer's cultural significance is underscores its pivotal role in human civilization. 



It holds an unshakable position as the most consumed alcoholic beverage globally -- only water and tea surpass it.



Interestingly, beer wasn't solely a source of joy as early as the third millennium BC; Babylonians were recording beer recipes on clay tablets. 



The narrative that beer functioned as 'liquid bread' might have more depth than previously thought, with recent research suggesting health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-beer-the-key-gut-healthy-ingredients">Making beer: The key gut-healthy ingredients</h2>



Making beer starts with four main ingredients: water, malt, hops, and yeast. First, you soak malted barley in hot water to get those sugars out, which is called mashing. 



Then, you boil the sugary liquid -- known as wort -- and toss in some hops to give the beer its unique flavor and aroma. 



After boiling, cool down the wort and move it to a fermenter, where you'll add the yeast. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-trick-turns-plant-based-cheese-into-something-that-actually-tastes-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The yeast will munch on the sugars</a>, turning them into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which creates those nice bubbles in the beer.



Once fermentation wraps up, let the beer settle and mature so the flavors can develop and any unwanted bits can drop out.



Finally, you bottle or keg the beer, adding a little extra sugar for natural carbonation, or you can use CO2 for a quicker method. 



The whole journey from grain to glass can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months, depending on the beer style and the brewer's vibe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gut-health-connects-to-beer">How gut health connects to beer</h2>



The question on everyone's lips: What makes beer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a potential ally</a> for gut health? 



Dr. Li's research reveals that beer, rich in vital amino acids, vitamins, trace elements, and bioactive substances, can benefit our gut when consumed in moderation. 



These nutrients, broken down and fermented by our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut's microbial community</a>, can regulate immunity and overall gut health.



Intriguingly, the study suggests that beer's bacteria can enhance arterial function and immune response, especially in healthy, non-smoking adults. 



So, while you're relishing that cold pint, you might be boosting your body's defenses. Cheers to that!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microecological-magic-of-beer">Microecological magic of beer</h2>



The blessings of beer aren't limited to boosting the health of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">your gut bacteria</a>. The research advances the concept of beer as a 'microecological modulator.' 



This refers to its capacity to minimize cancer risk, ease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular issues</a>, and manage metabolic syndrome. 



Several studies confirm these claims, showing that moderate beer consumption can lower heart disease risk, improve circulation, and even help fend off upper respiratory infections.



From heart health to bone health, beer seems to be a gift that keeps on giving. Beer is rich in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-cholesterol-may-increase-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the 'good' cholesterol</a>, and polyphenols, which protect the heart. 



It also contains dietary silicon, supporting bone growth and strength. Some studies even suggest that moderate beer consumption can enhance bone density in older women and lower the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-and-your-microbiome">Beer and your microbiome</h2>



Beer does wonders for your gut's microbiome. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trouble-brewing-for-beer-decline-in-hop-production-causes-beer-shortages-and-bad-taste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loaded with dietary fiber</a> and some probiotics, it helps maintain your gut's healthy microbial balance. By promoting beneficial bacteria's growth, beer might support overall gut health.



Beyond gut health, beer potentially offers several unexpected health benefits. Compounds in beer, like xanthohumol, have neuroprotective properties that might help preserve cognitive function and lower the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-could-help-protect-against-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia and Alzheimer’s disease</a>. 



Beer's high water content makes it a diuretic, helping in kidney function and reducing kidney stones risk. 



In addition, beer contains several B vitamins, including B2, B3, B5, B6, and folate. These are essential for cellular function and energy metabolism, adding another layer to beer’s potential health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-beer-and-gut-health">Future of beer and gut health</h2>



In sum, the study from <a href="https://english.dmu.edu.cn/Admissions1/International_Student.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dalian Medical University</a> opens up an intriguing dialogue about beer's role in our diets. Could beer become a regular player in discussions on gut health and immune function? 



Dr. Li and his team believe it's a possibility worth exploring. 



Needless to say, moderation is key. While beer offers several health benefits, over-consumption can have negative impact on health.



Always remember, not all beers are created equal. Low or non-alcoholic beers fortified with bioactive substances, like fiber or antioxidants, might provide the most significant health benefits.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1186927/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Beer vs. probiotics: How drinking a pint is great for gut health

We've all had that refreshing gulp of beer on a...

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an exclusive human privilege. Incredible as it may sound, a certain kind of mushrooms -- the king oyster mushrooms or Pleurotus eryngii -- might be indulging in their own version of REM sleep, more like a dreaming robot.



When their sprawling mycelial networks flicker and pulse, their electrochemical responses mimic the activity of our brain cells. But what happens when we let these impulses run free for a while?



Here's where an inspiring collaboration between researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> and the <a href="https://www.unifi.it/it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florence</a> kicks in. 



The experts set a culture of king oyster mushrooms in control of a pair of tiny vehicles. What followed was almost surreal - these vehicles began to twitch and move across a flat surface!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-roadways">Fungal roadways</h2>



A series of meticulously planned experiments shed light on the surprising fact that we could use the mushroom's electrophysiological activity to transform environmental cues into instructions. These instructions, in turn, could command <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanical devices to move</a>.



"As we grew the mycelium into the electronics of a robot, the biohybrid machine began to sense and respond to the environment," explained Rob Shepherd, a materials scientist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell</a> and the chief researcher for this project.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="9IjHNznxhv-3836479-12187" type="single"]</div>



Is this the first time we've toyed with machines using organic matter? Certainly not. Evolution has had a head start of hundreds of millions of years to perfect organic machines that can sense, think, and move as we desire.&nbsp;



But the intriguing part is that the fungi kingdom remains an untapped treasure trove for cybernetic technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushroom-with-a-robot-body">Mushroom with a robot body</h2>



Fungi are remarkably resilient; they can be easily cultured, have simple requirements, and can survive in environments that many other organisms can't. These traits make molds and mushrooms incredibly enticing to engineers searching for robust living components for a wide range of needs, from sensory to computational.



Fungal threads, normally hidden from view, respond to changes in their surroundings as they navigate through soil in search of resources. Some species exhibit transmembrane activity that resembles our neural responses, providing researchers a possible way to tap into their enigmatic exchanges.



To harness this potential, the researchers fed algorithms based on the extracellular electrophysiology of P. eryngii mycelia into a microcontroller unit. They used spikes of activity triggered by a stimulus (UV light, in this case) to prompt mechanical responses in two types of mobile device.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wheeling-dealing-mushroom">A wheeling, dealing mushroom?</h2>



In controlled experiments, the team relied on signals from a fungal culture to direct the movements of a five-limbed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soft robot</a> and a four-wheeled untethered vehicle.&nbsp;



Remarkably, they were not only able to influence but also override the natural impulses produced by the fungi. The researchers had an impressive ability to harness the system's sensory abilities to reach a particular goal.



"It is also about creating a true connection with the living system. Because once you hear the signal, you also understand what's going on. Maybe that signal is coming from some kind of stresses. So you're seeing the physical response, because those signals we can't visualize, but the robot is making a visualization," explained study lead author Anand Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-biology-and-technology">Bridging biology and technology</h2>



The melding of natural organisms with technology poses fascinating questions about the future of robotics and bioengineering. 



As we consider the potential applications of fungal-based systems, it becomes clear that such innovations could transcend conventional robot design, leading to creations that are not merely machines but rather living entities. 



These biohybrids could exhibit adaptive behaviors, respond to environmental stimuli, and operate more efficiently in unpredictable conditions.



The fusion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology and technology</a> could revolutionize fields such as environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and even search-and-rescue operations, allowing us to employ living organisms in ways that enhance their inherent capabilities and versatility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations-in-biohybrid-research">Ethical considerations in biohybrid research</h2>



As we venture deeper into this exciting intersection of fungi and robotics, it is crucial to engage in thoughtful discourse regarding the ethical implications of biohybrid technology. 



With the power to create living machines that can perceive and interact with their surroundings, we must consider the responsibilities associated with such innovations. What rights, if any, should these biohybrids possess? 



How do we regulate the use of organic materials in our pursuit of technological advancement? Moreover, fostering public understanding and ensuring transparent communication about the potential risks and benefits will be pivotal in gaining societal support. 



Addressing these questions from the outset will help establish a framework that guides our exploration of this burgeoning field in a manner that respects both scientific progress and ethical integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-moving-robot-wheels">Mushrooms moving robot wheels</h2>



While a mushroom-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origami-inspired-robots-mimic-the-behavior-of-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot</a> might appear far-fetched, the true value of the system could be more mundane yet especially crucial.&nbsp;



Imagine simpler mechanical setups interpreting complex changes in environmental cues to release precise amounts of nutrient or pesticide in soil, or responding to rising levels of pollutants and even reacting to changes in our own bodies.



There's a profound wisdom hidden in the whispers of mushrooms that we're yet to fully grasp. Given an opportunity, they might even break their silence and tell us what they're dreaming about. After all, if mushrooms can move wheels, there's not much they can't do.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adk8019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



Video/Image Credit: Robert Sheperd



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Mushroom is given a robot body and runs wild in fascinating video

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an...

Aspergillus fumigatus is a not-so-friendly mold that has secured a spot in every nook and corner of our world. While it may be just another mold species to some, it holds a rather notorious distinction for us humans - Aspergillus fumigatus is capable of causing grave and often fatal infections.



The culprit behind the lethal prowess of this particular mold? A unique enzyme on the surface of its spores known as glycosylasparaginase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-the-aspergillus-fumigatus-mold">Dangers of the Aspergillus fumigatus mold</h2>



The risky business of dealing with A. fumigatus is part of daily life for an international research team headed by Gustavo Goldman from the University of São Paulo in Brazil. 



Their mission? Uncovering the secrets that make this mold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mold-burgers-fungi-aims-to-become-the-smart-food-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> deadly. Goldman's research primarily revolves around the surface proteins of these spores - the defense front that first encounters our immune system, usually through inhalation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spore-secrets-of-the-deadly-mold">Spore secrets of the deadly mold</h2>



What do these surface proteins reveal? Olaf Kniemeyer, a proteomics expert from the Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute (<a href="https://www.leibniz-hki.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz-HKI</a>), shed some light on this question.



Kniemeyer's proficiency in mapping and assigning functions to all proteins in a cell have led to the identification of potential targets for new therapeutic substances.



With Kniemeyer and his team's expertise in phagocytosis - the process by which our immune cells engulf foreign invaders - the research team was able to closely observe the mold.



"Gustavo Goldman's group was particularly interested in the surface proteins on the spores, as these are the first to come into contact with the immune system - usually through inhalation," noted Kniemeyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



To crack open the spore mysteries, the team employed a rather innovative approach known as trypsin shaving. 



This involved using trypsin, a protein-cleaving enzyme, to purge all proteins from the spore surface - think of it as exfoliating the surface of the spores. After this rigorous "cleanup," the team analyzed the protein fragments left behind using a mass spectrometer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mold-and-the-immune-system">Mold and the immune system</h2>



Upon comparing their findings to existing databases, the researchers discovered 62 proteins that were exclusively present on A. fumigatus spores and absent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closely related species</a>. This hinted at some of these proteins' potential involvement in the infection process. 



The experts then created a library of 42 fungus mutants, with each mutant lacking a gene responsible for one of these proteins.



It was found that the mutant lacking glycosylasparaginase triggered an increased release of interleukin-1β - an ultra-potent protein that incites fever, inflammation, and an assortment of other immune responses - in immune cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taming-the-body-s-immune-response">Taming the body's immune response</h2>



The absence of glycosylasparaginase on the fungal spores allows the immune system to release more of this pro-inflammatory substance, thereby ramping up the body's defense against the pathogen. 



This suggests that the fungus normally produces glycosylasparaginase to tame the immune response, enabling it to infiltrate the body nearly unchecked. 



A study in mice supports this theory, showing that mice with an intact immune system launched a more vigorous attack against the fungus when the gene for glycosylasparaginase was switched off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The insights gained from the study of glycosylasparaginase and its role in mediating immune responses opens a plethora of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-fusion-turning-food-waste-into-culinary-delights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avenues for future exploration</a>. 



Understanding how A. fumigatus manipulates host defenses equips researchers with the foundational knowledge needed to design effective therapeutic interventions. 



By identifying the specific interactions between this mold and the immune system, scientists can develop targeted drugs or vaccines that enhance immune recognition and response, potentially leading to breakthroughs in treating or preventing infections caused by this mold.



Indeed, the elusive glycosylasparaginase on A. fumigatus spores seems to play a key part in the fungus's standoff with our immune system. 



However, the exact workings of this mechanism remain wrapped in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mystery</a>. Still, these findings open up avenues for developing new treatments for infections caused by A. fumigatus - an urgent need given the limited number of effective drugs currently available and the steadily spreading resistance to them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01782-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

How do deadly molds attack the immune system of humans?

Aspergillus fumigatus is a not-so-friendly mold that has secured a...

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat, is a remarkable survival tool that has evolved in certain plant species. 



While commonly associated with animals, this process plays a crucial role in helping plants like cycads and select flowering varieties attract pollinators. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-attracts-pollinators">Plant heat attracts pollinators</h2>



By producing heat, these plants can volatilize their fragrances more effectively, dispersing chemical compounds that enhance their chances of attracting a wide variety of pollinators, including beetles, flies, and thrips. 



This thermal boost not only makes the plants more appealing to insects but also plays a crucial role in the timing and success of pollination.



Additionally, this internal heat supports the development and growth of reproductive organs, such as flowers and pollen tubes, especially in cooler climates where warmth is scarce, giving thermogenic plants a distinct evolutionary advantage over non-thermogenic species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermogenesis-and-plant-evolution">Thermogenesis and plant evolution</h2>



Tracking heat generation in plants is challenging because thermogenesis cannot be directly preserved in the fossil record. This forces scientists to rely on indirect evidence, such as fossilized anatomical structures that may have supported heat production. 



Without physical traces of heat itself, researchers must study plant morphology and compare ancient plants with modern thermogenic species to infer how this process may have operated in the past. 



By examining anatomical similarities between ancient and present-day thermogenic plants, scientists can better understand how thermogenesis played a role in plant evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-and-evolutionary-success">Plant heat and evolutionary success</h2>



An intriguing study was recently conducted by a group of researchers at the Botanical Institute of Barcelona (IBB), in a collaborative effort with several esteemed institutions including the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University of Madrid</a>, the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain (IGME–CSIC), the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a>, the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a>, and the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney.



The experts diligently examined the characteristics of present-day thermogenic plants and compared them with fossil plant lineages.



The research led to a surprising conclusion. "Our findings suggest that thermogenesis in plants is an older phenomenon than previously thought," said David Peris, a researcher at the IBB.



