A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Why do cats often outlast dogs? The answer may lie deep within their genes. Scientists from the University of Bath explored evolutionary patterns in mammals, uncovering how brain size and immune system complexity might hold the key to extended lifespans.



Unlike earlier studies that focused on single genes, this research highlights broader genomic changes that shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/124-year-old-crocodile-challenges-everything-we-know-about-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-brains-immune-genes-and-lifespan">Bigger brains, immune genes and lifespan</h2>



The researchers examined the maximum lifespan potential (MLSP) of 46 mammal species.



They focused on the longest recorded life span in each species, eliminating factors like predation, food scarcity, and environmental stress. This approach offered a clearer view of genetic influences on longevity.



The team found that mammals with larger brains and longer lifespans carried more immune-related genes. Dolphins, with their complex cognitive abilities, can live up to 39 years. Whales, boasting even larger brains, can reach a remarkable 100 years. 



Meanwhile, mice, with much smaller brains, rarely live beyond two years. This pattern reinforces the link between cognitive complexity, immune resilience, and extended life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-genes-expand-to-boost-lifespan">Immune genes expand to boost lifespan</h2>



The researchers identified gene family size expansion as a significant predictor of MLSP in mammals.



They analyzed 4,136 gene families and discovered 236 that showed positive correlations with longevity. Most of these expanding gene families contained immune system genes, highlighting the immune system’s central role in regulating lifespan.



Body mass did not significantly impact gene family expansion. Instead, relative brain size emerged as the primary factor. 



The findings suggest that cognitive development and immune resilience may share an evolutionary path, linking brain complexity with immune function in the quest for longer life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-small-brained-animals-live-longer">Some small-brained animals live longer</h2>



Not all species followed the big brain-long life pattern. Mole rats, despite their small brains, can live up to 20 years. Bats, known for their small brain size, also exhibit extended lifespans. Researchers found that both species carried an unusually high number of immune-related genes.



This discovery raises intriguing questions: Can immune complexity offset cognitive limitations in extending lifespan? 



The data indicate that while a large brain often correlates with longevity, a sophisticated immune system might offer a different route to a longer life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-system-the-guardian-of-longevity">Immune system: The guardian of longevity</h2>



The study reveals the immune system’s crucial role in promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-humans-get-big-brains-fossil-teeth-reveal-new-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>. By removing aging cells, managing infections, and preventing tumor growth, immune-related genes act as protectors against aging’s damaging effects.



“It’s been known for a while that relative brain size is correlated to longevity – the two characteristics have a shared evolutionary path, and having a larger brain potentially offers behavioural advantages,” noted Dr. Benjamin Padilla-Morales from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milner Centre for Evolution</a>.



”However, our study also highlights the surprising role of the immune system not just in fighting disease, but in supporting longer life across mammalian evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-splicing-enhances-lifespan-potential">Gene splicing enhances lifespan potential</h2>



MLSP-associated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> in humans exhibited higher gene expression and increased alternative splicing. This mechanism allows a single gene to produce multiple proteins, effectively expanding its functional repertoire.



Why does this matter? In the context of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-are-you-really-new-tool-measures-aging-from-the-inside-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, alternative splicing may offer an adaptive advantage. It enables cells to respond more effectively to stress, repair damage, and maintain tissue integrity. 



The findings suggest that evolutionary pressure not only favors more immune-related genes but also promotes genes capable of producing diverse proteins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lifespan-advantage-for-some-animals">A lifespan advantage for some animals</h2>



While immune genes dominated the findings, brain size remained a critical factor in determining lifespan. 



Researchers noted that species with larger brains showed both higher gene expression and more extensive gene family expansions. This pattern suggests that cognitive development and longevity share a genetic foundation.



Dolphins, for example, exhibit both advanced cognitive abilities and long lifespans, living up to 39 years. Elephants, with their complex social structures and memory capabilities, can live even longer. These examples illustrate a broader evolutionary trend: cognitive complexity and life extension often go hand-in-hand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-repair-key-longevity-mechanism">DNA repair: Key longevity mechanism</h2>



While immune genes captured the spotlight, researchers also identified significant links between MLSP and DNA repair genes. Species with extended lifespans, such as whales and elephants, exhibited notable expansions in gene families related to DNA repair.



The researchers also found that DNA repair genes exhibited higher levels of alternative splicing. 



This dual mechanism - gene family expansion and transcript diversification - may provide a multi-layered defense against cellular damage, preserving tissue function over longer lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-resistance-the-next-frontier">Cancer resistance: The next frontier</h2>



The research team plans to investigate cancer-related genes further. They aim to uncover how specific genes contribute to both longevity and cancer resistance. 



By analyzing long-lived species like whales and bats, researchers hope to pinpoint genetic targets that might help mitigate cancer risk in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-immune-genes-and-longevity">Evolution, immune genes, and longevity</h2>



The study reveals a complex evolutionary narrative. Longevity in mammals appears to hinge not only on brain size but also on immune system complexity. 



Gene family expansions, especially in immune-related genes, suggest that natural selection may have prioritized immune resilience as a critical component of extended lifespan.



The researchers propose that further exploration of cancer-related genes and DNA repair pathways may offer deeper insights into how some species achieve exceptional longevity. 



The implications extend beyond the animal kingdom, opening potential avenues for aging research in humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-98786-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why do cats outlive dogs? Clues found in their genes

Why do cats often outlast dogs? The answer may lie...

When studying rare earth elements, noticing a violet glow in the lab used to be a sign for scientists that something intriguing lay on the other side of an impenetrable wall. That glow belonged to promethium, element 61, a shy neighbor on the periodic table that gives off faint light but avoids easy study. 



Chemists had long known it existed, yet they couldn’t pin down how it acts in ordinary water, a gap that left textbooks with a dangling question mark.



The lanthanide family, stretching from lanthanum to lutetium, shows a steady shrink in ionic size - an effect known as the lanthanide contraction. 



Every member had been measured except promethium. Without promethium’s data, the pattern looked like a half‑finished sketch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-rare-earth-elements">Understanding rare earth elements</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-coal-ash-holds-tons-of-rare-earth-elements-worth-8-4-billion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rare earth elements</a> (REEs) are a group of 17 metallic elements tucked away in the periodic table, and despite their name, they’re not actually rare - they’re just tricky to extract in usable form. 



You’ll find them in everything from smartphones and electric cars to wind turbines and military gear. What makes them special is their magnetic, phosphorescent, and catalytic properties. 



These elements power the modern world, often quietly, behind the scenes. Neodymium, for example, helps make the powerful magnets inside your earbuds, while europium gives LED lights their bright red glow.



But mining and refining rare earths isn’t exactly clean or easy. Most of the world’s supply comes from China, which has mastered the complex processes needed to isolate and purify these elements. 



The challenge now is finding more sustainable, less toxic ways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crucial-rare-earth-elements-discovered-coal-mines-united-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">source and recycle rare earths</a> - without wrecking the environment or getting tangled in geopolitical knots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-neighbor-of-the-periodic-table">Hidden neighbor of the periodic table</h2>



Promethium was first spotted in 1945 inside the wartime reactors of Clinton Laboratories, the forerunner of the Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ORNL</a>). 



Only about a pound of the element exists naturally in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s crust</a> at any moment, and none of its isotopes stay stable. That scarcity, coupled with radioactivity, explains the long wait for clear chemical measurements. 



In practical terms, scientists must manufacture the element themselves. ORNL remains the sole U.S. source, producing tiny batches of promethium‑147, whose half‑life is 2.62 years.



"The whole idea was to explore this very rare element to gain new knowledge," said Alex Ivanov, an ORNL scientist who co‑led the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-promethium-in-water">Catching promethium in water</h2>



The team crafted a diglycolamide ligand - a claw‑like organic molecule - that latches onto promethium atoms in solution. That grip allowed them to dissolve the isotope safely in water and direct intense X‑ray beams at it. 



Using ORNL’s High Flux Isotope Reactor, hot‑cell chemistry labs, and later the beamlines of Brookhaven’s <a href="https://www.bnl.gov/nsls2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Synchrotron Light Source II</a>, the researchers recorded the bond length between promethium and surrounding oxygen atoms. 



This marks the first time anyone has seen the element’s hydrated radius rather than estimating it.



"Because it has no stable isotopes, promethium was the last lanthanide to be discovered and has been the most difficult to study," said ORNL’s Ilja Popovs, who co‑led the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contraction-curves-and-promethium-dots">Contraction curves and promethium dots</h2>



By plotting the new bond length against those of the other 14 lanthanides, the scientists filled in the missing coordinate and could trace how quickly the ionic radius shrinks across the series. They found that the contraction speeds up until it reaches promethium, then slows in later elements. 



Computer simulations on ORNL’s Summit supercomputer backed the measurements, allowing the group to confirm a subtle shift that had been predicted but never proved.



"There are thousands of publications on lanthanides' chemistry without promethium. That was a glaring gap for all of science," said ORNL’s Santa Jansone‑Popova, who also co‑led the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-isotope-big-jobs">Tiny isotope, big jobs</h2>



Unlike the showier rare earth metals used in magnets or lasers, promethium’s chief value lies in its steady beta radiation. 



Promethium‑147 has powered long‑lived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-nuclear-powered-spacecraft-shorten-the-trip-to-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear batteries</a> that once kept heart pacemakers ticking and that still illuminate spacecraft instruments. 



Because its half‑life is short on a cosmic scale, engineers can design devices that fade safely over decades rather than millennia. 



Understanding how the element interacts with solvents and extractants will help purify it more efficiently and open new applications, such as miniature power sources for deep‑sea sensors.



"It's really astonishing from a scientific viewpoint. I was struck once we had all the data," said Ivanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skylines-and-stethoscopes">Skylines and stethoscopes</h2>



Rare earths underpin fluorescent lighting, wind‑turbine generators, electric‑vehicle motors, and the contrast agents that light up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRI scans</a>. 



Separating each lanthanide from its neighbors remains a stubborn cost driver, often involving miles of solvent‑extraction columns. 



Precise knowledge of ionic size informs that separation, letting chemists tune ligands so they latch onto one element while ignoring another.



According to Jansone-Popova, "You cannot utilize all these lanthanides as a mixture in modern advanced technologies, because first you need to separate them. This is where the contraction becomes very important; it basically allows us to separate them, which is still quite a difficult task."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promethium-and-future-technology">Promethium and future technology</h2>



These fascinating discoveries underscore how specialized facilities knit together to solve an atomic‑scale puzzle. 



ORNL’s radiochemical engineers produced the isotope, Brookhaven’s synchrotron captured the spectra, and supercomputers crunched quantum calculations that once seemed out of reach. 



Frontier, the lab’s new exascale machine, will take the next round of simulations from hours to minutes and may let researchers test how promethium bonds to advanced battery materials or medical chelators.



"Anything that we would call a modern marvel of technology would include, in one shape or another, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth elements</a>," Popovs said. "We are adding the missing link."



The violet glow that puzzled chemists eight decades ago now illuminates a complete picture of lanthanide behavior. 



With promethium’s properties finally charted, the periodic table feels a little tidier - and the tools built from its elements stand to grow even smarter.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07267-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare earth element that glows violet has scientists excited about the future

When studying rare earth elements, noticing a violet glow in...

