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It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing sugar in our daily diets, becoming increasingly prevalent in a variety of food and beverage products. One of the most commonly used sugar substitutes is Erythritol, which is often used in your morning coffee, protein bars, and a wide range of low-carb dietary products.



This sugar alternative is often hailed as a miracle solution for individuals looking to manage their weight or reduce calorie intake. However, what if I told you that this seemingly harmless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-neotame-has-shocking-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial sweetener</a> could actually be increasing our risk of heart attack and stroke?



A new study led by Dr. Stanley Hazen, a well-known expert in cardiovascular and metabolic sciences, suggests that this sweetener might not be as harmless as it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-artificial-sweeteners">Defining "artificial sweeteners"</h2>



Artificial sweeteners serve as substitutes for sugar in various foods and beverages, providing a sweet taste without the added calories. These substances are often significantly sweeter than sugar, which means that only a small quantity is needed to achieve the desired flavor profile. 



Common examples include aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose, which have gained popularity in "sugar-free" or "diet" products. This appeal is particularly relevant for individuals aiming to lower their sugar intake for health reasons, such as managing weight or controlling blood sugar levels in diabetes.



The use of artificial sweeteners has ignited debate regarding their safety and potential long-term health effects. However, regulatory bodies like the FDA have classified these sweeteners as safe when consumed within established limits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-erythritol">Understanding erythritol</h2>



Erythritol is a popular pick for anyone trying to cut back on sugar. You’ll find it in lots of low-calorie, low-carb, and "keto" products. It’s about 70% as sweet as sugar, but with way fewer calories.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-artificial-sweeteners-safe-the-debate-is-heating-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unlike sugar</a>, erythritol isn’t really processed by the body, so it just passes into the bloodstream and gets flushed out through urine.



On the surface, it seems harmless enough, especially since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a>) and the European Food Safety Authority (<a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EFSA</a>) have labeled it as "generally recognized as safe" (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/generally-recognized-safe-gras" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAS</a>). This means it can be used in food products without any restrictions.



Here's the catch: while erythritol does naturally occur in fruits and veggies and is produced in small amounts during glucose metabolism, the levels we get from artificial sweeteners are much higher. This difference is what has scientists, like Dr. Hazen, taking a closer look.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-erythritol-and-sugar-substitutes">Risks of erythritol and sugar substitutes</h2>



A recent study by Dr. Hazen’s team at the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cleveland Clinic</a> looked into how erythritol affects blood clot formation, adding to a larger set of questions about the physiological effects of common sugar substitutes.



The results were surprising. Healthy volunteers who consumed erythritol at levels typically found in a "sugarless" soda or muffin experienced a staggering spike in blood erythritol levels to well over 1,000 times the baseline.



More concerning, this consumption was accompanied by a significant increase in blood clot formation.



To put these findings into context, when the same participants consumed glucose, their blood didn't show the same tendency to clot.



This difference is important because it emphasizes that erythritol itself -- not just any artificial or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sugar-sources-are-key-to-preventing-childhood-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural sweetener</a> -- could be a unique risk factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-consumers">What does this mean for consumers?</h2>



These findings have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-linked-to-higher-risk-of-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serious implications</a>, particularly for individuals at high cardiovascular risk -- those with conditions like obesity, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome.



"Many professional societies and clinicians routinely recommend that people at high cardiovascular risk consume foods that contain sugar substitutes rather than sugar," says Dr. Hazen. But with evidence mounting against erythritol, it's time to reconsider that advice.



Dr. Hazen’s research isn't the first to cast doubt on the safety of erythritol. A previous study published last year in Nature Medicine revealed that cardiac patients with high erythritol levels were twice as likely to experience a major cardiac event within three years.



Moreover, adding erythritol to blood samples increased clot formation, a finding that was confirmed in pre-clinical studies.



These consistent results suggest that erythritol, even in amounts typically consumed, may not be as safe as once thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expert-urge-caution">Expert urge caution</h2>



Given the potential risks, experts are urging caution. "This research raises some concerns that a standard serving of an erythritol-sweetened food or beverage may acutely stimulate a direct clot-forming effect," says Dr. W. H. Wilson Tang, a co-author of the study and research director for <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/departments/heart/depts/heart-failure-transplantation-medicine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heart Failure and Cardiac Transplantation Medicine</a> at Cleveland Clinic.



He emphasizes the importance of more research, especially long-term studies, to really get a handle on the cardiovascular safety of erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



Adding to the worry is that xylitol, another popular artificial sweetener, has shown similar effects in studies.



Just like erythritol, xylitol was linked to higher plasma levels and impacted platelet aggregation in healthy volunteers. The similarities between these sweeteners hint that the risks might not be exclusive to erythritol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erythritol-and-the-future-of-sugar-substitutes">Erythritol and the future of sugar substitutes</h2>



So, where does that leave us? Right now, it's smart to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/startling-connection-between-soda-and-liver-disease-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cautious about artificial sweeteners</a>, especially for those at high risk for heart disease.



Research by Dr. Hazen and his team is still ongoing. We can expect more findings in the coming years.



As Dr. Hazen concludes, "Cardiovascular disease builds over time, and heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. We need to make sure that the foods we eat aren't secretly contributing to this crisis."



This hints that the food industry and regulators might need to rethink their stance on erythritol and other sugar substitutes.



To sum it all up, while the convenience and low-calorie perks of these sweeteners are definitely appealing, we should think about their potential impact on our long-term health.



The discussion around these products goes beyond personal choices. The use of artificial sweeteners, like erythritol, xylitol, also has broader and concerning implications for public health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.124.321019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology</a>.



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Artificial sweeteners like Erythritol directly linked to blood clots and heart disease

It's no secret that artificial sweeteners have been gradually replacing...

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge compared to many other living organisms: they cannot move to escape predators, pathogens, heat stress, or other unfavorable environmental conditions.



To cope with these threats, plants have evolved various strategies triggered by specific environmental signals. It has long been known that changes in intracellular calcium concentration play a key role in processing these signals.&nbsp;



However, alongside these calcium changes, shifts in the cell's membrane potential have also been suspected to act as signal transmitters.&nbsp;



Now, researchers from the Departments of Neurophysiology, Pharmaceutical Biology, and Botany at <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> (JMU) have explored the relationship between calcium and membrane potential in greater depth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-response-to-stress">Plants' response to stress</h2>



In their study, the research teams worked with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> plants that were engineered to carry ion channels that could be specifically activated by light.&nbsp;



Over 20 years ago, scientists Peter Hegemann, Georg Nagel, and Ernst Bamberg pioneered the field of optogenetics with their discovery and characterization of light-activated ion channels, known as channelrhodopsins.



Using these light-sensitive proteins, which are derived from algae and microorganisms, the JMU researchers were able to experimentally determine whether the influx of calcium ions or the depolarization of the cell membrane, mediated by anion efflux, was crucial for the plant's response to specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> situations. 



However, considerable preparatory work was required before they could conduct these experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-the-use-of-channelrhodopsins">Optimizing the use of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Channelrhodopsins, ion channels equipped with a rhodopsin-based light switch, revolutionized neuroscience by enabling the light-controlled study of neuronal networks.&nbsp;



The application of channelrhodopsins in plant research became feasible only 20 years later, thanks to close collaboration between Georg Nagel's group at the Institute of Physiology at JMU and plant researchers from the Würzburg Chairs of Botany 1, 2, and Pharmaceutical Biology.



In 2021, Nagel's group, along with Dr. Kai Konrad, a group leader at the JMU Chair of Professor Rainer Hedrich Botany 1, published a method to optimize the use of channelrhodopsins in plants by overcoming three major challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-successful-expression-of-channelrhodopsins">Successful expression of channelrhodopsins</h2>



Study co-author Shiqiang Gao, a “rhodopsin engineer” from the Optogenetics lab in the Department of Neurophysiology at JMU, explained the first challenge.



“Like all rhodopsins, including those in our eyes, channelrhodopsins require the small molecule retinal, also known as vitamin A, to absorb light. We humans get retinal mainly from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carotenes-have-a-powerful-positive-effect-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beta-carotene</a>, the provitamin A. However, land plants do not contain retinal, but they do have plenty of beta-carotene,” said Gao.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In 2021, Gao succeeded in combining the expression of channelrhodopsins with the production of retinal from beta-carotene in plant cells. This breakthrough allowed the development of tobacco plants with a high retinal content and successful expression of channelrhodopsins.



Dr. Markus Krischke from the Metabolomics Core Unit in the Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, headed by Professor Martin Müller at JMU Würzburg, confirmed the high retinal content of various transgenic tobacco plants.



Comparable transgenic tobacco plants were produced for the recently published study by Dr. Meiqi Ding from the Department of Botany 1, under the direction of plant physiologist and plant signal processing expert Dr. Kai Konrad, from Professor Rainer Hedrich's group at Botany 1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-light-activation">The challenge of light activation</h2>



The second challenge involved light activation. “Most rhodopsins are activated by blue or green light. However, these colors are components of white light,” explained Nagel. 



This meant the tobacco plants could not be grown in a greenhouse or under standard artificial white light conditions, as this would inadvertently activate the rhodopsins. 



Instead, the plants had to be grown in special growth chambers with red LED light, which is photosynthetically useful and does not trigger rhodopsin activation. 



Tests under various growth conditions revealed that tobacco develops healthily and unchanged under red light compared to greenhouse conditions, noted Konrad.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-channelrhodopsins-in-tobacco-cells">Channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells</h2>



The third challenge was the difficulty in expressing channelrhodopsins in tobacco cells. In 2021, the Würzburg research team successfully expressed the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 in tobacco plant cells. 



As a result, Nagel's team was able to develop various channelrhodopsins optimized for calcium ion permeability. 



Ultimately, Shiqiang Gao and Shang Yang, both members of Nagel's group, succeeded in developing an advanced calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin, named XXM 2.0, specifically for targeted expression in tobacco plants.



This marked a significant breakthrough: “The successful expression of channelrhodopsins with different ion selectivities in plant cells allows us to compare different ion signals alongside the electrical signal, known as depolarization,” Meiqi Ding explained.&nbsp;



She used the calcium-conducting channelrhodopsin XXM 2.0 and the light-activated anion channel GtACR1 to investigate the various ion signaling pathways in tobacco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optogenetic-tobacco-plants-nbsp">Optogenetic tobacco plants&nbsp;</h2>



These newly created “optogenetic” tobacco plants enabled the researchers to answer the question of whether calcium influx or membrane depolarization is more critical for the plant's response to a specific stress situation. “The answer was clear,” said Konrad.&nbsp;



“After activation of the anion channel, the leaves wilted and showed the typical plant response to drought; the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) was produced, and gene expression was increased to protect against dehydration,” Ding added.



“However, in the plants with the calcium channel, there was no change in ABA levels after optogenetic stimulation.”&nbsp;



“Instead, the plants produced signal molecules and plant hormones to trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defense-gut-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense mechanisms</a> against predators, as evidenced by white spots on the leaves,” Konrad said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-in-plant-research-nbsp">A new era in plant research&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Sönke Scherzer from Professor Hedrich's chair demonstrated through direct measurements that reactive oxygen species (ROS) were released during this process.



Dirk Becker and Rainer Hedrich at Botany 1 designed an experimental approach using transcriptomic and bioinformatic analysis to support the working hypothesis.



The researchers are convinced that this study marks the beginning of a new era in plant research. They believe that with the help of various rhodopsins, plant signaling pathways can now be more thoroughly “illuminated.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07884-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How do plants respond to specific stress situations?

When it comes to survival, plants face a significant challenge...

Let's talk about cacti, the prickly plants we adore as quaint household adornments or gigantic landscape wonders. From the towering saguaro reaching heights of up to 18 meters to the petite button cactus barely peaking the soil's surface, the cactus family boasts an impressive range. But what's the secret behind cacti's evolution and stunning diversity?



Researchers from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath set out to decode this mystery, and their discoveries have turned our existing beliefs on their head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-climate-misconception">Unearthing the (climate) misconception</h2>



Contrary to the long-held belief that arid climates are the cradle of cactus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-evolution-drastically-changed-earths-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>, these scientists have discovered otherwise. 



Intriguing findings from the study suggest that it's not merely the dryness of climate, but factors like the daily temperature swing, the grainy texture of the soil, and the turn of seasons, that play the pivotal roles in cactus evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vast-diversity-of-cacti">Vast diversity of cacti</h2>



Fascinatingly, even though cacti have become a worldwide favorite as interior decorations, they are originally from the New World, native to North, Central, and South America alone. Mexico seems to be the hotspot of cactus diversity, boasting the highest species richness.



The Bath researchers embarked on a quest to piece together all known published data on cacti, aiming to dig deeper into the roots of their vast diversity. The team has constructed the largest ever evolution tree of cacti using copious DNA sequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-cactus-evolution">Dynamics of cactus evolution </h2>



To understand the interplay of various biological factors contributing to cactus diversity, the team used machine learning methods.



Analyzing variables like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> size, geographical range, soil sand content, aridity, and diurnal temperature range, the researchers painted a clearer picture of cactus evolution dynamics - a triumph of data and technology.



In a surprising twist, the team discovered that while Mexico flaunts the highest number of cactus species, it simultaneously exhibits the slowest evolutionary rate, debunking the idea that the arid Mexican climate primarily ejects the new cactus species into existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cacti-climate-sensitivity">Cacti climate sensitivity </h2>



After conducting the research at the Milner Centre for Evolution, <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a>, study lead author Dr. Jamie Thompson provides some much-needed perspective. He notes that despite their tough exterior, cacti are actually more prone to extinction than other plants.



"Because there is the highest biodiversity in Mexico, it was assumed this was because the conditions there were best for evolution of species," said Dr. Thompson.



"However, our study shows this isn’t the case – instead Mexico has the slowest rate of speciation but has lots of biodiversity because the extinction rates are slower. In other words, the Mexican climate is not necessarily better at producing new species but good at preserving existing ones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-climate-in-cacti-survival">Role of climate in cacti survival</h2>



Climatic conditions extend beyond simple aridity; they shape the very survival strategies of cacti. Their adaptations, such as water retention mechanisms and the unique structure of their spines, serve not only as protection from herbivores but also aid in minimizing water loss. 



In their quest for survival, cacti have evolved to thrive in environments that oscillate between extremes, showcasing their remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-plants-have-maintained-genetic-stability-for-350-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>. 



Understanding how these plants respond to fluctuating climatic variables enhances our comprehension of their ecological roles and resilience in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts">Conservation efforts </h2>



As the evolution research highlights the vulnerabilities of cacti, conservation efforts become increasingly important.



Acknowledging the pressing threats of habitat loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-triggers-epic-plant-migration-in-brazils-cerrado/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, and illegal trade, environmentalists are advocating for protective measures that embrace the delicate balance of ecosystems where cacti flourish.



Future research must focus on developing robust conservation strategies and restoring habitats to ensure the protection of these unique plants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cacti">The future of cacti</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Nick Priest, also from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milner Centre for Evolution</a>, expressed concern over the future of cacti.



"Our work shows that cacti are not as successful as we thought, and are more vulnerable to climate change. This is concerning – if cacti can’t thrive in our changing climate, what chance do other plants have?" 



Funded by a scholarship from Roger and Sue Whorrod, and the University of Bath, this enlightening study has reshaped our understanding of cacti evolution and diversity. 



The research sheds light on the intricacies of nature's mechanisms - an invitation for us to adapt our actions in harmony with our environment. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51666-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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What's the secret behind the stunning diversity of cacti?

Let's talk about cacti, the prickly plants we adore as...

Europe's fascinating history is no stranger to tales of exotic indulgences, and the latest findings add an unexpected layer to this narrative - cocaine use that dates back as far as the 17th century.



This revelation is not just a footnote in history but provides significant insights into the lifestyles and cultures of ancient Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fully-immersive-exploration">A fully immersive exploration </h2>



In the heart of Italy, researchers at the <a href="https://www.unimi.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Milan</a> are expanding our understanding of Europe's past substance use.



Together with colleagues from Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, the research team embarked on a journey to uncover the hidden stories of those who walked the streets of Europe centuries ago.



The study was not merely an attempt at investigating history, but a fully immersive exploration of preserved brains found in a crypt in Milan.



This crypt, lying in the shadows of the historical Ospedale Maggiore, served as the final resting place of many who took their last breath in the famed hospital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-cocaine">Tracing the origins of cocaine</h2>



Before we dig in further into the findings, it's important to understand the history of cocaine use itself.



For thousands of years, inhabitants of South America's western regions relied on the coca plant for its stimulating effects. 



Fast forward to the 19th century, scientists discovered that processing the leaves produced cocaine hydrochloride salts, thus making the euphoric and mind-altering impacts more potent. 



This led to the drug's rise in popularity throughout Europe as a recreational substance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-cocaine-use">Early cocaine use</h2>



The Milan team discovered that Europe's rendezvous with the coca plant started much earlier than previously assumed.



Buried beneath the grounds of the Ca’ Granda crypt, a revelation awaited the research team: Europeans were using this drug to experience its mind-altering effects almost 200 years prior to the 19th-century boom.



During their excavation, the researchers came across the remains of two individuals whose bodies had undergone natural mummification. This presented the team with an unprecedented chance to probe deeper into Europe's past.



Remarkably, active components of the coca plant were found in the preserved brains of both mummies - a clear indication that these individuals were partaking in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rosemary-compound-offers-hope-in-combating-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habit</a> of chewing coca leaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pharmacological-past">The pharmacological past</h2>



Exploring the historical medical records of Ospedale Maggiore, the researchers found no evidence of medical use of cocaine or the coca plant, dismissing the possibility that the two individuals were using these leaves for medicinal purposes. 



Instead, it suggests that the reason behind their consumption was purely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recreational</a>. Evidence also suggested that these two individuals were of modest means, as their burial site and method indicated poverty.



This leads us to imagine a time when coca leaves were not only cheap and abundant, but also served as a readily available recreational outlet for the less fortunate.



The study not only uncovers an intriguing aspect of Europe's past but also poses fascinating questions about the socio-cultural nuances of the time.



It’s an eye-opening reminder that the roots of today's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-maltreatment-triples-the-risk-of-substance-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance use</a> issues trace back much further than we might imagine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The discovery of early cocaine use in Europe invites us to reconsider the cultural exchanges between continents during the 17th century. 



It highlights the profound impact of trade routes that were not just conduits for goods but also for ideas, customs, and substances that shaped societies. 



The research prompts a re-evaluation of the socio-cultural dynamics of the time, revealing how global interactions influenced personal habits and leisure activities across different classes.