According to Peris, thermogenesis may have played a pivotal role in the evolutionary success of seed and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a>, as well as their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, as far back as 200 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-edge">An evolutionary edge</h2>



The presence of female structures maturing before male structures in thermogenic plants to prevent self-fertilization is a fascinating trait that is closely associated with early lines of divergence among flowering plants.



In fact, evidence of independent closing of stamens and carpels in floral chambers exists in fossil plants that could have trapped pollinating insects, hinting at their thermogenic past.



The researchers discovered that large reproductive structures, such as perianths or cones, could also indicate thermogenesis, thanks to their heat-retaining abilities.



These structures suggest that thermogenesis could have given certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-survived-the-dinosaur-extinction-by-pulling-nitrogen-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic plants</a> a competitive edge over non-thermogenic equivalents more than 200 million years ago. 



This heat-generating capacity, coupled with other attractive traits like flower color and fragrance emission, could have been instrumental in their reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversification-of-plants-and-pollinators">Diversification of plants and pollinators </h2>



"Thermogenesis in plants is not just a botanical curiosity," said study co-author Iván Pérez-Lorenzo. He noted that this unique ability has strongly influenced the success of two diverse and populated groups: insects and flowering plants.



The findings open up exciting avenues for further inquiry into how such interactions may have influenced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-evolved-in-two-dramatic-bursts-250-million-years-apart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification of plants</a> and their pollinators throughout evolutionary history.



There is much more to learn from the world of plants, and this study has provided us with a fascinating glimpse into the world of thermogenesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-in-a-changing-climate">Plants in a changing climate</h2>



The discovery of thermogenesis as a key factor in early plant survival offers exciting insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-evolution-drastically-changed-earths-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary journey of plants</a>. 



As scientists continue to investigate how heat generation has shaped plant-pollinator relationships over millions of years, new questions arise about its role in future evolutionary pathways. 



Could thermogenesis have been a pivotal trait that allowed certain species to outcompete others in harsh environments? 



Understanding this process may reveal how plants have adapted and diversified in response to changing climates and ecological pressures throughout history, and how they may continue to evolve in the face of future environmental shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01775-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some plants generate heat to attract pollinators

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat,...

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution, influencing not only our diets but also our genetic makeup. 



A recent study has revealed that the rise of agriculture - around 12,000 years ago - and the subsequent increase in starchy staples like wheat and grains, significantly impacted the human genome.



Researchers from the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom found that our ability to digest carbohydrates has significantly evolved over time. This is closely linked to the rise of agriculture and the increase of starchy foods in our diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolutionary-power-of-starchy-foods">The evolutionary power of starchy foods</h2>



The ability to extract energy from starchy foods has increased remarkably during this period, as shown by an expansion in the number of genes encoding enzymes that break down starch - jumping from an average of eight to over 11.



"The copy number of amylase genes had increased in Europeans since the dawn of agriculture, but we had never been able to sequence this locus fully before. It is extremely repetitive and complex," said Peter Sudmant, assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of the lead authors of the study. 



This increase in amylase genes closely matched the rise and spread of agriculture across Europe from the Middle East, aligning with changes in dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-amylase-locus">Decoding the amylase locus</h2>



The researchers meticulously examined the genome's amylase locus, where the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) and two pancreatic amylase genes (AMY2A and AMY2B) reside. 



"If you take a piece of dry pasta and put it in your mouth, eventually it'll get a little bit sweet. That's your salivary amylase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-produced-during-exercise-protects-against-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> breaking the starches down into sugars," explained Sudmant.



While this happens in all humans and other primates, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a> contains a significantly higher number of amylase gene copies compared to our primate relatives, such as chimpanzees and Neanderthals, who possess only a single copy of AMY1.



UC Berkeley postdoctoral fellow Runyang Nicolas Lou, one of the study's co-authors, elaborated: "Our study found that each copy of the human genome harbors one to 11 copies of AMY1, zero to three copies of AMY2A, and one to four copies of AMY2B. Copy number is correlated with gene expression and protein level and thus the ability to digest starch."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-advantage-and-global-adaptation">Survival advantage and global adaptation</h2>



The presence of multiple amylase genes provided a survival advantage, with the incidence of chromosomes carrying multiple copies increasing sevenfold over the last 12,000 years. 



This evolution was not confined to Europe. The researchers found evidence of similar patterns in other agricultural populations globally, regardless of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-of-the-future-breadfruit-is-resistant-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starchy plant</a> was domesticated.



Erik Garrison, a co-lead author from the <a href="https://www.uthsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee Health Science Center</a>, highlighted the broader implications of the findings: "One of the exciting things we were able to do here is probe both modern and ancient genomes to dissect the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural evolution</a> at this locus."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dawn-of-a-new-method">The dawn of a new method</h2>



Another breakthrough in the study was the development of a new method for identifying diseases involving genes with multiple copies, like amylase. 



This method also opens doors to exploring rapidly duplicating genes related to the immune system, skin pigmentation, and mucus production. 



The research hints at a potential link between higher AMY1 copies and increased tooth decay, though further investigation is needed.



Joana Rocha, a co-author from UC Berkeley, compared the genomic structure of the amylase locus to “sculptures made of different Lego bricks." 



Long-read sequencing techniques allowed the team to reconstruct these complex genetic structures with unprecedented accuracy, shedding light on human evolutionary history and its genetic diversity.



This research, funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is part of an expanding effort to better understand how genetic adaptations have shaped human health and disease through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing diets</a> over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starchy-foods-and-human-health">Starchy foods and human health</h2>



The evolutionary relationship between starchy foods and human genetics continues to shape modern health. 



As our ancestors adapted to carbohydrate-rich diets, today's populations still show varying abilities to digest starch, potentially influencing susceptibility to conditions such as obesity and diabetes. 



Understanding this genetic adaptation to starchy foods not only offers insights into our past but also provides valuable information for addressing contemporary health challenges linked to diet and metabolism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How starchy foods shaped human genomes

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution,...

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but some tiny organisms in the Arctic do just that. Organisms like microalgae can exist under the thick ice and snow cover of the icy Arctic Ocean. 



These microscopic plant-like organisms defy our understanding of life as they carry out photosynthesis, a light-dependent process, in almost total darkness. It's as fascinating as it sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-survival">Arctic microalgae survival</h2>



The ability of the pint-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> microalgae to carry out photosynthesis under minuscule light conditions has been the focus of a recent international study. 



The researchers found that, contrary to prior belief, photosynthesis in oceans can occur under significantly reduced light conditions and at much deeper depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magic-of-photosynthesis">Magic of photosynthesis</h2>



Photosynthesis is the process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> use to convert sunlight into a form of energy that sustains life. This vital process is fundamental to all life on earth. 



Previous studies suggested that a certain amount of light was required for photosynthesis - significantly more than what is theoretically the bare minimum. Well, it turns out that we may have been selling photosynthesis short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosaic-expedition-and-arctic-microalgae">MOSAiC expedition and Arctic microalgae</h2>



The data for this study came from the <a href="https://mosaic-expedition.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MOSAiC research project</a>. This is the same project that froze the German research icebreaker Polarstern into the Arctic ice for a year in 2019.



Its aim was to study the Arctic climate and ecosystem through the severities of each season. Working under the leadership of Dr. Clara Hoppe from the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>, a team focused on studying phytoplankton and ice algae, the major contributors to photosynthesis in the central Arctic.



And what they found was quite an eye-opener. A few days after the polar night -- a period when it's pitch black for an entire month -- there was a buildup of plant biomass. Now, that's something that's impossible without photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-near-impossible-conditions-for-arctic-microalgae">Near-impossible conditions for Arctic microalgae</h2>



Here's the jaw-dropping bit. Photosynthesis was taking place under snow-covered sea ice. This ice cover only allowed a tiny amount of sunlight to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, about one hundred-thousandth of what we experience on a sunny day. 



"It is very impressive to see how efficiently the algae can utilise such low amounts of light. This shows once again how well organisms are adapted to their environment," says Dr. Clara Hoppe.



The success of this study was also a testament to the power of interdisciplinary collaboration. Sea ice researchers Dr. Niels Fuchs and Prof. Dirk Notz from the Institute of Marine Research at the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a> helped combine the measurements of light with biological data. 



This required freezing specially developed instruments into the ice during the polar night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-change-research">Implications for climate change research</h2>



The findings from the MOSAiC expedition carry significant implications for our understanding of climate change. As Arctic temperatures continue to rise, the ecological balance of this sensitive region is being disrupted. 



The ability of Arctic microalgae to photosynthesize under reduced light conditions suggests a resilience that could help maintain primary production even as ice cover fluctuates. 



This resilience not only sustains the local food web but also has broader implications for global carbon cycling, as increased algal biomass could affect the ocean's capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, thereby influencing climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-and-the-future">Arctic microalgae and the future</h2>



Given the exciting revelations about Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, future research must continue to investigate the underlying mechanisms that enable these organisms to thrive in such extreme environments. 



Further studies could explore the genetic adaptations that allow for efficient photosynthesis under low light or investigate the impact of varying ice conditions on algal productivity. 



Understanding these factors will not only enrich our knowledge of Arctic ecosystems but also inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving these vital organisms amid changing climatic conditions. 



Engaging with diverse scientific disciplines will be essential in advancing this research and applying the insights gained to broader ecological and environmental challenges.



"Even though our results are specific to the Arctic Ocean, they show what photosynthesis is capable of," explains Dr. Clara Hoppe. 



This new understanding of photosynthetic efficiency suggests that similar processes could be happening in the darker parts of oceans worldwide, thus expanding the potential photosynthetic habitat.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51636-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Arctic microalgae show photosynthesis is possible in near darkness

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but...

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, accounting for over half of the world's terrestrial carbon sink. However, climate change poses a significant threat to the carbon balance within these ecosystems.



A new study has revealed that the warming and drying of tropical forest soils could heighten the vulnerability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil carbon</a>. This is primarily due to the increased degradation of older carbon stores.&nbsp;



The research was led by scientists from <a href="https://www.llnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> (LLNL), in collaboration with researchers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-tropical-forests-nbsp">Carbon storage in tropical forests&nbsp;</h2>



“These findings imply that both warming and drying, by accelerating the loss of older soil carbon or reducing the incorporation of fresh carbon inputs, will intensify soil carbon losses and negatively impact carbon storage in tropical forests under climate change,” said study lead author Karis McFarlane, a scientist at LLNL.



Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-destruction-of-tropical-forests-is-much-worse-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> exchange more carbon dioxide (CO2) with the atmosphere than any other terrestrial biome, and they hold nearly a third of global soil carbon stocks. These ecosystems are characterized by a short carbon residence time, typically between 6 to 15 years.&nbsp;



This short duration means that changes in carbon inputs or outputs, including CO2 emissions from soil, can have significant and relatively rapid effects on the carbon balance of tropical ecosystems, potentially exacerbating carbon-climate feedback loops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-and-reduced-rainfall-nbsp">Soil warming and reduced rainfall&nbsp;</h2>



Projections for tropical regions suggest a future with warmer temperatures and reduced rainfall, leading to longer and more intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-fires-diminish-forests-carbon-storage-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, particularly in the Neotropics, which spans from southern Mexico through Central America and into northern South America, including the Amazon rainforest.



The research, which involved climate manipulation experiments in Panama’s tropical forests, demonstrated that both soil warming - by 4°C - and a reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> - by 50% - increased the age of carbon released from the soil by 2 to 3 years, as reflected by higher carbon-14 levels in the emitted CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-effects-of-warming-and-drying">Varying effects of warming and drying</h2>



Interestingly, the processes behind this carbon shift differed between warming and drying. Soil warming sped up the breakdown of older carbon by increasing CO2 emissions, as newer carbon was quickly depleted. 



In contrast, drying reduced the decomposition of fresh carbon inputs, leading to a decrease in overall soil CO2 emissions but a higher contribution of older carbon to the CO2 being released.



“Field and laboratory experiments suggest that climate warming will stimulate a net loss of global soil carbon to the atmosphere, but how climate warming and drying will interact to influence carbon balance in forests and other ecosystems is less clear,” explained McFarlane.



Previous studies in tropical forests primarily focused on the total amount of CO2 being released, which is important for understanding the overall carbon balance but falls short of explaining the underlying mechanisms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-of-carbon-released-by-soil">Age of carbon released by soil</h2>



By analyzing carbon-14 values, this study was able to determine the age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> being metabolized and emitted as CO2, offering insights into these processes.



In this context, “new” or “young” carbon refers to carbon that has been fixed from the atmosphere in recent years, while “decadal aged” carbon contains higher levels of carbon-14 relative to the current atmosphere. Even older carbon, from centuries to millennia, is depleted in carbon-14.



The team studied the effects of warming and drying on the amount and age of carbon released as soil CO2 in two distinct lowland tropical forest areas in Panama, where experimental soil warming and drying were conducted. They measured the carbon-14 and carbon-13 isotopes of the CO2 emitted from the soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-releases-older-carbon-nbsp">Soil warming releases older carbon&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing the Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry at LLNL, the team found that soil warming increased carbon-14 in CO2 emissions during the wet season, indicating a greater release of older carbon, including “bomb” carbon from nuclear testing in 1963, under both warm and wet conditions.&nbsp;



The warming accelerated the breakdown of older carbon as microbial communities shifted to using older carbon after depleting fresh organic matter.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-drying-limits-access-to-fresh-carbon">Soil drying limits access to fresh carbon </h2>



On the other hand, drying decreased the total release of CO2 from the soil but also increased the carbon-14 in the remaining emissions by limiting the availability of fresh carbon from sources like leaf litter and roots.



“This limitation of microbial access to fresh carbon explains the shift toward increased contributions of older carbon in total soil CO2 emissions with warming and drying,” said McFarlane.



“Our results suggest that climate change will increase the vulnerability of previously stored soil carbon in tropical forests by stimulating the decomposition and loss of old carbon.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51422-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Warming and drying soils are losing more carbon

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon...

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue to rise. Increasing levels of heat are turning our cities into insufferable melting pots, where concrete and asphalt amplify the issue.



Rising heat is especially severe across cities of the Global South. Here, a lack of greenery compounded by rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure exacerbates already harsh living conditions.



A recent study has revealed that these cities have only about 70% of their "cooling capacity" compared to cities in the Global North, making them significantly more vulnerable to heat stress.



The rising threat of global warming in urban areas of the South is further intensified by the urban heat island effect, a phenomenon where dense construction and limited vegetation cause cities to be significantly warmer than their surrounding rural regions.



This worsens heat-related illnesses, disproportionately affecting low-income communities and creating a dire public health crisis for these vulnerable regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-green-spaces">The power of green spaces</h2>



However, a cure for the relentless heat might not be as far-fetched as it seems. The introduction of urban green spaces is proven to be a highly effective approach to combat scorching temperatures.