It has long been accepted that dinosaurs had dwindled in numbers before the asteroid hit. Many people believed they were already on their way out, based on the fact that fewer fossils turned up from that period.



<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/earth-sciences/people/research-staff/dr-chris-dean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christopher Dean</a> from University College London, along with an international research team, now challenges that storyline. 



Their new study indicates that dinosaurs were not fading away prior to the asteroid’s impact, and that a biased fossil record skewed the data we’ve relied on for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-old-assumptions">Revisiting old assumptions</h2>



Previous ideas about declining dinosaur populations came from simple fossil counts. Researchers saw fewer remains toward the last part of the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/timeline/early-cretaceous/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> and interpreted that as the dinosaurs’ slow fade. That conclusion stuck around for decades.



Yet these authors suggest that many fossils went undiscovered because rock layers in certain regions are difficult to access or simply not preserved. 



They point out that the world was changing in big ways, with mountain formations and receding inland seas reshaping the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-occupancy-modeling-approach">Occupancy modeling approach</h2>



This work centers on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124071971/occupancy-estimation-and-modeling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">occupancy modeling</a>, an ecological method that helps scientists estimate the presence of species, even when evidence is incomplete. 



The researchers took thousands of fossil records covering hadrosaurs, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and tyrannosaurids. They then calculated how likely it was to find traces of these animals across North America.



The results were surprising. Instead of confirming a genuine decline in dinosaur variety, the team found that the apparent reduction lined up with spots where fossils had a slim chance of surviving or being unearthed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-numbers-looked-off">Why the numbers looked off</h2>



The study singled out geological factors as the real culprits behind the missing dinosaur evidence. Changes in land elevation and the retreat of a shallow sea reduced places where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-fossil-reveals-fruit-eating-mammal-from-the-dinosaur-age/">dinosaur</a> bones could be buried and preserved. 



Much of that land is now covered by vegetation, buildings, or other features that hide potential fossil sites.



The researchers learned that certain dinosaur groups seemed to be more easily detected than others. Some, like the duck-billed hadrosaurs, might show up better in formations we’ve explored. 



Others, like the armored ankylosaurids, often turned up less, possibly because their favored habitats didn’t fossilize so well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-extinction">Rethinking extinction</h2>



This fresh perspective also implies that dinosaurs were not globally struggling before the asteroid impact. They appear to have maintained strong populations up until a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.208.4448.1095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catastrophic event</a> ended everything at once. 



If the asteroid had missed Earth, it’s possible that these creatures might have continued to do just fine for a much longer stretch of time.



By focusing on areas where remains had little chance to form fossils, the investigators highlight how easily scientists can be misled by blank spots in the data. 



The old narrative of dinosaurs in gradual decline could be more a reflection of Earth’s changing terrain than of genuine biological trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-outlook-on-extinction-risk">An outlook on extinction risk</h2>



These findings show that surviving or vanishing isn’t always tied to a group’s natural trajectory. Sometimes it’s a wild card event, like an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-once-threatened-earth-may-target-the-moon/">asteroid collision</a>, that seals a species’ fate. The difference between lasting millions more years and disappearing overnight might boil down to pure luck.



This insight resonates with discussions around present-day biodiversity. Many modern species could be widespread and healthy, yet vulnerable to sudden environmental disasters. Fossil records teach us that success can flip to extinction if a global-scale shock arrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-past-and-present">Bridging past and present</h2>



Scientists are now more cautious when interpreting gaps in ancient records. The notion of consistent and smooth data through time is flawed. 



Much like detectives, paleontologists have to piece together scattered clues, aware that some bits are missing or distorted.



Occupancy modeling and related methods give researchers a sharper toolset. They can spot hidden patterns that once escaped notice, reshaping our view of iconic events such as the dinosaur die-off.



It appears that dinosaurs were thriving until the sky quite literally fell on them. The mismatch between earlier fossil counts and the true state of dino populations may indicate a biased rock record. 



By accounting for that bias, the team provides a picture of a world that was still teeming with dinosaur life right up to the final curtain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-fossil-research">What this means for future fossil research</h2>



This study opens the door for broader use of occupancy modeling in paleontology. By estimating how likely it is to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossils</a> under different conditions, scientists can now better separate real biological changes from sampling artifacts. 



That help will help sharpen the accuracy of diversity estimates across different regions and time periods.



Going forward, this approach could reshape how researchers investigate other extinction events or global biodiversity shifts. 



If similar sampling biases exist elsewhere in the fossil record, entire chapters of Earth’s history might need to be rewritten through this updated lens.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00310-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225003100%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Study claims that dinosaurs thrived until the asteroid hit, debunking decades of accepted beliefs

It has long been accepted that dinosaurs had dwindled in...

For decades, farming has chipped away at insect biodiversity, often in ways less obvious than bulldozing forests. Frequent mowing, pesticide use, and habitat loss converge to create a hostile landscape for countless insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Now, a research team from the Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) has thrown new light on just how severe the damage really is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-decline-in-farmlands">Insect decline in farmlands</h2>



In Bavaria, a team led by Professor Jörg Müller wanted to look past assumptions. From forests to farmland, the researchers studied 400 insect families. But they didn’t just count what they saw.



They used DNA metabarcoding - a technique that scans genetic material from environmental samples. Combined with precise statistical tools, this allowed the team to detect not only the insects themselves but also the hidden patterns in their decline.



The results, published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, revealed a stark contrast between agricultural and near-natural habitats. What they found changes the story on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> loss - and sharpens its urgency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-insect-diversity">Farming and insect diversity</h2>



The researchers used Malaise traps to catch insects from a range of environments. Farmland samples, surprisingly, gave the clearest data. 



These landscapes, open and simplified, make it easier to catch and identify insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Yet even with this advantage, the results were grim.



After adjusting for how completely each sample captured the existing diversity, the researchers recorded a 44 percent decline in total insect species diversity on farmland. 



This isn’t a seasonal dip. It’s a structural collapse, cutting across species lines. Farmland has become less of a home for insects and more of a barrier to their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-collapse-in-insects">Unseen collapse in insects</h2>



Counting species wasn’t enough. The team introduced a new method to standardize how completely each habitat’s insect community had been sampled. That meant creating fair comparisons across very different environments.



They filtered out sequencing errors, focused on real trends in species presence, and sharpened the lens on insect biodiversity. 



The method accounted for both how many different kinds of insects were present (taxonomic diversity) and how distantly related those insects were from one another (phylogenetic diversity).



What they saw was not just fewer insects - but fewer kinds of insect lineages, going back through evolutionary time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-erases-insect-history">Farming erases insect history</h2>



When insects disappear, ecosystems don’t just lose pollinators or prey. They lose deep genetic history. The JMU team found nearly a 30% reduction in evolutionary diversity in farmland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>.



This means entire branches of the insect family tree are vanishing - lineages shaped over millions of years, wiped away in a few decades. Such a loss affects ecosystem resilience, narrowing the genetic pool that might once have buffered against future environmental shifts.



"This study underscores the urgent need for biodiversity-sensitive land use. A continued decline in insect diversity could have far-reaching consequences for the health and stability of ecosystems," stated Dr. Mareike Kortmann, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-crisis-in-agriculture">Biodiversity crisis in agriculture</h2>



Forests and semi-natural habitats still support varied insect life. They offer shade, cover, and food webs rich with interactions. Agricultural lands, in contrast, have become biodiversity hotspots in reverse. Instead of buzzing life, they teem with absence.



Dominant insect species - those you’d expect to be hardy survivors - are dropping fastest in taxonomic diversity. 



Meanwhile, rare species face a deeper erasure. Their entire evolutionary lineages are disappearing. Farmland is not just hostile to insects. It’s selectively erasing their past, present, and future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-for-insects">Action needed for insects</h2>



This study introduced a powerful new toolkit for understanding insect decline and extinction. By combining genetic analysis, statistical rigor, and evolutionary context, researchers can now draw a clearer map of biodiversity loss and fragmentation.



But the view it reveals is bleak. Knowing more means little if it doesn’t drive action. The researchers call for focused conservation efforts - especially in farmlands where both common and rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> edge closer to disappearance.



They have made the warning unmistakable. The question now: will we change course before the silence spreads?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2927" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Modern farming is causing many insect species to collapse

For decades, farming has chipped away at insect biodiversity, often...

Glaciers can serve as giant archives of what is floating around in our atmosphere. They accumulate carbon and other matter carried by the wind, and preserve it in frozen layers for decades or even centuries.



Experts have found that these icy landscapes offer special insight into <a href="https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Anthropogenic_carbon_emissions">anthropogenic carbon</a>, which is carbon introduced by human activities like burning fossil fuels.



A team of researchers led by Amy Holt from the <a href="https://uas.alaska.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Southeast</a> has uncovered details about these contributions by sampling meltwater from ten glaciers in Alaska, Switzerland, Kyrgyzstan, and Ecuador.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-reveal-carbon-clues">Glaciers reveal carbon clues </h2>



Each glacier examined in the study had outflows carrying dissolved organic matter. This includes <a href="https://www.ccacoalition.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants/black-carbon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black carbon</a>, which is the black residue left from fires and fossil fuel combustion.



Glaciers are different from forests or fields because they do not store large amounts of soil or vegetation. Scientists can therefore see how much carbon is deposited from the air, without much interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-carbon-sources-in-meltwater">Identifying carbon sources in meltwater</h2>



Carbon arrives in glaciers from several sources. Some samples showed <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022169424001409" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isotopic signals</a> that indicated older, fossil-fuel-derived material, while others pointed to younger carbon that is often linked to biomass burning.



Working out the right proportions of each source meant looking at <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9805314/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon ages</a>. Older signatures correlated with high levels of carbon from ancient geologic deposits, which is a strong sign of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-release-vast-quantities-of-unknown-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel</a> impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-differences-across-glaciers">Carbon differences across glaciers</h2>



Alaskan glaciers had more fossil-fuel-derived material in their meltwater. In Ecuador, the researchers noted a larger chunk of carbon from wildfires and microbial growth on the glacier surface.



This variation highlights the link between local pollution sources and the ice. One glacier might collect emissions from heavy industry while another picks up carbon from regional forest fires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbon-moves">How carbon moves</h2>



Anthropogenic carbon contributed anywhere from 12% to 91% of the total carbon found in glacier outflows. The precise percentage depends on where the glacier sits and how air currents carry pollutants.



Sooty particles do not just darken the ice. They can get carried by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-could-run-out-of-water-if-glaciers-continue-to-melt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meltwater</a> into downstream ecosystems, where they may enter food chains or affect water chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-chemistry-matters">Why the chemistry matters</h2>



The researchers discovered that chemical structures in glacier outflows shift when fossil fuel sources dominate. These shifts can change how easily the carbon is used by living things downstream.



Some carbon compounds remain in streams and rivers, while others might break down more quickly. The presence or absence of certain molecules can shape the balance of nutrients in aquatic habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-cycles">Carbon’s role in Earth’s cycles</h2>



These findings add to knowledge about <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/earth-system/biogeochemical-cycles" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biogeochemical cycles</a>, which study how elements like carbon move through living and nonliving parts of Earth. Even remote, high-altitude glaciers are not immune to human activity.



Carbon that was once locked away underground is making its way into icy landscapes. That same carbon then travels to river basins when ice melts, linking industrial emissions to food webs.