Furthermore, the study raises questions about the perception and regulation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychoactive-drug-relieves-symptoms-of-traumatic-brain-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychoactive</a> substances throughout history. It challenges the notion that modern society's struggles with drug use are solely a contemporary issue, instead suggesting a longstanding human curiosity and relationship with mind-altering substances.



As researchers continue to unearth the layers of Europe’s past, this fascinating glimpse into early cocaine use serves as a witness to the complexity and interconnectedness of human history. The findings highlight the importance of interdisciplinary research in unveiling hidden chapters that challenge our understanding of historical narratives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440324001080" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.



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Cocaine use detected in the brains of 17th century mummies

Europe's fascinating history is no stranger to tales of exotic...

Here on Earth, tomatoes grow best in fertile soil that is rich in nutrients like potassium and phosphorus. But can we grow tomatoes in the weightless environment of space? 



Thanks to a dedicated team of scientists, space-grown tomatoes will soon become a reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plants-are-ready-for-launch">Tomato plants are ready for launch</h2>



Imagine biting into a fresh, juicy tomato cultivated on an extraterrestrial station orbiting 260 miles above our planet. 



This isn’t a distant futuristic vision but an emerging reality, with specially engineered tomato plants set to embark on a journey to the International Space Station (ISS).



These are no ordinary tomatoes. Compact, engineered to thrive in minimal space, and painstakingly developed for astronomic growth, these plants are setting a course for the International Space Station (ISS). 



The tomatoes are currently under observation at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, with a payload flight scheduled within the next year or so.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-tomatoes-in-space">Growing tomatoes in space</h2>



The journey will initiate an unprecedented event – these tomato seeds will germinate and bear fruit on the ISS, within its Advanced Plant Habitat laboratory.



The seeds from this first-generation space fruit will then plant the roots for a second generation of tomatoes in the stars.



"So, it’s going to be a seed-to-a-seed-to-a-seed, which has never been done before in space," noted Robert Jinkerson, a professor in the Marlan and Rosemary Bourns College of Engineering at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a>.



But why tomatoes, you ask? Designed to bear fruit in compact spaces, these plants are potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watermeal-may-become-an-essential-food-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food sources for astronauts</a> – a development years in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-technology">SPACE technology</h2>



The remarkable research was led by Martha Orozco-Cárdenas of UCR's Plant Transformation Research Center. Using CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology, Orozco-Cárdenas downsized ordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomato plants</a>, reducing the leaf to fruit ratio.



Backed by an $800,000 grant from the NASA-funded Translational Research Institute for Space Health, further engineering led to the creation of the space-ready tomatoes.



Known as Small Plants for Space Expeditions (SPACE), this technology could extend to other crops on the ISS and future space colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-space-grown-foods">Exploring space-grown foods</h2>



Tomatoes may have company soon. The UCR team is exploring options to grow edible yeast, green algae, and mushrooms in space. Their efforts were recognized when they won $250,000 in NASA’s Deep Space Food Challenge.



The unprecedented research relies on innovative techniques. Eschewing sunlight, a key element for most agricultural cultivation, the team grows mushrooms using acetate, a carbon-based compound. The result - an estimated production of about 4,000 calories per day, surpassing the productivity of biological photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-adaptive-agriculture">Environment-adaptive agriculture</h2>



The research bears significant implications for earthly agriculture too. Compact, indoor-growing crops could be the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-crops-have-higher-yields-in-an-urban-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban agriculture</a>. Vertical farming, with multilayered hydroponically-fed crops, may also play a role in the forthcoming agricultural revolution.



The SPACE tomato, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-genes-that-help-fruit-adapt-to-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to thrive in confined spaces, could soon become available for urban farming. This innovation becomes crucial in regions experiencing climate changes that make outdoor cultivation untenable.



The research team is working towards cultivating food-producing organisms in the dark using acetate as their sole source of carbon and energy, sidestepping the need for photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gearing-up-for-the-green-revolution">Gearing up for the green revolution </h2>



Despite being able to grow yeast, mushrooms, and green algae in the dark feeding on acetate, growing tomatoes and other crops under these conditions remains a hurdle due to the toxicity of acetate to adult plants.



The researchers are exploring solutions, aiming to engineer metabolic processes found in germinating seeds that can utilize acetate. Such dark cultivation could revolutionize agriculture by enabling more widespread indoor cultivation wherever electricity is available.



This would increase the efficiency of food production, reduce agricultural land use, and mitigate its environmental impact. For space agriculture, this increased energy efficiency could help feed more crew members with fewer resources.



Ultimately, the next technological breakthrough in agriculture might well come from a humble tomato plant, grown in the controlled environment of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-space-radiation-affect-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space station</a>.



As we grapple with the challenges of climate change and a rapidly expanding global population, the cosmic tomato could be a critical ingredient in the recipe for a sustainable future.



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Space tomatoes are ready for an unprecedented mission

Here on Earth, tomatoes grow best in fertile soil that...

By analyzing crop yields of over 1,500 fields on six continents, a team of scientists led by Rutgers University-New Brunswick has recently found that global production of important, nutritious foods such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, and legumes is limited by a significant lack of pollinators.



The experts discovered that across various crops and locations, one-third to two-thirds of farms have fields which are not producing at the levels they should be due to a lack of pollinators, a phenomenon known as “pollinator limitation.” These findings are particularly timely considering recent concerns about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global declines</a> in insect abundance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concern-and-optimism">Concern and optimism</h2>



“Our findings are a cause for concern and optimism,” said Katie Turo, a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources in the <a href="https://sebs.rutgers.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences</a>. 



“We did detect widespread yield deficits. However, we also estimate that, through continued investment in pollinator management and research, it is likely that we can improve the efficiency of our existing crop fields to meet the nutritional needs of our global population.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-database-of-crop-pollination">Comprehensive database of crop pollination</h2>



The researchers conducted a statistical analysis of over 200,000 bee visitations to crop flowers, by using one of the world’s most comprehensive databases on pollinated crops. 



Senior author Rachael Winfree, a professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources, collaborated with various colleagues from South America and Europe to compile the most comprehensive database of crop pollination studies on the globe. This open-source database includes three decades of field observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and other pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-pollinated-by-insects">Crops pollinated by insects</h2>



The findings do not apply to major food crops like rice and wheat, which do not require pollinators for reproduction.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, pollination by bees and other animals is critical to the proliferation of “nutrient-dense and interesting foods that we like and are culturally relevant,” such as fruits, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetables</a>, nuts, and legumes, as Turo noted.



“If you look through a list of crops and think about which fruits and vegetables you’re most excited to eat - like summer berries or apples and pumpkins in the fall - those are the crops that typically need to be pollinated by insects,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-and-flowering-plants">Pollinators and flowering plants</h2>



Pollination refers to the process of transferring pollen from the male to the female part of a flower, allowing plants to be fertilized and reproduced. Pollen can be moved around by wind, water or, most frequently, pollinators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-are-very-loyal-to-their-flower-patches/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a> and other other animals, including bats.



According to previous studies, pollinators contribute to the reproduction of nearly 88 percent of the flowering plants and 76 percent of the main global food crops, and bees appear to be the most effective pollinators because they visit more flowers and carry more pollen than other insects.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that blueberry, coffee and apple crops were most frequently impacted by pollinator limitation, while yield deficits were found for 25 crops in 85 percent of the countries evaluated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paying-more-attention-to-pollinators-nbsp">Paying more attention to pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers remain optimistic that current yield deficits could be remediated with increases in pollinator visitation across individual crop fields. Fortunately, in some cases a sufficient number of bees were already visiting some fields.



“Our findings show variations in sensitivity to pollinator limitation across diverse crop systems and indicate that realistic increases in pollinator visitation could mitigate crop yield shortfalls attributable to pollinator limitation,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;



According to Turo, if field managers manage to improve consistency across both high- and low-yield fields, much of the identified yield problems could be fixed.



Winfree said the findings are significant because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floral-interventions-on-farms-boost-pollinators-and-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop yields</a>, which measure the amount of crops grown per unit area of land, are relevant to assessing the adequacy of the world’s food supply relative to its population. 



“Our findings show that by paying more attention to pollinators, growers could make agricultural fields more productive,” Winfree concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02460-2">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Crops worldwide are insufficiently pollinated

By analyzing crop yields of over 1,500 fields on six...

When you stroll through a northern forest, you might not realize that you're meandering through a precious carbon vault. Its soils lock away carbon dioxide that trees absorb and use for photosynthesis, helping our planet breath a little easier. But what happens when the climate becomes too hot to handle?



This was the focus of an intriguing study led by Peter Reich from the University of Michigan. With decades of dedication to understanding our natural world, Reich is the director of the Institute for Global Change Biology at U-M.



The results of the study may change what we know about global warming and the role of our faithful forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-so-cool-side-of-global-warming">Not-so-cool side of global warming</h2>



Global warming is known to turn up the heat on our planet, but it may be turning up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure on our soils too</a>. 



Reich's team discovered that as temperatures rise, soils lose more carbon than plants can replace. The carbon escapes back into the atmosphere, contributing to an ominous cycle of increasing temperatures and mounting carbon emissions.



"This is not good news because it suggests that, as the world warms, soils are going to give back some of their carbon to the atmosphere," said Reich.&nbsp;



Study lead author Dr. Guopeng Liang was a postdoc researcher at the University of Minnesota during the study. He is currently a postdoc researcher at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and an exchange fellow at the Institute for Global Change Biology.



"The big picture story is that losing more carbon is always going to be a bad thing for climate," said Dr. Liang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-carbon-cycle-in-soils">Varying carbon cycle in soils</h2>



Understanding how temperature fluctuations affect the carbon cycle within soils is crucial for forecasting future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a>. Our forests are not just picturesque havens for wildlife; they hold approximately 40% of the Earth's soil carbon.



Several studies have been conducted to ascertain how climate change may alter the carbon flux from forest soils. However, most of these studies are relatively short, lasting no more than three years, and they tend to examine warming in the soil or the air above it, but not both.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-experiments">Unique experiments</h2>



Reich and his team broke away from the traditional methodologies, conducting what is believed to be the first experiment of its kind. 



The experts meticulously controlled not just the soil temperatures, but also the above-ground temperatures in open air- all without the use of any enclosures and, they kept this study running for over a dozen years.



"Our experiment is unique. It's far and away the most realistic experiment like this in the world," Reich asserts.



The project received financial support from the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, and the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a>. 



Collaborators from these institutions, along with the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> and the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, joined forces with Reich and Liang for this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-respiration-and-carbon-cycle">Soil respiration and carbon cycle</h2>



The team explored two warming scenarios at two sites in northern Minnesota, each consisting of 36 plots. They found that soil respiration - the process that releases carbon dioxide - increased by 7% under a modest warming scenario and by a whopping 17% under the more extreme case.



Interestingly, they also found that soil moisture, which decreases at warmer temperatures due to faster water loss from plants and soils, can restrict this carbon release. Microbes, essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil respiration</a>, prefer wetter soils, thus the drier soils limit their activity.



"The take-home message here is that forests are going to lose more carbon than we would like. But maybe not as much as they would if this drying wasn’t happening," said Reich.



So, next time you walk through a northern forest, take a moment to appreciate the complex and vital role it plays in our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon cycle</a>. Like an unsung hero, the soil beneath our feet strives to trap carbon, despite the escalating global temperatures.



As we continue to unravel the secrets of our natural world, remember to do your part in preserving it. After all, our future depends on the choices we make today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01512-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Warming soils release more carbon than plants can replace

When you stroll through a northern forest, you might not...

When we think of forests, several incredible benefits may spring to mind. Forests offset greenhouse gas emissions through their natural carbon storage capacity. They provide habitats for wildlife, increase biodiversity, and offer unparalleled recreational opportunities. 



In Michigan, forests serve as a vital economic engine that contributed over $26 billion to the state's economy in 2022. 



And now, researchers at Michigan State University are highlighting an invisible standout benefit: these woodlands play an instrumental role in supplying and sanitizing our drinking water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-forest-water-nexus">Unearthing the forest-water nexus</h2>



The study was led by Emily Huff, an associate professor in the <a href="https://seas.umich.edu/academics/courses/forest-ecology-and-management" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M Department of Forestry</a>, and colleagues Asia Dowtin, Emily Huizenga, and Jo Latimore.



"Billions of people around the world rely on forests to filter and provide clean drinking water," noted the researchers.



"The immense value of drinking water can be a strong rationale for conserving and sustainably managing forests, however, people are often unaware of this forest ecosystem service of providing clean drinking water which can lead to the service’s degradation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The team set out to investigate how stakeholders perceive woodlands' ability to provide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-4-4-billion-people-lack-access-to-safe-drinking-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean drinking water</a>.



Stakeholders in this study were categorized into seven groups: water consumers, water utility providers, forest landowners, industry partners, policymakers, local governments, and nonprofit organizations. 



“Generally speaking, most people understood that where there are forests, there’s cleaner and more abundant water. However, they didn’t make the functional link that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conserving forests</a> results in cleaner drinking water," explained Huff.



This oversight arises due to a lack of awareness about the origin of household drinking water and the significant contribution of woodlands to its cleanliness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-link-between-forests-and-clean-water">Ecological link between forests and clean water</h2>



“The conclusion we came to for why this is, is partly because Michigan is varied when it relates to where water comes from and flows to throughout different watersheds. There’s a huge focus on overall Great Lakes water quality, but maybe less so specifically on drinking water,” said Huff.



Despite the fact that over 150 million people in the U.S. depend on woodlands to filter their drinking water, many remain oblivious to this ecological connection.



In Michigan specifically, 56% of residents rely on surface water for drinking, while the remaining 44% use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-has-a-vital-role-in-ecosystem-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater</a>, according to the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services.



The state's vast woodland coverage, therefore, plays an integral role in ensuring the availability and purity of its water supply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-nature-s-water-filtration-system">Forests: Nature’s water filtration system</h2>



Forests act as a natural filtration system, safeguarding our water in several ways. Their leafy canopies buffer the impact of heavy rain on the forest floor, reducing erosion and thereby limiting the pollution of nearby bodies of water.



As rainwater permeates the soil and becomes groundwater, the forest roots absorb nutrients and filter it further.



“In 2016, we were only a couple years removed from the beginning of the Flint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water crisis</a> when drinking water was a crisis in Michigan and something we needed to pay more attention to," said Mike Smalligan, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR) forest stewardship coordinator.



Smalligan said he wanted forests and the Michigan DNR to be more relevant to a conversation about drinking water. An initiative called “Forest to Mi Faucet” was created to explain how forests in Michigan protect drinking water.



Forest to Mi Faucet also helps find ways to lower water treatment costs for communities through forest filtration, teaches landowners how to responsibly manage woodlands, and promotes strategic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-action-and-conservation">Awareness, action, and conservation</h2>



"Healthy forests protect clean drinking water, and healthy forests are sometimes actively managed for forest products," said Huff. 



"There are ways to log forests that are sensitive to water quality and quantity, and at the end of the day, having forests where they are far surpasses any other land use when it comes to water quality and quantity.”



Looking forward, Huff and her team see an opportunity to create a market compensating landowners and forest managers for the water-based ecosystem services their woodlands provide. 



“That would essentially mean that money moves from the consumer or utility provider upstream to the forest landowner or manager so that forests are protected via a system where the beneficiaries - the consumers of water - pay forest landowners or managers to keep their lands as forests,” Huff explained.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1752-1688.13002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of American Water Resources Association</a>.



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Forests play a crucial role in clean drinking water

When we think of forests, several incredible benefits may spring...

As the world of today puts on its thinking cap, a new appreciation for unconventional methods is on the rise. A peculiar one among these is the use of psychedelics, particularly psilocybin, in treating depressive symptoms.



Psilocybin is popularly known as the active ingredient in magic mushrooms. An intriguing study recently published in The BMJ tells us that high dose psilocybin could be as effective as popular SSRI drug escitalopram in managing depressive symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-and-depression-trials">Psilocybin and depression trials</h2>



The study authors report that patient responses were better in high dose psilocybin treatments than those on placebo in antidepressant trials. But, what's the catch? The extent of the effect was not massive, but the potential is there.



The diligent researchers behind the review and meta-analysis are affiliated with the BMJ Group, a globally respected player in the medical research landscape. Through their careful evaluation of numerous trials, these scientists have shed new light on psilocybin’s potential role.



To get a clearer picture, the researchers painstakingly searched scientific databases, identifying randomized controlled trials that assessed the effects of psychedelics or escitalopram on adults with acute depressive symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-and-psychedelic-perspective">Psilocybin and psychedelic perspective</h2>



Psychedelics have been gaining attention in the realm of psychiatric treatment. Some might even call it a paradigm shift. 



However, it's important to note that there are significant challenges. The subjective nature of psychedelic experiences can distort results, and the psychological support that usually accompanies psychedelic treatment can make it hard to isolate the effects of the drugs themselves.



That being said, the researchers found a glimmer of hope. The research included 811 people participating in 15 psychedelic trials and 1,968 people participating in five escitalopram trials.



The participants' average age was 42 and 39 respectively, with women making up more than half of both groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-in-the-psychedelic-sky">Star in the psychedelic sky</h2>



The study's most exciting find? High dose psilocybin was the only psychedelic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-psilocybin-mushroom-potency-just-got-easier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment</a> that performed better than a placebo in escitalopram trials. Its effect size was small, but comparable to that of current antidepressant drugs.



If you have concerns about the safety of using psychedelics like psilocybin, a recent study offers some reassuring insights. The research focused on the effects of psilocybin and other similar interventions, assessing their safety profile in comparison to a placebo. 



Importantly, the findings revealed that none of the interventions were linked to a higher rate of severe adverse events. This includes serious issues such as death, hospitalization, or suicide attempts, as well as the rate of discontinuation of treatment. 



This suggests that, when used responsibly and under appropriate conditions, psychedelics may not pose the heightened risks some fear, providing a promising avenue for exploration in mental health treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-and-depression-treatment">Psilocybin and depression treatment </h2>



The exploration of psilocybin as a potential treatment for depression is just getting started. As researchers delve into how psychedelics <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-before-psilocybin-mushrooms-brain-on-psilocybin-mushrooms-any-questions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with our brains</a>, it's important to balance excitement with caution. 



The early results are encouraging, but they raise many questions about how psilocybin actually works. Psychopharmacology plays a crucial role in uncovering these mysteries, helping us understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these substances</a> affect our neurotransmitters and thinking. 



By encouraging open conversations between doctors, researchers, and those who have experienced these therapies, we can learn to integrate psychedelics into future treatment approaches in a responsible way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fine-print">The fine print</h2>



But, like any study, it's critical to acknowledge its limitations. The researchers admitted the sample size was small, and they only assessed the acute effects of interventions. Long term effects of psychedelics and escitalopram remain uncertain.