The research team - including experts from the universities of Nanjing, Exeter, Aarhus, and North Carolina State - has found that there is “vast potential” to enhance urban cooling in the Global South and reduce inequality.



"Urban greenery is a really effective way of tackling what can be fatal effects of extreme heat and humidity," said Professor Tim Lenton from the Global Systems Institute at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



“Currently, the people dying due to climate change are often in the slums of cities in the Global South, such as the hottest parts of India.&nbsp;Our analysis suggests green spaces can cool the surface temperature in the average city by about 3°C during warm seasons - a vital difference during extreme heat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cooling-effect-of-urban-green-spaces">The cooling effect of urban green spaces</h2>



The cooling effect of green spaces in cities, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forests-benefit-from-diverse-native-tree-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban forests</a>, is attributed to shading and transpirational cooling, which is the evaporation of water.



The study utilized satellite data from the world's 500 largest cities to gauge their cooling capacity - the extent to which urban green spaces could reduce a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-turf-water-cooled-sustainable-solution-hot-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">city's surface temperatures</a>.



The top ten cities with the highest cooling capacity were all located in the United States, with Charlotte and Raleigh-Durham in North Carolina topping the list.



Many US cities benefit from their low population density, despite this causing a side effect of "urban sprawl." Low population density allows for larger green spaces and a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-measures-the-cooling-effect-of-shade-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling effect</a>.



On the opposite end of the spectrum, cities like Mogadishu in Somalia, Sana'a in Yemen, and Rosario in Argentina were found to have the lowest cooling capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-benefits-in-the-global-south">Cooling benefits in the Global South</h2>



The Global South, which spans Africa, Latin America, and large parts of Asia, is where the risk of exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a> is most severe. 



A prior study warns that existing climate policies may leave over a fifth of the world's population exposed to dangerously high temperatures by the year 2100 - with the most vulnerable sections located in India and Nigeria.



"The differences are mostly due to quantity of vegetation, but efficiency of cooling is also better in the Global North - possibly due to management of green spaces and different tree species," said Professor Chi Xu of <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-greener-future">A greener future</h2>



Despite the disparities in cooling capacity and benefits, there is still a silver lining. "The good news is that this nature-based solution to cooling can be substantially improved across the Global South, helping to tackle future heat stress for billions of people," said Professor Jens-Christian Svenning.



According to Professor Rob Dunn of NC State, creating a greener urban environment is not an easy task, but it's a critical step toward making cities habitable in the near future.



"It won’t be easy to regreen cities. It can be expensive in the short-term. Yet, it will be key to making cities liveable in the immediate future. Also key will be working to prevent the loss of green space in those cities that have it, or at least that have a little," said Professor Dunn.



“Changes could include ground-level green spaces and vertical and rooftop gardens, or even forests, to help protect city people from extreme heat.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51355-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Urban green spaces are urgently needed across the Global South

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue...

Fungi fusion: Turning food waste into culinary delights

Chef-turned-chemist Vayu Hill-Maini has a unique passion: transforming food waste...

It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing sugar in our daily diets, becoming increasingly prevalent in a variety of food and beverage products. One of the most commonly used sugar substitutes is Erythritol, which is often used in your morning coffee, protein bars, and a wide range of low-carb dietary products.



This sugar alternative is often hailed as a miracle solution for individuals looking to manage their weight or reduce calorie intake. However, what if I told you that this seemingly harmless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-neotame-has-shocking-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial sweetener</a> could actually be increasing our risk of heart attack and stroke?



A new study led by Dr. Stanley Hazen, a well-known expert in cardiovascular and metabolic sciences, suggests that this sweetener might not be as harmless as it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-artificial-sweeteners">Defining "artificial sweeteners"</h2>



Artificial sweeteners serve as substitutes for sugar in various foods and beverages, providing a sweet taste without the added calories. These substances are often significantly sweeter than sugar, which means that only a small quantity is needed to achieve the desired flavor profile. 



Common examples include aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose, which have gained popularity in "sugar-free" or "diet" products. This appeal is particularly relevant for individuals aiming to lower their sugar intake for health reasons, such as managing weight or controlling blood sugar levels in diabetes.



The use of artificial sweeteners has ignited debate regarding their safety and potential long-term health effects. However, regulatory bodies like the FDA have classified these sweeteners as safe when consumed within established limits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-erythritol">Understanding erythritol</h2>



Erythritol is a popular pick for anyone trying to cut back on sugar. You’ll find it in lots of low-calorie, low-carb, and "keto" products. It’s about 70% as sweet as sugar, but with way fewer calories.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-artificial-sweeteners-safe-the-debate-is-heating-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unlike sugar</a>, erythritol isn’t really processed by the body, so it just passes into the bloodstream and gets flushed out through urine.



On the surface, it seems harmless enough, especially since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a>) and the European Food Safety Authority (<a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EFSA</a>) have labeled it as "generally recognized as safe" (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/generally-recognized-safe-gras" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAS</a>). This means it can be used in food products without any restrictions.



Here's the catch: while erythritol does naturally occur in fruits and veggies and is produced in small amounts during glucose metabolism, the levels we get from artificial sweeteners are much higher. This difference is what has scientists, like Dr. Hazen, taking a closer look.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-erythritol-and-sugar-substitutes">Risks of erythritol and sugar substitutes</h2>



A recent study by Dr. Hazen’s team at the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cleveland Clinic</a> looked into how erythritol affects blood clot formation, adding to a larger set of questions about the physiological effects of common sugar substitutes.



The results were surprising. Healthy volunteers who consumed erythritol at levels typically found in a "sugarless" soda or muffin experienced a staggering spike in blood erythritol levels to well over 1,000 times the baseline.



More concerning, this consumption was accompanied by a significant increase in blood clot formation.



To put these findings into context, when the same participants consumed glucose, their blood didn't show the same tendency to clot.



This difference is important because it emphasizes that erythritol itself -- not just any artificial or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sugar-sources-are-key-to-preventing-childhood-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural sweetener</a> -- could be a unique risk factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-consumers">What does this mean for consumers?</h2>



These findings have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-linked-to-higher-risk-of-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serious implications</a>, particularly for individuals at high cardiovascular risk -- those with conditions like obesity, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome.



"Many professional societies and clinicians routinely recommend that people at high cardiovascular risk consume foods that contain sugar substitutes rather than sugar," says Dr. Hazen. But with evidence mounting against erythritol, it's time to reconsider that advice.



Dr. Hazen’s research isn't the first to cast doubt on the safety of erythritol. A previous study published last year in Nature Medicine revealed that cardiac patients with high erythritol levels were twice as likely to experience a major cardiac event within three years.



Moreover, adding erythritol to blood samples increased clot formation, a finding that was confirmed in pre-clinical studies.



These consistent results suggest that erythritol, even in amounts typically consumed, may not be as safe as once thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expert-urge-caution">Expert urge caution</h2>



Given the potential risks, experts are urging caution. "This research raises some concerns that a standard serving of an erythritol-sweetened food or beverage may acutely stimulate a direct clot-forming effect," says Dr. W. H. Wilson Tang, a co-author of the study and research director for <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/departments/heart/depts/heart-failure-transplantation-medicine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heart Failure and Cardiac Transplantation Medicine</a> at Cleveland Clinic.



He emphasizes the importance of more research, especially long-term studies, to really get a handle on the cardiovascular safety of erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



Adding to the worry is that xylitol, another popular artificial sweetener, has shown similar effects in studies.



Just like erythritol, xylitol was linked to higher plasma levels and impacted platelet aggregation in healthy volunteers. The similarities between these sweeteners hint that the risks might not be exclusive to erythritol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erythritol-and-the-future-of-sugar-substitutes">Erythritol and the future of sugar substitutes</h2>



So, where does that leave us? Right now, it's smart to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/startling-connection-between-soda-and-liver-disease-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cautious about artificial sweeteners</a>, especially for those at high risk for heart disease.



Research by Dr. Hazen and his team is still ongoing. We can expect more findings in the coming years.



As Dr. Hazen concludes, "Cardiovascular disease builds over time, and heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. We need to make sure that the foods we eat aren't secretly contributing to this crisis."



This hints that the food industry and regulators might need to rethink their stance on erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



To sum it all up, while the convenience and low-calorie perks of these sweeteners are definitely appealing, we should think about their potential impact on our long-term health.



The discussion around these products goes beyond personal choices. The use of artificial sweeteners, like erythritol, xylitol, also has broader and concerning implications for public health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.124.321019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Artificial sweeteners like Erythritol directly linked to blood clots and heart disease

It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing...

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge compared to many other living organisms: they cannot move to escape predators, pathogens, heat stress, or other unfavorable environmental conditions.



To cope with these threats, plants have evolved various strategies triggered by specific environmental signals. It has long been known that changes in intracellular calcium concentration play a key role in processing these signals.&nbsp;



However, alongside these calcium changes, shifts in the cell's membrane potential have also been suspected to act as signal transmitters.&nbsp;



Now, researchers from the Departments of Neurophysiology, Pharmaceutical Biology, and Botany at <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> (JMU) have explored the relationship between calcium and membrane potential in greater depth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-response-to-stress">Plants' response to stress</h2>



In their study, the research teams worked with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> plants that were engineered to carry ion channels that could be specifically activated by light.&nbsp;



Over 20 years ago, scientists Peter Hegemann, Georg Nagel, and Ernst Bamberg pioneered the field of optogenetics with their discovery and characterization of light-activated ion channels, known as channelrhodopsins.



Using these light-sensitive proteins, which are derived from algae and microorganisms, the JMU researchers were able to experimentally determine whether the influx of calcium ions or the depolarization of the cell membrane, mediated by anion efflux, was crucial for the plant's response to specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> situations. 



However, considerable preparatory work was required before they could conduct these experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-the-use-of-channelrhodopsins">Optimizing the use of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Channelrhodopsins, ion channels equipped with a rhodopsin-based light switch, revolutionized neuroscience by enabling the light-controlled study of neuronal networks.&nbsp;



The application of channelrhodopsins in plant research became feasible only 20 years later, thanks to close collaboration between Georg Nagel's group at the Institute of Physiology at JMU and plant researchers from the Würzburg Chairs of Botany 1, 2, and Pharmaceutical Biology.



In 2021, Nagel's group, along with Dr. Kai Konrad, a group leader at the JMU Chair of Professor Rainer Hedrich Botany 1, published a method to optimize the use of channelrhodopsins in plants by overcoming three major challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-successful-expression-of-channelrhodopsins">Successful expression of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Study co-author Shiqiang Gao, a “rhodopsin engineer” from the Optogenetics lab in the Department of Neurophysiology at JMU, explained the first challenge.



“Like all rhodopsins, including those in our eyes, channelrhodopsins require the small molecule retinal, also known as vitamin A, to absorb light. We humans get retinal mainly from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carotenes-have-a-powerful-positive-effect-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beta-carotene</a>, the provitamin A. However, land plants do not contain retinal, but they do have plenty of beta-carotene,” said Gao.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In 2021, Gao succeeded in combining the expression of channelrhodopsins with the production of retinal from beta-carotene in plant cells. This breakthrough allowed the development of tobacco plants with a high retinal content and successful expression of channelrhodopsins.



Dr. Markus Krischke from the Metabolomics Core Unit in the Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, headed by Professor Martin Müller at JMU Würzburg, confirmed the high retinal content of various transgenic tobacco plants.



Comparable transgenic tobacco plants were produced for the recently published study by Dr. Meiqi Ding from the Department of Botany 1, under the direction of plant physiologist and plant signal processing expert Dr. Kai Konrad, from Professor Rainer Hedrich's group at Botany 1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-light-activation">The challenge of light activation</h2>



The second challenge involved light activation. “Most rhodopsins are activated by blue or green light. However, these colors are components of white light,” explained Nagel. 



This meant the tobacco plants could not be grown in a greenhouse or under standard artificial white light conditions, as this would inadvertently activate the rhodopsins. 



Instead, the plants had to be grown in special growth chambers with red LED light, which is photosynthetically useful and does not trigger rhodopsin activation. 



Tests under various growth conditions revealed that tobacco develops healthily and unchanged under red light compared to greenhouse conditions, noted Konrad.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-channelrhodopsins-in-tobacco-cells">Channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells</h2>



The third challenge was the difficulty in expressing channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells. In 2021, the Würzburg research team successfully expressed the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 in tobacco plant cells. 



As a result, Nagel's team was able to develop various channelrhodopsins optimized for calcium ion permeability. 



Ultimately, Shiqiang Gao and Shang Yang, both members of Nagel's group, succeeded in developing an advanced calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin, named XXM 2.0, specifically for targeted expression in tobacco plants.



This marked a significant breakthrough: “The successful expression of channelrhodopsins with different ion selectivities in plant cells allows us to compare different ion signals alongside the electrical signal, known as depolarization,” Meiqi Ding explained.&nbsp;



She used the calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin XXM 2.0 and the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 to investigate the various ion signaling pathways in tobacco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optogenetic-tobacco-plants-nbsp">Optogenetic tobacco plants&nbsp;</h2>



These newly created “optogenetic” tobacco plants enabled the researchers to answer the question of whether calcium influx or membrane depolarization is more critical for the plant's response to a specific stress situation. “The answer was clear,” said Konrad.&nbsp;



“After activation of the anion channel, the leaves wilted and showed the typical plant response to drought; the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) was produced, and gene expression was increased to protect against dehydration,” Ding added.



“However, in the plants with the calcium channel, there was no change in ABA levels after optogenetic stimulation.”&nbsp;



“Instead, the plants produced signal molecules and plant hormones to trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defense-gut-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense mechanisms</a> against predators, as evidenced by white spots on the leaves,” Konrad said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-in-plant-research-nbsp">A new era in plant research&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Sönke Scherzer from Professor Hedrich's chair demonstrated through direct measurements that reactive oxygen species (ROS) were released during this process.



Dirk Becker and Rainer Hedrich at Botany 1 designed an experimental approach using transcriptomic and bioinformatic analysis to support the working hypothesis.



The researchers are convinced that this study marks the beginning of a new era in plant research. They believe that with the help of various rhodopsins, plant signaling pathways can now be more thoroughly “illuminated.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07884-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How do plants respond to specific stress situations?

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge...

Let's talk about cacti, the prickly plants we adore as quaint household adornments or gigantic landscape wonders. From the towering saguaro reaching heights of up to 18 meters to the petite button cactus barely peaking the soil's surface, the cactus family boasts an impressive range. But what's the secret behind cacti's evolution and stunning diversity?



Researchers from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath set out to decode this mystery, and their discoveries have turned our existing beliefs on their head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-climate-misconception">Unearthing the (climate) misconception</h2>



Contrary to the long-held belief that arid climates are the cradle of cactus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-evolution-drastically-changed-earths-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>, these scientists have discovered otherwise. 