“We highlight that spatial variability in the deposition of anthropogenic fossil fuel combustion byproducts to glacier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> affects both the age and character of dissolved organic matter, likely influencing its fate,” said Holt, who was lead author of the study.



That perspective helps clarify the bigger picture. Each glacier becomes a window into how far pollution travels and how old sources of carbon can keep circulating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-traces-in-meltwater">Carbon traces in meltwater</h2>



Scientists commonly analyze surface ice for soot buildup. Fewer have examined dissolved black carbon and other molecular traces in outflow streams.



This shift in approach allows them to see what type of carbon flows away from the glacier. It also highlights the different forms that carbon can take once it leaves the ice.



Fossil fuels contain carbon that formed millions of years ago, so they leave an older isotopic signature. Wildfires, on the other hand, release carbon from plants and recent organic matter.



Some glaciers gather both ancient and modern carbon. Others tilt toward one type, reflecting local pollution patterns or repeated fires near their source regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-life-on-glaciers">Microscopic life on glaciers</h2>



Tiny organisms live on glacier surfaces, and feed on whatever nutrients they can find. They can create organic compounds that also wind up in meltwater.



In some regions, microbial production plays a larger role in dissolved organic matter. The study indicated that glacial streams in Ecuador held more fresh, microbially produced carbon.



Many local communities rely on glacial melt for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a>, agriculture, or hydropower. If the chemistry of that meltwater changes, it may carry unexpected pollutants downstream.



Fish and wildlife depend on these waterways too. Changes in carbon content might alter food availability for the smallest aquatic organisms; this effect can then ripple up the food chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-look-at-tomorrow-s-glaciers">A look at tomorrow’s glaciers</h2>



As average temperatures rise, glaciers around the world continue to shrink. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meltwater</a> rates may accelerate, possibly boosting the volume of anthropogenic carbon that enters rivers.



Understanding today’s levels of carbon will help researchers predict future shifts. If industrial emissions remain high, these icy reservoirs could see further changes in what they carry.



Glaciers do more than keep records of Earth’s past climate. They also show us how modern-day pollution spreads across continents and emerges in unexpected places.



Scientists intend to expand these studies to additional mountain ranges. They hope to see whether remote glaciers share the same patterns or if some remain relatively clean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Future research may measure the fate of dissolved black carbon once it enters rivers. Some forms might break down, while others could linger or accumulate in lake sediments.



These next steps will deepen our understanding of how humanity’s energy choices connect to polar and alpine regions. Glaciers, despite their isolated appearance, reflect our global environmental footprint.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GB008359" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Carbon in glacier meltwater reveals pollution history

Glaciers can serve as giant archives of what is floating...

Human-caused climate change is already cutting lives short in the United States, and now scientists can attach a grim number to one key pathway. A new study shows that wildfire smoke intensified by climate change triggered about 15,000 additional deaths between 2006 and 2020.



The work, led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) researcher Bev Law, is the first to tie a death toll directly to climate-driven increases in fine particulate matter from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-seasons-are-now-overlapping-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-is-deadlier-than-storms">Smoke is deadlier than storms</h2>



Wildfires emit PM2.5 - sooty particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers that slip deep into the lungs and even the bloodstream. 



Using climate projections, fire-behavior models, smoke-dispersion simulations, and county-level health data, the team found that wildfire PM2.5 killed an estimated 164,000 people in the lower forty-eight states during the 15-year window.



The researchers calculate that 15,000 of those lives were lost because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> and drier landscapes made fires larger or more intense. The average annual death rate came to 5.14 per 100,000 people - roughly twice the national rate from hurricanes and other tropical cyclones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-lost-to-wildfire-smoke">Billions lost to wildfire smoke</h2>



The human cost is only part of the burden. Factoring in lost productivity, medical bills, and the federally accepted “value of a statistical life,” the researchers peg the economic damage from those extra smoke deaths at $160 billion.



“Without efforts to address climate change, wildfires and associated fine particulate matter will continue to increase,” said Law, professor emerita in the OSU College of Forestry. 



According to Professor Law, smoke-related deaths could climb at least 50% by mid-century and push annual damages to $244 billion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-western-u-s-is-hit-the-hardest">Western U.S. is hit the hardest</h2>



Although the analysis spans every county in the continental United States, the heaviest mortality and economic losses fell on California, Oregon, and Washington.



About 35% of the climate-linked deaths occurred in 2020 alone, a year dominated by California’s record fire season and the unprecedented Labor Day blazes that swept through the Pacific Northwest. Major fires in Colorado and Arizona added to the smoke plume that summer and fall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-hidden-killer">Tracking a hidden killer</h2>



Law’s group pulled together about 44,000 documented fire-smoke events dating back to 1958, then used the subset from 2006 onward to match modern satellite and ground-sensor coverage.



They fed those fire fingerprints into atmospheric transport models that estimate surface PM2.5 concentrations downwind. Finally, they applied health-risk functions from the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Protection Agency</a> to translate the exposure into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fires-linked-to-1-53-million-deaths-per-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mortality</a>.



By rerunning the chain with and without the climate-induced boost in fire activity, the researchers isolated the share of deaths attributable to global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-erodes-air-quality-gains">Smoke erodes air-quality gains</h2>



For decades, regulators had chipped away at urban smog and tailpipe emissions, steadily lowering average PM2.5 across the nation. Wildfire smoke is reversing those gains.



The authors note that fires now account for almost half of all fine-particle pollution in the United States, a proportion likely to grow as hotter, drier summers extend burning seasons and speed up daily fire growth.



“Exposure to PM2.5 is a known cause of cardiovascular disease and is linked to the onset and worsening of respiratory illness,” Law said.



She pointed to climate fingerprints that have already increased fires: earlier snowmelt leaves forests drier by midsummer; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a> stress trees; and low humidity turns lightning ignitions into runaway blazes. Those same conditions are projected to intensify unless greenhouse-gas emissions fall sharply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-more-smoke-deaths">Preventing more smoke deaths</h2>



The study arrives as fire-prone states weigh investments in forest thinning, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlled-fires-can-help-us-save-grasslands-from-disappearing/">prescribed burning</a>, and community protection.



By putting a dollar value on smoke mortality, the work gives lawmakers a fresh metric to compare against the price of mitigation. It also highlights the need for national strategies to alert vulnerable groups - such as people with heart or lung disease - when smoke plumes threaten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-travels-nationwide">Smoke travels nationwide </h2>



While western states dominate the tally, the models show that smoke travels far, bringing elevated PM2.5 to the Midwest and even the East Coast on certain wind patterns.



Communities hundreds of miles from a flame front can still see emergency-room visits rise when fine-particle concentrations spike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-s-future-looks-worse">Smoke’s future looks worse</h2>



Law and colleagues plan to refine their estimates with newer satellite instruments and higher-resolution health data. They also hope to model how different climate-policy scenarios would change future smoke impacts.



Their message is stark though. The deaths tallied through 2020 reflect atmospheric conditions already locked in by past emissions. If warming continues on its present course, today’s lethal smoke seasons may soon look mild by comparison.



The study turns a statistical spotlight on a threat many people only smell or glimpse as a haze on the horizon. 



By counting lives lost to smoke intensified by climate change, the research underscores how quickly the abstract math of global warming translates into human tragedy  - and why cutting emissions now could spare thousands of lives in the decades to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Climate change is making wildfire smoke more deadly

Human-caused climate change is already cutting lives short in the...

Modern ideas about reality sometimes sound like a wild story. The notion that everything around us might be bits and bytes is easy to brush aside, yet it continues to intrigue many curious minds.



This perspective has led some researchers to wonder if physical forces might be signals of an underlying information system. 



According to physicist <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/about-us/structure-and-governance/our-people/our-staff/melvin-vopson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melvin M. Vopson</a> of the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a>, certain features of gravity may hint at information contained in a universal computational code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-gravity-hold-information">Does gravity hold information?</h2>



Many scientists have explored unconventional interpretations of gravity. They have argued that it might emerge from a principle of data organization instead of being a traditional force.



In this view, the fabric of space might function like an information grid. If bits of matter or energy are arranged in a chaotic way, the grid has to track excessive details, so the system looks for simpler states that require fewer data points.



If space is made of discrete units - like pixels in a digital image - then every object we see is built from a finite set of positions and states. This idea challenges the old belief that space is smooth and continuous.



It also suggests that the universe doesn’t just follow rules - it might actually be running instructions. In that view, everything from stars to atoms could be behaving the way they do because they’re following coded commands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infodynamics-as-a-guiding-concept">Infodynamics as a guiding concept</h2>



When objects in space come together, information about their individual positions can be condensed. This process can reduce the complexity of the entire system.



“My findings in this study fit with the thought that the Universe might work like a giant computer,” said Vopson, who has described this as a computational shortcut. 



The term <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/adv/article/13/10/105308/2915332/The-second-law-of-infodynamics-and-its" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infodynamics</a> refers to an approach that connects information and physical processes. It suggests that matter behaves in ways that minimize data clutter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravity-as-an-information-warehouse">Gravity as an information warehouse</h2>



That might mean gravity, which is often seen as an attraction between bodies, could be the result of nature’s tendency to optimize store information. 



If everything is seen as an information construct, the universe may keep track of fewer details by grouping objects together.



Skeptics may wonder how to test something so abstract. Some suggest that phenomena like gravitational lensing or cosmic expansion could be examined from a data-centered perspective.



Others point to earlier ideas of <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prd/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevD.111.066001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entropic</a> gravity, as proposed by different theorists who saw gravity as emerging from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/JHEP04(2011)029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">holographic principles</a>. 



There is still much debate over whether these models capture the whole truth or only scratch the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



If gravity truly points to a computerized universe, then other puzzles might gain fresh explanations. Dark matter and dark energy, for instance, currently remain major mysteries. 



An information-based framework for gravity might offer alternate ways to interpret these elusive effects.



No one can say with certainty whether the entire cosmos is coded like sophisticated software. Many experts, however, see value in this approach because it unites physics and information theory in a single narrative.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/">Gravity</a>, in this context, becomes an organizing tool that simplifies the cosmic puzzle. The more that matter lumps together, the fewer bits the system must handle. This idea, if confirmed, would change how we think about the nature of reality.



Researchers continue seeking ways to validate these claims, though it is a challenging job. In the meantime, theories like Vopson’s keep the conversation lively. They remind us that science can evolve in surprising directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tension-with-current-physics-models">Tension with current physics models</h2>



Vopson’s theory doesn’t replace general relativity or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-rely-on-quantum-mechanics-to-transfer-energy-from-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> - it competes with them conceptually. 



Traditional models describe gravity as the curvature of space-time or the result of quantum fields, not a byproduct of data compression.



This raises questions about compatibility. Could both models be true in different ways? Or might one framework eventually prove more complete? 



The answers depend on whether experimental evidence can confirm any specific predictions unique to the computational theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-gravity-information-theory">Testing the gravity information theory</h2>



One major challenge is testing the theory. If the universe operates like a computer, what tools could reveal its source code? Right now, there’s no clear experiment that could definitively confirm or rule out this theory.



Another issue is perspective. Even if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-map-subtle-shifts-in-earths-gravity-using-atoms/">gravity</a> works as a kind of data-saving function, that doesn't prove we’re inside a simulation. It just means information plays a deeper role in physics than we once thought. 