“Serotonergic psychedelics, especially high dose psilocybin, appeared to have the potential to treat depressive symptoms. Our analysis suggested that the standardised mean difference of high dose psilocybin was similar to that of current antidepressant drugs, showing a small effect size,” the researchers conclude.



“Improved blinding methods and standardised psychotherapies can help researchers to better estimate the efficacy of psychedelics for depressive symptoms and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychiatric conditions</a>.”



They suggest improved blinding methods and standardized psychotherapies can help provide a better estimate of psychedelics' efficacy for depressive symptoms and other psychiatric conditions.



As the scientific community strives to explore further, this study sparks a thought-provoking conversation, doesn't it? Dare we open the door to psychedelics as a potential tool to combat depression? It's a question worth asking.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/386/bmj-2023-078607" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The BMJ</a>.



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Confirmed: Magic mushrooms can effectively treat depression

As the world of today puts on its thinking cap,...

A remarkable study reveals a promising new avenue for combating cocaine addiction. The research points towards a compound present in the rosemary plant as a potential therapy for addiction - but not in the way you might expect.



The scientists focused their attention on a part of the brain known as the globus pallidus externus (GPe), a sort of gatekeeper that affects individual reactions to cocaine. 



The research revealed that specific neurons within the GPe, known as parvalbumin-positive neurons, play an essential role in regulating our responses to cocaine by altering dopamine, the brain's pleasure molecule.



Study co-author Kevin Beier is an associate professor of physiology and biophysics at <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Irvine</a>. 



"Our study deepens our understanding of the basic brain mechanisms that increase vulnerability to substance use disorder-related outcomes and provides a foundation for the development of new interventions," said Beier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moderating-the-brain-s-cocaine-reward-response">Moderating the brain's cocaine reward response</h2>



Beier noted that there are currently no effective therapeutics for dependence on psychostimulants such as cocaine, which, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-discovery-offers-hope-for-tackling-opioid-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opioids</a>, represent a substantial health burden.



The research has far-reaching implications not just for cocaine addiction, but for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-maltreatment-triples-the-risk-of-substance-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance use</a> disorders in general, and it could become a vital tool for developing more effective interventions across a broad spectrum of addictive behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rosemary-to-the-rescue">Rosemary to the rescue</h2>



The most striking revelation came as the team observed the behavior and neural responses of mice who were repeatedly exposed to cocaine.



This chronic cocaine exposure significantly heightened the excitability of the GPe parvalbumin-positive cells, which in turn caused a substantial reduction in the expression of specific proteins that are crucial for maintaining the normal activity of these GPe cells.



The experts discovered that carnosic acid, a potent antioxidant isolate from rosemary extract, selectively binds to the affected ion channels within these neurons.



This binding provides a targeted and precise mechanism to dampen the heightened response to cocaine, offering a promising avenue for reducing the drug’s impact in a relatively specific and controlled fashion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-substance-use-disorder-vulnerability">Substance use disorder vulnerability</h2>



"Only a subset of individuals are vulnerable to developing a substance use disorder, but we cannot yet identify who they are. If GPe cell activity can effectively predict response to cocaine, it could be used to measure likely responses and thus serve as a biomarker for the most vulnerable," said Beier. 



"Furthermore, it's possible that carnosic acid could be given to those at high risk to reduce the response to cocaine."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safely-battling-cocaine-addiction">Safely battling cocaine addiction </h2>



As hopeful as these findings are, further research is required to thoroughly assess any potential side effects of carnosic acid, ensuring its safety and efficacy for long-term use. 



Additionally, scientists need to determine the optimal dosage and timing to maximize its therapeutic benefits while minimizing risks. 



Beyond just cocaine, the research team is also eager to explore carnosic acid's potential in reducing the craving and dependency associated with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-is-up-by-20-percent-in-states-where-its-legal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addictive substances</a>.



The team is particularly keen on developing more potent and focused variants of the compound, aiming to enhance its specificity and effectiveness in targeting the neural pathways involved in addiction. 



These advanced versions of carnosic acid could pave the way for a new class of treatments, offering hope for those struggling with various forms of substance use disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-cocaine-addiction">Beyond cocaine addiction </h2>



While the current study highlights the significant potential of rosemary's carnosic acid in addressing cocaine dependence, the broader implications of the research could extend far beyond just one substance.



The mechanisms uncovered by the researchers, particularly the critical role of the GPe and parvalbumin-positive neurons in moderating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-understand-ourselves-and-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> responses, may be highly relevant to a wide array of substance use disorders.



By strategically targeting these specific neural pathways, researchers believe that new, more effective therapeutic approaches could be developed. The ultimate goal is to treat addiction to a range of drugs, including opioids, methamphetamines, and other psychostimulants.



The research paves the way for innovative treatments that could revolutionize the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-addiction-may-qualify-as-substance-use-disorder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance use disorders</a> are managed, offering hope to millions struggling with addiction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(24)00540-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuron</a>.



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Rosemary compound offers hope in combating cocaine addiction

A remarkable study reveals a promising new avenue for combating...

Organic farming and flower strips are extremely beneficial for honey bee health, helping colonies that live in their vicinity grow stronger and more resilient. This happens most likely because the honey bees have a continuous and diverse food supply there, while being less exposed to pesticides.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-styles-impact-honey-bee-health">Farming styles impact honey bee health</h2>



To reach this conclusion, a team of scientists from <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU) and the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> analyzed data from 32 bee colonies at 16 locations in Germany with various proportions of organic fields, flower strips and semi-natural habitats.



About half of Germany’s land is used for agriculture, according to the <a href="https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Environment Agency</a> (UBA). “The way that farmers cultivate their land has a major impact on nature. Intensively farmed fields, pesticides and monocultures pose a threat to many animal and plant species. This is particularly true for pollinators, which include honey bees,” said Robert Paxton, a bee researcher at MLU. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-effects-of-intensive-farming-nbsp">Mitigating the effects of intensive farming&nbsp;</h2>



Some important measures counteracting this trend include increasing the proportion of organic farming, planting more flower strips, and devising perennial semi-natural areas near crop fields.&nbsp;



“In theory, these measures all make sense. However, we know little about how each of these affect insects, especially honey bees,” Paxton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-farming-and-honey-bee-health">Organic farming and honey bee health</h2>



To clarify these issues, the scientists carried out research at 16 locations in Lower Saxony, Germany. Each of these locations were different in the proportion of organic fields, flower strips and perennial semi-natural habitats surrounding them.&nbsp;



The experts placed honey bee colonies at each of these sites and observed them for a year. They took into consideration colony growth and parasite infestation, paying special attention to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/varroa-mites-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">varroa mite</a>, an extremely dangerous pest of honey bees that can transmit lethal viruses. 



Then, they compared data regarding the colonies. “Organic farming had the greatest impact - the larger the proportion of these areas, the lower the parasite infestation of a colony. This improved colony growth,” explained lead author Patrycja Pluta from MLU.&nbsp;



Most likely, this occurred since organic farming uses fewer pesticides, employing alternative plant protection measures.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-strips-and-honey-bee-health">Flower strips and honey bee health</h2>



Flower strips appeared particularly advantageous to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a>. For instance, the number of Varroa mites was found to be lower in areas with many flower strips. “This could be due to the fact that a diverse and rich food supply strengthens the honey bees’ immune system,” Pluta said. 



However, perennial semi-natural habitats turned out to be disadvantageous for honey bees, since  larger areas usually meant a greater infestation of varroa mites. In addition, unlike flower strips, such areas are not designed to offer abundant supplies of food for honey bees and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



“Perennial semi-natural landscapes are an important tool for promoting biodiversity and they serve as a habitat for many animals. Honey bees, that are managed by humans, are the exception,” Paxton said.&nbsp;



This study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14723" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>, is an important step forward in improving agricultural landscape management for bees and other pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-the-survival-of-honey-bees">Threats to the survival of honey bees</h2>



The research is particularly important, as honey bees face a combination of threats that create a challenging environment which makes it difficult for them to thrive and sustain the essential pollination services they provide to agriculture and natural ecosystems.&nbsp;



One of the most well-known threats is the widespread use of pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids, which can impair bees' ability to navigate, forage, and reproduce. Exposure to these chemicals can weaken bees and make them more susceptible to diseases and parasites.&nbsp;



Speaking of parasites, the Varroa destructor mite is another significant threat to honeybees. This tiny parasite feeds on the blood of bees and can transmit deadly viruses, weakening the colony over time.



In addition to these direct threats, honeybees are also affected by habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and climate change. The loss of wildflowers and other foraging resources reduces the availability of nectar and pollen, which bees need to survive.&nbsp;



Climate change further exacerbates these issues by altering flowering times and creating mismatches between when bees are active and when flowers are available. This can lead to poor nutrition for bees, which makes them less resilient to other stresses.



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Organic farming and flower strips improve honey bee health

Organic farming and flower strips are extremely beneficial for honey...

Who doesn't love a good fruit smoothie? It's a delightful way to pack in your daily dose of fruits and vegetables. But could the banana-blueberry smoothie you're sipping on be robbing you of some vital nutrients?



This is what a new study from the University of California, Davis, seems to point at. The research explores how blending certain fruits together can affect your body’s nutritional intake.



The key figure guiding this fascinating exploration is Javier Ottaviani, who holds the dual position of director of the Core Laboratory of Mars Edge (part of the confectionery powerhouse, Mars, Inc.) and being an adjunct researcher with the <a href="https://nutrition.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis Department of Nutrition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-your-favorite-smoothie">The science behind your favorite smoothie</h2>



The research, featured in the Royal Society of Chemistry's journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2023/fo/d3fo01599h" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food &amp; Function</a>, sets its sight on how the enzyme found in many fruits and vegetables - polyphenol oxidase (PPO) - influences the quantity of flavanols our bodies can squish out from food.



Flavanols are bioactive compounds that do wonders for your heart health and cognition, and are naturally present in fruits like apples, pears, blueberries, blackberries, and even cocoa - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-science-behind-a-smoothie-the-fruit-you-choose-makes-a-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">usual suspects</a> in your smoothie mix.



"Through the study, we were interested in understanding how the seemingly benign process of making a banana-based smoothie could impact flavanol absorption," said Ottaviani.



Remember how apples or bananas tend to brown when you slice them or even peel them? That's our enzyme, PPO, kicking into action. The team sought out to investigate whether drinking smoothies made from fruits with varying degrees of PPO content would affect flavanol intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bananas-vs-berries-smoothie-showdown">Bananas vs. berries: Smoothie showdown</h2>



For the study, participants were asked to drink a banana smoothie (a fruit with high PPO activity) and a mixed berries smoothie (with low PPO activity). The team then examined blood and urine samples to see how much flavanols were absorbed after each smoothie.



The findings? The banana smoothie drinkers had an 84% lower flavanol level in their bodies compared to the control group. 



"It was surprising to see how adding just one banana could dramatically decrease the flavanol level in the smoothie and, in turn, the flavanol absorbed by the body," said Ottaviani.



The finding is a potent reminder of how food combinations and preparation methods can impact the absorption of dietary compounds from our food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoothie-hacks-for-optimal-health">Smoothie hacks for optimal health</h2>



Now before you start eyeing bananas with suspicion, let's make a couple of things clear. Bananas are still fantastic for you. In fact, last year, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics advised people to consume 400 to 600 milligrams of flavanols daily for cardiometabolic health.



What the study suggests is, if you're keen on getting those flavanols, consider making smoothies with fruits rich in flavanols like berries, and blend them with other low PPO ingredients like pineapple, oranges, mango, or even yogurt.



If you love adding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/banana-apocalypse-can-science-save-our-favorite-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bananas</a> to your smoothies or enjoy other high PPO fruits and vegetables like beet greens, it's best to avoid mixing them with flavanol-rich options such as berries, grapes, and cocoa. 



This combination can affect the health benefits you’re aiming for, so consider keeping them separate for optimal results in your nutrition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



"The study gives us a roadmap for future research into how we prepare other foods and how it affects flavanol absorption," noted Ottaviani. For instance, tea is a significant source of flavanols, and how it's prepared could alter the availability of flavanols for absorption.



So the next time you reach for that blender, remember, it's not just about what goes into your smoothie - it's also about how those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-fruits-and-vegetables-improve-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients</a> interact with each other.



"As the interest in the health benefits of dietary flavan-3-ols and polyphenols grows, this study highlights that consideration needs to be given not only to the types of fruits and vegetables and plant-based products to recommend to increase intake, but also how they are prepared, stored, and consumed as part of a regular meal in order to maximize their potential to support health," concluded the study authors. 



The research involved contributors from the UC Davis Department of Nutrition, the UC Davis Department of Internal Medicine, University of Reading, King Saud University, and Mars, Inc. 



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Bananas are not the best choice for a healthy smoothie

Who doesn't love a good fruit smoothie? It's a delightful...

What once stood as a shield against the harsh impacts of climate change, Africa's montane forests, are under threat. The latest danger to these forests involves a largely unknown consequence of deforestation: cloud level rise.



Known for their spectacular biodiversity and water-trapping properties, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-mountain-forests-accelerating-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">montane forests</a> are lifelines for millions of people in Africa.



In an era where climate change is a reality, these forests are sadly diminishing at an alarming rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearing-forests-and-cloud-level-rise">Disappearing forests and cloud level rise</h2>



In the span of just two decades, a staggering 18% of these "water towers" have disappeared due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>.



The impact? A two-fold increase in warming and cloud-level rise compared to that caused by climate change.



The air temperature has spiked by 1.4 centigrade, and the cloud level has ascended by a startling 230 meters in the past 20 years.



Professor Dirk Zeuss of the <a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a> noted that these changes have strong consequences for water resources and biodiversity. But what exactly does this mean?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-cloud-level-rise">Consequences of cloud level rise</h2>



As the cloud level ascends, water harvesting takes a significant hit. Clouds, when they touch the forest canopy, deposit fog (water) onto the plant and land surfaces. This natural phenomenon, however, becomes obsolete if the cloud base is higher than the forest canopy.



It is crucial for mountaintops to have ample forest cover - not only to augment the surface area of the land cover - but also to increase water storage in trees and soil.



The study sites were located in the highlands of Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Africa, including the Taita Hills of Kenya. 



According to Professor Petri Pellikka, director of Taita Research Station, the team found that 20% more water was landing on the ground in forested mountain tops compared to open areas. 



"This is due to fog deposited on the trees, which drips on the ground as droplets. This is additional to the rainfall. If the clouds remain higher and do not touch the forests, this phenomenon does not take place anymore," said Pellikka.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-forests-fade-so-does-life">When the forests fade, so does life</h2>



It’s not just the Taita Hills where deforestation has wreaked havoc. Kenya's most critical water towers - Mt. Kenya, the Mau Forest, the Aberdare Mountains, Mt. Elgon, the Cherangani Hills, and even Mt. Kilimanjaro - are all bearing the brunt of deforestation.



Mt. Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain located in Tanzania, is a prime example. This mountain has seen a striking loss of 50% of its forest since 1880, according to Dr. Andreas Hemp from the University of Bayreuth, who has spent three decades researching in Kilimanjaro.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-and-elevation">Temperature and elevation</h2>



Deforestation has far-reaching impacts. As the study reveals, the negative relationship between temperature and elevation means the impacts of warming due to deforestation can decrease with increasing elevation.



However, mass deforestation can counteract this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-measures-the-cooling-effect-of-shade-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling effect</a>, causing comparable warming at higher elevations in African montane forests. This adds another layer of complexity to the crisis.



Temesgen Abera is a visiting scholar from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> and a postdoctoral researcher at Philipps University of Marburg, 



"In Africa, montane deforestation induced by cropland expansion and logging poses serious threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, such as water supply," said Abera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-our-life-supporting-forests">Preserving our life-supporting forests</h2>



These findings highlight the urgent need for preserving the forests that play such a pivotal role in maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global biodiversity</a> and the climate.



The research offers critical lessons for all regions globally facing similar challenges. It's time to take action against deforestation, for our own survival and that of our planet.



The study represents a significant step towards understanding the environmental risks of deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-socio-economic-impact-of-montane-forest-loss">The socio-economic impact of montane forest loss</h2>



The disappearance of montane forests doesn't only affect the environment but also has significant socio-economic repercussions for the communities that depend on them. 



Many Indigenous and rural populations rely on these forests for their livelihoods, deriving resources such as fuelwood, medicinal plants, and food. As a result of deforestation, these resources become scarce, pushing communities towards poverty and forcing them to seek unsustainable alternatives.



Moreover, these forests play a crucial role in supporting local agriculture. They regulate microclimates and provide essential ecosystem services like pollination and pest control. As forests dwindle, agricultural productivity can suffer, threatening food security in already vulnerable regions.



Community-based forest management has emerged as a potential solution, empowering local populations to take part in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



By involving community members in sustainable forest practices, these initiatives not only help preserve forests but also ensure economic benefits are returned to the local people. This approach shows a sense of ownership and responsibility, leading to more sustainable use and protection of forest resources.



As we strive to safeguard Africa's montane forests, integrating socio-economic considerations into conservation strategies is essential. Ensuring that local communities benefit from forest preservation is key to creating lasting solutions that protect these vital ecosystems while supporting human well-being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51324-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Cloud level rise: The hidden threat of deforestation

What once stood as a shield against the harsh impacts...

Beautiful,Blue,Sky,Close-up,Of,Several,Sunflowers

Unless you're a plant whisperer, you probably think of plants as quite docile, silently swaying to the rhythm of the wind and the light. They seem to exist in a tranquil state, absorbing sunlight and transforming carbon dioxide into oxygen without a care in the world.



However, science sometimes serves a reality check that sparks our curiosity and reveals the hidden complexities of plant life.



For instance, did you know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants can communicate with each other</a> through intricate root networks or even release chemicals to warn nearby plants of potential threats? These fascinating behaviors remind us that there’s much more to plants than meets the eye.



A recent study spearheaded by Prof. Yasmine Meroz from Tel Aviv University's <a href="https://en-lifesci.tau.ac.il/plants_food" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Plant Sciences and Food Security</a>, in partnership with Prof. Orit Peleg from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a>, does just that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-seek-the-light">Plants seek the light</h2>



This fascinating research unfolds the hidden dance of sunflowers, revealing the intricate behaviors that occur when they grow in close proximity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-family-tree-explains-evolution-of-flower-symmetry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sunflowers</a> and other plants, when densely packed in a field, engage in a synchronized ballet that optimizes their growth and maximizes their exposure to sunlight.