Intriguing findings from the study suggest that it's not merely the dryness of climate, but factors like the daily temperature swing, the grainy texture of the soil, and the turn of seasons, that play the pivotal roles in cactus evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vast-diversity-of-cacti">Vast diversity of cacti</h2>



Fascinatingly, even though cacti have become a worldwide favorite as interior decorations, they are originally from the New World, native to North, Central, and South America alone. Mexico seems to be the hotspot of cactus diversity, boasting the highest species richness.



The Bath researchers embarked on a quest to piece together all known published data on cacti, aiming to dig deeper into the roots of their vast diversity. The team has constructed the largest ever evolution tree of cacti using copious DNA sequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-cactus-evolution">Dynamics of cactus evolution </h2>



To understand the interplay of various biological factors contributing to cactus diversity, the team used machine learning methods.



Analyzing variables like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> size, geographical range, soil sand content, aridity, and diurnal temperature range, the researchers painted a clearer picture of cactus evolution dynamics - a triumph of data and technology.



In a surprising twist, the team discovered that while Mexico flaunts the highest number of cactus species, it simultaneously exhibits the slowest evolutionary rate, debunking the idea that the arid Mexican climate primarily ejects the new cactus species into existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cacti-climate-sensitivity">Cacti climate sensitivity </h2>



After conducting the research at the Milner Centre for Evolution, <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a>, study lead author Dr. Jamie Thompson provides some much-needed perspective. He notes that despite their tough exterior, cacti are actually more prone to extinction than other plants.



"Because there is the highest biodiversity in Mexico, it was assumed this was because the conditions there were best for evolution of species," said Dr. Thompson.



"However, our study shows this isn’t the case – instead Mexico has the slowest rate of speciation but has lots of biodiversity because the extinction rates are slower. In other words, the Mexican climate is not necessarily better at producing new species but good at preserving existing ones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-climate-in-cacti-survival">Role of climate in cacti survival</h2>



Climatic conditions extend beyond simple aridity; they shape the very survival strategies of cacti. Their adaptations, such as water retention mechanisms and the unique structure of their spines, serve not only as protection from herbivores but also aid in minimizing water loss. 



In their quest for survival, cacti have evolved to thrive in environments that oscillate between extremes, showcasing their remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-plants-have-maintained-genetic-stability-for-350-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>. 



Understanding how these plants respond to fluctuating climatic variables enhances our comprehension of their ecological roles and resilience in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts">Conservation efforts </h2>



As the evolution research highlights the vulnerabilities of cacti, conservation efforts become increasingly important.



Acknowledging the pressing threats of habitat loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-triggers-epic-plant-migration-in-brazils-cerrado/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, and illegal trade, environmentalists are advocating for protective measures that embrace the delicate balance of ecosystems where cacti flourish.



Future research must focus on developing robust conservation strategies and restoring habitats to ensure the protection of these unique plants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cacti">The future of cacti</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Nick Priest, also from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milner Centre for Evolution</a>, expressed concern over the future of cacti.



"Our work shows that cacti are not as successful as we thought, and are more vulnerable to climate change. This is concerning – if cacti can’t thrive in our changing climate, what chance do other plants have?" 



Funded by a scholarship from Roger and Sue Whorrod, and the University of Bath, this enlightening study has reshaped our understanding of cacti evolution and diversity. 



The research sheds light on the intricacies of nature's mechanisms - an invitation for us to adapt our actions in harmony with our environment. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51666-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What's the secret behind the stunning diversity of cacti?

Let's talk about cacti, the prickly plants we adore as...

Europe's fascinating history is no stranger to tales of exotic indulgences, and the latest findings add an unexpected layer to this narrative - cocaine use that dates back as far as the 17th century.



This revelation is not just a footnote in history but provides significant insights into the lifestyles and cultures of ancient Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fully-immersive-exploration">A fully immersive exploration </h2>



In the heart of Italy, researchers at the <a href="https://www.unimi.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Milan</a> are expanding our understanding of Europe's past substance use.



Together with colleagues from Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, the research team embarked on a journey to uncover the hidden stories of those who walked the streets of Europe centuries ago.



The study was not merely an attempt at investigating history, but a fully immersive exploration of preserved brains found in a crypt in Milan.



This crypt, lying in the shadows of the historical Ospedale Maggiore, served as the final resting place of many who took their last breath in the famed hospital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-cocaine">Tracing the origins of cocaine</h2>



Before we dig in further into the findings, it's important to understand the history of cocaine use itself.



For thousands of years, inhabitants of South America's western regions relied on the coca plant for its stimulating effects. 



Fast forward to the 19th century, scientists discovered that processing the leaves produced cocaine hydrochloride salts, thus making the euphoric and mind-altering impacts more potent. 



This led to the drug's rise in popularity throughout Europe as a recreational substance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-cocaine-use">Early cocaine use</h2>



The Milan team discovered that Europe's rendezvous with the coca plant started much earlier than previously assumed.



Buried beneath the grounds of the Ca’ Granda crypt, a revelation awaited the research team: Europeans were using this drug to experience its mind-altering effects almost 200 years prior to the 19th-century boom.



During their excavation, the researchers came across the remains of two individuals whose bodies had undergone natural mummification. This presented the team with an unprecedented chance to probe deeper into Europe's past.



Remarkably, active components of the coca plant were found in the preserved brains of both mummies - a clear indication that these individuals were partaking in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rosemary-compound-offers-hope-in-combating-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habit</a> of chewing coca leaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pharmacological-past">The pharmacological past</h2>



Exploring the historical medical records of Ospedale Maggiore, the researchers found no evidence of medical use of cocaine or the coca plant, dismissing the possibility that the two individuals were using these leaves for medicinal purposes. 



Instead, it suggests that the reason behind their consumption was purely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recreational</a>. Evidence also suggested that these two individuals were of modest means, as their burial site and method indicated poverty.



This leads us to imagine a time when coca leaves were not only cheap and abundant, but also served as a readily available recreational outlet for the less fortunate.



The study not only uncovers an intriguing aspect of Europe's past but also poses fascinating questions about the socio-cultural nuances of the time.



It’s an eye-opening reminder that the roots of today's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-maltreatment-triples-the-risk-of-substance-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance use</a> issues trace back much further than we might imagine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The discovery of early cocaine use in Europe invites us to reconsider the cultural exchanges between continents during the 17th century. 



It highlights the profound impact of trade routes that were not just conduits for goods but also for ideas, customs, and substances that shaped societies. 



The research prompts a re-evaluation of the socio-cultural dynamics of the time, revealing how global interactions influenced personal habits and leisure activities across different classes.



Furthermore, the study raises questions about the perception and regulation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychoactive-drug-relieves-symptoms-of-traumatic-brain-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychoactive</a> substances throughout history. It challenges the notion that modern society's struggles with drug use are solely a contemporary issue, instead suggesting a longstanding human curiosity and relationship with mind-altering substances.



As researchers continue to unearth the layers of Europe’s past, this fascinating glimpse into early cocaine use serves as a witness to the complexity and interconnectedness of human history. The findings highlight the importance of interdisciplinary research in unveiling hidden chapters that challenge our understanding of historical narratives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440324001080" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cocaine use detected in the brains of 17th century mummies

Europe's fascinating history is no stranger to tales of exotic...

Here on Earth, tomatoes grow best in fertile soil that is rich in nutrients like potassium and phosphorus. But can we grow tomatoes in the weightless environment of space? 



Thanks to a dedicated team of scientists, space-grown tomatoes will soon become a reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plants-are-ready-for-launch">Tomato plants are ready for launch</h2>



Imagine biting into a fresh, juicy tomato cultivated on an extraterrestrial station orbiting 260 miles above our planet. 



This isn’t a distant futuristic vision but an emerging reality, with specially engineered tomato plants set to embark on a journey to the International Space Station (ISS).



These are no ordinary tomatoes. Compact, engineered to thrive in minimal space, and painstakingly developed for astronomic growth, these plants are setting a course for the International Space Station (ISS). 



The tomatoes are currently under observation at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with a payload flight scheduled within the next year or so.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-tomatoes-in-space">Growing tomatoes in space</h2>



The journey will initiate an unprecedented event – these tomato seeds will germinate and bear fruit on the ISS, within its Advanced Plant Habitat laboratory.



The seeds from this first-generation space fruit will then plant the roots for a second generation of tomatoes in the stars.



"So, it’s going to be a seed-to-a-seed-to-a-seed, which has never been done before in space," noted Robert Jinkerson, a professor in the Marlan and Rosemary Bourns College of Engineering at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a>.



But why tomatoes, you ask? Designed to bear fruit in compact spaces, these plants are potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watermeal-may-become-an-essential-food-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food sources for astronauts</a> – a development years in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-technology">SPACE technology</h2>



The remarkable research was led by Martha Orozco-Cárdenas of UCR's Plant Transformation Research Center. Using CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology, Orozco-Cárdenas downsized ordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomato plants</a>, reducing the leaf to fruit ratio.



Backed by an $800,000 grant from the NASA-funded Translational Research Institute for Space Health, further engineering led to the creation of the space-ready tomatoes.



Known as Small Plants for Space Expeditions (SPACE), this technology could extend to other crops on the ISS and future space colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-space-grown-foods">Exploring space-grown foods</h2>



Tomatoes may have company soon. The UCR team is exploring options to grow edible yeast, green algae, and mushrooms in space. Their efforts were recognized when they won $250,000 in NASA’s Deep Space Food Challenge.



The unprecedented research relies on innovative techniques. Eschewing sunlight, a key element for most agricultural cultivation, the team grows mushrooms using acetate, a carbon-based compound. The result - an estimated production of about 4,000 calories per day, surpassing the productivity of biological photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-adaptive-agriculture">Environment-adaptive agriculture</h2>



The research bears significant implications for earthly agriculture too. Compact, indoor-growing crops could be the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-crops-have-higher-yields-in-an-urban-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban agriculture</a>. Vertical farming, with multilayered hydroponically-fed crops, may also play a role in the forthcoming agricultural revolution.



The SPACE tomato, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-genes-that-help-fruit-adapt-to-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to thrive in confined spaces, could soon become available for urban farming. This innovation becomes crucial in regions experiencing climate changes that make outdoor cultivation untenable.



The research team is working towards cultivating food-producing organisms in the dark using acetate as their sole source of carbon and energy, sidestepping the need for photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gearing-up-for-the-green-revolution">Gearing up for the green revolution </h2>



Despite being able to grow yeast, mushrooms, and green algae in the dark feeding on acetate, growing tomatoes and other crops under these conditions remains a hurdle due to the toxicity of acetate to adult plants.



The researchers are exploring solutions, aiming to engineer metabolic processes found in germinating seeds that can utilize acetate. Such dark cultivation could revolutionize agriculture by enabling more widespread indoor cultivation wherever electricity is available.



This would increase the efficiency of food production, reduce agricultural land use, and mitigate its environmental impact. For space agriculture, this increased energy efficiency could help feed more crew members with fewer resources.



Ultimately, the next technological breakthrough in agriculture might well come from a humble tomato plant, grown in the controlled environment of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-space-radiation-affect-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space station</a>.



As we grapple with the challenges of climate change and a rapidly expanding global population, the cosmic tomato could be a critical ingredient in the recipe for a sustainable future.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Space tomatoes are ready for an unprecedented mission

Here on Earth, tomatoes grow best in fertile soil that...

You know that feeling, when you lock eyes with a pooch and feel an unspoken connection? Well, it's not just a feeling, it turns out. Experts have found out that human and canine brains sync up in these moments, proving we share a more profound connection with dogs at a neurological level.



Researchers in China have broken new ground, discovering a unique inter-species neural synchronization between humans and dogs. The research builds upon past studies that show similar brain activity synchronization among humans, particularly when they communicate or work together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activities-of-dogs-and-humans">Brain activities of dogs and humans</h2>



The research team, led by biologist Wei Ren from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, employed a set of ingenious experiments to uncover this phenomenon.



Teams of human-dog pairs were put together and had their brain activities recorded. To do so, electrodes were placed over their heads. These pairs then engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-imitate-human-actions-from-2d-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nonverbal communication</a> such as mutual gazing, or a friendly pat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-test-and-control">Test and control </h2>



In one set of tests, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-dog</a> duos interacted with each other, while during other tests they shared the same space but did not interact. 



The researchers noticed an increase in inter-brain correlations in the frontal and parietal regions of the brain during the mutual gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frontal-and-parietal-brain-regions">Frontal and parietal brain regions</h2>



In human brains, joint attention is associated with activity in both the frontal and parietal regions. Previous research has shown that human frontal lobe activity increases when we pet our dogs, signaling emotional engagement and focused attention. 



However, it was unclear whether similar activity was happening in dogs' brains. The study has finally shed light on this unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-and-dog-brains-sync-up">Human and dog brains sync up</h2>



To pinpoint whether the human or dog was initiating the neural sync, the researchers used a unique mathematical algorithm to analyze the data.



The results indicated that it was the human brains that led this harmonized neural activity — revealing that the more we interact, the stronger our bond grows.



When participants were asked to simultaneously pet the dogs and gaze into their eyes, the study found even greater connectivity in the inter-brain activity.



"We observed that inter-brain correlations in frontal and parietal regions dramatically increased during mutual gaze," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-dog-brains-mirror-humans">Do dog brains mirror humans?</h2>



Interestingly, the study has implications beyond just understanding our bond with dogs. Experts hypothesize that social cognition deficits found in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) might result from diminished brain synchronization.



To test this, the team repeated the experiments, but this time with dogs that exhibited similar characteristics to humans with ASD.



In this new set of tests, the human-dog pairs showed lessened synchronization, which suggested reduced joint attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lsd-and-neural-synchronization">LSD and neural synchronization?</h2>



Diving deeper into the ASD connection, dogs with ASD-like characteristics were given a dose of LSD. This drug has been known to enhance social behavior in mice in past studies.



Interestingly, the LSD seemed to improve the dogs' synchronization with their paired humans in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-oxytocin-the-bonding-hormone">Role of oxytocin - the bonding hormone</h2>



Oxytocin, often dubbed the "love hormone," plays a crucial role in establishing social bonds, including those between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-provide-insight-into-human-cognition-and-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans and dogs</a>. 



This hormone is released in response to close interactions and has been shown to promote trust and social connections. The study further revealed that both human and dog brains experience increased oxytocin levels during mutual interactions, such as petting and eye contact.



This hormonal surge not only strengthens the emotional connection but also supports the neural synchronization observed in the experiments. 



The findings highlight the biological underpinnings of the human-dog bond and suggest that oxytocin might be a key player in facilitating the enhanced inter-species neural connectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



While more extensive research is called for, this study contributes significantly to our understanding of the social deficits associated with ASD. It suggests that such dogs, along with studying the brains of humans, could provide valuable insights into the neural mechanisms underlying these social deficits.