Whether that requires the existence of a programmer or is just due to nature being efficient is still up for debate.



For most people, whether gravity is a force or a file-saving trick doesn’t change how we live. Apples still fall from trees. Planes still fly. But how we understand the “why” behind those things is shifting.



Even if the simulation idea is never proven, thinking this way can shape new technologies and ways of solving problems. It opens up new questions about how information works - not just in physics, but also in biology, computing, and beyond.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/adv/article/15/4/045035/3345217/Is-gravity-evidence-of-a-computational-universe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIP Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gravity could be the definitive clue that the universe is one giant computer

Modern ideas about reality sometimes sound like a wild story....

Hummingbirds normally patrol the scarlet blooms of the western United States, sipping nectar and carrying pollen from one monkeyflower to the next.



Yet along the outer edges of that crimson range botanists once noticed something odd: scattered stands of Mimulus cardinalis and Mimulus verbenaceus (two monkeyflower species) had traded their fiery petals for butter-yellow ones.



Earlier fieldwork hinted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-show-surprising-adept-teamwork-skills/">bumblebees</a>, not hummingbirds, seemed drawn to these rare morphs, but decades ago researchers lacked the genomic and biochemical tools to learn why.



A team led by Kelsey Byers at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Center</a> has now reopened the case. In a recent study, the group combined controlled pollinator trials, floral chemistry, and comparative genetics. 



The findings reveal how color, scent, and shape interact when a plant begins shifting from one pollination strategy to another. Researchers documented an adaptive walk - evolution’s slow path from ancestral traits to new ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-prefer-a-yellow-color">Bees prefer a yellow color</h2>



Inside climate-regulated glasshouses, the researchers offered captive bumblebees paired arrays of yellow and red flowers from both species.



The insects showed a clear preference, visiting yellow twice as often as red. 



Chemical analysis then uncovered a clue: the yellow morphs emitted higher volumes of volatile compounds, a likely adaptation because bees, unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/">hummingbirds</a>, rely heavily on scent when foraging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-struggle-despite-color">Bees struggle despite color</h2>



Color and fragrance alone do not guarantee reproductive success. High-speed video revealed that bees wrestled awkwardly with the tubular corollas, structures sculpted through millennia of hummingbird visitation.



Many bees tore the delicate petals while probing for nectar and often failed to brush against the floral reproductive organs, a prerequisite for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/">pollen</a> transfer. As a result, the bees’ frequent visits did not translate into efficient pollination.



The researchers interpret this mismatch as evidence that the yellow monkeyflowers represent an early stage in the switch from bird to bee service: color mutation and heightened scent have arisen first, but corolla architecture has yet to catch up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-genes-same-traits">Different genes, same traits</h2>



A long-standing question was whether the yellow trait in the two Mimulus species emerged through the same molecular pathway. The team’s genomic scans show the answer is partly yes and partly no.



Both species boosted yellow and orange carotenoid pigments by changes to the same suite of genes, a textbook example of convergent evolution. Yet other alterations - loss of red anthocyanin pigments and shifts in scent chemistry - arose through different genetic tweaks in each lineage.



“Even though these species are closely related, they have followed different paths to the same endpoint for many of their traits,” Byers said.



“We have identified ways that flowers can change and affect pollinator visitation, as well as some genetic pathways that can underlie these changes and how they have evolved in different but closely related species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-timeline-for-trait-evolution">A timeline for trait evolution</h2>



Because floral color strongly influences pollinator choice, mutations in pigment genes may surface first during a pollinator shift. Secondary adjustments, such as boosted scent emission or re-shaped petals, could then fine-tune the interaction.



The Mimulus data support that sequence. Large-effect color mutations preceded subtler changes in odor bouquet, while corolla morphology still lags behind, leaving the bee–flower fit imperfect. 



The researchers argue that this hierarchy of changes - big steps followed by smaller refinements - may be typical whenever plants embark on new mutualisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-friendly-color-affects-farming">Bee-friendly color affects farming</h2>



Pollinator partnerships underpin terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> and sustain many food crops. By dissecting how wild species recalibrate those relationships, scientists gain conceptual tools for conservation and agriculture.



“By understanding how traits evolve in the wild, we understand biodiversity better, and by understanding how these traits can be affected by plant genetics, we have the foundation of the ability to engineer traits to impact pollinator preference and thus crop yield,” Byers said.



Tuning color and scent may let breeders align crops with local pollinators, improving output without extra chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-on-the-research-agenda">Next on the research agenda</h2>



The team plans gene-editing and transgenic experiments to verify the precise functions of the carotenoid biosynthesis genes that acted convergently and the anthocyanin regulators that diverged.



They are also surveying another yellow population of Mimulus cardinalis to see whether it repeated the same genetic tricks or invented new ones. Such comparative work will refine our picture of how predictable - or idiosyncratic - evolutionary innovation can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-floral-traits-still-changing">Floral traits still changing</h2>



For now the yellow monkeyflowers stand as living waypoints on an evolutionary journey not yet complete. Bumblebees like their color and perfume, but the floral entrance still suits a hovering hummingbird more than a burrowing bee.



With time and mutations, petal tubes may evolve to guide bees directly to stamens and stigmas. Should that happen, future botanists might find a fully bee-adapted Mimulus lineage where once only hummingbirds ruled - and they will have these early studies to trace how the transformation began.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57639-3">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

These wildflowers changed color to attract bees

Hummingbirds normally patrol the scarlet blooms of the western United...

Crops with genetically enhanced root systems could potentially help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The idea seems simple: grow crops with bigger roots that can store more carbon dioxide under the soil. 



But can this actually help with the fight against climate change? A new study says yes - but with some caveats.



In a new report from researchers at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a>, scientists explain how genetically enhanced crops with larger root systems could become a practical way to remove large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 



The researchers, based at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the School of Global Policy and Strategy, also explored how this method compares to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-based-carbon-dioxide-removal-may-not-be-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon removal</a> strategies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-need-rapid-carbon-removal">Why we need rapid carbon removal</h2>



According to estimates from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the world must remove between five and 16 billion tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-carbon-dioxide-makes-crops-grow-bigger-but-less-nutritious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> every year to have a shot at keeping the climate stable. That’s in addition to reducing how much we emit in the first place. 



If we don’t act fast, the world could see widespread disasters, including severe storms, failing crops, worsening disease outbreaks and flooding due to rising sea levels. 



So far, however, there hasn’t been much research on how fast carbon removal methods could realistically scale up in the real world and help to bring the climate back into balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-carbon-enhanced-crops">A closer look at carbon-enhanced crops</h2>



That’s where carbon-enhanced crops come in. These genetically modified plants have larger root systems designed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rises-wetlands-store-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">store more carbon in the soil</a>. 



The researchers ran a detailed analysis of how much carbon these crops could help remove if widely adopted. They found that, within a period of 13 years of rollout, these crops could remove between 0.9 and 1.2 gigatons of CO2 annually.



That’s about seven times the total amount of carbon offsets that are currently supplied to the global market.



“There is a consensus in the scientific community that we will have to scale CDR [carbon dioxide removal] substantially to reach net zero - on top of drastically reducing our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>,” said lead author Daniela Faggiani-Dias.



“Yet, research on how CDR can realistically scale - considering not only technical limits, but also scale-up speed and feasible pathways - is very thin. And this is what is new about our study."



“We provide a detailed analysis of the CDR scaling challenge and propose a framework to estimate how quickly and to what extent emerging, highly uncertain technologies might scale. 



According to Faggiani-Dias, even though the analysis focuses on carbon-enhanced crops, the framework is generalizable across CDR approaches and helps to surface key uncertainties in scale-up potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-past-technological-advances">Learning from past technological advances</h2>



The team looked to the past to understand how fast new technologies typically spread. They studied how other agricultural advances - like hybrids, pesticides, fertilizers, and crop rotation - caught on over time.



One of the most relevant comparisons was with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic modification</a>. Like carbon-enhanced crops, genetically modified crops promised benefits to farmers and the agricultural supply chain. But the rollout wasn’t smooth.



In countries that allowed genetically modified crops, it took about 11 years to go from early adoption to widespread use. Even then, only 13% of the world’s farmland currently grows these types of crops. Regulations and public concerns have slowed wider acceptance. 



The researchers say carbon-enhanced crops could face the same hurdles unless there are strong incentives, such as carbon credits, for countries that use them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crops-may-be-the-fastest-fix">Why crops may be the fastest fix</h2>



Compared to other carbon removal strategies - such as storing carbon in rock or filtering it from air or oceans - enhanced crops have a head start. They can be adopted using existing farm infrastructure and technologies.



Farmers are already familiar with trying new crop techniques, and there's a built-in industry ready to support new seed technologies. Plus, the soil is often depleted of carbon, making it a good place to store more.



Other strategies would potentially require the establishment of entirely new industries before they could be successfully implemented at scale. This could take years to test and verify, considering that some of these strategies are still in their infancy.



That’s why crops with enhanced roots are seen as one of the fastest and most realistic tools for carbon removal - although they would still not be effective enough on their own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-are-only-part-of-the-solution">Crops are only part of the solution</h2>



Faggiani-Dias emphasized that this approach is just one piece of the climate solution puzzle. She noted that the benefit of carbon-enhanced crops could be significant, but not enough on its own. 



According to Faggiani-Dias, these efforts should be seen as just one component of a broader strategy to decarbonize the global economy.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adc31b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Genetically enhanced crops could help fight climate change

Crops with genetically enhanced root systems could potentially help remove...

Food allergies have become increasingly common, affecting roughly one in 13 children, as reported by Food Allergy Research and Education (FARE). With such a rise, scientists continue to explore how maternal diets might influence allergy risk in infants. 



Recent research in Finland sheds light on a surprising connection between avocado consumption during pregnancy and reduced food allergy risk in infants.



A study involving 2,272 mother-child pairs, conducted over nearly a decade, uncovered a striking finding. Infants whose mothers consumed avocados during pregnancy had a 43.6% lower chance of developing food allergies by 12 months. 



The study accounted for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-omega-3-deficiency-is-rising-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variables</a> such as maternal age, smoking status, and education - yet the link remained consistent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-lower-allergy-risk">Avocados lower allergy risk</h2>



For years, researchers have explored how specific dietary patterns during pregnancy might influence infant allergy risk. However, individual foods like avocados have not received the same level of scrutiny. 



The Finnish study aimed to fill that gap. The team utilized an online food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess maternal avocado intake during the first and third trimesters. 



Participants who reported any avocado <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-production-more-difficult-climate-change-plant-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption</a> were classified as consumers, while those who did not became non-consumers.



The analysis revealed a significant contrast. Among non-consumers, 4.2% of infants developed food allergies. In comparison, only 2.4% of infants whose mothers consumed avocados experienced the same outcome.



The reduction in allergy risk remained significant even after adjusting for various maternal health factors .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-research-offers-hope">Avocado research offers hope</h2>



“As a caregiver, the growing prevalence of food allergy feels very scary and out of my control,” said Sari Hantunen, senior lecturer at the <a href="https://www.uef.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Eastern Finland</a>.



“There is no cure for food allergy, but promising prevention and therapeutic strategies are in development as well as emerging research such as this."