But how do they achieve this remarkable coordination, you ask? It’s all about thriving amidst the competition for resources, not merely surviving.



By adjusting their angles and orientations in response to the light and each other, sunflowers ensure that they all receive an adequate share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-extracts-shield-blueberries-from-fruit-rot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunlight, nutrients, and water</a>.



This fascinating interplay allows them to flourish together rather than compete harshly against one another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspired-by-charles-darwin">Inspired by Charles Darwin</h2>



Sunflowers, in their quest for sunlight, display a behavior called "circumnutation". This fancy word essentially describes the cyclical movement of sunflowers, a clever tactic to avoid casting shadows on their comrades.



The result? A coordinated dance ensuring every sunflower enjoys its fair share of sunlight, even in a densely populated field.



Interestingly, this intriguing phenomenon isn't a new discovery. The scientific maestro, Charles Darwin, had observed this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior in plants</a>. But what he couldn't figure out was the functional role of these movements.



Our research team, including Dr. Chantal Nguyen from Boulder and Roni Kempinski and Imri Dromi from Tel Aviv University, took on this mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-plants-move-it-s-not-random">When plants move, it's not random</h2>



"Why would a plant expend energy to move in seemingly random directions?" This thought-provoking question sparked Prof. Meroz's team to undertake a rigorous physical analysis of sunflower growth.



To explore this phenomenon in depth, they utilized time-lapse photography in a meticulously controlled, high-density environment, allowing them to closely observe the sunflowers' performance over time.



Their detailed observations revealed that the sunflowers' movements are not random at all; rather, they are a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital growth strategy</a>.



By adjusting their positions, the plants minimize mutual shading, ensuring that each sunflower receives optimal sunlight for photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-light">Searching for the light</h2>



All plants are known to grow towards light sources, a phenomenon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-know-where-to-find-the-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known as phototropism</a>. That's nothing new. However, this research offered a twist to this tale.



They found that sunflowers engage in random movements, not triggered by external stimuli like light. Surprisingly, these random steps varied significantly in size and frequency but played a vital role in optimizing sunflower growth.



"The sunflower plant takes advantage of the fact that it can use both small and slow steps as well as large and fast ones to find the optimum arrangement for the collective," Professor Moroz explained.



"If the range of steps was smaller or larger, the arrangement would result in more mutual shading and less photosynthesis."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-light-and-purposeful-movement">Plants, light, and purposeful movement</h2>



The team's discovery showcases the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advanced adaptive strategies</a> that plants employ, using both random and responsive movements to ensure survival.



It also opens up new possibilities to explore this behavior in other plants and understand the importance of collective dynamics in nature. As animals do, plants too can significantly benefit from group strategies.



As we widen our exploration into the secret lives of plants, we are amazed by the intricate ways nature operates.



This research could lead to new planting techniques, potentially enhancing crop yields while reducing usage of resources like water and fertilizers.



So next time you cross a field of sunflowers, remember, they aren't just standing there; they are performing a riveting ballet in the play of light and shadow.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prx/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevX.14.031027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review X</a>.



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Plants purposefully move and alter growth direction to help their neighbors

Unless you're a plant whisperer, you probably think of plants...

Wildfires often evoke powerful images of destruction and chaos, but not all wildfires are created equal. While the immediate thought of a wildfire might bring to mind the devastation of homes, landscapes, and lives, there exists a lesser-known narrative about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-ultimately-benefit-plant-and-animal-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">positive impacts</a> of certain types of wildfires. According to research from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, low-severity wildfires play a crucial role in protecting our forests.



These milder fires, unlike their more destructive counterparts, can act as nature's own defense mechanism, reducing the intensity and spread of future wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-protective-power-of-low-severity-wildfires">The protective power of low-severity wildfires</h2>



The study has revealed that low-severity wildfires have the potential to reduce the intensity of future wildfires for up to two decades, provided the right climatic conditions prevail.



By burning under controlled or less extreme conditions, these fires remove accumulated fuel loads such as dead wood and dense underbrush, which are often the culprits in more severe wildfires.



Study lead author Claire Tortorelli is an ecologist at the U.S. Forest Service who conducted the research while a postdoctoral scholar at UC Davis. 



Tortorelli emphasized the importance of understanding these dynamics: "Some previous fires can have moderating effects on future fire behavior. It’s important to understand how past wildfires are going to affect what happens in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-low-severity-wildfires">Benefits of low-severity wildfires</h2>



The researchers examined more than 700 reburn fires over the past 50 years across the western United States. By taking a long-term view and leveraging modern technology, they aimed to quantify the protective effects that less severe fires can provide over time.



Using satellite remote sensing, the research team found that the extent of reduced severity of these "reburns" and the duration of their moderating effect varies depending on factors like climate and forest type. 



The study not only highlights the immediate benefits of these fires but also emphasizes how their effects can persist, continuing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-an-unexpected-ally-in-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect forests</a> even as environmental conditions evolve.



Climate change is leading to more frequent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-wildfires-have-doubled-in-the-last-20-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense wildfires</a>, making the findings of this research particularly relevant for future forest management strategies.



"We’re living in a time with increasing wildfire, which poses challenges for our communities and landscapes," noted Tortorelli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-and-forest-type">The role of climate and forest type</h2>



The findings reveal that forests along the California coast and Southwest exhibit longer-lasting resilience than those in the Sierra and Cascades. 



This geographical variability is key to understanding how different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-and-boreal-ecosystems-are-becoming-increasingly-unstable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> respond to fire and what management practices can be most effective in each region. 



The study shows that the benefits of these low-severity fires are not uniform but are instead shaped by the unique characteristics of each forest. "It’s all about the vegetation and fuels that are coming back after fire," said Tortorelli.



The research highlights the importance of local conditions in determining how effective initial fires are in reducing the severity of future fires.



The reduced severity could last up to 20 years in some systems, but the effect diminishes over time, requiring follow-up treatments such as prescribed burns or mechanical thinning to prolong the benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The findings could play a key role in helping land managers decide where to focus risk reduction efforts while adapting to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a>.



The researchers also found that even in areas experiencing high-severity wildfires, there are often zones that burn with low to moderate severity.



Study co-author Andrew Latimer is a professor in the Department of Plant Sciences at UC Davis.



"It opens this window of opportunity to keep forests in good shape," said Latimer, emphasizing the widespread impact of low-severity fires as a significant form of fuel reduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-and-future-strategies">Wildfires and future strategies</h2>



As our understanding of wildfires evolves, so too must the strategies we employ to manage them. The research suggests that low-severity fires should be integrated into long-term forest management plans.



By recognizing the role these fires play in reducing future fire intensities, land managers can develop proactive strategies that harness their beneficial impacts. This includes implementing controlled burns and mechanical thinning to maintain reduced fuel loads and support forest resilience.



As wildfires become increasingly frequent and intense, leveraging these insights is crucial in adapting to a changing climate and safeguarding our communities and ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Low-severity wildfires help protect future forests

Wildfires often evoke powerful images of destruction and chaos, but...

We can often find the stunning beauty and fascination that nature has to offer right in our own backyard. However, could there be a plant lurking in your outdoors that's not quite as benign as it appears? 



Recently, researchers delved into the dark side of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant world</a> where a (commonly found) toxic specimen is causing quite a stir -giant hogweed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-hogweed-the-toxic-plant">Giant hogweed: The toxic plant</h2>



Giant hogweed, a plant that comfortably sprouts 10 to 20 feet high, seems like just another pretty flora - striking in appearance and sporting a radiant white bloom in summer.



As it turns out, this attractive facade conceals a weapon - sap laden with toxins. This sap can cause painful blisters, but it doesn't stop there. 



The sap amalgamates with your skin's DNA. The UV rays from the sun then aid in the demolition of these DNA molecules. So, while your eyes enjoy the spectacle, your DNA suffers an onslaught.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-invasive-giant-hogweed">Understanding invasive giant hogweed</h2>



Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) has thick, hollow stem usually sports dark reddish-purple spots and can grow up to 4 inches in diameter, covered in fine white hairs that make it stand out in any landscape.



The plant boasts massive leaves that can stretch up to 5 feet wide. These deeply lobed and sharply serrated leaves form a rosette pattern at the base, adding to its imposing presence. 



In late spring to early summer, giant hogweed bursts into bloom with expansive, umbrella-shaped clusters of small white flowers, known as umbels. Each plant has the potential to produce thousands of seeds, showcasing its impressive reproductive capabilities.



The seeds themselves are light brown, oval-shaped, and flat, featuring ridged edges. A single plant can generate up to 50,000 seeds, which get dispersed by wind, water, or even human activity. They can linger in the soil for several years, complicating efforts to control this invasive species.



Unfortunately, its rapid growth and large size enable it to outcompete native plants, threatening biodiversity and disrupting ecosystems. Its deep roots can also destabilize soil, increasing the risk of erosion, especially near waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-concern-of-toxic-plants">Growing concern of toxic plants</h2>



This is not some isolated, once-in-a-blue-moon occurrence. The spread of giant hogweed has triggered warnings in several regions, including New York. The impact of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> on public health and the environment is profound.



When you brush against this plant, your skin can experience an intense reaction such as blisters, burns, and even DNA damage.



The repercussion of this exposure is immediate and discomforting. Burn-like marks show up within a day, followed by swellings filled with fluid. 



Although the irritation subsides over time, the UV sensitivity of the affected areas might persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-invader-in-the-united-states">Invisible invader in the United States </h2>



Is that the end of the horror tale? Unfortunately, no. On a microscopic level, the toxins infiltrate your skin cells, causing DNA and cell destruction. This ghastly process results in the burn-like blisters synonymous with the giant hogweed encounter.



This toxic terror is a foreign <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/economic-time-bomb-costs-of-invasive-species-are-greatly-underestimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>. Giant hogweed has its roots in the Caucasus Mountains, nestled between Asia and Europe, and Central Asia.



However, its journey to the United States began when it was sown in a New York City garden in 1917. Since then, it has invaded the Northeast, the Great Lakes region, and even Washington and Oregon.



Being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-plants-that-change-colors-when-toxic-chemicals-are-present/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic</a> is not the only claim to fame for the giant hogweed. It's also exceptionally fertile, as each plant is capable of producing up to 100,000 seeds.



This fertility makes it incredibly challenging to remove. Despite the best efforts of the <a href="https://dec.ny.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Department of Environmental Conservation</a>, these plants are holding their ground in more than a thousand sites across the state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battling-toxic-and-invasive-giant-hogweed">Battling toxic and invasive giant hogweed</h2>



As the giant hogweed continues to assert its dominance, concerted efforts to manage its spread have become paramount. 



Various methods have been employed to combat this invasive species, ranging from mechanical removal to the use of herbicides.



Mechanical removal, while effective, demands caution and protective gear, as the risk of exposure to its toxic sap persists. 



Alternatively, herbicides can be used strategically to target the plant while minimizing impact on surrounding ecosystems. However, timing and application must be meticulously controlled to ensure success.



Education plays a vital role in these efforts. Increasing public awareness can help in early identification and reporting, thereby curtailing the plant's spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-our-landscapes">Future of our landscapes</h2>



Looking ahead, the battle against giant hogweed requires collective action from communities, policymakers, and environmentalists.



Continued research into effective control strategies is necessary, alongside the collaboration of local agencies to monitor and address outbreaks systematically. 



As we continue to enjoy our green spaces, it is crucial to remain informed about local flora and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-plants-can-be-easily-confused-with-edible-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report concerning sightings</a>.



By fostering a deeper understanding of our environment and being proactive in our approach to invasive species, we can help preserve the integrity of our natural landscapes for future generations. 



The beauty of our surroundings should not come at a hidden cost, and together, we can work to ensure that the tale of giant hogweed concludes with a resounding victory over this botanical intruder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-should-you-do">What should you do?</h2>



Considering this alarming scenario, what's your best line of defense if you encounter giant hogweed? First off, report it to the authorities.



In addition, do not try to remove it yourself. If you do come into contact with the plant, wash off the sap immediately, avoid any sunlight exposure, and keep the area covered.



The next time you spot a large plant with spiky leaves and white blossoms, the story of giant hogweed should spring to mind. 



This cautionary tale serves to remind us that no matter how alluring, nature has its own rules. Approach with knowledge, respect, and, most importantly, a safe distance.



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Rapidly spreading invasive plant alters DNA and causes severe burns

We can often find the stunning beauty and fascination that...

Life on Earth was once ruled by the small, single-celled organisms swimming in the vast oceans. For an epoch, these tiny powerhouses were the kings and queens of the world, dominating for well over a billion years. Then came the period known as "Snowball Earth" that changed everything.



The reign of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cyanobacteria-may-shed-new-light-on-the-history-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-celled organisms</a> was seemingly endless, until Snowball Earth turned all known models of life upside down, roughly 700 million years ago.



This icy era was no ordinary winter. The entire globe was ensnared in such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-a-giant-snowball-700-million-years-ago-and-now-scientists-know-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme glaciation conditions</a> that even the equator may have been blanketed in ice. 



However, it was during this frigid epoch that a marvel of evolution occurred -- the birth of multicellular organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multicellular-life-and-the-oxygen-paradox">Multicellular life and the oxygen paradox</h2>



One of the biggest enigmas in biology is the sudden emergence and dominance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life</a>. Imagine a world where single-celled eukaryotes (organisms with intricate cells containing a nucleus) were the unrivaled rulers. 



Then, in the wink of a geological eye, multicellular life blossomed amid the frosty reign of Snowball Earth. The prevailing theory suggests that oxygen levels had to reach a critical point before single cells could band together, forming multicellular colonies. 



However, this theory falls short of explaining why the ancestors of today's animals, plants, and fungi all popped up simultaneously during this icy epoch.



The answer to this billion-year-old riddle has led researchers to delve deeper into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowball-earth-may-not-have-been-frozen-solid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique conditions</a> of Snowball Earth. 



One such scientist is William Crockett, a former Undergraduate Complexity Researcher at <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Santa Fe Institute</a>, who put forward a compelling new model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowball-earth-and-the-viscosity-factor">Snowball Earth and the viscosity factor</h2>



Crockett's study sheds light on the Snowball Earth mystery. The research team suggests that the physical conditions during this icy period, such as the increased viscosity of the oceans and scarcity of resources, might have led to the rise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannibalism-cellular-level-common-across-various-life-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life</a>.



During this glaciated period, oceans were choked with ice, inhibiting sunlight, and hindering photosynthesis. These conditions led to a significant reduction in nutrients, creating a struggle for survival. 



According to the study, larger organisms, capable of filtering more water and seizing scarce resources, would have had a significant edge over their smaller, single-celled counterparts.



Crockett observes, "It seems almost counterintuitive that these really harsh conditions, this frozen planet, could actually select for larger, more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex organisms</a>, rather than causing species to go extinct or reduce in size."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-largest-early-animals-thrive">Survival of the largest: Early animals thrive</h2>



By developing scaling theories, the researchers modeled how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-called-protosterol-biota-lived-1-6-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different organisms</a> would have fared during these harsh conditions. 



The findings indicated that early ancestors of animals, similar to modern-day swimming algae that consume prey instead of relying on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, would have prospered in this freezing environment. 



In stark contrast, single-celled organisms that depend on diffusion for movement and feeding, such as bacteria, may have shrunk in size. 



These findings highlight the selective pressure of environmental conditions during Snowball Earth, favoring larger, more complex organisms, and paving the way for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-exist-today-ediacaran-period-earth-weak-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life’s emergence</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-glaciers-to-greatness">From glaciers to greatness</h2>



The melting of Snowball Earth’s icy grip marked a new era for the newly evolved multicellular organisms. Liberated from the icy world's constraints, they diversified, leading to the wide variety of life we see today.



"The world is different after Snowball Earth because there's a new form of life on the planet," explains SFI Professor Christopher Kempes, the senior author of the study. 



"Our research suggests that these pivotal moments in Earth's history are not random occurrences, but rather predictable outcomes of planetary evolution." 



By understanding these patterns, scientists can gain insight into the fundamental processes that shape life's journey from simple beginnings to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex ecosystems</a> and even intelligent civilizations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowball-earth-scavenger-hunt">Snowball Earth scavenger hunt</h2>



The study provides a new framework for interpreting Earth's past, offering hypotheses for ancestor organism features to hunt for in the fossil record. 



The team also believes their work could aid in the search for extraterrestrial life, helping identify conditions that might foster complex organisms' emergence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-may-exist-on-one-of-jupiters-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on other planets</a>.



The period of Snowball Earth was undoubtedly a time of extreme hardship, but it also served as a catalyst for life's greatest innovation: the transition from single cells to complex, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weak-magnetic-field-may-have-set-the-stage-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organisms</a>.



In unearthing the secrets of this ancient era, we better appreciate the resilience and adaptability of life on Earth, gaining insight into the transformative forces that have sculpted our planet’s rich tapestry of biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-snowball-earth-shaped-multicellular-life">How Snowball Earth shaped multicellular life</h2>



In summary, this remarkable research opens a new window into understanding the complex journey from single-celled organisms to the diverse, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life</a> that fills our world today. 



It is a story of survival, adaptation, and ultimately, evolution, shaped by the most inhospitable conditions our planet has ever experienced during a period of time known as Snowball Earth. 



In the face of adversity, life finds a way to thrive and diversify, which indeed is the greatest wonder of evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2767" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Past 'Snowball Earth' conditions drove evolution of complex multicellular life

Life on Earth was once ruled by the small, single-celled...

Tree mortality in the Amazon rainforest is a critical issue with significant ecological, climatic, and economic implications. The Amazon, often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," plays a vital role in sequestering carbon dioxide, thereby regulating global climate. However, various factors are contributing to an alarming rate of tree mortality in this vast rainforest.



Amazon tree mortality is driven by increasing droughts, extreme weather events, and deforestation. The dying trees, which absorb carbon through photosynthesis when they are living, release carbon into the atmosphere during their decay. Rising tree mortality may turn the rainforest from a carbon sink to a carbon source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-carbon-and-biodiversity-reserves-nbsp">Fragile carbon and biodiversity reserves&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> is home to an enormous variety of plants and animals, and plays a crucial role in managing the effects of climate change by storing massive amounts of carbon, while helping regulate temperatures and rainfall regionally as well as globally.



By employing models which predict <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-the-cause-of-tree-mortality-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree mortality</a> and the subsequent changes in carbon balance, a new study published in the journal Earth's Future has found that some regions of the Amazon rainforest might pass a tipping point by the middle of this century.