The research also opens up the possibility of using inter-brain activity as potential biomarkers for diagnosing ASD. This pioneering work could lead to the development of specially engineered, non-hallucinogenic versions of LSD to correct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-smell-human-stress-and-it-makes-them-feel-gloomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social deficits</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202402493" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dog and human brains sync up during eye contact

You know that feeling, when you lock eyes with a...

Recent research took a plunge into a tale about the discovery of a new species of fish that's less than 2 centimeters long and carries a 'grumpy' demeanor. The tiny creature sports a perpetually disgruntled face, hence its fitting name: the grumpy dwarfgoby.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-grumpy-dwarfgoby">Fierce grumpy dwarfgoby</h2>



The grumpy dwarfgoby, in spite of its small size, doesn’t do subtle. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s large canines and intense expression pull off a macho vibe. 



"I imagine in its own tiny world, it is a fearsome predator. Its grumpy expression and large canines certainly make it look the part, despite its small size," remarks Lucía Pombo-Ayora, who gifted the species its unique common name.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-in-the-deep-camouflage-or-statement">Red in the deep: Camouflage or statement?</h2>



What's fascinating about the grumpy dwarfgoby is its coloration strategy. The species boasts a vibrant red color, which sticks out to us -- however, in their natural environment, it's a perfect camouflage.



They frequent sections of coral reefs blanketed in red coralline algae, and use the algae as a hideout, hopping from one small hole or crevice to another. 



Additionally, those large canines aren't just for show; they’re used to capture tiny invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-grumpy-dwarfgoby">Finding the grumpy dwarfgoby</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Viktor Nunes Peinemann who was at the forefront of this discovery during a diving expedition intended to explore the diversity of coral reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishes</a>. 



They first found specimens in Saudi Arabia's Farasan Banks, and later near Thuwal in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-fish-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Sea</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/fish_Grumpy-dwarfgoby_Sueviota-aethon_new-species_credit-UWashington_1b.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/fish_Grumpy-dwarfgoby_Sueviota-aethon_new-species_credit-UWashington_1s.webp" alt="Specimens of Sueviota aethon sp. nov. a UW 203365, holotype, freshly collected b UW 203367, freshly collected, showing the yellow variation of the species c UW 203365, holotype, preserved in 75% ethanol. Credit: University of Washington/Pensoft" class="wp-image-1944840"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Specimens of Sueviota aethon sp. nov. a UW 203365, holotype, freshly collected b UW 203367, freshly collected, showing the yellow variation of the species c UW 203365, holotype, preserved in 75% ethanol. Credit: University of Washington/Pensoft</figcaption></figure>



Initially, the team believed they'd rediscovered the fiery dwarfgoby, Sueviota pyrios, a solitary specimen known from a 1972 collection. However, they were in for a fascinating surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-so-deja-vu">Not so déjà vu</h2>



Upon further analysis, the team from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KAUST</a>) and the University of Washington (<a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UW</a>) realized they were swimming in uncharted waters -- a brand-new species they'd never seen before.



"The ongoing discovery of distinctive new species like this grumpy dwarfgoby shows how much biodiversity remains undiscovered in the Red Sea," underlines Peinemann.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eroding-edifice-of-biodiversity">Eroding edifice of biodiversity</h2>



The Red Sea is celebrated for its rich endemic species, with our little grump adding to its roster. However, the sea's environment has taken a severe hit due to climate change, leading to widespread coral bleaching and mortality. 



The fact we're still discovering new species in this volatile ecosystem underlines the urgency for continued research and conservation efforts.



"This is concerning given the recent environmental changes in the region. In some cases, species could go extinct before we even describe them," Peinemann encapsulates the issues and stakes aptly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-grumpy-dwarfgoby">Preserving the grumpy dwarfgoby</h2>



In light of the ecological challenges that beset the Red Sea, initiatives to preserve its unique marine life have never been more critical. 



Conserving the grumpy dwarfgoby involves not only protecting its immediate habitat but also strengthening broader reef ecosystems.



Efforts encompass strategic measures such as establishing marine protected areas, regulating fishing activities, and promoting responsible tourism. 



Additionally, advancing scientific understanding through research and fostering education on the importance of marine biodiversity can galvanize public support for conservation. 



Each new species we uncover should be a reminder of the delicate intricacies that make up our planet's biodiversity, and the imperative to shield them from harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-discoveries-await">Future discoveries await</h2>



"The ongoing discovery of distinctive new species like this grumpy dwarfgoby shows how much biodiversity remains undiscovered in the Red Sea," Viktor Nunes Peinemann explains. 



"This is concerning given the recent environmental changes in the region. In some cases, species could go extinct before we even describe them." The identification of the grumpy dwarfgoby heralds a promising future for marine exploration and biodiversity research. 



The Red Sea, though significantly studied, harbors countless mysteries that, when unraveled, might revolutionize current biological frameworks and conservation methodologies. 



Peinemann and his team are committed to continuing their exploration, paving the way for a deeper comprehension of marine life and its vulnerabilities. 



"It's a thrilling time for marine biology," says Peinemann, "as each discovery offers not just answers, but intriguing new questions."



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover 'grumpy dwarfgoby,' a tiny fish with a big attitude

Recent research took a plunge into a tale about the...

Early life adversity can have lasting health impacts on individuals, even when circumstances improve later in life. To measure this, scientists use a cumulative adversity index (CAI), which quantifies factors like poverty and stress to assess long-term health and longevity.&nbsp;



This tool has been invaluable in identifying ways governments, healthcare providers, and families can help improve people’s lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-life-adversity-among-mammals">Early life adversity among mammals</h2>



Wild animals also face early life adversity, but how these experiences affect their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-early-life-adversity-in-gorillas-lead-to-hardship-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a> and lifespan is less understood.&nbsp;



Developing a CAI for wildlife could help scientists identify key stressors that impact animal populations and guide conservation efforts. However, the challenge lies in obtaining long-term data needed to create such an index for animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-adversity-index-for-marmots-nbsp">Cumulative adversity index for marmots&nbsp;</h2>



A team of biologists from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) is currently addressing this challenge by developing the first cumulative adversity index for yellow-bellied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marmots-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marmots</a>.&nbsp;



The findings are based on 62 years of continuous data collected at the <a href="https://www.rmbl.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory</a> in Colorado, making it the second-longest study of individually marked mammals in the world.&nbsp;



The research provides a framework for creating a cumulative adversity index for other species using large datasets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stressors-affecting-the-lifespan-of-mammals">Stressors affecting the lifespan of mammals</h2>



The index revealed both expected and surprising stressors that influence marmot survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-longevity-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifespan</a>.&nbsp;



For instance, it was no surprise that a late start to the growing season negatively affected survival, as marmots need to gain weight during the summer to prepare for their long hibernation.&nbsp;



However, the team was surprised to find that summer drought had no significant impact on survival. Predation, another expected factor, played a smaller-than-anticipated role, while a mother’s death - especially if it occurred after the pup was weaned - had a substantial effect.&nbsp;



Pups live with their mother for a full year after weaning, so maternal loss appears to be a significant adversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-on-female-marmots-nbsp">Focus on female marmots&nbsp;</h2>



Doctoral student Xochitl Ortiz-Ross led the development of the index, focusing on data from female marmots born after 2001.&nbsp;



The data included quantifiable physiological stress measures collected until 2019, allowing researchers to track individual marmots throughout their lifespans.&nbsp;



Female marmots typically remain in the colony where they are born, making it easier for biologists to gather complete lifetime data.



The study population spans a 984-foot elevation change, dividing it into up-valley and down-valley groups with varying environmental conditions.&nbsp;



Throughout spring and summer, scientists trap and collect behavioral, morphological, and physiological data on these marmots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-demographic-and-maternal-factors">Ecological, demographic, and maternal factors</h2>



Ortiz-Ross identified several key ecological, demographic, and maternal factors that affect a pup’s chances of surviving its first year.&nbsp;



These stressors included a late start to the season, summer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>, predation pressure, large or male-biased litters, late weaning, poor maternal health, high maternal stress, and maternal loss.&nbsp;



Ortiz-Ross wanted to understand how these factors impacted the marmots' lifespan beyond the first year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-computer-models-to-measure-adversity-nbsp">Using computer models to measure adversity&nbsp;</h2>



The data were fed into computer models that categorized adversity as standard, mild, moderate, or acute.&nbsp;



The models produced consistent results, showing that moderate and acute adversity decreased the odds of pup survival by 30% and 40%, respectively.&nbsp;



Marmots living up-valley had better survival odds in all models, while maternal loss reduced survival chances by up to 64% in the moderate adversity model.&nbsp;



Poor maternal health lowered survival odds by 77% in the moderate adversity model, while late weaning decreased survival by 33% in standardized models.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, drought increased survival odds in all models except for the acute adversity model, with the most significant effect in the moderate adversity model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acute-adversity-and-lifespan-nbsp">Acute adversity and lifespan&nbsp;</h2>



The average adult lifespan for yellow-bellied marmots was found to be 3.8 years, but acute adversity significantly increased the risk of shorter life expectancy.



“We found that a CAI effectively captures short-term survival risk in yellow-bellied marmots, and even in the long term, increased adversity early in life lowered the adult lifespan,” said Ortiz-Ross.&nbsp;



“Positive effects didn’t cancel out earlier adverse ones, suggesting that adversity does accumulate in marmots and can’t be fully recovered by positive experiences.”



The study supports the hypothesis that a cumulative adversity index is a valuable tool for assessing the long-term impact of multiple early life stressors on marmot survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-conservation-efforts-nbsp">Improving conservation efforts&nbsp;</h2>



“What we’re facing in terms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> management is death by a thousand cuts. We typically study one factor at a time: humans, predators, climate, and so forth,” said co-author and UCLA professor Daniel Blumstein.&nbsp;



“But these impacts occur together and have a cumulative effect. We need a way to figure out which of these stressors - or which combination - has the biggest cumulative effect, and our research shows the CAI can do that for marmots.”



For instance, conservation efforts targeting this marmot population could focus on the down-valley group, which fared worse than expected, and on reducing maternal mortality and improving the health of mothers.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, reducing predation or addressing summer drought may not be as critical, as these factors did not have as much influence as initially anticipated.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ele.14485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early adversity reduces life expectancy in most mammals

Early life adversity can have lasting health impacts on individuals,...

When we think of therapy dogs, we usually picture these furry companions offering comfort to patients in hospitals. But what if these four-legged friends could also provide emotional support to the very people who take care of those patients - our health care providers?



In a fascinating new study, this concept has proven to be more than plausible. The results reveal the surprisingly positive effects of Buckeye Paws, a therapy dog program that health care workers say helps reduce emotional exhaustion and boosts their work engagement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buckeye-paws-program">Buckeye Paws program</h2>



For those who might not know, the Buckeye Paws program involves engaging health care workers with highly trained dog-handler teams. 



The program was part of a pilot study involving 64 participants across a range of health care services. 



The health care workers included physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation therapists, and unit clerks in two intensive care units and two medical surgical units.



The handlers in this study were all hospital employees who volunteered their time with seven certified therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-their-humans-often-share-similar-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> to offer this unique intervention thrice a week over eight weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-work-stress-mood-and-therapy-dogs">Work stress, mood, and therapy dogs</h2>



The study, led by researchers at&nbsp;The Ohio State University <a href="https://wexnermedical.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wexner Medical Center</a>, evaluated the effect of animal-assisted activity on healthcare worker stress, burnout, work engagement, and mood.



“There was free interaction with the dogs that people could spend as much or as little time as they wanted with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>. Prior to their interactions, we asked them to fill out a basic one to 10 mood scale. And then, after the interaction, they did that again,” explained Dr. Beth Steinberg, principal investigator of the study.



The researchers found that the positive mood self-reported by the health care workers nearly doubled when they engaged with the Buckeye Paws program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-animal-assisted-therapy">Impact of animal-assisted therapy</h2>



<a href="https://medicine.osu.edu/departments/psychiatry-and-behavioral-health/buckeye-paws" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Buckeye Paws</a>&nbsp;was launched in March 2020, right before the pandemic hit. As the program grew, the Ohio State team set out to measure its impact. 



Dr. Steinberg co-founded Buckeye Paws with Mary Justice, chief administrative officer in Ohio State’s College of Nursing. Steinberg noted how easy it was to recruit participants for the program.



"The recruitment for this study was incredibly easy because as soon as you said, ‘We're going to do a study assessing your response to therapy dog interaction,’ people were like, ‘I'm in!’” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-interactions-with-staff">Dog interactions with staff</h2>



Dr. Steinberg takes rounds on the hospital floors with her yellow labrador retriever Brienne, while Justice visits staff with her English cream golden retriever Shiloh.



Although these interactions with staff are often brief, just a few minutes at a time, they seem to leave a big impact on the healthcare workers. Many study participants reported an immediate decrease in perceived stress, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and burnout.



“We brought the dogs to the units and many times we had staff in tears sitting with the dogs, telling them about their day,” said Dr. Steinberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-therapy-dog-programs">Future of therapy dog programs</h2>



With national concerns about physician and nursing shortages, a program like this could significantly improve workplace satisfaction and retention.



“For the most part, people have an affinity to a non-judgmental, warm, furry animal that can come and just sit with them and listen. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> don't care what you look like, how you're feeling that day; they just know that when you need them, they're there,” said Dr. Steinberg.



Due to the program's success, Buckeye Paws expanded in March 2022 to offer therapy dog assistance to students, faculty and staff of The Ohio State University. 



There are now 29 dog-handler teams in the program, with additional teams on-boarding and more gearing up to begin the process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-dogs-and-healthcare">Therapy dogs and healthcare</h2>



Program manager Aimee Mitchell noted that dog-handler teams must pass basic and advanced obedience training.



The handlers must also earn the Canine Good Citizenship certification from the American Kennel Club, and be certified by a national therapy dog organization, said Mitchell. 



The future looks bright for the intersection of therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-imitate-human-actions-from-2d-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> and healthcare providers. This research has already inspired the launch of a similar program at a hospital system in Fort Wayne, Indiana.



The study is published in the <a href="https://medcraveonline.com/IJCAM/IJCAM-17-00701.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Complementary &amp; Alternative Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Therapy dogs reduce emotional exhaustion and work burnout

When we think of therapy dogs, we usually picture these...

Many people might cringe at the mention of electric eels, but what is it that makes these creatures such a shocking presence in the animal kingdom? 



Are they truly electric, and do they possess the power to deliver a jolt strong enough to stop you in your tracks? The science behind these aquatic hunters is truly fascinating. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-of-electric-eels">Anatomy of electric eels</h2>



Electric eels are not actually "true" eels as those found in the order Anguilliformes, which includes well-known species like the Moray eel. Instead, these creatures belong to the Gymnotiformes order, also known as knifefishes.