”Based on these findings, it’s encouraging to know that eating avocados may provide even more value to maternal and children’s health, beyond the benefits that have already been established through scientific research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-avocado-and-allergy">Tracking avocado and allergy</h2>



The Kuopio Birth Cohort (KuBiCo) provided a rich dataset for analysis. Researchers recruited pregnant women during routine first-trimester appointments at <a href="https://pshyvinvointialue.fi/web/en/kuopio-university-hospital" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kuopio University Hospital</a>. Data collection continued until November 2022, capturing dietary intake throughout the first and third trimesters.



Mothers completed FFQs that detailed food consumption over the past three months. The FFQ specifically assessed avocado intake, classifying participants as consumers or non-consumers.



After birth, researchers tracked infants to assess allergic outcomes, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> allergies, eczema, rhinitis, and wheezing. Even after adjusting for variables like maternal age, smoking, and breastfeeding duration, the data maintained its significance. 



Infants of non-consumers showed a 4.2% allergy rate, while those of avocado consumers showed a 2.4% rate .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-choose-avocados">Who choose avocados?</h2>



Avocado consumers shared common traits that distinguished them from non-consumers. They tended to be older and more educated. They also reported longer breastfeeding durations and higher diet quality scores.



These women generally had lower BMI levels in the first trimester and were less likely to undergo caesarean deliveries. Researchers noted that these trends might reflect broader health-conscious behaviors rather than avocado <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption</a> alone .



Avocados pack essential nutrients that may benefit both maternal and infant health. Each serving provides 9.25 grams of dietary fiber, supporting gut health and potentially influencing immune responses.



Additionally, avocados contain 2.6 mg of vitamin E, an antioxidant linked to immune function, and 0.93 mg of zinc, which plays a role in immune development. Lutein, a carotenoid crucial for eye health, also features prominently in avocados.



The nutrient profile aligns well with dietary patterns like the Mediterranean diet, previously associated with lower allergy risks in offspring. While the study focused solely on avocados, researchers suggest that other nutrient-dense foods may offer similar protective effects .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consuming-avocados-for-allergy-prevention">Consuming avocados for allergy prevention</h2>



The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that pregnant women consume 2 ½ to 3 ½ cups of vegetables daily. Avocados, with their nutrient density, count as a full cup per serving.



For toddlers aged 12-23 months, the guidelines suggest 2/3 to 1 cup of vegetables each day. With its rich nutrient profile, a single avocado serves as a practical choice to meet these recommendations without the need for supplements.



Despite the promising findings, the study did not identify any significant links between avocado consumption and other allergic conditions like rhinitis, eczema, or wheezing. 



The focus on food allergies yielded notable results, but the other conditions showed no significant differences between consumers and non-consumers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research">Expanding the research</h2>



The researchers caution against overgeneralizing the findings. While avocados may contribute to reduced food allergy risk, the mechanisms remain unclear. 



Further studies could clarify whether specific nutrients within avocados influence immune development and whether similar effects extend to other foods .



The study opens doors for future research that could extend beyond infancy. Tracking infants beyond the first year of life may provide insights into how early dietary exposures shape allergy risk throughout childhood.



Additionally, examining other nutrient-dense foods with similar profiles, such as nuts, seeds, or leafy greens, could help determine whether the observed effects result from specific nutrients or broader dietary patterns. 



Understanding these connections could refine dietary recommendations for pregnant women, offering clearer guidance on foods that may reduce allergy risk in infants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nutritional-choice-with-potential">A nutritional choice with potential</h2>



As food allergies continue to rise, identifying preventive strategies during pregnancy remains a critical focus. This Finnish study suggests that avocados, with their nutrient-rich profile, may play a role in reducing food allergy risk in infants.



While the study does not establish causality, it highlights the potential impact of nutrient-dense foods during pregnancy - a time when maternal diet can leave lasting imprints on infant health. 



Further research will clarify whether these findings hold across diverse populations and whether other foods offer similar benefits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41390-025-03968-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pediatric Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Eating avocados during pregnancy reduces baby's allergy risk

Food allergies have become increasingly common, affecting roughly one in...

Snow leopards roam the vast, rugged terrains of northern India, concealed by their elusive nature. A team of researchers set out to track the snow leopard population in this region across a sprawling 59,000 km² landscape.



The comprehensive study was led by Pankaj Raina, from the <a href="https://leh.nic.in/department/wildlife-department/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Wildlife Protection</a> in Ladakh. Identifying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secretive cats</a> demanded meticulous research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elusive-snow-leopards">Tracking elusive snow leopards</h2>



The researchers looked for footprints, feces, and scratch marks to spot snow leopards. They also watched for brown bears and lynx and counted wild herbivores and livestock too.



Next, 956 camera traps were deployed over 8,500 km² (3,282 square miles), strategically positioned to maximize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-the-carnivores-that-eat-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leopard</a> sightings.



Artificial intelligence analyzed the captured images, identifying individual snow leopards by the unique pattern of spots on their foreheads - a method aptly termed “fingerprinting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-density-and-distribution">Population density and distribution</h2>



In Ladakh, researchers estimated 477 snow leopards, representing 68% of India’s total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopard-day-2024-honoring-the-elusive-mountain-ghost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>. Density varied, with 1 to 3 individuals per 100 km² (39 to 116 square miles). 



Hemis National Park stood out, showcasing the highest density of snow leopards globally. Surprisingly, 61% of Ladakh’s snow leopards coexisted with human communities. 



Grasslands rich in resources, areas with moderate climates, and complex terrains harbored higher leopard populations. Abundant prey with minimal human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-snow-leopards">Counting snow leopards </h2>



Capturing these elusive creatures on camera required inventive strategies. "To photograph snow leopards' foreheads, we had to make them pose in front of our cameras," said Raina.



"This was done by spraying a small amount of perfume just below the cameras that were deployed near their favored scent marking rocks on the high ridge tops. The curious leopards lower their heads to smell the novel smell and we have our prized photos!"



The challenge didn’t end with taking photos. Identifying individuals was another story. The team used a specialized pattern recognition program.



"Fingerprinting snow leopards: A special pattern recognition software that fits a three dimensional model on the snow leopards forehead image extracts the spot patterns and stores them in a database for comparing it with other snow leopard photographs, and comes up with close matches," said the researchers.



"This reduced our work many fold and improved the accuracy of correct individual identification that is crucial for population estimation using statistical models."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-snow-leopard-research">Gaps in snow leopard research </h2>



Beyond the clever use of cameras, the study’s methodology addressed existing gaps in snow leopard research. Researchers implemented a double-sampling approach, covering areas with varying densities to form a comprehensive population estimate.



Over 26,130 images of 126 unique leopards were captured. These images became part of India’s first national photo library of snow leopards - a digital archive aimed at monitoring population changes, tracking poaching incidents, and understanding snow leopard movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-reverence-and-ecological-realities">Cultural reverence and ecological realities</h2>



Ladakh’s snow leopard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> thrives not only due to rugged landscapes but also due to the cultural reverence locals hold for wildlife.



"The deep-rooted reverence for wildlife among Ladakh’s communities, combined with the economic benefits from snow leopard tourism and conflict management strategies, helps sustain some of the world’s highest snow leopard densities - a model that could be adapted and upscaled across the species' range," noted the study authors. 



While Hemis National Park reported the highest densities, multi-use areas also emerged as critical habitats. These regions, characterized by higher prey density and less human disturbance, supported substantial snow leopard populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-and-adaptive-strategies">Future challenges and adaptive strategies</h2>



Despite the success, emerging threats loom. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat loss</a> due to infrastructure projects. Climate change altering prey distribution. Poaching, still a pressing concern.



Researchers advocate for scalable monitoring techniques that can be applied globally. In Ladakh, integrating local knowledge with advanced technology could serve as a blueprint for snow leopard conservation worldwide.



Ladakh’s snow leopard conservation framework weaves together traditional practices and modern science. 



As human-wildlife interactions increase, balancing conservation with community needs becomes more urgent. In Ladakh, this delicate equilibrium holds the key to sustaining one of the world’s largest snow leopard populations.



Adapting this model to other regions could redefine global snow leopard conservation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322136" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ghost cats: Scientists used a clever trick to count snow leopards

Snow leopards roam the vast, rugged terrains of northern India,...

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that endure for years. A world where alliances are forged not through blood ties but through acts of mutual aid. 



This world exists all across Earth, but especially with a bird species called African starlings. They engage in reciprocal "helping" behavior, a concept once thought exclusive to humans.



A new study led by Alexis Earl, a former PhD student at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in Professor Dustin Rubenstein’s lab, has cracked open the complex social world of these birds. The findings challenge long-held assumptions that kinship alone drives cooperative behavior.



Instead, the study reveals that starlings form lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparrows-have-fewer-friends-as-they-age-just-like-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a>, built on the expectation that help given today will be returned tomorrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-african-starlings-more-than-family-groups">African starlings: More than family groups</h2>



African starling societies are anything but simple. These aren’t just tight-knit family groups. They’re intricate networks of related and unrelated individuals, living together, helping each other, and occasionally switching roles. 



“Starling societies are not just simple families,” Rubenstein said. “They’re much more complex, containing a mixture of related and unrelated individuals that live together, much in the way that humans do.”



The research team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> over 20 years at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. During 40 breeding seasons, they documented thousands of interactions among hundreds of birds. By collecting genetic data, they could trace familial ties and map out the social networks within each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-help-non-relatives">Birds help non-relatives</h2>



The data revealed a striking pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> weren’t just helping relatives, they were helping non-relatives too.



And not just once - over and over again. These birds were forming relationships based on reciprocity, where the expectation wasn’t immediate repayment but long-term support.



Rubenstein emphasized the significance of these findings. “Many of these birds are essentially forming friendships over time,” he said. 



But why help a non-relative when a relative is nearby? For the starlings, the answer appears to lie in building a network of allies, a safety net that extends beyond family bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-reversals-and-unexpected-alliances">Role reversals and unexpected alliances</h2>



Starlings don’t stick to one role. They don’t remain helpers or breeders for life. Instead, they switch roles throughout their lifetimes, a phenomenon rarely seen in cooperative breeders. 



The researchers found that individuals frequently moved between helper and breeder roles, sometimes even after raising their own offspring.



This role-switching opened the door for reciprocal helping. A bird that helped another during one breeding season might later become a breeder and receive help from that same individual. 



The study tracked 528 helper-breeder pairs, and in 142 pairs, the same two birds swapped roles and helped each other over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-friendships-form-through-reciprocal-helping">Bird friendships form through reciprocal helping</h2>



Kin selection is a well-established concept in evolutionary biology. Helping family members ensures the survival of shared genes. But the researchers observed a different kind of bond in starlings - one based on reciprocity, not kinship.



Resident males typically helped relatives. Immigrant males, however, helped both kin and non-kin. In fact, the researchers found that the helping rate for reciprocating pairs was 242 percent higher than for non-reciprocating pairs. 



Clearly, these birds were forming alliances that went beyond genetic ties.



But kinship wasn’t entirely irrelevant. Resident females rarely became breeders, so they had fewer opportunities for reciprocal helping. Immigrant females, on the other hand, often moved between helper and breeder roles, forming bonds with specific non-relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-long-term-data">Power of long-term data</h2>



The depth of this study lies in its duration. Twenty years of observations, over 12,000 recorded helping interactions and more than 500 individual birds. 