“The Amazon rainforest biome is a crucial concern due to its vast yet fragile carbon and biodiversity reserves. Intact Amazon forests hold more than 20% of terrestrial species, house 100 billion tons of carbon, absorb atmospheric CO2, and regulate regional and continental climates by recycling moisture,” the authors wrote.&nbsp;



“Despite these critical functions, the stability and spatial continuity of the forest are threatened by climate extreme events such as droughts and storms, widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> in the South, East, and South-West regions, as well as forest degradation in adjacent areas.”



According to the researchers, these factors increase the risk of reaching a tipping point, where intact forests may transition to carbon sources and even collapse within a few decades.&nbsp;



“As a result, it is crucial to reduce uncertainties and better understand the likelihood of such a tipping point, and take mitigative actions to preserve the health and resilience of the Amazon rainforest.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-tree-mortality-in-the-amazon">Simulating tree mortality in the Amazon</h2>



The experts used ORCHIDEE-CAN-NHA, a groundbreaking land surface model, to simulate Amazon tree death and regrowth in the face of droughts. This model was calibrated and assessed using historical data from previous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-fires-diminish-forests-carbon-storage-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> events.



The scientists combined the use of this land surface model with four climate scenarios to project future changes in carbon movement and tree loss until the end of the century.&nbsp;



Although the climate models provided different specific outcomes - such as variations in wetting and drying - they all identified a warming trend over the next decades, particularly throughout the northeastern Amazon rainforest.



“These climate models display diverse patterns of climate change across the Amazon region. The simulation conducted with the HadGEM climate model reveals the most significant drying trend, suggesting that the Guiana Shield and East-central Amazon are approaching a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-still-prevent-critical-climate-tipping-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tipping point</a>,” noted the researchers.



“These two regions are projected to transition from carbon sinks to carbon sources by the mid-21st century, with the Brazilian Shield following suit around 2060. This transition is attributed to heightened drought-induced carbon loss in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-hotspots-of-amazon-tree-mortality-nbsp">Pinpointing hotspots of Amazon tree mortality&nbsp;</h2>



Better understanding which areas of the Amazon rainforest are most at risk for drying out and dying will help inform scientists about the carbon balance in the region and provide invaluable information about how to protect this ecosystem from the effects of a rapidly changing climate.



“This study makes an important step forward by providing a spatial image of the likelihood of drought risks and predicting the evolution of future Amazon rainforest net carbon balance, by resorting to a well-calibrated model that incorporates hydraulic failure induced tree mortality, and subsequent recovery from demographic processes, including recruitment and growth of survivor trees,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“The predicted possible vulnerability state of the Amazon rainforest required further investigation and concerns on mitigation policies.”



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Tree mortality is pushing the Amazon to a tipping point

Tree mortality in the Amazon rainforest is a critical issue...

The humble banana, a staple of many healthy diets, is on the brink of extinction due to Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB). This is a devastating disease caused by a strain of the fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) Tropical Race 4 (TR4).



Thanks to an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>, we now know that Foc TR4 did not evolve from the strain that wiped out commercial banana crops in the 1950s.



Instead, the virulence of this new strain seems to be associated with certain accessory genes linked to the production of nitric oxide. 



These insights could pave the way for treatments and strategies that can slow, if not control, the unchecked spread of Foc TR4.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-bananas">A tale of two bananas</h2>



“The kind of banana we eat today is not the same as the one your grandparents ate. Those old ones, the Gros Michel bananas, are functionally extinct, victims of the first Fusarium outbreak in the 1950s,” noted Li-Jun Ma, professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at UMass Amherst and the paper’s senior author.



Today, the most popular type of commercially available banana is the Cavendish variety, which was bred as a disease-resistant response to the Gros Michel extinction. 



For about four decades, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-will-help-keep-bananas-on-supermarket-shelves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cavendish banana</a> thrived across the globe in the vast monocultured plantations that supply the majority of the world’s commercial banana crop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-banana-disease-and-its-impact">Banana disease and its impact</h2>



By the 1990s, the glory days of the Cavendish banana were slowly fading with another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-banana-disease-has-arrived-in-southeast-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreak of banana wilt</a>. This outbreak rapidly spread from Southeast Asia to Africa and Central America. 



“There was another outbreak of banana wilt,” said lead author Yong Zhang, who completed his doctorate in UMass Amherst’s Organismic and Evolutionary Biology program under Ma’s direction. “It spread like wildfire from Southeast Asia to Africa and Central America.”



“We have spent the last 10 years studying this new outbreak of banana wilt,” noted Ma, who is an expert in Fusarium oxysporum, which is not a single species but a “species complex” with hundreds of different varieties that specialize in affecting different plant hosts.



These varieties are determined by the acquisition of strain-specific accessory genes in addition to a shared core genome.



“We now know that the Cavendish banana-destroying pathogen TR4 did not evolve from the race that decimated the Gros Michel bananas," said Ma.



"TR4’s genome contains some accessory genes that are linked to the production of nitric oxide, which seems to be the key factor in TR4’s virulence.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-mitigate-banana-disease">Strategies to mitigate banana disease </h2>



Yong, Ma, and their co-authors from China, South Africa, and various U.S. universities rigorously sequenced and compared 36 different Foc strains from around the globe.



The team discovered that Foc TR4 uses some accessory genes for both the production and detoxification of fungal nitric oxide to invade the host.



This key discovery revealed the immense impact of nitric oxide production on TR4’s virulence, thus offering several strategic pathways to control the spread of this pathogen.



While the team doesn’t yet know exactly how these activities contribute to disease infestation in Cavendish bananas, they were able to determine that the virulence of Foc <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-disease-threatens-banana-production-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TR4</a> was greatly reduced when two genes that control nitric oxide production were eliminated. 



“Identifying these accessory genetic sequences opens up many strategic avenues to mitigate, or even control, the spread of Foc TR4,” said Yong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversifying-the-bananas-we-buy">Diversifying the bananas we buy</h2>



Even so, Ma is quick to point out that the ultimate problem threatening our much-loved breakfast fruit is the practice of monocropping. 



“When there’s no diversity in a huge commercial crop, it becomes an easy target for pathogens,” she said. “Next time you’re shopping for bananas, try some different varieties that might be available in your local specialty foods store.”



Diversifying the types of bananas we consume could help reduce the pressure on the Cavendish variety, making the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-breakthrough-will-promote-disease-resistance-in-bananas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">banana industry</a> more resilient. 



Supporting biodiversity in banana crops is not just about preserving a favorite fruit; it’s about ensuring food security for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01779-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



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Banana apocalypse: Can science save our favorite fruit?

The humble banana, a staple of many healthy diets, is...

It's time we tackle the elephant in the room - greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Sure, we've heard these terms tossed around in the news, environmental forums, and even in our daily conversations, but have we ever taken a moment to ponder over its association with something as common as the food on our plates, specifically beef?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emissions-from-the-beef-industry">Emissions from the beef industry</h2>



A significant chunk of the blame for increasing greenhouse gas emissions since the mid-20th century falls on human activities, with agriculture being a major contributor. 



In fact, did you know just the US beef industry is responsible for a startling 3.3% of the nation's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">total emissions</a>? 



Although there have been noteworthy reduction efforts and advancements over the last half-century, the intricately-woven supply chain poses a monumental hurdle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-beef-emissions">Impact of beef emissions</h2>



In a fresh wave of research detailed in the journal Nature Food, scientists from the University of Minnesota's Institute on the Environment (<a href="https://environment.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IonE</a>) and The Nature Conservancy have proposed effective measures that the U.S. beef industry could take to cut down greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> by a whopping 30 percent.



Study lead author Rylie Pelton and her team conducted the first-ever county-level, location-specific assessment of the environmental impact of the beef industry.



This meticulous approach has unveiled geographic emission hotspots scattered along the supply chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-down-the-beefy-facts">Breaking down the beefy facts</h2>



Take a look at the staggering findings:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>The US beef industry alone propels approximately 258 million metric tons of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere annually.</li>



<li>Emissions from feed production - specifically beef sourcing and confinement like feedlots - are primarily concentrated in the Midwest and the Great Plains. On the other hand, emissions from grazing seem to be quite evenly scattered across the West.</li>



<li>The silver lining? Nearly one-third of these emissions could be controlled through the integration of alternative practices in grazing, feed production, confinement, and processing. The researchers investigated 42 such alternative strategies, which include innovative methods like cover cropping, feed additives, and energy management.</li>
</ul>



"The beef supply chain is one of the country's most intricate food production systems, making it difficult for beef processors to identify opportunities for reducing their emissions," said Pelton. 



"Our highly-tailored assessment offers distinct recommendations for different parts of the country, including concrete steps the beef industry can take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and increase the carbon sequestration in soils and working lands."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-path-forward">Mapping the path forward</h2>



As we navigate the complex web of the beef supply chain, it becomes essential to not only identify solutions but also to map out clear pathways for implementation.



Stakeholder engagement is crucial; from farmers and ranchers to industry leaders and policymakers, collective action can drive meaningful change. Educational initiatives and workshops can empower producers with the knowledge and tools needed to embrace these sustainable practices. 



Furthermore, financial incentives can act as a catalyst, encouraging the adoption of alternative practices that are both environmentally beneficial and economically viable. In this way, we can leverage both the scientific findings and the long-standing traditions of farming to forge a more sustainable future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charting-a-sustainable-course">Charting a sustainable course</h2>



Identifying immediate, feasible actions that the beef industry can take to start reducing their emissions is crucial. 



For instance, Pelton and her team have found a significant opportunity to store more carbon in grazing areas by adding trees to pasturelands in the Southeast. In contrast, mending degraded wetland areas in the Northern Great Plains could yield similar results.



"Sustainability needs to be business-as-usual in the U.S. beef industry to ensure stable, long-term food production and economic security for ranchers and their communities as well as a healthy environment for us all," said Kris Johnson, director of The Nature Conservancy's North America Agriculture program.



"This research helps the industry and other decisionmakers identify actionable steps to achieve climate targets while delivering a product that meets consumer expectations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The study isn't just a road map for the beef industry emissions; it's a call-to-action for everyone involved in the decision-making process, helping them identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frankenfood-beef-grown-inside-rice-cells-that-is-tasty-healthy-and-affordable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">actionable steps</a> to hit their climate targets while delivering a product that aligns with consumer expectations.



"These are our first published results that feature location-specific data on emissions in the animal stage of the supply chain," said study co-author Jennifer Schmitt.



"We are excited to share how our model can bring increased transparency to U.S. agricultural supply chains and identify steps companies and industry can take <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/python-meat-is-a-more-sustainable-food-than-chicken-or-beef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">to reduce their carbon footprint</a>."



The next time you bite into your favorite steak, remember that we all have a role to play in steering our planet towards a healthier future. It's not about giving up on beef entirely, but about recognizing the impact of our choices and making more informed, conscious decisions. So, are you ready to chew on these food-for-thought facts and be part of the change?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-01031-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Beef industry can cut emissions by 30% with sustainable practices

It's time we tackle the elephant in the room -...

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat, is a remarkable survival tool that has evolved in certain plant species. 



While commonly associated with animals, this process plays a crucial role in helping plants like cycads and select flowering varieties attract pollinators. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-attracts-pollinators">Plant heat attracts pollinators</h2>



By producing heat, these plants can volatilize their fragrances more effectively, dispersing chemical compounds that enhance their chances of attracting a wide variety of pollinators, including beetles, flies, and thrips. 



This thermal boost not only makes the plants more appealing to insects but also plays a crucial role in the timing and success of pollination.



Additionally, this internal heat supports the development and growth of reproductive organs, such as flowers and pollen tubes, especially in cooler climates where warmth is scarce, giving thermogenic plants a distinct evolutionary advantage over non-thermogenic species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermogenesis-and-plant-evolution">Thermogenesis and plant evolution</h2>



Tracking heat generation in plants is challenging because thermogenesis cannot be directly preserved in the fossil record. This forces scientists to rely on indirect evidence, such as fossilized anatomical structures that may have supported heat production. 



Without physical traces of heat itself, researchers must study plant morphology and compare ancient plants with modern thermogenic species to infer how this process may have operated in the past. 



By examining anatomical similarities between ancient and present-day thermogenic plants, scientists can better understand how thermogenesis played a role in plant evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heat-and-evolutionary-success">Plant heat and evolutionary success</h2>



An intriguing study was recently conducted by a group of researchers at the Botanical Institute of Barcelona (IBB), in a collaborative effort with several esteemed institutions including the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University of Madrid</a>, the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain (IGME–CSIC), the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a>, the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a>, and the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney.



The experts diligently examined the characteristics of present-day thermogenic plants and compared them with fossil plant lineages.



The research led to a surprising conclusion. "Our findings suggest that thermogenesis in plants is an older phenomenon than previously thought," said David Peris, a researcher at the IBB.



According to Peris, thermogenesis may have played a pivotal role in the evolutionary success of seed and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a>, as well as their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, as far back as 200 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-edge">An evolutionary edge</h2>



The presence of female structures maturing before male structures in thermogenic plants to prevent self-fertilization is a fascinating trait that is closely associated with early lines of divergence among flowering plants.



In fact, evidence of independent closing of stamens and carpels in floral chambers exists in fossil plants that could have trapped pollinating insects, hinting at their thermogenic past.



The researchers discovered that large reproductive structures, such as perianths or cones, could also indicate thermogenesis, thanks to their heat-retaining abilities.



These structures suggest that thermogenesis could have given certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-survived-the-dinosaur-extinction-by-pulling-nitrogen-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic plants</a> a competitive edge over non-thermogenic equivalents more than 200 million years ago. 



This heat-generating capacity, coupled with other attractive traits like flower color and fragrance emission, could have been instrumental in their reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversification-of-plants-and-pollinators">Diversification of plants and pollinators </h2>



"Thermogenesis in plants is not just a botanical curiosity," said study co-author Iván Pérez-Lorenzo. He noted that this unique ability has strongly influenced the success of two diverse and populated groups: insects and flowering plants.



The findings open up exciting avenues for further inquiry into how such interactions may have influenced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-evolved-in-two-dramatic-bursts-250-million-years-apart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification of plants</a> and their pollinators throughout evolutionary history.



There is much more to learn from the world of plants, and this study has provided us with a fascinating glimpse into the world of thermogenesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-in-a-changing-climate">Plants in a changing climate</h2>



The discovery of thermogenesis as a key factor in early plant survival offers exciting insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-evolution-drastically-changed-earths-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary journey of plants</a>. 



As scientists continue to investigate how heat generation has shaped plant-pollinator relationships over millions of years, new questions arise about its role in future evolutionary pathways. 



Could thermogenesis have been a pivotal trait that allowed certain species to outcompete others in harsh environments? 



Understanding this process may reveal how plants have adapted and diversified in response to changing climates and ecological pressures throughout history, and how they may continue to evolve in the face of future environmental shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01775-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Some plants generate heat to attract pollinators

Thermogenesis, the ability of plants to generate their own heat,...

Let's face it, the world is warming up, and climate change, whether we like it or not, is affecting everything around us. Birds from North America are quite alarmingly showing us how they're feeling the heat rise. 



Their response? Well, birds have three main tricks up their wings: trotting towards the north, soaring up to higher altitudes, and tweaking their annual breeding cycles, or what we scientists prefer calling - making phenological changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-s-eye-view-of-climate-change">Bird's eye view of climate change</h2>



Researchers at UCLA set out to study the issue from all angles. They have spent 27 years examining data from 311 land-based species to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> deal with climate change. 



The results were startling, especially when they saw how these species were using all three strategies collectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-but-at-what-pace">Adaptation, but at what pace?</h2>



While our avian friends seem to be taking a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">similar approach to change</a> - moving away from the heat, they aren't adapting fast enough. 



According to the study, the adjustments made by these creatures barely cover a mere one-third of what's necessary to cope with the speed at which our world is warming up.



The research was led by Monte Neate-Clegg, an ecologist at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> who sheds some light on the findings. "The amount of temperature tracking in birds that we've seen, 64% is due to phenology tracking alone," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-breeding-due-to-climate-change">Early breeding due to climate change</h2>



On average, our feathered friends have started breeding 0.08 days earlier. That's their way of dealing with a rise of one degree Celsius.&nbsp;



The experts believe this is easier and more efficient than moving 1,000 kilometers up north or climbing a few hundred meters in elevation every time there's a change in their habitat.



"This is a response we've hypothesized before, particularly for birds from California," said Morgan Tingley, a UCLA professor of ecology and evolutionary biology. 



"But now, for the first time, we can see how animals are using multiple ways simultaneously to adapt to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, and shifting the timing of key life events may just be one of the first and easiest options."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-moving-in-climate-change">Birds moving in climate change</h2>



The study found that on average, birds are moving a small distance spatially: just 1.1 kilometers per year towards the north and 1.2 meters per year upward. But of course, such averages always hide surprising variations.



Here are the odd ones out in the flock: the lesser goldfinch is on a faster track north and breeding earlier than most. And then we have the black phoebe, oddly shifting south and downward, probably due to urbanization, precipitation changes, and habitat availability. 



So, while some are keeping up with the temperature changes completely, others are partially doing so, and some are even moving counterintuitively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-habitat-in-bird-adaptation">The role of habitat in bird adaptation</h2>



Habitat plays a crucial role in how birds adapt to climate change. The availability of suitable environments can either facilitate or hinder their ability to move northward or gain altitude. 



For example, many birds are limited by urban development, which fragments their habitats and can make it challenging for them to find new nesting grounds. 



Additionally, alterations in vegetation due to changing temperatures affect food sources, thereby impacting breeding success. As habitats shift, so too must birds, but this transition is fraught with obstacles, leading to concerns about future population viability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-a-double-edged-sword">Human impact: A double-edged sword</h2>



While birds are showing remarkable adaptability in response to climate change, human actions often complicate these efforts. Factors such as deforestation, pollution, and climate-altering greenhouse gas emissions exacerbate the challenges that birds face. 



Notably, habitat conservation and restoration efforts can bolster bird populations and provide the necessary resources they need to thrive amid changes. 



Yet, these initiatives must be implemented swiftly and on a large scale, as the rate of environmental change continues to outpace the natural adaptive capacities of avian species. 



It is imperative that we take action to mitigate these effects and support birds in their struggle for survival in an increasingly hostile environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-for-survival-a-lesson-from-birds">Adapting for survival: A lesson from birds</h2>



How birds adapt to&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a>&nbsp;is crucial to their survival, and it is equally essential for our conservation efforts.&nbsp;



The fact that birds are altering their breeding season timings means that we need to shift our focus not just to protect their habitats but also consider the timing of ecological events and how individual species are changing.