Despite the name of electric eels, their lineage diverges from what we typically imagine when we think of these slippery, elongated fish.



In terms of physical attributes, electric eels bear a closer resemblance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlling-invasive-carp-with-sound-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carp</a> and catfish, with their elongated, slender bodies and tapered tails designed for swift movement through the waters. This sleek form aids their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-hunting-behavior-observed-among-electric-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting</a> and survival in the dynamic river ecosystems of South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-evolution-of-electric-eels">Unique evolution of electric eels </h2>



A fully grown electric eel, native to the murky rivers of the Amazon and Orinoco basin, can reach an impressive length of 2.5 meters (8 feet) and weigh up to 20 kilograms (45 pounds), making them formidable predators in their environment.



Unlike their marine cousins, which rely on gills for oxygen, electric eels are primarily air breathers, deriving around 80% of their oxygen needs by gulping air into their mouths. 



This fascinating adaptation allows them to thrive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-oceans-warm-up-smaller-species-of-fish-will-dominate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen-poor waters</a>, giving them an edge in environments where other species might struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-generators-of-electricity">Living generators of electricity</h2>



Delving deeper into their anatomy, three unique organs nested within electric eels give them the incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eels-can-genetically-modify-other-creatures-by-shocking-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to generate electricity</a>. 



Referred to as the main organ, the Hunter's organ, and the Sach's organ, each of these marvels of biology is packed with around 6,000 specific cells called electrolytes. 



The function of these electrocytes? They simultaneously discharge power when the eel feels threatened or when it launches an attack on potential prey.



"Electric eels are like living batteries. They have stacks of modified muscle cells called electrocytes, which have both a positive and a negative side," noted Dr. Rupert Collins, Senior Curator of Fishes at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum, London</a>.



"When the cells are triggered, they discharge an electrical impulse into the surrounding water, making electric eels living, breathing generators of electricity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shocking-survival-mechanism">The shocking survival mechanism</h2>



One might wonder how an electric eel manages to generate such potent electric shocks without zapping itself in the process. The exact mechanism still eludes scientists.



However, the predominant theory suggests that the water surrounding the eel likely absorbs most of the electrical current.



Given that each electric discharge lasts only for approximately 2 milliseconds, it's plausible that the shock isn't long enough to harm the eel itself.



Typically, the eels generate around 600 volts of electricity, but there have been instances of eels creating a stunning 860 volts, according to one study.



While fatalities from electric eel shocks are exceedingly rare, multiple shocks can trigger severe respiratory difficulties, even causing your heart to stop. 



Coupled with the possibility of drowning, coming face-to-face with an electric eel in open water could yield deadly results. If the eel doesn't get you first, the water might grasp you in its deadly embrace thereafter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-electric-eels">Ecological role of electric eels </h2>



Electric eels are not just powerful predators; they also play a crucial role in maintaining the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-ecosystems-constantly-share-energy-to-achieve-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balance of their ecosystems</a>. 



As top predators in the waters of the Amazon and Orinoco basins, they help control populations of fish and other aquatic creatures. 



By hunting with their electric discharges, they can stun multiple prey at once, efficiently capturing food while maintaining the equilibrium of the food chain.



In recent studies, researchers have observed that electric eels may even influence their surroundings beyond hunting. 



The electrical fields generated by these creatures could play a role in deterring other predators or even communicating with each other in the murky waters they inhabit.



This interaction emphasizes their importance as not just predators but as essential contributors to their aquatic ecosystems.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Electric eels have a secret weapon to generate electricity

Many people might cringe at the mention of electric eels,...

Scientists have recently discovered an important control circuit involved in swallowing food. The study has shown that fly larvae have special receptors in their esophagus which are triggered as the insect swallows something.&nbsp;



This leads to the release of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/serotonin-expedite-learning-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>, a messenger substance that is frequently referred to as the “feel-good hormone.” The release of serotonin ensures that the larva continues to eat. 



Although the study focused on flies, the experts argue that humans may also have a similar control circuit.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swallowing-food-makes-you-want-more-nbsp">Swallowing food makes you want more&nbsp;</h2>



Imagine you're sitting in a restaurant, feeling hungry, with a delicious pizza in front of you. Its irresistible aroma fills the air.&nbsp;



You take a bite, savor the flavor as you chew, and the moment you swallow, a wave of satisfaction hits you: Wow, that was amazing! Without hesitation, you reach for another slice and eagerly take another bite.



While the pizza’s smell and taste motivate you to begin eating, it is the pleasurable feeling you have after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cane-toads-swallow-their-tongue-when-they-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swallowing</a> which is responsible for you continuing to eat. 



“But how exactly does this process work? Which neural circuits are responsible? Our study has provided an answer to these questions,” said Michael Pankratz, an expert in life and medical sciences at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-communicate-with-the-digestive-system-nbsp">Neurons communicate with the digestive system&nbsp;</h2>



The study was focused on the larvae of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-fly-smell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit fly</a> Drosophila, which have from 10,000 to 15,000 nerve cells - a manageable number compared to the 100 billion nerve cells in the human brain. 



However, these 15,000 nerve cells form a highly complex network, with every neuron having branching projections through which it contacts dozens or even hundreds of other neurons.



“We wanted to gain a detailed understanding of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-humans-have-shockingly-different-digestive-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive system</a> communicates with the brain when consuming food,” Pankratz said. 



“In order to do this, we had to understand which neurons are involved in this flow of information and how they are triggered.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-activated-network-of-neurons">An activated network of neurons</h2>



The scientists investigated not just the paths of all of the nerve fibers in the fruit fly larvae but also the connections between neurons.&nbsp;



To do this, they cut a larva into thousands of very thin slices and photographed them under an electron microscope.



“We used a high-performance computer to create three-dimensional images from these photographs,” Pankratz explained.&nbsp;



Next, project assistants Andreas Schoofs and Anton Miroschnikow analyzed how all these nerve cells are connected to one another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-food-quality-while-swallowing-nbsp">Detecting food quality while swallowing&nbsp;</h2>



The investigation helped the researchers identify what they called a “stretch receptor” in the esophagus that is wired to a cluster of six neurons in the larva’s brain which can produce serotonin, the “feel-good hormone” ensuring that we feel rewarded for certain actions.



The serotonin-releasing neurons receive new information about what the fly has just swallowed.&nbsp;



“They can detect whether it is food or not and also evaluate its quality,” Schoofs explained. “They only produce serotonin if good quality food is detected, which in turn ensures that the larva continues to eat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists believe that this fundamental mechanism most likely also exists in humans, and, when defective, it could lead to eating disorders such as anorexia or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/binge-eating-linked-to-a-specific-set-of-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binge eating</a>. 



Thus, the results of this study might also have implications for the treatment of such disorders.&nbsp;



“But we don’t know enough at this stage about how the control circuit in humans actually works.There is still years of research required in this area,” Pankratz cautioned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-swallowing-in-mammals">Food swallowing in mammals</h2>



The study authors noted that serotonin signaling has been implicated in motor function in the mammalian esophagus as well.



“The human esophagus also has distinct regions, with a proximal striated muscle region that is mainly controlled by motor neurons in the brainstem and a distal smooth muscle region that is controlled by central neurons in the medulla oblongata and peripheral neurons of the myenteric plexus.”&nbsp;



The researchers concluded that, despite the differences in the number of cell types as compared with the fly, it would be interesting to see if serotonin also monitors the completion of a biologically meaningful action such as swallowing or other vital activities in mammals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.08.025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Swallowing food triggers ‘feel-good hormones’

Scientists have recently discovered an important control circuit involved in...

A recent discovery slamming the fish world is drawing us deep into the abyss. The protagonist of our story is an ancient fish called a coelacanth. 



If you haven't heard of them, these large, less-than-attractive fish have been swimming around our planet for over 400 million years. Yet, they still have a few tricks up their fins.



Our adventure starts in the sun-soaked stretches of Western Australia, where an ancient, pristinely preserved new coelacanth species from the Devonian Period was <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/coelacanth_Ngamugawi-wirngarri_new-species_credit-Katrina-Kenny_1b.jpg">found poking through the sand</a>.



The story weaves between past and present, science and culture, tracing the evolution of coelacanths and the Earth itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coelacanths-a-fish-out-of-time">Coelacanths: A fish out of time</h2>



What makes these deep-sea dwellers so fascinating? Today, coelacanths are a rare spectacle observed off the coasts of eastern Africa and Indonesia. 



Reaching up to 2 meters (about 6.5 feet), they are known as "lobe-finned" fish. Their fin structure bears an uncanny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-shoulders-evolved-from-the-jawbones-of-ancient-fish-called-placoderms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resemblance to our arm bones</a>.



This particular quirk places them closer to lungfish and backboned animals -- frogs, emus, mice (and yes, dear reader, humans too) -- than most fish.



Over their 410-million-year tenure, coelacanths have bloomed into more than 175 species worldwide. One of their finer moments of diversification occurred during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Era</a>, the age of dinosaurs. 



But as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Period</a> (around 66 million years ago) rolled to a close under the impact of an asteroid, these mighty fish fell off our fossil radar.



In 1938, however, a group of South African fishermen pulled a Lazarus-like marvel from the ocean's depths -- a living, breathing coelacanth. 



This resurgence led to their infamous reputation as 'living fossils'. However, evidence is beginning to challenge this notion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-of-ngamugawi-wirngarri">Birth of Ngamugawi wirngarri</h2>



This brings us to our ancient starlet, the newly discovered coelacanth called Ngamugawi wirngarri. This specimen comes from a time of heightened tectonic activity. 



These time periods were earth-shaking epochs when the terrestrial plates shifted and carved out new habitats.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/coelacanth_Ngamugawi-wirngarri_skull-discovery_credit-Katrina-Kenny_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/coelacanth_Ngamugawi-wirngarri_skull-discovery_credit-Katrina-Kenny_1s.webp" alt="Ngamugawi wirngarri, a new coelacanth species, skull bones after they were acid etched out of rock at Museum Victoria, 2009. Credit: Flinders University" class="wp-image-1944732"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ngamugawi wirngarri, a new coelacanth species, skull bones after they were acid etched out of rock at Museum Victoria, 2009. Credit: Flinders University</figcaption></figure>



Dr. Alice Clement, an evolutionary biologist and paleontologist from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Australia, was part of the team that christened the fish in partnership with the Mimbi community.



"Our analyses found that tectonic plate activity had a profound influence on rates of coelacanth evolution," she revealed. 



"New species of coelacanth were more likely to evolve during periods of heightened tectonic activity as new habitats were divided and created."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gogo-sites-and-coelacanth-fish">Gogo sites and coelacanth fish</h2>



Ngamugawi wirngarri lived about 380 million years ago amidst the Devonian Period's tropical reefs, teeming with more than 50 species of fish. 



Today, this region is the rocky Gogo Formation on Gooniyandi Country in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia.



John Long, a Flinders University Strategic Professor of Palaeontology, sheds light on the importance of the Gogo sites. 



"For more than 35 years, we have found several perfectly preserved 3D fish fossils from Gogo sites," he said, "which have yielded many significant discoveries, including mineralized soft tissues and the origins of complex sexual reproduction in vertebrates," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-ngamugawi-wirngarri">Importance of Ngamugawi wirngarri</h2>



The story of coelacanths takes a crucial turn as we dive deeper into their lineage. Many landmarks of human anatomy, such as our jaws, teeth, and chambered hearts, can trace their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots to early fishes</a> in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-swamp-creature-found-in-namibia-was-an-ambush-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Palaeozoic</a> (540-350 million years ago).



Although coelacanths' evolution has dramatically slowed since the dinosaur era, they're not static entities fossilized in time. 



Richard Cloutier, a vertebrate paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.uqar.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Quebec</a> in Rimouski and a study co-author, offers unique insight.



"While most early forms remain poorly known, our study allows us to start understanding how living coelacanth species of Latimeria might not deserve the enigmatic title of 'living fossils,'" he explained.



The discovery of Ngamugawi wirngarri brings to light the intricate interplay between biology and geology that has shaped life on our planet. 



It's more than just a fish tale -- it's a story about the profound influence of Earth's ever-changing skin on the dance of evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51238-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

'Living fossil' fish species has survived for over 400 million years

A recent discovery slamming the fish world is drawing us...

Believe it or not, pet food gobbles up a whopping 9 to 20 percent of all livestock worldwide, with the higher end of the scale being true for high pet ownership nations like the U.S. 



But what if there was a way to reduce this significant environmental footprint with vegan diets for dogs without compromising their health? Turns out, there might be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-vegan-dog-diets">Rise of vegan dog diets</h2>



Contrary to popular belief, dogs are not strict carnivores. They are, in fact, omnivores by nature. This basically means they can thrive on a diet consisting of a mix of plants, minerals, and synthetic ingredients as long as all the necessary nutrients are present. 



A growing number of companies are catching on to this and are producing vegan dog food that ticks all these boxes.



By 2024, ten scientific studies had been published indicating positive health outcomes for dogs on vegan or vegetarian diets. And it's worth noting that the British Veterinary Association has even given a thumbs up to nutritionally sound vegan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine diets</a>.



However, the critical question still remained - What is the real magnitude of the health benefits that average dogs could enjoy from a vegan diet?



In other words, once we account for age, sex, neutering status, breed size and exercise level - all of the elements that can influence a dog's health - could we still see notable health improvements in dogs on a vegan diet?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-benefits-of-vegan-dog-diet">Health benefits of vegan dog diet</h2>



A research team led by Veterinary Professor Andrew Knight analyzed health outcomes for a staggering 2,536 dogs, including 336 that had been on a vegan diet for at least a year. 



The experts found an actual decrease in seven general indicators of illness in the vegan diet group.



The study revealed that dogs on vegan diets were less likely to require medication or specialized medical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warning-dogs-drinking-from-public-water-sources-is-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a>. 



Dogs on vegan diets also needed fewer trips to the vet, were frequently assessed as healthy by their owners and veterinarians, and exhibited lower rates of illness.



When they did fall ill, these dogs also showed fewer health disorders compared to those on conventional meat-based diets. These improvements ranged from 14 percent to an impressive 51 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-likelihood-of-health-disorders">Reduced likelihood of health disorders </h2>



To add to the weight of these findings, all of the observed differences were statistically significant. In non-statistician speak, this means that the differences seen were not due to pure chance but are likely true. 



What's more, the likelihood of suffering from six specific health disorders fell by 50 to 61 percent compared to dogs fed traditional meat. 



These disorders included some common doggie health problems like weight issues and problems with the ears, musculoskeletal and gastrointestinal system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-different-diets">Comparing different diets</h2>



A recent study found that of the 22 most common health disorders, 11 were most prevalent in dogs on conventional meat diets.