This long-term dataset allowed the researchers to detect subtle patterns that would have been invisible in a shorter study.



Rubenstein believes these findings have broader implications. “I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” he said.



Without such extensive data, the role of reciprocal helping might have remained hidden beneath the more obvious kin-based helping patterns. The study underscores the importance of sustained observation in uncovering the intricacies of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-social-networks">Implications for animal social networks</h2>



Why would a bird help a non-relative, even when a relative is nearby? The answer may lie in the unpredictability of life in the African savannah. Food scarcity. Predator threats. Uncertain breeding success.



In such an environment, forming bonds with non-relatives could serve as a form of insurance. Birds that help today may receive help tomorrow when conditions worsen. It’s a strategy that maximizes survival, not just for the individual but for the entire group.



The researchers observed that these reciprocal bonds sometimes lasted for years. And in some cases, they were even stronger than bonds formed through kinship. 



By maintaining these alliances, birds could increase their chances of receiving support during critical breeding periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reciprocal-helping-in-other-birds">Reciprocal helping in other birds</h2>



This phenomenon isn’t limited to African starlings. Other bird species, such as green woodhoopoes and white-fronted bee-eaters, also exhibit reciprocal helping. However, the evidence of such behavior in non-relatives is rare.



The researchers argue that reciprocal helping may be more common than previously thought. The problem is that detecting it requires long-term observation - years, even decades. And that kind of data is difficult to obtain.



In the case of African starlings, the data revealed that reciprocal helping relationships sometimes persisted for multiple breeding seasons. Birds that helped each other one year often maintained that relationship, swapping roles and continuing to support one another over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



What drives birds to choose specific partners for reciprocal helping? How do they recognize reliable allies? Are there cues - vocal signals, visual displays, prior interactions - that indicate trustworthiness?



The study raises more questions than it answers. The researchers plan to expand their observations to other species within the same environment. By doing so, they hope to determine whether reciprocal helping is a widespread strategy among cooperative breeders or a unique trait of African starlings.



Additionally, they aim to explore the impact of environmental factors on reciprocal helping. Does food scarcity strengthen these bonds? Do predator threats prompt birds to seek new allies?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-animal-cooperation">Redefining animal cooperation</h2>



The findings of this study challenge the conventional view that cooperative behavior in animals is driven solely by kin selection. While helping relatives remains a vital strategy, reciprocal helping may play an equally significant role in stabilizing social groups.



For the African starlings, reciprocal helping is a way to build alliances, secure support, and hedge against future uncertainties. It’s a strategy that mirrors human friendships - complex, enduring, and sometimes unpredictable.



“I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” Rubenstein said.



The study, published in Nature, provides a rare glimpse into the hidden world of animal friendships. It shows that even in the harsh and unpredictable environment of the African savannah, social bonds can form, endure, and evolve. 



And in the end, the birds that help today may just be the ones receiving help tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08958-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds observed exhibiting many behaviors that resemble human friendships

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that...

Owls are famous for their ability to hear exactly where their prey is hiding, even in complete darkness. But a surprising new study shows that owls aren’t the only raptors with this impressive skill. Harriers, a type of hawk found around the world, also have specialized hearing abilities that help them locate prey by sound.



An international team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ulethbridge.ca/">University of Lethbridge</a> in Canada and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia has uncovered unexpected owl-like traits in the ears and brains of several harrier species. 



The findings reveal that harriers have independently evolved several adaptations that allow them to hunt more effectively by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-recognize-the-sound-of-killer-whales-on-the-hunt/">sound</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-prey-by-sound-and-sight">Hunting prey by sound and sight</h2>



“Until recently, it was assumed that all their hearing adaptations were unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-a-rare-snowy-owl-orange-color-genetic-mutation/">owls</a>. However, our study shows that harriers have independently evolved several key adaptations for finding prey by sound,” said Sara Citron, a PhD student at the University of Lethbridge, who led the study.



Scientists have long praised owls for their fine-tuned hearing, which allows them to zero in on small prey like mice in total darkness.



Harriers, on the other hand, primarily hunted by sight - much like most hawks were believed to do. But the new research reveals that harriers are much more attuned to sound than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ha-wks-with-exceptional-hearing">Hawks with exceptional hearing</h2>



The research team focused on harriers because of their distinctive hunting style. Andrew Iwaniuk, senior author of the study, is an associate professor at Canada’s Center for Behavioral Neuroscience. 



“Hawks tend to hunt primarily by sight. But unlike other hawks, harriers fly low over tall grass with their beak pointed to the ground,” said Iwaniuk. “During this so-called ‘quartering flight,’ they are not only looking for prey, they are also listening for it.”



“The Australian Spotted Harrier is a great example. When you look at this species’ face, you can see a distinctive disc-shaped face, which may improve their prey localization just like owls,” added co-author Aubrey Keirnan, a PhD student at Flinders University.



Older behavioral studies had already shown that harriers can locate sounds with surprising accuracy, much like owls. But the anatomical reasons behind this ability had remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-for-prey">Brains tuned for prey</h2>



To investigate further, the researchers examined skulls and brains of harriers. They compared them to other hawks, using specimens from wildlife rehabilitators and museums in Canada and Australia. Researchers also looked at close relatives, such as the wedge-tailed eagle.



They found harriers, like owls, have large ear openings and two brain areas vital for pinpointing sound location.



“These auditory nuclei are found in the brainstem and compare the time at which sounds arrive at the left or right ear,” said co-author Vera Weisbecker, an associate professor at Flinders University. 



“If a sound arrives at both ears at the same time, then the sound is coming from directly in front of an animal. If there is a delay, this indicates that the prey is more to the left or right.”



The hawks have enhanced hearing thanks to expanded brain regions, giving them an edge in detecting hidden prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-separate-species-same-solution">Separate species, same solution</h2>



“Harriers have therefore evolved an auditory system similar to owls, enabling them to target sounds as accurately as owls in a remarkable example of convergent evolution of both brain and behavior in animals separated by over 60 million years,” Citron said.



However, the researchers are careful to note that these hawks are not quite on par with owls when it comes to hearing.



“There are several other features that help owls with their keen hearing which we did not find in harriers,” Citron explained.



“For example, some owl species have asymmetric ears that allow them to locate sound with greater acuity, and these owls also have several other enlarged brain regions that were not enlarged in harriers.”



This explains why owls can hunt in complete darkness, while harriers remain daytime hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-strategies-for-harriers">Conservation strategies for harriers</h2>



The researchers believe their findings could help guide future studies on bird anatomy and behavior, especially when it comes to conservation.



“Anatomical studies like ours are a window into how a bird perceives the world around it, which can be extremely useful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> conservation,” Iwaniuk said.



“For example, harriers’ reliance on sound for prey location means that they are likely more sensitive to traffic and industrial noise. This could be contributing to the large decreases in Northern Harrier populations we have seen in Canada.”



By better understanding how these birds detect prey, scientists can learn more about the challenges they face in modern environments. This knowledge could help design conservation strategies that account for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/">noise pollution</a> and other threats that interfere with their finely tuned senses.



The study adds to a growing body of research showing how diverse species can evolve similar traits when facing similar challenges - highlighting nature’s remarkable ability to find common solutions across vast evolutionary distances.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14264">Journal of Anatomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some hawks evolved super hearing abilities to locate prey

Owls are famous for their ability to hear exactly where...

A new study led by UCL researchers has traced the roots of Tyrannosaurus rex back to Asia. Before ruling North America as a colossal predator, T. rex likely crossed a land bridge from Asia more than 70 million years ago, according to the team.



Published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, the study not only examines T. rex’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-change-their-minds-about-tyrannosaurus-rex-dinosaur-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> but also explores the evolutionary rise of megaraptors, suggesting that climate played a significant role in their development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-earth-bigger-dinosaurs">Cooler Earth, bigger dinosaurs</h2>



Global temperatures peaked around 92 million years ago, but a cooling trend soon followed. This climatic shift coincided with the rapid growth in size of tyrannosaurids and megaraptors. 



Despite the cooling climate, Morrison’s team found no direct link between temperature and body mass. Instead, they suggest that climatic shifts may have indirectly fueled gigantism by altering predator-prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a>.



“Our modelling suggests the ‘grandparents’ of T. rex likely came to North America from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait between what is now Siberia and Alaska,” said lead author Cassius Morrison, a PhD student in Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-t-rex-came-from-asia">T. rex came from Asia</h2>



The debate surrounding T. rex’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origins</a> is as fierce as the predator itself. Some researchers argue that T. rex originated in Asia, while others claim North America as its birthplace.



Morrison’s findings suggest that T. rex’s direct ancestor likely migrated from Asia to North America, aligning with earlier studies linking T. rex to Asian cousins like Tarbosaurus.



But despite the wealth of T. rex fossils in North America, Morrison speculates that the direct ancestor’s fossils remain undiscovered in Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mexico-fossil-in-doubt">New Mexico fossil in doubt</h2>



Last year, a study proposed that Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis from New Mexico predated T. rex by three to five million years. Morrison’s team disputes this, arguing that the fossil’s dating is unreliable.



Their biogeographical model instead positions T. rex as a North American genus, evolving in Laramidia, a western region that once stretched from Alaska to Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megaraptors-mysterious-hunters">Megaraptors: Mysterious hunters</h2>



While T. rex dominated the northern continents, megaraptors thrived in Gondwana, an ancient southern supercontinent that included South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India. 



With slender heads, long arms, and 35-centimeter claws, these predators took a different evolutionary path.



Morrison’s team traced megaraptors to Asia around 120 million years ago. From there, they spread to Europe, Africa, and the southern continents of Gondwana. Despite this wide distribution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> remain scarce, leaving gaps in the evolutionary timeline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megaraptor-s-hunting-strategy">Megaraptor’s hunting strategy</h2>



Unlike the bone-crushing jaws of T. rex, megaraptors relied on their massive claws to dispatch prey. In southern Gondwana, they likely targeted juvenile sauropods, while T. rex hunted giants like Triceratops and Edmontosaurus in Laramidia.



Both predator groups reached colossal sizes as temperatures dropped and carcharodontosaurids - another group of large predators - vanished.



Morrison’s team suggests that the extinction of these giants opened the apex predator niche, allowing tyrannosaurids and megaraptors to expand their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-climates-new-predators">Cold climates, new predators</h2>



Despite the apparent link between cooler climates and bigger dinosaurs, the study found no direct correlation between temperature and body size. 



Instead, Morrison’s team proposes that climatic shifts may have indirectly driven gigantism by reshaping ecosystems and altering prey availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giants-rose-after-rivals-fell">Giants rose after rivals fell</h2>



By the end of the Cretaceous, T. rex weighed up to nine tonnes, comparable to a large African elephant. Meanwhile, megaraptors stretched over 10 meters in length.



Charlie Scherer, co-author and a UCL Earth Sciences graduate, connects this size surge to the extinction of carcharodontosaurids. 



“They likely grew to such gigantic sizes to replace the equally giant carcharodontosaurid theropods that went extinct about 90 million years ago,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-continents-shaped-predators">Ancient continents shaped predators</h2>



Dr. Mauro Aranciaga Rolando from the Natural Sciences Argentine Museum underscores the role of Gondwana in shaping megaraptor evolution.