"In order to best target our conservation efforts, we need to know how species are and are not adapting to ongoing climate change," noted Tingley. "While shifting the timing of nesting may help <a href="https://phys.org/tags/birds/">birds</a> in the short term, if they do not move in the long term, greater conservation efforts are likely to be necessary."



So, our winged friends are giving us not just a bird's eye view of the ongoing climate change but also a peek into their world of adaptation under pressure. Can we, as humans, take a leaf, or rather, a feather out of their book? 



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02536-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Birds are moving north and breeding earlier in a changing climate

Let's face it, the world is warming up, and climate...

When we think of an elegant restaurant in a sophisticated setting, we probably think of expensive cities or secluded beach resorts. The depths of the Pacific Ocean don't cross our mind. Yet, that is exactly where some northern elephant seals dine out, according to a new study led by University of Victoria researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-mysterious-mammal">Observing the mysterious mammal</h2>



Published in PLOS ONE, this study provides a unique, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-discovery-large-sharks-are-hunting-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unprecedented visual</a> insight into the rarely observed behaviors of these elusive mammals in the deep sea.



The focus? Their advanced feeding techniques, prey choices, and even their rest habits. 



At least eight male elephant seals, aged between 4 and 7, were observed using ONC’s observatory equipment during multiple visits to the research site situated 645 meters deep in Barkley Canyon. The observations were recorded between 2022 and 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprise-visitors">Surprise visitors</h2>



Researchers from the UVic, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar (ICM-CSIC), a Barcelona-based research institute, and ONC were initially studying the impact of light and bait on fish and invertebrate behavior. Little did they know, these clever seals had their eyes on the prize.



After reviewing camera footage, acoustic images, and sound data, the seals were discovered as unexpected visitors. The researchers surmised that the seals linked the sonar noise with potential prey, effectively considering it a "dinner bell."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-tactics-of-elephant-seals">Hunting tactics of elephant seals</h2>



"The seals appeared to use this sound to locate an area with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> and may take advantage of fish disturbed by the camera lights, particularly targeting sablefish, their preferred meal, as seen in the video footage," said Héloïse Frouin-Mouy, the lead author of the publication.



Héloïse Frouin-Mouy, a visiting scientist at <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UVic</a>'s biology department and assistant scientist at the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>, conducted this research with her colleagues, including Francis Juanes, a UVic biology professor and Liber Ero Chair for Fisheries Research, and adjunct professor Rodney Rountree. 



Other notable contributors were ICM-CSIC's Jacopo Aguzzi and ONC's Fabio De Leo Cabrera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-observations-of-elephant-seals">Unique observations of elephant seals</h2>



The findings suggest that the seals quickly adapted to use the infrastructure for more efficient foraging. In a span of 10 days, four seals were repeatedly seen visiting the research site.



"They returned often to feed more efficiently," said Frouin-Mouy. "We became familiar with these seals, even distinguishing between their frequencies of visits and observed habits. We even ended up naming them after members of The Beach Boys."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-discoveries">Remarkable discoveries </h2>



Their favorite dish? Actively swimming sablefish, ignoring all the other stationary or drifting prey options. The seals were even recorded on camera and hydrophone bobbing their heads and producing low-frequency sounds in pursuit of their prey.



In another fascinating revelation, these adolescent male northern elephant seals were found to be power napping on the ocean floor at Barkley Canyon - a sight never-before-seen.



The real-time monitoring capacity of NEPTUNE observatory played a crucial role in this discovery. It allowed the research team to adjust the use of ONC's underwater instrument - initially deployed for the fish study - to detect the presence of seals and observe them for nearly a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-elephant-seal-behavior">Significance of elephant seal behavior</h2>



Understanding the foraging behaviour of northern elephant seals is not merely an academic exercise; it holds significant ecological implications. 



As apex predators of the deep sea, these seals play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems. Their prey choices, particularly for sablefish, can influence population dynamics within the ecosystem, thereby affecting the species that inhabit these underwater environments. 



Moreover, insights gained from monitoring their behaviour provide invaluable data on how marine species may adapt to changes in their environment, which is increasingly under threat from climate change and human activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The revelations from this study pave the way for further exploration of the habits and habitats of marine mammals. 



Future research could investigate not only the elephant seals but also the broader impacts of environmental changes on other deep-sea species.



By utilizing advanced technology similar to that employed in this study, researchers can delve deeper into marine behaviors and interactions, enriching our understanding of ocean dynamics.



This could ultimately inform conservation strategies aimed at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protecting these delicate ecosystems</a>, ensuring their sustainability for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephant-seals-beyond-the-ocean-floor">Elephant seals beyond the ocean floor</h2>



Northern elephant seal colonies can be found from as far north as Alaska to as south as the Baja Peninsula. Typically, tracking of the seals' movements is done using bio-tags, or primarily on land. 



This research provides a rare look into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater behavior</a>, unlocking a new perspective on these fascinating creatures that share our world.



"Understanding the underwater lives of marine mammals is still limited by our inability to fully study the animal’s behavior beneath the water, notably the tactics used by apex predators, such as pinnipeds, to capture their prey," noted the researchers.



"Animal-borne tags have provided an opportunity to gain new insights into the diving and foraging behavior of pinnipeds."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0308461" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Elephant seals use sonar signals to dine deep underwater

When we think of an elegant restaurant in a sophisticated...

Have you ever watched a dragonfly zipping about, chasing its prey with pinpoint accuracy regardless of the shifting environmental conditions? Not even the hot summer sun or a cloud blockade seems to deter this nimble creature. And what else doesn't falter? A dragonfly's precision, even in extreme temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonflies-in-a-warming-world">Dragonflies in a warming world</h2>



These remarkable insects are the subject of an exciting new study by researchers at the University of Adelaide and collaborators from Lund University in Sweden.



The research team, including PhD candidate Mahdi Hussaini and Professor Steven Wiederman from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>'s School of Biomedicine, embarked on a mission to decipher how a dragonfly's brain functions in different temperatures. 



"Dragonflies are poikilothermic animals with limited thermoregulation, which means the temperature of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entire bodies</a>, including their brains, vary and change throughout the day," explained Hussaini, the paper's lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-neurons">The power of neurons </h2>



So, what's their secret? How do they manage to maintain their accuracy even as their brain temperature changes throughout the day?



"They have the ability to chase prey successfully whether in sunlight or under cloud cover, most likely due to small target motion detector (STMD) neurons in the visual pathway of a dragonfly's brain," explained Hussaini.



These STMD neurons are not only sensitive to target contrast but also finely tuned to the target's size and velocity. As the temperature rises, these neurons adjust their sensitivity and speed. It's like they have an inbuilt thermostat to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt to the environment</a>.



A summer's day can drastically increase the sensitivity of STMD neurons to small moving targets, almost a nine-fold increase, to be precise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonflies-predators-in-extreme-temperatures">Dragonflies: Predators in extreme temperatures </h2>



Dragonflies reign supreme as apex predators in their niche. They excel in chasing small prey within cluttered environments. 



Using brain recordings, the researchers aim to craft neuro-inspired, computational models for target-tracking applications. This could pave the way for artificial vision systems capable of detecting fast-moving, aerial drones from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autonomous vehicles</a>.



But how is biology giving us the edge in engineering? "Inspiration from biology helps us to provide solutions to engineering problems from a different perspective," noted Professor Wiederman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-robotics">Implications for robotics</h2>



The insights gleaned from dragonfly neural mechanisms extend beyond mere fascination; they hold transformative potential for the field of robotics. 



Engineers are currently exploring how the principles observed in dragonflies can inform the design of advanced unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). 



By integrating neuro-inspired algorithms that mimic the dragonfly's predatory efficiency, future drones may achieve unparalleled agility and precision in complex environments. Such advancements could revolutionize not just military applications but also search-and-rescue operations, wildlife management, and agricultural monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



As this groundbreaking study unfolds, it sets the stage for an array of future investigations into the fascinating world of insect neurobiology. 



Researchers aim to delve deeper into the specifics of how temperature variations affect other aspects of dragonfly behaviour and cognition. 



Questions remain about whether similar mechanisms are present in other poikilothermic species and how these principles can be generalized across the animal kingdom. 



By understanding the nuances of these natural systems, scientists hope to uncover further innovations that bridge biology, technology, and environmental sustainability, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drone-swarms-help-combat-forest-fires-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paving the way for solutions</a> inspired by the complexity and resilience of nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pathway-to-the-future">A pathway to the future</h2>



Despite our extensive knowledge about dragonflies, there are still unknown territories regarding the impact of external factors like temperature on a dragonfly's perception. 



"Given that biology rapidly changes in response to external factors like temperature, we need to understand what role this plays in information processing," said Professor Wiederman.



This provides an intriguing direction for future research. How the dragonfly brain interprets temperature-altered information to still provide a robust perception will be an exciting avenue to explore. Not only from a biological standpoint but also from an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fireworks-have-alarming-impact-air-quality-particulate-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineering perspective</a>.



"Until now, no one understood how large the impact of external factors (like daily changes in temperature) is on the dragonfly's perception of the world (via changes in neurons' spiking activity)," noted Professor Wiederman.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01083-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Dragonflies are perfect hunters, even in extreme temperatures

Have you ever watched a dragonfly zipping about, chasing its...

A pterosaur, one of the prehistoric giants of the skies, flew by either flapping its wings or soaring, according to a new study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.



For years, scientists have debated whether the largest pterosaurs could fly at all. However, “remarkable” and “rare” three-dimensional fossils of two large-bodied azhdarchoid pterosaur species, including one new-to-science, now suggest that not only could the largest pterosaurs fly, but their flight styles could vary significantly.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, the Natural Resources Authority, <a href="https://www.yu.edu.jo/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yarmouk University</a> in Jordan, and the Saudi Geological Survey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-dimensionally-preserved-pterosaur-bones">Three-dimensionally preserved pterosaur bones</h2>



The fossils, from the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous period</a> (approximately 72 to 66 million years ago), were exceptionally preserved in 3D at two sites within a nearshore environment on the ancient landmass of Afro-Arabia.



“The dig team was extremely surprised to find three-dimensionally preserved pterosaur bones, this is a very rare occurrence,” noted Dr. Kierstin Rosenbach, lead author from the University of Michigan.



Since pterosaur bones are hollow and fragile, they are typically found flattened. “With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-trilobites-fossils-preserved-in-volcanic-ash/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">3D preservation</a> being so rare, we do not have a lot of information about what pterosaur bones look like on the inside,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ct-scans-reveal-flight-mechanics">CT scans reveal flight mechanics</h2>



Using high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans, the team analyzed the internal structures of these wing bones. 



The scans revealed that Arambourgiania philadelphiae, an already-known giant pterosaur with a 10-meter wingspan, exhibited spiral ridges inside its humerus, resembling those in the wing bones of vultures. These ridges likely resisted torsional loadings associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-park-was-wrong-about-how-fast-pterosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soaring</a> flight. 



“The ridges in Arambourgiania were completely unexpected, we weren’t sure what we were seeing at first!” noted Dr. Rosenbach. “Being able to see the full 3D model of Arambourgiania’s humerus lined with helical ridges was just so exciting.”



In contrast, the newly discovered species, Inabtanin alarabia, had flight bones adapted for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-equation-predicts-the-flapping-frequency-of-birds-insects-and-even-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flapping</a> flight, with internal struts similar to modern flapping birds. 



“The struts found in Inabtanin were cool to see, though not unusual,” said Dr. Rosenbach. With a five-meter wingspan, this pterosaur's bone structure indicates it was likely adapted for resisting bending loads during flapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaur-flight">Understanding pterosaur flight</h2>



The discovery of varying flight styles opens exciting new discussions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-had-good-parenting-skills-but-only-the-larger-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how pterosaurs lived</a> and the correlation between body size and flight mechanics. 



“There is such limited information on the internal bone structure of pterosaurs across time, but looking at other flying vertebrates, we can see that flapping is the most common flight behavior," said Dr. Rosenbach.



Professor Jeff Wilson Mantilla from the University of Michigan and Dr. Iyad Zalmout from the Saudi Geological Survey, co-authors of the study, found the fossils in Jordan in 2007. 



“The variations likely reflect responses to mechanical forces applied on the pterosaurs’ wings during flight,” noted Professor Mantilla.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-framework-for-future-studies">A new framework for future studies</h2>



“This study provides a framework for further investigation of the correlation between internal bone structure and flight capacity in pterosaurs," said Dr. Rosenbach. 



With these discoveries, scientists hope to expand their understanding of vertebrate flight by examining more fossils and building on the knowledge of these prehistoric giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-pterosaurs">The legacy of pterosaurs</h2>



Although pterosaurs ruled the skies millions of years ago, their legacy continues to inspire scientists today. 



These creatures, the first vertebrates to achieve powered flight, ranged in size from small, bird-like species to massive giants like Quetzalcoatlus, which had wingspans rivaling modern aircraft. Their hollow bones, lightweight frames, and varied flight adaptations allowed pterosaurs to conquer diverse environments, from coastal cliffs to inland forests.



Despite their extinction, pterosaurs offer invaluable insights into evolutionary biology, biomechanics, and flight mechanics. 



Ongoing discoveries, like those from this recent study, deepen our understanding of how flight evolved and what environmental pressures shaped the development of these remarkable creatures. 



The study of pterosaurs also contributes to broader scientific fields, helping researchers apply ancient lessons to modern questions, such as the physics of flight and the evolution of other flying animals, including birds and bats.



As more fossils are uncovered and new technologies emerge, the flight secrets of pterosaurs will continue to be unraveled, providing glimpses into the world of the prehistoric skies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2385068" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Cracking the code of pterosaur flight: Soaring vs. flapping

A pterosaur, one of the prehistoric giants of the skies,...

While a mosquito bite may often be just a temporary nuisance, it can be a serious concern in many parts of the world. Some mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti, are responsible for spreading viruses that cause over 100 million cases of diseases like dengue, yellow fever, and Zika each year.&nbsp;



Another species, Anopheles gambiae, spreads the parasite that causes malaria, leading to more than 400,000 deaths annually, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>. These figures have earned mosquitoes the title of the deadliest animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mosquitoes-locate-their-hosts">How mosquitoes locate their hosts</h2>



Male mosquitoes are harmless, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female mosquitoes require blood</a> for egg development. Given this, scientists have dedicated over a century to understanding how mosquitoes locate their hosts.



Through this research, experts have discovered that mosquitoes don’t rely on a single cue; instead, they use a combination of different senses at various distances to find their targets.



A team led by researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (<a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSB</a>) has now added a new sense to the mosquito’s known capabilities: infrared detection. 



They found that infrared radiation from a source at roughly the temperature of human skin doubles the mosquitoes’ host-seeking behavior when combined with CO2 and human odor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-preference-for-the-infrared-source">Strong preference for the infrared source</h2>



The mosquitoes showed a strong preference for the infrared source during their host-seeking activities. The researchers also identified where this infrared detection occurs and uncovered how it functions at the morphological and biochemical levels.&nbsp;



“The mosquito we study, Aedes aegypti, is exceptionally skilled at finding human hosts,” said Nicolas DeBeaubien, co-lead author of the study and a former graduate student and postdoctoral researcher at UCSB in Professor Craig Montell’s laboratory. “This work sheds new light on how they achieve this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-new-hosts-from-a-distance-nbsp">Detecting new hosts from a distance&nbsp;</h2>



It is well known that mosquitoes like Aedes aegypti use multiple cues to home in on their hosts from a distance. 



“These include CO2 from our exhaled breath, odors, vision, (convection) heat from our skin, and humidity from our bodies,” explained Avinash Chandel, co-lead author and current postdoc at UCSB in Montell’s group. “However, each of these cues have limitations.”&nbsp;



The insects have poor vision, and strong winds or rapid movements can disrupt their ability to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-are-attracted-to-specific-scents-and-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical signals</a>.



Given these limitations, the researchers wondered if mosquitoes could detect a more reliable directional cue, like infrared radiation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/mosquitoes_thermal-infrared_track-humans_UCSB_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/mosquitoes_thermal-infrared_track-humans_UCSB_1s.webp" alt="Loose fitting clothing lets through less IR, as demonstrated in this image. Photo Credit DeBeaubien and Chandel et al." class="wp-image-1942526"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Loose fitting clothing lets through less IR, as demonstrated in this image. Photo Credit DeBeaubien and Chandel et al.</figcaption></figure>



Within about 10 centimeters, mosquitoes can detect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bad-news-mosquitoes-prefer-heat-and-thrive-in-the-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> radiating from our skin. They can also sense the temperature of our skin once they land on it. 



These abilities correspond to two of the three types of heat transfer: convection (heat carried away by air) and conduction (heat through direct contact).&nbsp;



However, heat energy can also travel longer distances when converted into electromagnetic waves, typically in the infrared (IR) spectrum. 



Animals like pit vipers can detect thermal IR from warm prey, so the team wondered if mosquitoes, like Aedes aegypti, could do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers placed female mosquitoes in a controlled environment and measured their host-seeking behavior in two zones.&nbsp;



Both zones were exposed to human odors and CO2 at concentrations similar to what we exhale. However, only one zone was also exposed to IR from a source at skin temperature.&nbsp;



A barrier was used to prevent heat exchange through conduction and convection. The researchers then counted how many mosquitoes began probing as if searching for a vein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infrared-radiation-and-mosquito-behavior-nbsp">Infrared radiation and mosquito behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Adding thermal infrared radiation from a 34º Celsius source (about skin temperature) doubled the mosquitoes' host-seeking activity, identifying infrared radiation as a newly documented sense mosquitoes use to locate humans. The team discovered that this sense remains effective up to about 70 centimeters (2.5 feet).



“What struck me most about this work was just how strong of a cue IR ended up being,” DeBeaubien said. “Once we got all the parameters just right, the results were undeniably clear.”



Previous studies didn’t observe any effect of thermal infrared on mosquito behavior, but senior author Craig Montell suspects this is due to differences in methodology.&nbsp;



“Any single cue alone doesn’t stimulate host-seeking activity. It’s only in the context of other cues, such as elevated CO2 and human odor, that IR makes a difference,” Montell said. Indeed, his team found that infrared alone has no impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-mosquitoes-detect-infrared-radiation">How do mosquitoes detect infrared radiation?</h2>



It’s impossible for mosquitoes to detect thermal infrared radiation the same way they detect visible light because the energy of IR is far too low to activate the rhodopsin proteins that detect visible light in animal eyes.&nbsp;



Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than about 700 nanometers won’t activate rhodopsin, and the IR generated from body heat is around 9,300 nm. 



No known protein is activated by radiation with such long wavelengths, Montell said. However, there is another way to detect infrared radiation.