Eight were most common in dogs on raw meat diets, and just three were most likely in the vegan diet group. 



Overall, 49 percent of dogs on conventional meat diets were unwell compared to 43 percent on raw meat diets and a mere 36 percent on vegan diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-vegan-dog-diets">Environmental impact of vegan dog diets </h2>



Beyond the health benefits explored, the environmental ramifications of switching to vegan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-breeding-dogs-like-dachshunds-deserve-a-healthy-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets for dogs</a> are equally compelling. 



Traditional meat-based pet food significantly contributes to the carbon footprint due to the intensive resource demands of livestock farming, such as land, water, and feed. By reducing reliance on meat, vegan dog food can mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation rates. 



According to a study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>, if all U.S. dogs and cats switched to plant-based diets, the reduction in meat consumption would be equivalent to taking millions of cars off the road in terms of carbon emissions. 



This shift offers a dual benefit: fostering pet health while supporting environmental sustainability - an urgent consideration in our rapidly changing climate landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-considerations">Nutritional considerations </h2>



While the prospect of transitioning to a vegan diet for dogs presents numerous advantages, it is not without its challenges. 



Ensuring balanced nutrition is paramount, as improper diets can lead to deficiencies in essential nutrients like protein, calcium, and vitamins such as B12 and D. 



For pet owners contemplating this switch, it's advisable to consult with veterinarians or pet nutrition specialists to tailor a nutritious plant-based diet. 



Recent advances in pet food technology have yielded a plethora of commercially available vegan options, fortified and balanced to cater specifically to canine dietary needs. 



Paying close attention to food labels and opting for brands with reputable nutritional accreditations can help safeguard against potential deficiencies, ensuring that the transition supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medium-sized-dogs-have-a-greater-risk-of-developing-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet health</a> effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-verdict">The final verdict</h2>



"Dogs fed vegan diets clearly had the best health outcomes in this very large-scale study, and these results are consistent with prior studies in this field," said Professor Knight.



"Nutritionally sound vegan diets offer extremely large environmental benefits, so this is very good news for dog owners who want to protect the environment while also maximizing their dogs' health." 



"However, care should always be taken to ensure diets are nutritionally sound, by checking package labeling and purchasing from reputable pet food companies."



Vegan dog have significant potential for a more sustainable planet and healthier pooches. But, like every aspect of pet care, it's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diets-may-not-be-best-for-dogs-after-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential to do your homework</a> and ensure that you're making the best choice for your furry friend.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)11609-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heliyon</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dogs on vegan diets stay healthier and visit the vet less often

Believe it or not, pet food gobbles up a whopping...

What lies at the bottom of the ocean? For many, it’s a dark and mysterious place, full of creatures we know little about. But sometimes, discoveries shed light on these mysteries. A new study has done just that, focusing on an unusual deep ocean dweller who likes to eat Sargassum.



Bathyopsurus nybelini, an isopod living nearly 3.7 miles (6,100 meters) deep beneath the ocean's surface, has a very unique diet: it feeds on Sargassum algae that sinks down from the ocean’s surface.



The study, led by Johanna Weston, a hadal ecologist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), reveals just how connected the surface of our oceans is to the deep sea. 



Let's find out what makes this discovery so fascinating and important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sargassum-in-the-deep-ocean">Sargassum in the deep ocean</h2>



In the summer of 2022, a group of researchers set out on an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adventure with Alvin</a>, a human-occupied submersible, to explore the Puerto Rico Trench and the Mid-Cayman Spreading Center in the Caribbean Sea. 



Thanks to Alvin's recent upgrades, including better deep-diving abilities and high-res image capturing, this journey became a reality.



While exploring the ocean depths, the team observed something unexpected: an isopod swimming upside down and away from the seafloor, clutching a frond of Sargassum algae as long as its own body. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-worm-discovered-off-costa-rica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">At these depths</a> -- between 5,001 and 6,284 meters -- Alvin filmed 32 individual isopods and collected two samples for further study. 



According to Weston, “It was exciting to see this beautiful animal actively interacting with Sargassum, deep in the ocean. This isopod is so rarely seen; only a handful of specimens were collected during the groundbreaking 1948 Deep Sea Swedish Expedition.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-food-source">Unexpected food source</h2>



Sargassum is a type of brown algae typically found floating on the ocean's surface, forming dense mats that stretch for miles. In the sunlit zone, it thrives, photosynthesizing like any other plant. 



However, when Sargassum dies or detaches from its floating mats, it begins a slow, downward journey into the dark abyss.



That’s where Bathyopsurus nybelini comes in. This deep-sea isopod seems to wait patiently, adapted to find and feast on this sunken source of nutrients. 



“This isopod illustrates that an animal in a dark and high-pressure environment at the bottom of the seafloor has evolved multiple adaptations to feed on algae that grow in a sunlit ecosystem," explains Mackenzie Gerringer, a deep-ocean physiologist at <a href="https://www.geneseo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY Geneseo</a> and co-lead author of the study.



It’s an unlikely meal, but one that provides essential nourishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isopods-and-deep-ocean-sargassum">Isopods and deep ocean Sargassum</h2>



Why is this discovery such a big deal? For one, Bathyopsurus nybelini has developed unique adaptations to survive in an environment where most creatures would struggle to find food. 



It uses a specialized swimming stroke, moving upside down and backward with large paddle-like legs, to carry Sargassum fronds off the seafloor. This might be a clever strategy to avoid predators by lifting its food into the water column.



But the adaptations don’t stop there. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isopod has mouthparts</a> that are serrated and ideal for tearing and consuming the tough, fibrous Sargassum. 



Inside its gut, it harbors bacteria that help break down the algae’s complex polysaccharides -- molecules that are notoriously difficult to digest. 



“Life everywhere, even in the deepest depths of the sea, is inexorably connected to the microorganisms around it,” says Logan Peoples, an aquatic microbial ecologist at <a href="https://flbs.umt.edu/newflbs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flathead Lake Biological Station</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-web-of-life-from-surface-to-seafloor">Web of life from surface to seafloor</h2>



The presence of Sargassum at such deep depths has bigger implications for how we understand ocean ecology. This study highlights the close connection between the surface ocean and the deep sea.



When Sargassum sinks, it plays a role in carbon cycling and storage, which affects global climate patterns. 



We’re already seeing significant ecological and economic impacts on coastal communities due to changes in how much Sargassum is found in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean Sea.



Researchers are eager to figure out just how much Sargassum makes it to the seafloor and how its arrival varies with the seasons and long-term environmental changes. 



Understanding these dynamics could help us predict how deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-pigs-unicumbers-strange-stunning-creatures-discovered-abyssal-plains-ccz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean communities</a> respond to shifting environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



The discovery of Bathyopsurus nybelini feeding on Sargassum also highlights the importance of advanced technologies in deep-sea exploration. 



Alvin, the submersible that made this observation possible, was recently certified to dive to depths of 6,500 meters. 



This achievement opens new doors for marine research and underscores the significance of developing new tools and techniques to explore and study the ocean’s most remote regions. 



As Anna Michel, Chief Scientist for the <a href="https://ndsf.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Deep Submergence Facility</a>, noted, "The discovery described in this paper was possible due to its new deeper diving capabilities, which is very exciting for the Alvin team."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-ecosystems-and-human-impact">Deep-sea ecosystems and human impact</h2>



Why should we care about an isopod munching on seaweed at the bottom of the ocean? Well, it all comes down to how connected our planet’s ecosystems are. 



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activities change ocean conditions</a> -- from climate change to pollution -- it’s really important to understand how surface processes link to deep ocean ecosystems.



Every discovery, like that of Bathyopsurus nybelini, reminds us that even the most extreme environments on Earth are part of a larger, interconnected web of life. 



The more we learn, the better equipped we are to protect these ecosystems and manage the impacts of our actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-sargassum-on-the-deep-ocean">Impact of Sargassum on the deep ocean</h2>



This study is just the beginning. Scientists plan to continue investigating how Sargassum and other surface-derived materials affect life in the deep sea. 



More research is needed to understand the seasonal and long-term changes in the abundance of Sargassum and its impact on deep-ocean food webs.



As we explore further, new discoveries will undoubtedly reshape our understanding of these hidden ecosystems. 



As Weston puts it, “We’re excited to share its amazing story of adaptation and this important reminder that habitats and organisms on our planet are deeply and intricately connected.”



The ocean is vast, and there is so much more to uncover. So, what other secrets lie in the deep, dark waters? Only time, curiosity, and continued exploration will tell. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0823" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Robot discovers surprising food source for deep ocean creatures

What lies at the bottom of the ocean? For many,...

In a momentous scientific leap, researchers have successfully sequenced RNA from an extinct Tasmanian tiger specimen that is over a century old. This achievement marks a significant milestone in the field of genetics and paleogenomics.



For the first time, transcriptomes -- essentially the complete sets of RNA transcripts from an organism -- have been reconstructed for an extinct species, providing unprecedented insights into the biology of the Tasmanian tiger.



Emilio Mármol, the study's lead author and a dedicated researcher at SciLifeLab, underscores the importance of this venture .



“Resurrecting the Tasmanian tiger or the woolly mammoth is not a trivial task and will require a deep knowledge of both the genome and transcriptome regulation of such renowned species, something that only now is starting to be revealed," he enthused.



This impressive scientific endeavor broadens our understanding of the genetic makeup of these fascinating creatures while bringing researchers ever closer to future efforts in de-extinction, highlighting the intricate connection between genetics, evolution, and the survival of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulling-rna-from-an-extinct-animal">Pulling RNA from an extinct animal</h2>



Can you recall the Tasmanian tiger? Of course, you can't -- it vanished from earth long before our time. However, in its heyday, this unique animal was a top predator across the broad stretches of Australia and Tasmania. 



The Tasmanian tiger's extinction in the early 20th century was a significant loss for our planet, but this breakthrough opens the door to understanding it and other extinct species more deeply than ever before.



The researchers' work helps us understand how a species lived, functioned, and evolved. This was achieved by constructing the skin and skeletal muscle transcriptomes -- an invaluable step towards de-extinction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding RNA</a> viruses' evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-de-extinction-requires-more-than-just-dna">De-extinction requires more than just DNA</h2>



Now, most efforts in de-extinction concentrate on DNA. Though essential, DNA tells only part of the story. 



To get a more comprehensive picture, researchers need to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-junk-is-crucial-for-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decode RNA</a>, the molecules carrying genetic instructions for building proteins. 



In this important study, researchers sequenced RNA gleaned from a Tasmanian tiger specimen that had been preserved at room temperature for over 130 years at the <a href="https://www.nrm.se/engelska/in-english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a> in Stockholm.



“This is the first time that we have had a glimpse into the existence of thylacine-specific regulatory genes, such as microRNAs, that got extinct more than one century ago," noted Marc R. Friedländer, an Associate Professor at <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm University</a>



While DNA is the life blueprint, RNA is the project manager, directing which genes are expressed when. With the Tasmanian tiger’s transcriptome in hand, scientists now possess a trove of data that could be pivotal for de-extinction efforts.



Mármol and his team used cutting-edge techniques to identify high-quality RNA molecules, filling gaps in our understanding of how genes were regulated in extinct species and providing a richer picture of the biological functions that characterized the Tasmanian tiger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-towards-de-extinction">Next steps towards de-extinction</h2>



Imagine what we could learn from the vast collection of specimens and tissues stored in museums across the globe. 



Who knew that these seemingly unassuming archives could be gold mines of genetic information waiting to be discovered? 



But, as Love Dalén, a Professor of evolutionary genomics at Stockholm University, points out, the implications extend beyond extinct animals.



“In the future, we may be able to recover RNA not only from extinct animals but also RNA virus genomes such as SARS-CoV-2 and their evolutionary precursors from the skins of bats and other host organisms held in museum collections," Dalén explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-back-extinct-species-with-rna">Bringing back extinct species with RNA</h2>



With the integration of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-building-block-of-life-called-tna-created-in-the-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomics and transcriptomics</a>, we're moving closer to a holistic understanding of what it takes to bring a species back to life. 



A giant leap has been taken, but the journey is long, and we still need to understand the environment, behavior, and role within the ecosystem before reintroducing a species.



So, what's your take? Would you like to see a Tasmanian tiger roaming the earth again, or should we leave nature be? The conversation is just beginning.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genome.cshlp.org/content/early/2023/07/18/gr.277663.123.abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

RNA recovered from an extinct species in a big boost for de-extinction efforts

In a momentous scientific leap, researchers have successfully sequenced RNA...

Stem cells in humans and animals have garnered significant attention for their ability to repair and regenerate damaged tissues. 



From treating degenerative diseases to enabling advanced therapies, these cells have revolutionized medical research. However, stem cells are not exclusive to the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-stem-cells">Plant stem cells</h2>



Plants, too, possess their own remarkable stem cells, quietly driving growth and regeneration beneath their roots and shoots. 



While plant stem cells have not received the same spotlight, they hold immense potential for advancing agriculture and food sustainability.



According to Huanzhong Wang, professor of plant molecular biology at the <a href="https://cahnr.uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Agriculture, Health, and Natural Resources</a> (CAHNR), plant stem cells have significant potential to support human development - especially through enhancing food supply resilience.



“It’s not just humans and animals,” said Professor Wang. “Plants have stem cells too, and we should be paying attention to them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-and-plant-development">Stem cells and plant development </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> owe their growth and longevity to a variety of stem cells that govern cell division and differentiation. These cells, embedded deep within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a>, shoots, and the vascular system of plants, are critical to the plant's ability to develop.



Professor Wang noted that this intricate network of stem cells ensures that plants can grow both upwards and downwards, forming thicker stems or trunks when necessary.



“Plants can grow for many, many years because different types of stem cells basically ensure they can grow up in the air and deep into the ground,” said Wang. “To grow a thicker stem or trunk, they need another type of stem cell.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-the-hva-gene">Critical role of the HVA gene</h2>



While plant stem cells haven’t attracted as much attention as their biomedical counterparts, they hold incredible potential for bolstering our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-heat-is-threatening-wheat-and-the-global-food-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food supply</a>. 



Professor Wang's research highlights how understanding these cells can lead to stronger, more resilient crops. His lab recently published a study in New Phytologist that describes the role of a transcription factor gene called HVA.



The HVA gene controls cell division in vascular stem cells, which are responsible for producing the vascular bundles that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.



Overexpressing this gene dramatically increases the number of vascular bundles, boosting the plant's structural resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-agricultural-resilience">Enhancing agricultural resilience</h2>



“In plants without HVA gene overexpression, we observed around five to eight vascular bundles,” said Professor Wang. “In contrast, plants with one copy of the overexpressed gene had over 20, and those with two copies had more than 50 bundles.”