As continents drifted apart, megaraptors adapted to diverse environments, evolving into apex predators in Australia and Patagonia.



“While in regions like Asia, megaraptors were eventually replaced by tyrannosaurs, in areas such as Australia and Patagonia, they evolved to become apex predators, dominating their ecosystems,” Rolando said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-t-rex-and-megaraptors">Rise of T. rex and megaraptors</h2>



Morrison’s study emphasizes that more fossil evidence is essential to refining the evolutionary timeline of megaraptors. 



Regions like Africa and Antarctica, largely unexplored, may hold crucial clues to understanding megaraptor dispersal and gigantism.



For now, the study concludes that T. rex likely evolved as a North American genus, with Asian roots still shrouded in mystery. Meanwhile, megaraptors remain enigmatic, their evolutionary story far from complete.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsos.242238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

T. rex’s ancestors may have walked from Asia to North America

A new study led by UCL researchers has traced the...

Termites are often overlooked in rainforest restoration, where the focus is usually on planting trees. But what if the key to a thriving forest lies not in the canopy above, but in the soil below - and in the insects that crawl through it?



A new study reveals that termites, often seen as pests, might actually be essential allies in helping young rainforests flourish. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a> and the University of Queensland in Australia have found that these tiny decomposers are missing - or at least lagging behind - in forests that have been replanted, even more than a decade after restoration began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-need-more-than-trees">Forests need more than trees</h2>



“People tend to think that by just planting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-makes-forests-more-productive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of trees</a>, these rainforests will regenerate,” said Baptiste Wijas, a postdoctoral fellow at Cary Institute and visiting academic at the University of Queensland. 



“But it's worth thinking about, should we actually be putting in other organisms as well, to restore other ecosystem processes that help the forest function? In the context of rainforest regeneration, no one really thinks about it at all.”



That question matters more than ever. As more land is reforested in efforts to combat climate change and restore ecosystems, it’s crucial to understand what makes a forest actually function. 



Decomposers like termites and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> play a critical role in cycling nutrients and carbon. Without them, the soil might lack the resources young trees need to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-forest-floor">Testing the forest floor</h2>



To understand how well decomposers were rebounding, the research team set up a simple but telling experiment. They placed wooden blocks in three different forest settings in Australia’s Daintree Rainforest. One was a pristine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">old-growth forest</a>. 



The other two were replanted sites - one restored in 2010, the other in 2014 - on land that had been cleared for agriculture decades ago and later abandoned. The replanting was carried out by a nonprofit organization called Rainforest Rescue.



For four years, the team checked on the wooden blocks every six months. They looked for signs of fungi, termites, or both, and tracked how fast the wood was breaking down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wet-and-wild-challenge">A wet and wild challenge</h2>



The fieldwork was anything but easy. “You’re sweating all the time, and there are plants that want to attack you everywhere,” said Wijas. 



In one year alone, the team faced a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> - drought, floods, fires, and “a zombie cyclone that caught us twice,” said Cary Institute senior scientist Amy Zanne. “It was an epic, biblical year.”



Despite these challenges, the team made a surprising discovery. They expected that termites would be thriving in all the rainforests and that fungi would struggle more in the younger sites. But the results were the opposite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-thrive-while-termites-struggle">Fungi thrive while termites struggle</h2>



Fungi were resilient. They performed almost as well in the replanted forests as in the old-growth site, though they were a bit slower in the youngest forest. 



Termites, however, were another story. While they were present at all three sites, they decomposed wood at a much slower rate in the replanted forests. Even 12 years after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> began, the termite-driven decay lagged behind.



The researchers suggest several possible reasons: termite colonies in the replanted areas may be fewer, smaller, less diverse, or less mature.



That’s a problem, because slow decomposition can mean nutrients and carbon aren’t returning to the soil quickly enough. And that could stunt forest growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-radical-idea-importing-insects">A radical idea: Importing insects</h2>



To fix the problem, the scientists have a bold proposal. They suggest bringing logs from old-growth forests into younger forests to introduce decomposers and give existing ones more to eat.



“A young, regenerating forest doesn’t have a lot of deadwood in it,” Zanne explained. “So if you bring in these logs, you’re giving them some food to tide them over while they wait for parts of trees to start falling down.”



They’re also thinking even bigger: what about transplanting entire termite mounds? “That’s something that no one's really thought about either,” said Wijas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-termites-in-forests">Rethinking termites in forests</h2>



Convincing forest managers to welcome termites into their restoration plans won’t be easy.



“Many people - forest managers included - don’t really like termites,” said Wijas. “But they play an important role in having a healthy forest.”



Zanne pointed out that most termites get a bad rap for no reason. "Only about 3% of termites are known to damage human homes. Very little is known about the other 97%.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-decomposers">More than just decomposers</h2>



In fact, termites might be doing even more good than we think. 



“We think termites might be locking up carbon in their nests,” said Wijas. “When they eat wood, they’re not able to digest all of it, and so the feces they use to build their nests could be quite carbon-rich. They may even lock up more carbon than they emit, but we just don’t know yet.”



Termites may also help trees grow by partnering with nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, which convert nitrogen into a form plants can use.



“Termites and fungi are absolutely critical to forest function,” said Zanne. “It would be interesting to see who else returns to the regenerating forests if the termites are there - perhaps ants, lizards, and gliders that eat termites. Right now we just don't have any idea whether these organisms are coming back in these systems.”



As the search continues for ways to speed up rainforest recovery, termites may prove to be unlikely but vital allies. The next time we think about rebuilding a forest, we might want to think beyond trees—and start thinking about termites too.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/7974/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Termites play an unexpected role in rainforest revival

Termites are often overlooked in rainforest restoration, where the focus...

Many people believe that small skin injuries heal quickly. Recent findings suggest that compared to certain other primates, human skin heals at a much slower pace.



Researchers measured how quickly skin edges moved together after injuries in humans and discovered a rate about one-third of what they saw in non-human primates. 



Their work indicates that humans might have traded rapid recovery for other unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-tech-will-track-emotions-through-changes-in-our-skin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">characteristics</a>.



Dr. Akiko Matsumoto-Oda, an evolutionary scientist with the <a href="https://www.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Ryukyus</a>, conducted these investigations with collaborators from the Kyoto University <a href="https://www.wrc.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Research Center</a>. 



They studied volunteers undergoing medically required skin procedures, as well as various primates in structured environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-human-skin-heals-slower-than-primates">Why human skin heals slower than primates</h2>



Scientists have long recognized that different species rely on diverse strategies for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teen-skin-bacteria-could-hold-the-secret-to-acne-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissue</a> repair. Some rely on quick wound contraction, while others regenerate skin through careful layering of new cells.



Hair follicles play a big part in healing because each follicle can hold stem cells that jump into action once the skin is injured. 



Humans, however, lack the dense covering seen in many fur-bearing mammals, which can mean a smaller pool of helpful cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweat-glands-impact-skin-healing-in-humans">Sweat glands impact skin healing in humans</h2>



Sweat glands help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> stay cool in hot conditions, but they might not support tissue repair as efficiently as follicles. Researchers think that a shift toward more sweat glands and fewer follicles could have slowed healing.



Perspiration lets people remain active for longer in warm regions. This advantage may have outweighed the slower closure of skin wounds, giving humans better odds in harsh environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structures-compensate-for-slow-healing">Social structures compensate for slow healing</h2>



Reduced healing speed might seem problematic. Yet humans have social systems that can compensate for a delayed rate of repair.



Community care, shelter, and shared resources ensure that a slow recovery does not always threaten survival. 



Archaeological <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199909023411006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> points to the fact that ancient groups cared for individuals with injuries, allowing them to live despite physical challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-skin-healing-differs-from-other-primates">Human skin healing differs from other primates</h2>



Chimpanzees showed a wound-closure pace similar to monkeys, suggesting they all share a roughly similar rate. Humans were the clear exception in this investigation.



Experts noted that a thicker epidermis and a more elaborate sweat duct system could be part of the reason. These <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0914628107" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> likely emerged as humans evolved larger brains and better heat management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-drives-human-skin-s-structure">What drives human skin’s structure</h2>



Dermatologist teams often examine how genes shape the surface of our bodies. Emerging <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12822721/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> suggests that specific genetic switches influence sweat gland formation, hair density, and wound repair.



Variations in these pathways likely pushed ancient humans toward less body hair. Over time, the result was a distinctive type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skin-may-play-a-hidden-role-in-ebola-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> that protects us while sacrificing rapid recovery from damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-slow-skin-healing-is-a-concern">Why slow skin healing is a concern</h2>



Slow wound repair remains a challenge in modern clinics. Specialists are searching for therapies that might encourage faster closure, especially in older adults and those with illnesses.



Looking to primates and other mammals could inspire new approaches. If scientists can figure out what helps non-human species regrow skin so effectively, they might adapt those tools for human medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-future-solutions">Toward future solutions</h2>



Gene editing, advanced dressings, and novel cell-based treatments hold potential. Combining these discoveries with an understanding of natural healing in primates might shorten recovery times.



Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30890574/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> hope to replicate the healing strategy of smaller mammals that close cuts quickly. Although it is still experimental, progress in stem cell therapy could transform patient outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-doctors-approach-slow-skin-healing">How doctors approach slow skin healing</h2>



Recognizing that human skin mends more slowly can alter how surgeons and doctors manage postoperative care. Extra monitoring of sutures and incisions might prevent complications.



People with chronic wounds could benefit from therapies tailored to overcome certain genetic hurdles. Targeted interventions might address the biology behind slower healing in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-medicine-still-lags-behind-nature">Modern medicine still lags behind nature</h2>



Despite advances in medical care, human wound healing often relies on external help like stitches, antibiotics, and dressings to prevent infection and speed recovery. 



These interventions, while effective, highlight how dependent we’ve become on tools to make up for our slower natural response.



In contrast, non-human primates and rodents typically heal without assistance, suggesting that their bodies are still better wired for independent repair. 



This contrast points to an evolutionary gap between our biological abilities and the environments we've built to support them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-research-on-human-skin-healing">New research on human skin healing</h2>



Additional insights from comparative biology might identify subtle differences that set human skin apart. Continued experiments may reveal fresh angles on how hair follicles, sweat glands, and immune responses interplay.



Clues from ancient fossils hint that humans have coped with injuries for centuries. Groups likely shared information about wound treatments, shaping our medical traditions.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0233" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Medical oddity: Human skin heals three times slower than our primate relatives

Many people believe that small skin injuries heal quickly. Recent...

Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures are a common sight in city life, their movements may carry far more danger than many realize. 



A newly published six-year study reveals how rat migrations within cities contribute to the spread of a serious bacterial infection called leptospirosis - a disease that can be fatal for both humans and animals.



In this study, scientists from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a>, along with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), worked together to track the spread of leptospirosis in Boston. 



The team also introduced a new way to test rat kidneys for this disease-causing bacteria, a method that may change how future infections are traced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-leptospirosis">What is leptospirosis?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-and-shrews-living-close-together-trade-gut-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leptospirosis</a> is caused by a bacterium that often thrives in rats. It's spread primarily through rat urine, which contaminates soil, water, and other parts of the environment. From there, it can infect humans, dogs, and other animals. 



While common in tropical areas, this disease is now appearing more in colder regions, likely due to the warming effects of climate change.