Consider heat emitted by the sun: it’s converted into IR, which streams through space and, when reaching Earth, warms the planet by interacting with atoms in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



“You have heat converted into electromagnetic waves, which is being converted back into heat,” Montell explained, noting that the IR coming from the sun has a different wavelength from the IR generated by our body heat, as the wavelength depends on the temperature of the source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-body-heat-and-mosquito-neurons-nbsp">Human body heat and mosquito neurons&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers hypothesized that our body heat, which generates IR, might hit certain neurons in the mosquito, activating them by heating them up. This would enable mosquitoes to detect the radiation indirectly.



Scientists have known that the tips of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-secrets-of-mosquitoes-may-help-us-gain-control-of-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito’s antennae</a> contain heat-sensing neurons. The team found that removing these tips eliminated the mosquitoes’ ability to detect infrared radiation.



Another lab had identified the temperature-sensitive protein TRPA1 at the end of the antenna. The UCSB team observed that mosquitoes without a functional TRPA1 gene, which codes for the protein, couldn’t detect infrared radiation.



The tip of each antenna has peg-in-pit structures well-suited for sensing radiation. The pit shields the peg from conductive and convective heat, allowing highly directional IR radiation to enter and warm up the structure. The mosquito then uses TRPA1 - a temperature sensor - to detect infrared radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-ir-detection-range">Mosquito IR detection range</h2>



The heat-activated TRPA1 channel alone might not fully explain the range over which mosquitoes can detect IR. A sensor that exclusively relied on this protein may not be useful at the 70 cm range the team observed. 



At this distance, there likely isn’t sufficient IR collected by the peg-in-pit structure to heat it enough to activate TRPA1.



Fortunately, Montell’s group had previously discovered in fruit flies that some rhodopsin proteins are quite sensitive to small increases in temperature.&nbsp;



Although rhodopsins were originally thought to be light detectors, Montell’s group found that certain rhodopsins can be triggered by a variety of stimuli. 



They discovered that proteins in this group are versatile, involved not only in vision but also in taste and temperature sensing.&nbsp;



Upon further investigation, the researchers discovered that two of the 10 rhodopsins found in mosquitoes are expressed in the same antennal neurons as TRPA1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-sensitivity-to-infrared-radiation-nbsp">Mosquito sensitivity to infrared radiation&nbsp;</h2>



Knocking out TRPA1 eliminated the mosquito’s sensitivity to infrared radiation. But mosquitoes with defects in either of the rhodopsins, Op1 or Op2, were unaffected.&nbsp;



Even knocking out both rhodopsins together didn’t entirely eliminate the mosquitoes’ sensitivity to IR, although it significantly weakened it.



The results indicated that more intense thermal IR - like what a mosquito would experience at closer range (about one foot) - directly activates TRPA1.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, Op1 and Op2 can be activated by lower levels of thermal IR and then indirectly trigger TRPA1. Since our skin temperature is constant, extending the sensitivity of TRPA1 effectively extends the range of the mosquito’s IR sensor to around 2.5 feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Half the world’s population is at risk for mosquito-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-slow-the-spread-of-dengue-fever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>, and about a billion people are infected each year, Chandel said.&nbsp;



Moreover, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and global travel have expanded the range of Aedes aegypti beyond tropical and subtropical countries, bringing these mosquitoes to areas in the U.S., such as California, where they were not found just a few years ago.



The team’s discovery could help improve methods for controlling mosquito populations. For example, incorporating thermal IR from sources around skin temperature could make mosquito traps more effective.&nbsp;



The findings also help explain why loose-fitting clothing is particularly good at preventing bites. Loose clothing not only blocks mosquitoes from reaching our skin but also allows the IR to dissipate between our skin and the clothing, making it harder for mosquitoes to detect.



“Despite their diminutive size, mosquitoes are responsible for more human deaths than any other animal. Our research enhances the understanding of how mosquitoes target humans and offers new possibilities for controlling the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases,” DeBeaubien concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07848-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Mosquitoes use infrared vision to track and bite humans

While a mosquito bite may often be just a temporary...

Imagine this: with just a focus on 0.7% of the world's land, we could safeguard a third of the world's endangered tetrapod species. How? The answers lie in a recent study from Imperial College London, On the Edge, and ZSL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-conservation-efforts">New era of conservation efforts</h2>



We live in a world teeming with biodiversity, where 0.7% of our planet's land can house a stunning one third of threatened tetrapod species. 



The team at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, backed by supporting organizations, On the Edge and ZSL, have adopted a new perspective for conservation. 



Focused on regions boasting wondrous biodiversity and species with unique evolutionary traits and global endangerment, they're setting the stage for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new era of conservation efforts</a>.



The list of endangered species in their radar ranges from a very unique lemur in Madagascar, called the aye-aye, and a bird that seems like it’s put on high heels and a cape, the secretary bird. 



There’s also a frog that looks like it’s preparing for a masquerade ball with a pig nose, known as the purple frog, and let's not forget the gharial, an endangered crocodile species from India with a nose so long it would give Pinocchio a run for his money.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-protection-or-persistent-pressure">Proactive protection or persistent pressure?</h2>



Despite these identifiable hotspots of biodiversity, the unfortunate truth is that only 20% of these areas are under any form of protection. Human activities continue to exert growing pressures on these regions, almost like tightening a noose around our own natural wealth.



Sebastian Pipins, a PhD candidate at the Grantham Institute, Imperial College London, and the lead author of this study, provides his insights. He emphasizes the immediate concern these regions pose due to their exceptional biodiversity richness. 



"Our research highlights the regions of the world that are of immediate concern. Furthermore, it shows that in protecting just a fraction of the Earth’s land surface, huge gains can be made for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preservation</a> of nature," said Pipins.



"Given the global importance of the biodiversity found within these regions, high-income countries must mobilize funding to facilitate sustainable development that can benefit both humans and nature."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-on-the-edge-of-extinction">On the edge of extinction</h2>



This project isn’t about conservation alone. It's also about preserving the evolutionary narrative of our world, written over millennia. 



EDGE is short for Evolutionarily Distinct (ED) and Globally Endangered (GE) species. These are creatures that have few or no close relatives today, carrying unique evolutionary stories on the brink of being silenced forever.



With nearly 3,000 EDGE species mapped out, the team identifies 25 "EDGE Zones" for impactful conservation efforts. 



These areas are biodiversity-rich hotspots, such as large portions of Southeast Asia and the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Amazon basin, the Atlantic Forest, Hispaniola, Cameroon's highlands, and the Eastern Arc mountains of East Africa.



Interestingly, the greatest concentration of EDGE species was found in less than 100 square kilometers in Madagascar. Along with Mexico and Indonesia, it hosts the highest number of EDGE species. It's almost like they're the VIP lounges for the world's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-12-endangered-birds-most-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-unique-endangered-species">Saving unique, endangered species</h2>



Dr. Rikki Gumbs, a co-author of the study from the ZSL’s EDGE of Existence program, drops a stark reality check on us: Three-fourths of the world's most unique animals are confined to a single country.



Most EDGE Zones, especially in Southeast Asia, face an impending biodiversity disaster due to human disturbances. 



It's not just about protecting our unique creatures; we're also dealing with a scenario where humans residing in these EDGE Zones face deprivation in health, education, and living standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-priceless-biodiversity-of-endangered-species">Priceless biodiversity of endangered species</h2>



Governments often struggle to strike a balance between addressing human needs and preserving biodiversity. The researchers emphasize that high-income countries must step up to the plate, mobilizing funding for sustainable development benefiting both humans and nature.



The team's ambitious global goal? Get more EDGE Zones under protected status, with the current figure standing at a dismal 20 percent. As the planet gears up for COP16 Biodiversity Conference, it's time to push for increased commitments and resources to preserve and restore our shared natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-for-biodiversity">Bigger picture for biodiversity</h2>



This study isn't about conservation of endangered species alone. It's about preserving the library of life on Earth, where every creature holds a unique tale of evolution. Our researchers strongly believe that the EDGE Zone approach can be extended to other important groups of wildlife, including plants and fish.



The charitable organization On the Edge and the ZSL's EDGE of Existence program are already using the research findings to guide their activities. Here's hoping that these campaigns and regional efforts, combined with storytelling and increased funding, will turn the tide for the unique species of the world.



In the end, we're talking about securing 0.7% of our planet's land to protect a third of our threatened tetrapods. It's a small shift in perspective, but it carries a massive potential for positive change. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51992-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Protecting just 0.7% of land can save many unique species

Imagine this: with just a focus on 0.7% of the...

Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the protein found in bones, skin, muscles, and ligaments, has been detected in specimens as old as 195 million years. This far exceeds the expected half-life of peptide bonds, which usually break down within 500 years.



Such a remarkable finding challenges long-held assumptions about how biological materials degrade over time.



Typically, proteins are some of the first components to disappear from fossils, leaving behind only hard minerals like bone. 



Yet, in the case of these ancient dinosaurs, collagen has somehow persisted, offering scientists a unique opportunity to explore molecular preservation in an entirely new way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-defies-time">Dinosaur collagen defies time</h2>



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) explains how collagen can survive far beyond its expected lifespan. 



The researchers uncovered a special atomic-level interaction that defends collagen from water molecule attacks, forming a barricade that prevents peptide bonds from being broken through hydrolysis.



Study senior author Ron Raines, the Firmenich Professor of Chemistry at MIT, collaborated with lead author and postdoc Jinyi Yang, postdoc Volga Kojasoy, and graduate student Gerard Porter.



"We provide evidence that that interaction prevents water from attacking the peptide bonds and cleaving them. That just flies in the face of what happens with a normal peptide bond, which has a half-life of only 500 years," explained Professor Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-flexibility-of-dinosaur-collagen">The flexibility of dinosaur collagen</h2>



Collagen is essential to biological structures, particularly due to its tough, fibrous composition. Made of long, intertwined protein strands forming a triple helix, collagen is remarkably stable.



"Collagen is the scaffold that holds us together," said Professor Raines. "What makes the collagen protein so stable, and such a good choice for this scaffold, is that unlike most proteins, it’s fibrous."



Evidence of collagen has even been found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur fossils</a>, including an 80-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> fossil and a nearly 200-million-year-old sauropodomorph fossil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-behind-collagen-s-longevity">Secrets behind collagen's longevity</h2>



Collagen's peptide bonds, formed between carbon and nitrogen atoms, are resistant to hydrolysis because of their structure. These bonds also include a double bond with oxygen, creating a molecular structure known as a carbonyl group.



The carbonyl oxygen can share its unbonded electrons with the neighboring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form-inside-of-water-droplets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide bond</a>, preventing water from disrupting the structure.



To test this, the team created two collagen mimics. One mimic formed the triple helix (trans), while the other had rotated peptide bonds (cis). The researchers found that water could infiltrate and disrupt the cis form, while the trans form resisted water damage.



"A peptide bond is either cis or trans, and we can change the cis to trans ratio. By doing that, we can mimic the natural state of collagen or create an unprotected peptide bond. And we saw that when it was unprotected, it was not long for the world," noted Professor Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-immortal-protein">The immortal protein</h2>



Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-dinosaur-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a>, collagen is composed entirely of triple helices, with no weak links. "Collagen is all triple helices, from one end to the other. There’s no weak link, and that’s why I think it has survived," said Professor Raines.



While other hypotheses suggest dehydration or other factors may contribute to collagen’s longevity, the MIT research points to the unique molecular protection as a key factor. 



"I can’t discount the contributions from other factors, but 200 million years is a long time, and I think you need something at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discrimination-speeds-up-aging-molecular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular level</a>, at the atomic level in order to explain it," noted Raines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-and-protein-preservation">Dinosaur collagen and protein preservation</h2>



The discovery of dinosaur collagen and its ability to survive for hundreds of millions of years opens new doors in the study of protein preservation and fossilization. 



These findings could revolutionize how scientists approach the study of ancient life, enabling more accurate reconstructions of prehistoric biology. 



Furthermore, in fields such as paleobiology and biotechnology, understanding how proteins withstand degradation over time can inspire new technologies and applications.



As researchers continue to explore the intricacies of collagen, the mysteries of how ancient proteins defy time could lead to broader scientific breakthroughs that span multiple disciplines, from archaeology to bioengineering.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.4c00971" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Central Science</a>.



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How dinosaur collagen survived the test of time

Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the...

Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are among the smallest vertebrates on the planet. Regardless of their tiny size, their organs and bodily functions are almost identical to those of animals that are hundreds or even thousands of times larger.&nbsp;



While extreme miniaturization is a phenomenon seen in nature, the exact mechanisms behind how animals become so small have long remained a mystery. 



Now, thanks to a grant of around $1.7 million from the <a href="https://erc.europa.eu/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Research Council</a> (ERC), a <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> researcher is setting out to solve this puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-miniature-animals-with-optimal-function-nbsp">Miniature animals with optimal function&nbsp;</h2>



What do flea toads and smartphones have in common? Both have undergone extreme miniaturization while still maintaining all their essential components. 



In the tech world, we’ve grown accustomed to devices becoming smaller while retaining or even increasing functionality. 



Similarly, in nature, creatures like flea toads, dwarf pygmy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-three-new-species-of-freshwater-goby-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goby fish</a>, and bumblebee bats have evolved to shrink while keeping their vital organs and functions intact, much like their larger relatives.&nbsp;



But what exactly happens within these creatures, especially at the genetic level, when they undergo such evolutionary changes to reduce in size? And are there any biological limits to how small these animals can get?



These are some of the questions Mark D. Scherz, a researcher at the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>, will explore over the next five years. His research will focus on uncovering the genetic processes that govern miniaturization in vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-animals-become-miniature-nbsp">Understanding how animals become miniature&nbsp;</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-animals-vulnerable-human-expansion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large animals</a> are often the ones to grab our attention. But I think it to be just as fascinating how nature has managed to miniaturize the exact same vital organs and cram them into a less than one-centimeter-long frog. Today, we know surprisingly little about how it all happens, and I want to change that,” Scherz explained.



Much like the tech industry has continually reduced the size of transistors to make devices smaller and more efficient, nature has found ways to make animals miniature over millions of years. 



Scientists believe that extreme miniaturization is linked to evolutionary innovation, although the exact mechanisms remain poorly understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-changes-during-miniaturization-nbsp">Genetic changes during miniaturization&nbsp;</h2>



Scherz’s research project, GEMINI (Genomics of Miniaturisation in Vertebrates), aims to uncover the specific genetic changes that occur as animals become smaller. 



The goal is to create a sort of genetic “template” that will reveal what happens in the DNA of vertebrates when they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-flea-toad-worlds-smallest-vertebrate-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrink in size</a>.



“In several independent studies that looked at the genomes of miniaturized animals, a kind of clean-up and innovation takes place, where the genome becomes smaller. A lot of this happens in repetitive bits of the genome that we used to call <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-may-set-humans-apart-from-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘junk’ DNA</a>. But some of it happens in other genes as well, which is what we need to learn more about,” Scherz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-size-big-innovations-nbsp">Small size, big innovations&nbsp;</h2>



In the past, scientists believed that animals generally evolved to become larger over time, a concept known as “Cope’s rule.” However, it is now clear that this isn’t always the case - and for a good reason.



“Animals can't just keep growing bigger and bigger. At some point, their physiology reaches a limit, and so does gravity. That’s why there are phases where body size reduces, allowing for a trend toward increased size later on,” Scherz said.&nbsp;



“We also think that small size might be where the really big innovations happen, which we then see expanded when the descendants get bigger again. That makes these miniaturized animals particularly exciting to study when we’re trying to figure out how innovations evolve in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-overlooked-phenomenon-nbsp">An overlooked phenomenon&nbsp;</h2>



For decades, miniature animals have been somewhat overlooked in favor of studying large species like blue whales and elephants. 



Some of the biggest discoveries in the field of miniaturization date back to the 1990s, with fewer recent advancements.



“Everyone’s attention is on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blue whales</a> and elephants. Any child you ask can tell you about the largest land mammal and the largest marine mammal and the largest dinosaur that has ever lived,” said Scherz.



“But scaling up and getting bigger is not a big problem. It is a far more impressive feat to have (practically) everything in a twenty-three-ton blue whale compressed into a seven-millimeter package.”



However, interest in miniaturization is experiencing a resurgence, partly due to exciting new discoveries. 



Earlier this year, researchers in Brazil found the world’s smallest vertebrate, the flea frog, measuring just seven millimeters in length. This discovery has reignited curiosity about the biological processes behind miniaturization.



“We live at a time when probably the smallest vertebrates ever are around us, but they are too easy to overlook, so we just forget about them. This project will allow us to gain a genetic understanding of what controls this 'miniaturization process' and investigate whether there is something that keeps animals from becoming even smaller,” Scherz concluded.



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Why do some animals evolve to become miniature?

Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are...

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution, influencing not only our diets but also our genetic makeup. 



A recent study has revealed that the rise of agriculture - around 12,000 years ago - and the subsequent increase in starchy staples like wheat and grains, significantly impacted the human genome.



Researchers from the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom found that our ability to digest carbohydrates has significantly evolved over time. This is closely linked to the rise of agriculture and the increase of starchy foods in our diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolutionary-power-of-starchy-foods">The evolutionary power of starchy foods</h2>



The ability to extract energy from starchy foods has increased remarkably during this period, as shown by an expansion in the number of genes encoding enzymes that break down starch - jumping from an average of eight to over 11.



"The copy number of amylase genes had increased in Europeans since the dawn of agriculture, but we had never been able to sequence this locus fully before. It is extremely repetitive and complex," said Peter Sudmant, assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of the lead authors of the study. 



This increase in amylase genes closely matched the rise and spread of agriculture across Europe from the Middle East, aligning with changes in dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-amylase-locus">Decoding the amylase locus</h2>



The researchers meticulously examined the genome's amylase locus, where the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) and two pancreatic amylase genes (AMY2A and AMY2B) reside. 



"If you take a piece of dry pasta and put it in your mouth, eventually it'll get a little bit sweet. That's your salivary amylase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-produced-during-exercise-protects-against-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> breaking the starches down into sugars," explained Sudmant.



While this happens in all humans and other primates, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a> contains a significantly higher number of amylase gene copies compared to our primate relatives, such as chimpanzees and Neanderthals, who possess only a single copy of AMY1.



UC Berkeley postdoctoral fellow Runyang Nicolas Lou, one of the study's co-authors, elaborated: "Our study found that each copy of the human genome harbors one to 11 copies of AMY1, zero to three copies of AMY2A, and one to four copies of AMY2B. Copy number is correlated with gene expression and protein level and thus the ability to digest starch."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-advantage-and-global-adaptation">Survival advantage and global adaptation</h2>



The presence of multiple amylase genes provided a survival advantage, with the incidence of chromosomes carrying multiple copies increasing sevenfold over the last 12,000 years. 