The implications for agriculture are clear. Taller, slender crops like corn could benefit from enhanced wind resistance with the aid of additional vascular bundles.



“When plants grow taller, there is a risk that they could topple over,” said Wang. “Having more vascular bundles ensures the plant can stand still and resist those conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-research-beyond-mustard-plants">Expanding research beyond mustard plants</h2>



Though the research was conducted using a mustard family model organism, the HVA gene is present in various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-plant-species-remain-unphotographed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, suggesting broad applicability. 



Wang’s team plans to investigate other transcription factors in the same gene family to further unravel the mysteries of plant vascular development.



“We are interested in studying other closely related genes to find out their function,” noted Wang. “It will be interesting to study further how this gene family affects vascular development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-stem-cells-and-sustainable-agriculture">Plant stem cells and sustainable agriculture</h2>



As the global population continues to rise, the demand for sustainable and resilient food sources becomes increasingly urgent. 



Plant stem cells, with their unique ability to drive growth and regeneration, could play a pivotal role in this effort. 



By harnessing the regenerative power of these cells, scientists can develop crops that not only grow faster but also exhibit greater resilience to environmental stressors like drought, pests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a> conditions.



Research into plant stem cells also opens up the possibility of reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. 



With more robust crops, farmers could see increased yields while minimizing environmental damage. This aligns with the broader movement toward sustainable farming and reducing the carbon footprint of agriculture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.19970" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How plant stem cells could support human growth

Stem cells in humans and animals have garnered significant attention...

Pile,Of,Freshly,Cut,Wood,Logs,And,Empty,Field,With

Forests are the Earth's lungs, forever sucking up carbon dioxide and throwing out fresh oxygen. But that's only half the story.



Here's the twist -- forests also exhale CO2. In short, they inhale carbon dioxide for growth, but they also exhale it back out, usually in smaller amounts. A bit of an unexpected plot twist.



Now, the University of Leicester's new study has a cheeky bit more to add to this story. 



Tree stems in tropical forests that are bouncing back from logging are found to produce carbon dioxide at a greater rate than those in untouched forests.



So, bouncing back from logging, and yet they're sending out more carbon dioxide?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-carbon-dioxide">Trees and carbon dioxide</h2>



When we talk about fewer surrounding trees to compete with, the tree stems in logged forests are seen to have a growth spurt and take in carbon dioxide at a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">faster rate</a> than stems in untouched forests. 



However, this rapid growth also comes with a side effect -- a faster release of carbon dioxide. So, chopped down, left with fewer competitors, and now, they're growing at a quick pace and just as quickly giving out carbon dioxide.



This research was led by Maria Mills, a PhD student from the University of Leicester's School of Geography, Geology and the Environment (<a href="https://le.ac.uk/gge" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GGE</a>). 



Their conclusion calls for a spotlight to be thrown on logged landscapes that are currently understudied despite being more prominent than old-growth forests across the tropics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-of-a-forest-s-carbon-cycle">Heart of a forest's carbon cycle</h2>



What is 'carbon flux'? Think of it as the forest's way of balancing its books. It measures the net carbon balance. 



But this doesn't tell us much about where the fluctuations are coming from -- it's like knowing your bank balance without any information on the transactions.



If we don't know where the fluctuations are coming from, we also don't know why we're getting certain fluxes and what's driving those fluxes.



The researchers gathered data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> in Malaysian Borneo as part of a long-term ecological monitoring program. 



By measuring the individual components of the forest carbon cycle and carbon fluxes, they were able to observe certain patterns and fluxes. 



Understanding these is crucial for predicting future climate change and land use change scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-carbon-dioxide-in-forests">Studying carbon dioxide in forests</h2>



Did you know that most of a forest’s biomass is stored in the stems or woody trunk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>? Well, these scientists did, and they used this information to their advantage. 



The team studied stem respiration of a tree sample, and then extrapolated the values for all the trees in the one-hectare study plots.



Shockingly, tree-level results showed higher carbon release levels per unit of stem surface area in logged versus old-growth plots. 



Specifically, 37 grams of carbon per meter squared of woody stem every month in a logged plot versus only 26 grams in an old-growth plot.



Also, it is important to note that when scaled across the entire one-hectare plots, there was no difference between logged and old-growth results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncharted-territory-of-carbon-dynamics">Uncharted territory of carbon dynamics</h2>



This study was about considering individual trees versus the whole ecosystem, and what drives carbon emissions at both levels. 



"There are differences between individual trees, and between individual ecosystems, for example logged versus unlogged forests," Mills explained.



“We see higher respiration per square meter in logged plots because the trees in those plots are growing faster. Growth has a metabolic cost, so we get respiration following growth." 



The trees in logged plots grow faster because they have access to more light -- as there are more gaps in logged plots from when timber trees have been extracted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-logging-and-carbon-emissions">Forests, logging, and carbon emissions</h2>



There are other reasons for these differences which link back to the trees’ functional traits and soil nutrients, but ultimately it comes down to the priority for trees in logged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-fires-diminish-forests-carbon-storage-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> to invest in growth. 



In old-growth plots, alternatively, there is a lot more investment and priority for tree maintenance.



"Given how expansive logged forests are, they could be considered as the ‘new normal’ for contemporary tropical forests.  We need to put more research efforts into understanding what goes on in logged forests, both in terms of their carbon fluxes and their wider ecological functioning," Mills concluded.



To sum it all up, Mills and her team uncovered very important information on how climate change is impacted by forest carbon dynamics. 



Let's remember, understanding how forests drive environmental conditions is not just about satisfying our curiosity, it's also crucial in our fight against climate change. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20043" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Trees in forests recovering from logging release much more carbon dioxide

Forests are the Earth's lungs, forever sucking up carbon dioxide...

We've entered an age when a once demonized plant is experiencing a resurgence in acceptance. It’s an era of fading misconceptions and growing understanding. Just as the scent of change permeates the air, so too does the aroma of cannabis among older adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-no-barrier-to-cannabis-use">Age: No barrier to cannabis use </h2>



Older adults are not hiding their affinity for the herb. A recent study by the University of Michigan <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Poll on Healthy Aging</a> reveals that 21% of individuals aged 50 and above have used some form of cannabis in the past year.



THC, the component that gives cannabis its distinguishing "buzz," is a common ingredient in products ranging from edibles to topical creams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-adults-using-cannabis">Older adults using cannabis</h2>



What's fascinating is the consistency of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-production-may-soon-get-a-major-boost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis ventures</a>. More than half of the respondents admitted to frequent use, with 12% of adults aged 50 and above admitting to monthly use. 



The study showed that individuals aged 50-64, those in lesser health, or in lower-income households were more likely to report monthly cannabis use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-driving-the-trend">What is driving the trend?</h2>



The question beckons, "why"? Many older adults turn to cannabis for sleep aid (68%), pain relief (63%), mental health support (53%), or simply to unwind or feel at ease (81%).



However, this newfound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endorsement of cannabis</a> comes with its share of hitches. The most concerning results disclose that 20% of annual users admitted to driving within two hours of usage.



This percentage jumps to a startling 27% among monthly users. In addition, nearly half of frequent users have not discussed their use with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-directly-linked-to-head-and-neck-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthcare professionals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-risk-of-cannabis">Growing risk of cannabis</h2>



Dr. Erin E. Bonar is a psychologist affiliated with IHPI, the University of Michigan <a href="https://medicine.umich.edu/dept/psychiatry/programs/addiction-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Addiction Center</a>, and the University of Michigan <a href="https://injurycenter.umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Injury Prevention Center</a>.



"With some form of cannabis use now legalized in 38 states and on the ballot this November in several others, and the federal rescheduling process under way, cannabis use is likely to grow,” noted Dr. Bonar.



“But as this poll shows, it is not risk-free, and more attention is needed to identify and reduce those risks."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-beliefs-on-cannabis">Changing beliefs on cannabis</h2>



Dr. Bonar emphasized the need for heightened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cannabis-significantly-increases-the-risk-of-heart-attack/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public awareness</a>. With their knowledge of cannabis rooted in the past, older adults may not realize the changes in potency and addictive potential of modern cannabis.



This gap is reflected in the finding that 21% of older adults do not believe cannabis is any stronger now than it was two to three decades ago. Over a quarter were unaware of the possibility of cannabis addiction.



For those who use cannabis, especially those who use it frequently, poll director&nbsp;Dr. Jeffrey Kullgren said the findings show the importance of communicating with a health care provider about their use.



Only 56% of monthly users have had this conversation with their doctor. Such discussions can help spot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-found-in-cannabis-plants-can-actually-reduce-cannabis-induced-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risky drug interactions</a> and early indications of dependence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-dependence">Signs of dependence</h2>



Cannabis dependence is more common than perceived. In the study, 22% of monthly users increased their consumption to achieve the desired effect, and 21% reported a decreased effect from the same amount. 



Furthermore, 17% increased the frequency or quantity of cannabis use and 13% reported strong cravings or desires to use THC-rich cannabis.



Dr. Kullgren, a primary care physician at the <a href="https://www.va.gov/ann-arbor-health-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System</a> and associate professor of internal medicine at U-M, emphasized the need for transparency about cannabis use. Such dialogue could help avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-linked-to-elevated-risk-of-severe-covid-19/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unexpected drug interactions</a> and diagnose potential signs of dependence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-the-landscape-of-cannabis-policy">Navigating the landscape of cannabis policy</h2>



The evolving landscape of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-legalization-does-not-increase-youth-substance-abuse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis legislation</a> remains a decisive factor in its acceptance and usage among older adults.



As more states and countries relax legal restrictions, there is an increasing need for policies that also address the healthcare needs of the aging population. 



These policies must provide a solid framework for healthcare professionals to guide patients safely and foster informed use.



The delicate balance between enabling access and ensuring safety highlights the urgency for comprehensive public health guidelines and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americas-cannabis-capitals-people-these-us-cities-consume-most-marijuana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">educational initiatives</a>.



As legislation advances, policymakers must consider the unique needs of older adults who often utilize cannabis for therapeutic purposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathway-to-future-research">Pathway to future research</h2>



As federal cannabis restrictions shift, research constraints may relax, potentially paving the way for more clinical trials involving cannabis products and human participants.



In conclusion, while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-smokers-not-lazy-unmotivated-despite-stereotypes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acceptance and use of cannabis</a> are on the rise, it is crucial we do so responsibly.



Regular communication with healthcare providers, awareness of risks, understanding potential dependencies, and staying updated with the latest research are key elements to focus on.



The report is published by <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/reports-more/report/how-older-adults-use-think-about-and-discuss-cannabis">National Poll on Healthy Aging</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cannabis use is rising significantly among older adults

We've entered an age when a once demonized plant is...

Environmentalists and climate scientists have long emphasized the urgency of preserving the Amazon rainforest.



Contributing significantly towards the global climate-control mechanism, the Amazon rainforest is more than a verdant wonder - it is the breathing "lungs" of our planet.



However, a startling revelation about the world's largest tropical rainforest has raised new concerns.



Almost 40% of the Amazon - the areas most crucial to mitigating climate change - remain unprotected. These regions are not shielded as Indigenous sanctuaries or nature reserves, according to a new report.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-s-unprotected-regions">Amazon's unprotected regions</h2>



These unprotected territories are primarily situated in the extreme southwest of the Amazon in Peru, and the far northeast in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname.



What makes these parts exceptionally significant in the climate change combat "Those parts of the Amazon have the biggest, densest trees and the most continuous canopy cover," noted Matt Finer, who leads the Amazon Conservation's <a href="https://www.maaproject.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project</a> (MAAP).



These regions store large amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-release-carbon-faster-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a>, potentially turning into climate-warming greenhouse gases if jeopardized by fire or logging.



Combining the powers of satellite imaging and machine-learning models, the Amazon Conservation team produced a 3D image of the forest, focusing solely on aboveground vegetation.



The analysis has been instrumental in mapping the most pristine parts of the Amazon that still exist. "It really just gives this overall roadmap in terms of some of the highest carbon areas that are important to protect," said Finer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diminishing-levels-of-protection">Diminishing levels of protection </h2>



According to the MAAP analysis, 61% of the peak carbon areas in the Amazon are guarded as indigenous reserves or other protected lands. However, the remaining areas lack any formal designation.



Countries like Brazil, Suriname, and French Guiana show a diminished level of protection with only 51% of high carbon areas labeled for preservation. Peru, on the other hand, protects a higher ratio of its critical areas. 



However, certain unprotected regions have been marked for logging, causing concern among environmentalists.



With an earlier analysis indicating that the Amazon held a staggering 71.5 billion tons of carbon, approximately double the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global carbon dioxide emissions</a> anticipated for 2022, the need to protect these regions becomes more crucial than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-unprotected-amazon">Protecting the unprotected Amazon</h2>



The study also revealed that the Amazon absorbed more carbon than it released in the decade leading up to 2022, offering a glimmer of hope for the global climate scenario. 



Yet, this is still a hot topic of debate. Some research suggests that the Amazon has now become a source of emissions, instead of a carbon sink.



Without a doubt, safeguarding our environment is not just an option, it's our duty. Recognizing the urgency to protect these remaining pristine parts of the Amazon, therefore, is vital for the long-term health of our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-impact-of-the-amazon">Global impact of the Amazon</h2>



The Amazon rainforest plays a pivotal role in maintaining global climate stability. Often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," the forest absorbs vast amounts of carbon dioxide, helping to mitigate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



Its complex ecosystems also serve as critical habitats for millions of species, many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. 



Beyond its ecological significance, the Amazon influences weather patterns across the planet, contributing to rainfall in regions far beyond South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-threat-of-deforestation">The threat of deforestation</h2>



Despite its importance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-amazon-crisis-deforestation-is-escalating-in-indigenous-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and degradation continue to threaten the Amazon. Logging, mining, and agricultural expansion have left significant portions of the forest vulnerable.



The destruction of these areas not only accelerates biodiversity loss but also disrupts the Amazon's ability to act as a carbon sink. 



If deforestation trends continue, scientists warn that the Amazon could reach a tipping point where it would shift from being a vital carbon store to a carbon emitter, exacerbating the global climate crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-amazon">The future of the Amazon</h2>



Protecting the Amazon is not just a regional issue but a global responsibility. Efforts to create more protected areas, enforce conservation laws, and involve indigenous communities in land stewardship are crucial for safeguarding the rainforest’s future.



As the largest tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> on Earth, the Amazon's preservation will play an essential role in the fight against climate change. 



Every unprotected area represents a missed opportunity to secure the planet’s ecological balance, and immediate action is necessary to prevent further loss.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nearly 40% of climate-critical Amazon rainforest is unprotected

Environmentalists and climate scientists have long emphasized the urgency of...

species in Haplomitriaceae