This evolution was not confined to Europe. The researchers found evidence of similar patterns in other agricultural populations globally, regardless of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-of-the-future-breadfruit-is-resistant-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starchy plant</a> was domesticated.



Erik Garrison, a co-lead author from the <a href="https://www.uthsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee Health Science Center</a>, highlighted the broader implications of the findings: "One of the exciting things we were able to do here is probe both modern and ancient genomes to dissect the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural evolution</a> at this locus."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dawn-of-a-new-method">The dawn of a new method</h2>



Another breakthrough in the study was the development of a new method for identifying diseases involving genes with multiple copies, like amylase. 



This method also opens doors to exploring rapidly duplicating genes related to the immune system, skin pigmentation, and mucus production. 



The research hints at a potential link between higher AMY1 copies and increased tooth decay, though further investigation is needed.



Joana Rocha, a co-author from UC Berkeley, compared the genomic structure of the amylase locus to “sculptures made of different Lego bricks." 



Long-read sequencing techniques allowed the team to reconstruct these complex genetic structures with unprecedented accuracy, shedding light on human evolutionary history and its genetic diversity.



This research, funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is part of an expanding effort to better understand how genetic adaptations have shaped human health and disease through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing diets</a> over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starchy-foods-and-human-health">Starchy foods and human health</h2>



The evolutionary relationship between starchy foods and human genetics continues to shape modern health. 



As our ancestors adapted to carbohydrate-rich diets, today's populations still show varying abilities to digest starch, potentially influencing susceptibility to conditions such as obesity and diabetes. 



Understanding this genetic adaptation to starchy foods not only offers insights into our past but also provides valuable information for addressing contemporary health challenges linked to diet and metabolism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How starchy foods shaped human genomes

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution,...

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an exclusive human privilege. Incredible as it may sound, a certain kind of mushrooms - the king oyster mushrooms or&nbsp;Pleurotus eryngii&nbsp;- might be indulging in their own version of REM sleep, more like a dreaming robot.



When their sprawling mycelial networks flicker and pulse, their electrochemical responses mimic the activity of our brain cells. But what happens when we let these impulses run free for a while?



Here's where an inspiring collaboration between researchers from Cornell University and the <a href="https://www.unifi.it/it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florence</a> kicks in. The experts set a culture of king oyster mushrooms in control of a pair of tiny vehicles. What followed was almost surreal - these vehicles began to twitch and move across a flat surface!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-roadways">Fungal roadways</h2>



A series of meticulously planned experiments shed light on the surprising fact that we could use the mushroom's electrophysiological activity to transform environmental cues into instructions. These instructions, in turn, could command <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanical devices to move</a>.



"As we grew the mycelium into the electronics of a robot, the biohybrid machine began to sense and respond to the environment," explained Rob Shepherd, a materials scientist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell</a> and the chief researcher for this project.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="9IjHNznxhv-3836479-12187" type="single"]</div>



Is this the first time we've toyed with machines using organic matter? Certainly not. Evolution has had a head start of hundreds of millions of years to perfect organic machines that can sense, think, and move as we desire.&nbsp;



But the intriguing part is that the fungi kingdom remains an untapped treasure trove for cybernetic technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushroom-with-a-robot-body">Mushroom with a robot body</h2>



Fungi are remarkably resilient; they can be easily cultured, have simple requirements, and can survive in environments that many other organisms can't. These traits make molds and mushrooms incredibly enticing to engineers searching for robust living components for a wide range of needs, from sensory to computational.



Fungal threads, normally hidden from view, respond to changes in their surroundings as they navigate through soil in search of resources. Some species exhibit transmembrane activity that resembles our neural responses, providing researchers a possible way to tap into their enigmatic exchanges.



To harness this potential, the researchers fed algorithms based on the extracellular electrophysiology of P. eryngii mycelia into a microcontroller unit. They used spikes of activity triggered by a stimulus (UV light, in this case) to prompt mechanical responses in two types of mobile device.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wheeling-dealing-mushroom">A wheeling, dealing mushroom?</h2>



In controlled experiments, the team relied on signals from a fungal culture to direct the movements of a five-limbed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soft robot</a> and a four-wheeled untethered vehicle.&nbsp;



Remarkably, they were not only able to influence but also override the natural impulses produced by the fungi. The researchers had an impressive ability to harness the system's sensory abilities to reach a particular goal.



"It is also about creating a true connection with the living system. Because once you hear the signal, you also understand what's going on. Maybe that signal is coming from some kind of stresses. So you're seeing the physical response, because those signals we can't visualize, but the robot is making a visualization," explained study lead author Anand Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-biology-and-technology">Bridging biology and technology</h2>



The melding of natural organisms with technology poses fascinating questions about the future of robotics and bioengineering. 



As we consider the potential applications of fungal-based systems, it becomes clear that such innovations could transcend conventional robot design, leading to creations that are not merely machines but rather living entities. 



These biohybrids could exhibit adaptive behaviors, respond to environmental stimuli, and operate more efficiently in unpredictable conditions.



The fusion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology and technology</a> could revolutionize fields such as environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and even search-and-rescue operations, allowing us to employ living organisms in ways that enhance their inherent capabilities and versatility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations-in-biohybrid-research">Ethical considerations in biohybrid research</h2>



As we venture deeper into this exciting intersection of fungi and robotics, it is crucial to engage in thoughtful discourse regarding the ethical implications of biohybrid technology. 



With the power to create living machines that can perceive and interact with their surroundings, we must consider the responsibilities associated with such innovations. What rights, if any, should these biohybrids possess? 



How do we regulate the use of organic materials in our pursuit of technological advancement? Moreover, fostering public understanding and ensuring transparent communication about the potential risks and benefits will be pivotal in gaining societal support. 



Addressing these questions from the outset will help establish a framework that guides our exploration of this burgeoning field in a manner that respects both scientific progress and ethical integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-moving-robot-wheels">Mushrooms moving robot wheels</h2>



While a mushroom-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origami-inspired-robots-mimic-the-behavior-of-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot</a> might appear far-fetched, the true value of the system could be more mundane yet especially crucial.&nbsp;



Imagine simpler mechanical setups interpreting complex changes in environmental cues to release precise amounts of nutrient or pesticide in soil, or responding to rising levels of pollutants and even reacting to changes in our own bodies.



There's a profound wisdom hidden in the whispers of mushrooms that we're yet to fully grasp. Given an opportunity, they might even break their silence and tell us what they're dreaming about. After all, if mushrooms can move wheels, there's not much they can't do.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adk8019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



Video/Image Credit: Robert Sheperd



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Mushroom is given a robot body and runs wild in fascinating video

It seems that the realm of dreams is not an...

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but some tiny organisms in the Arctic do just that. Organisms like microalgae can exist under the thick ice and snow cover of the icy Arctic Ocean. 



These microscopic plant-like organisms defy our understanding of life as they carry out photosynthesis, a light-dependent process, in almost total darkness. It's as fascinating as it sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-survival">Arctic microalgae survival</h2>



The ability of the pint-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> microalgae to carry out photosynthesis under minuscule light conditions has been the focus of a recent international study. 



The researchers found that, contrary to prior belief, photosynthesis in oceans can occur under significantly reduced light conditions and at much deeper depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magic-of-photosynthesis">Magic of photosynthesis</h2>



Photosynthesis is the process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> use to convert sunlight into a form of energy that sustains life. This vital process is fundamental to all life on earth. 



Previous studies suggested that a certain amount of light was required for photosynthesis - significantly more than what is theoretically the bare minimum. Well, it turns out that we may have been selling photosynthesis short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosaic-expedition-and-arctic-microalgae">MOSAiC expedition and Arctic microalgae</h2>



The data for this study came from the <a href="https://mosaic-expedition.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MOSAiC research project</a>. This is the same project that froze the German research icebreaker Polarstern into the Arctic ice for a year in 2019.



Its aim was to study the Arctic climate and ecosystem through the severities of each season. Working under the leadership of Dr. Clara Hoppe from the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>, a team focused on studying phytoplankton and ice algae, the major contributors to photosynthesis in the central Arctic.



And what they found was quite an eye-opener. A few days after the polar night -- a period when it's pitch black for an entire month -- there was a buildup of plant biomass. Now, that's something that's impossible without photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-near-impossible-conditions-for-arctic-microalgae">Near-impossible conditions for Arctic microalgae</h2>



Here's the jaw-dropping bit. Photosynthesis was taking place under snow-covered sea ice. This ice cover only allowed a tiny amount of sunlight to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, about one hundred-thousandth of what we experience on a sunny day. 



"It is very impressive to see how efficiently the algae can utilise such low amounts of light. This shows once again how well organisms are adapted to their environment," says Dr. Clara Hoppe.



The success of this study was also a testament to the power of interdisciplinary collaboration. Sea ice researchers Dr. Niels Fuchs and Prof. Dirk Notz from the Institute of Marine Research at the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a> helped combine the measurements of light with biological data. 



This required freezing specially developed instruments into the ice during the polar night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-change-research">Implications for climate change research</h2>



The findings from the MOSAiC expedition carry significant implications for our understanding of climate change. As Arctic temperatures continue to rise, the ecological balance of this sensitive region is being disrupted. 



The ability of Arctic microalgae to photosynthesize under reduced light conditions suggests a resilience that could help maintain primary production even as ice cover fluctuates. 



This resilience not only sustains the local food web but also has broader implications for global carbon cycling, as increased algal biomass could affect the ocean's capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, thereby influencing climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-microalgae-and-the-future">Arctic microalgae and the future</h2>



Given the exciting revelations about Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microalgae</a>, future research must continue to investigate the underlying mechanisms that enable these organisms to thrive in such extreme environments. 



Further studies could explore the genetic adaptations that allow for efficient photosynthesis under low light or investigate the impact of varying ice conditions on algal productivity. 



Understanding these factors will not only enrich our knowledge of Arctic ecosystems but also inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving these vital organisms amid changing climatic conditions. 



Engaging with diverse scientific disciplines will be essential in advancing this research and applying the insights gained to broader ecological and environmental challenges.



"Even though our results are specific to the Arctic Ocean, they show what photosynthesis is capable of," explains Dr. Clara Hoppe. 



This new understanding of photosynthetic efficiency suggests that similar processes could be happening in the darker parts of oceans worldwide, thus expanding the potential photosynthetic habitat.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51636-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Arctic microalgae show photosynthesis is possible in near darkness

Can you imagine thriving in darkness? Humans certainly can't, but...

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, accounting for over half of the world's terrestrial carbon sink. However, climate change poses a significant threat to the carbon balance within these ecosystems.



A new study has revealed that the warming and drying of tropical forest soils could heighten the vulnerability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-can-store-the-most-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil carbon</a>. This is primarily due to the increased degradation of older carbon stores.&nbsp;



The research was led by scientists from <a href="https://www.llnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> (LLNL), in collaboration with researchers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-tropical-forests-nbsp">Carbon storage in tropical forests&nbsp;</h2>



“These findings imply that both warming and drying, by accelerating the loss of older soil carbon or reducing the incorporation of fresh carbon inputs, will intensify soil carbon losses and negatively impact carbon storage in tropical forests under climate change,” said study lead author Karis McFarlane, a scientist at LLNL.



Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-destruction-of-tropical-forests-is-much-worse-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> exchange more carbon dioxide (CO2) with the atmosphere than any other terrestrial biome, and they hold nearly a third of global soil carbon stocks. These ecosystems are characterized by a short carbon residence time, typically between 6 to 15 years.&nbsp;



This short duration means that changes in carbon inputs or outputs, including CO2 emissions from soil, can have significant and relatively rapid effects on the carbon balance of tropical ecosystems, potentially exacerbating carbon-climate feedback loops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-and-reduced-rainfall-nbsp">Soil warming and reduced rainfall&nbsp;</h2>



Projections for tropical regions suggest a future with warmer temperatures and reduced rainfall, leading to longer and more intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-fires-diminish-forests-carbon-storage-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, particularly in the Neotropics, which spans from southern Mexico through Central America and into northern South America, including the Amazon rainforest.



The research, which involved climate manipulation experiments in Panama’s tropical forests, demonstrated that both soil warming - by 4°C - and a reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> - by 50% - increased the age of carbon released from the soil by 2 to 3 years, as reflected by higher carbon-14 levels in the emitted CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-effects-of-warming-and-drying">Varying effects of warming and drying</h2>



Interestingly, the processes behind this carbon shift differed between warming and drying. Soil warming sped up the breakdown of older carbon by increasing CO2 emissions, as newer carbon was quickly depleted. 



In contrast, drying reduced the decomposition of fresh carbon inputs, leading to a decrease in overall soil CO2 emissions but a higher contribution of older carbon to the CO2 being released.



“Field and laboratory experiments suggest that climate warming will stimulate a net loss of global soil carbon to the atmosphere, but how climate warming and drying will interact to influence carbon balance in forests and other ecosystems is less clear,” explained McFarlane.



Previous studies in tropical forests primarily focused on the total amount of CO2 being released, which is important for understanding the overall carbon balance but falls short of explaining the underlying mechanisms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-of-carbon-released-by-soil">Age of carbon released by soil</h2>



By analyzing carbon-14 values, this study was able to determine the age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> being metabolized and emitted as CO2, offering insights into these processes.



In this context, “new” or “young” carbon refers to carbon that has been fixed from the atmosphere in recent years, while “decadal aged” carbon contains higher levels of carbon-14 relative to the current atmosphere. Even older carbon, from centuries to millennia, is depleted in carbon-14.



The team studied the effects of warming and drying on the amount and age of carbon released as soil CO2 in two distinct lowland tropical forest areas in Panama, where experimental soil warming and drying were conducted. They measured the carbon-14 and carbon-13 isotopes of the CO2 emitted from the soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-warming-releases-older-carbon-nbsp">Soil warming releases older carbon&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing the Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry at LLNL, the team found that soil warming increased carbon-14 in CO2 emissions during the wet season, indicating a greater release of older carbon, including “bomb” carbon from nuclear testing in 1963, under both warm and wet conditions.&nbsp;



The warming accelerated the breakdown of older carbon as microbial communities shifted to using older carbon after depleting fresh organic matter.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-drying-limits-access-to-fresh-carbon">Soil drying limits access to fresh carbon </h2>



On the other hand, drying decreased the total release of CO2 from the soil but also increased the carbon-14 in the remaining emissions by limiting the availability of fresh carbon from sources like leaf litter and roots.



“This limitation of microbial access to fresh carbon explains the shift toward increased contributions of older carbon in total soil CO2 emissions with warming and drying,” said McFarlane.



“Our results suggest that climate change will increase the vulnerability of previously stored soil carbon in tropical forests by stimulating the decomposition and loss of old carbon.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51422-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Warming and drying soils are losing more carbon

Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon...

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue to rise. Increasing levels of heat are turning our cities into insufferable melting pots, where concrete and asphalt amplify the issue.



Rising heat is especially severe across cities of the Global South. Here, a lack of greenery compounded by rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure exacerbates already harsh living conditions.



A recent study has revealed that these cities have only about 70% of their "cooling capacity" compared to cities in the Global North, making them significantly more vulnerable to heat stress.



The rising threat of global warming in urban areas of the South is further intensified by the urban heat island effect, a phenomenon where dense construction and limited vegetation cause cities to be significantly warmer than their surrounding rural regions.



This worsens heat-related illnesses, disproportionately affecting low-income communities and creating a dire public health crisis for these vulnerable regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-green-spaces">The power of green spaces</h2>



However, a cure for the relentless heat might not be as far-fetched as it seems. The introduction of urban green spaces is proven to be a highly effective approach to combat scorching temperatures.



The research team - including experts from the universities of Nanjing, Exeter, Aarhus, and North Carolina State - has found that there is “vast potential” to enhance urban cooling in the Global South and reduce inequality.



"Urban greenery is a really effective way of tackling what can be fatal effects of extreme heat and humidity," said Professor Tim Lenton from the Global Systems Institute at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



“Currently, the people dying due to climate change are often in the slums of cities in the Global South, such as the hottest parts of India.&nbsp;Our analysis suggests green spaces can cool the surface temperature in the average city by about 3°C during warm seasons - a vital difference during extreme heat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cooling-effect-of-urban-green-spaces">The cooling effect of urban green spaces</h2>



The cooling effect of green spaces in cities, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forests-benefit-from-diverse-native-tree-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban forests</a>, is attributed to shading and transpirational cooling, which is the evaporation of water.



The study utilized satellite data from the world's 500 largest cities to gauge their cooling capacity - the extent to which urban green spaces could reduce a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-turf-water-cooled-sustainable-solution-hot-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">city's surface temperatures</a>.



The top ten cities with the highest cooling capacity were all located in the United States, with Charlotte and Raleigh-Durham in North Carolina topping the list.



Many US cities benefit from their low population density, despite this causing a side effect of "urban sprawl." Low population density allows for larger green spaces and a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-measures-the-cooling-effect-of-shade-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling effect</a>.



On the opposite end of the spectrum, cities like Mogadishu in Somalia, Sana'a in Yemen, and Rosario in Argentina were found to have the lowest cooling capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-benefits-in-the-global-south">Cooling benefits in the Global South</h2>



The Global South, which spans Africa, Latin America, and large parts of Asia, is where the risk of exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a> is most severe. 



A prior study warns that existing climate policies may leave over a fifth of the world's population exposed to dangerously high temperatures by the year 2100 - with the most vulnerable sections located in India and Nigeria.



"The differences are mostly due to quantity of vegetation, but efficiency of cooling is also better in the Global North - possibly due to management of green spaces and different tree species," said Professor Chi Xu of <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-greener-future">A greener future</h2>



Despite the disparities in cooling capacity and benefits, there is still a silver lining. "The good news is that this nature-based solution to cooling can be substantially improved across the Global South, helping to tackle future heat stress for billions of people," said Professor Jens-Christian Svenning.



According to Professor Rob Dunn of NC State, creating a greener urban environment is not an easy task, but it's a critical step toward making cities habitable in the near future.



"It won’t be easy to regreen cities. It can be expensive in the short-term. Yet, it will be key to making cities liveable in the immediate future. Also key will be working to prevent the loss of green space in those cities that have it, or at least that have a little," said Professor Dunn.



“Changes could include ground-level green spaces and vertical and rooftop gardens, or even forests, to help protect city people from extreme heat.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51355-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Urban green spaces are urgently needed across the Global South

Green spaces are becoming essential lifelines as global temperatures continue...

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