In Boston, the disease has been found in the city’s rat populations, with various strains moving between neighborhoods as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shipping-superhighways-helped-brown-rats-conquer-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats migrate</a>. 



The research team was able to genetically link a 2018 human case of leptospirosis in Boston to infected rats in the same area, confirming a strong connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-hidden-bacteria-in-rats">Tracking a hidden bacteria in rats</h2>



From 2016 to 2022, researchers worked with Boston’s Inspectional Services Department to trap and test rats from 17 different sites. 



They collected and analyzed DNA from the kidneys of 328 rats. Out of those, 59 rats - covering 12 different sites - tested positive for the Leptospira bacteria. Culturing this bacterium is no easy task. 



Marike Rosenbaum is an assistant professor in the Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health at Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University.



“The primary way to get a full genomic sequence of a virus or bacteria is to culture it, which was a challenge in this case because Leptospira is considered a fastidious organism. It has specific requirements for temperature, pH, and nutrients," said Rosenbaum.



"But our USDA collaborators cultured the bacteria from not only fresh but also frozen rodent kidneys, which has never been reported in the literature before, to get isolates."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-the-whole-genome">Using the whole genome</h2>



Experts at Northern Arizona University’s Pathogen &amp; Microbiome Institute used specialized DNA techniques to isolate and enhance the bacterial genetic material. This allowed researchers to gather a detailed view of how the bacteria spread and evolve.



“The new genetic and tools that we developed and used in this study are real game changers for leptospirosis research, as we can now use the power of the whole genome to look for relatedness among samples, something that just wasn’t possible before,” said Dr. Dave Wagner, executive director of the PMI at NAU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-movement-of-disease">Mapping the movement of disease</h2>



By combining genetic sequencing with information on rat migration, the team was able to see how leptospirosis travels through the city. 



“Because we were able to do the culturing and the sequencing, we were able to look more closely at how the different strains of leptospirosis are related, which helps us understand how the bacteria are getting transmitted between rats and rat populations in the city,” Rosenbaum said.



This information could help shape better strategies for controlling rat populations and minimizing human exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-human-health">Threats to human health </h2>



The researchers also studied a single human case of leptospirosis in Boston, working with the CDC to analyze the bacterial strain. They compared it to those found in local rats. 



The result was striking: the strain in the human was nearly identical to those found in three rats from the same area, even though those rats were collected in different years. "It's very strong evidence that the source of that human case was a rat,” said Rosenbaum.



Not every case of leptospirosis is detected. Some people may have no symptoms at all. Others might feel slightly sick before recovering. However, a small number of infections lead to serious complications - including organ failure or even death.



“Human exposure to rats is not very common. But certain populations might be at higher risk, like unhoused people or people who engage in outdoor injection drug use, which are situations that lead to more direct contact with rats,” said Rosenbaum.



Diagnosing leptospirosis is tricky. Many doctors don’t think to test for it unless they suspect exposure. And even when they do, antibiotic treatment can eliminate the bacteria before it shows up on a test. 



Positive results also aren’t always reported to public health databases, making it harder to track.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-rats-travel">Understanding how rats travel</h2>



The research also uncovered how rats move throughout Boston. “Rats have a high degree of genetic structure, which means there are distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-populations-are-increasing-in-cities-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat populations throughout the city</a> that are highly related to each other,” Rosenbaum explained.



These populations don’t mix often. But when rats do migrate - due to construction, habitat disruption, or environmental changes - they can carry bacteria with them. Each rat group tends to maintain its own unique strain of leptospirosis over time.



A rat in Boston typically needs to travel over 600 meters - more than a third of a mile - to encounter a genetically different group. Wide roads limit this movement, while green spaces and corridors make it easier for them to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eradicating-rats-isn-t-the-answer">Eradicating rats isn’t the answer</h2>



The goal is not to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-eradication-is-beneficial-for-seabirds-and-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eradicate rats</a> entirely. That would be nearly impossible. Instead, scientists want to understand how different pest control methods affect rat migration and disease spread.



“Extermination is not realistic,” Rosenbaum said. “But I think better understanding of how the different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-pest-control-this-simple-cinnamon-trick-keeps-mice-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> interventions are impacting rat migrations and transmission of pathogens amongst the rat population would be really helpful.”



By combining genetic science, city mapping, and public health, this study sheds new light on how a quiet pest in our cities can carry a very loud threat - one that deserves more attention.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0012966" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rats are spreading a deadly disease across cities

Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures...

In 1980, a single male grasshopper was collected on São Nicolau, Cape Verde. After that, silence. For decades, the Monte Gordo grasshopper (Eyprepocprifas insularis) was lost to science. 



Declared extinct in 1996, the grasshopper returned in 2023 - thanks to a pair of curious biologists and a night walk under torchlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extinct-grasshopper-re-emerges">An extinct grasshopper re-emerges</h2>



Rob Felix and Annelies Jacobs were on a casual field holiday in Cape Verde when they made the discovery. 



“During a night walk, on our first evening on São Nicolau, to a colony of a unique seabird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the Fea, I stumbled upon a grasshopper sitting on the path," said Felix. 



"When I looked closer in the torch's light, I immediately recognized its unique appearance. I shouted out loud, 'It's Eyprepocprifas!' To my surprise, correct at once, because it's not the most easily pronounceable genus name."



In the days that followed, they found more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasshopper-size-changes-in-response-to-shifting-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> - male, female, and nymphs - mainly on Monte Gordo’s steep slopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-living-fossil-in-a-fragile-ecosystem">A living fossil in a fragile ecosystem</h2>



Eyprepocprifas insularis is unique. It is the only short-winged grasshopper species endemic to Cape Verde. 



The grasshopper has survived in isolation for likely millions of years, earning its title as a “living fossil.” Its lineage shows little evolutionary change and few living relatives.



“E. insularis must have been there for a very long time and has been able to withstand the severe ecological conditions,” noted the study authors.



Cape Verde’s rugged mountains and erratic climate likely shaped this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect’s</a> unusual features. Its tough exoskeleton may help it withstand harsh droughts and limit water loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-the-monte-gordo-grasshopper">Threats to the Monte Gordo grasshopper</h2>



Monte Gordo Natural Park is a protected area on São Nicolau Island in Cape Verde. It includes high mountain landscapes that provide the only known home for the Monte Gordo grasshopper.



The park's highlands have different types of plant life. Some areas are filled with native shrubs, especially a plant called Euphorbia tuckeyana, which only grows in Cape Verde. 



Other areas were replanted in the past with foreign trees like pine, eucalyptus, and cypress. These changes affect the local habitat, but some patches of natural vegetation remain.



The grasshopper lives in the higher parts of this park - between 650 and 1,100 meters (2,130 to 3,610 feet) above sea level. It prefers the moist, cooler slopes that face northeast. These areas often have rocky ground and are covered in fog, which provides much-needed moisture in an otherwise dry climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-grasshopper-with-a-tiny-range">Vulnerable grasshopper with a tiny range</h2>



Even though scientists found several of these grasshoppers during the 2023 rediscovery, they were all located in the northern section of the park. 



This shows the insect lives in a very limited area. Its total occupied space is only about 12 square kilometers (4.6 square miles).



Because of its tiny range and the risk from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/technology-offers-new-hope-for-declining-insect-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>, the grasshopper is listed as “Vulnerable” by the <a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>. This label means it could become extinct if its habitat is damaged further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasshoppers-with-jumping-power">Grasshoppers with jumping power</h2>



E. insularis has remarkable jumping power and may be active both day and night. Most adults were spotted sitting quietly on the ground or on rocks.



When disturbed, they leap far - using strong hind legs. Nymphs were observed on plants like Asteriscus smithii, suggesting host-plant interactions that are still unknown to science.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/grasshopper_Eyprepocprifas-insularis_thought-extinct_leaf_credit-Rob-Felix_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/grasshopper_Eyprepocprifas-insularis_thought-extinct_leaf_credit-Rob-Felix_1s.webp" alt="Eyprepocprifas insularis, male from Assomada Pass. Credit: Rob Felix" class="wp-image-1968604"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Eyprepocprifas insularis, male from Assomada Pass. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Rob Felix</figcaption></figure>



Mounting these grasshoppers for study was also difficult. The researchers needed great force to pierce their bodies with pins, indicating a very dense, water-conserving cuticle. This feature may be another adaptation to dry island conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-changed-their-habitat">What changed their habitat?</h2>



Before human settlement, São Nicolau’s highlands supported dense native woodlands. That changed drastically in the last 400 years. Introduced species replaced native flora. 



Grazing, deforestation, and fire damaged the landscape. Droughts and storms added further stress.



The insect’s ability to survive in degraded and partially reforested areas shows some flexibility. But that does not guarantee safety. The decline of key plants or food fungi could trigger a population crash.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-a-unique-grasshopper">Saving a unique grasshopper </h2>



“Now that it has been found again, we have the opportunity to take steps to protect this unique species and its habitat,” noted the researchers.



Conservation efforts already exist in Monte Gordo, including replanting native flora and controlling grazing. These efforts now gain urgency to save the grasshopper, once thought to be extinct, from vanishing forever. 



The researchers recommend prioritizing the moist, least drought-prone areas - particularly north-facing slopes - for habitat protection.



There is also potential for more discoveries. During their brief fieldwork, Rob and Annelies noted several insect species not previously recorded in Cape Verde. The archipelago may still hide more surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-back-from-the-edge-of-extinction">Back from the edge of extinction </h2>



Eyprepocprifas insularis has returned from the edge of extinction. But its future depends on what comes next - science, policy, and our respect for its fragile mountain home.



The rediscovery also brought renewed attention to the earlier work of Michel Lecoq, who first described the grasshopper and later declared it extinct.



Lecoq is affiliated with <a href="https://www.cirad.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIRAD</a> (French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development) and the CBGP (Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations), <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>, France.



The study is published in the <a href="https://jor.pensoft.net/article/144016/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Orthoptera Research</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grasshopper species presumed extinct for 43 years was recently rediscovered

In 1980, a single male grasshopper was collected on São...

Colorful,Parrotfish,Feeding,On,A,Tropical,Coral,Reef

Coral reefs are among the most dazzling ecosystems on Earth. When viewed from above, they display intricate structures and colors. But many reefs also show curious rings of bare sand encircling them. These circles, called grazing halos, appear in satellite images as pale outlines around patches of coral.



The origin of grazing halos has long puzzled scientists. Why do they form in some places and not others? Why do they vary in size? And most importantly - do they reveal something about the health of the reef?



A new study published in The American Naturalist suggests a surprising answer. It’s not just fear that creates these halos - it’s also the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a> shelter is arranged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-landscape-of-fear">The landscape of fear</h2>



One widely accepted theory to explain grazing halos involves fear. Fish like parrotfish and other herbivores leave the safety of coral reefs to feed on algae or seagrass.



However, they do not venture far because predators like sharks lurk in the open. To avoid becoming prey, these fish tend to graze close to shelter.



Their grazing creates visible halos - barren rings where the vegetation has been eaten. The behavior aligns with what ecologists call the “landscape of fear.”



According to this idea, prey animals avoid open areas and concentrate activity near shelter, which alters the way that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-be-more-resilient-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> look.



But this explanation has gaps. Some reefs that are full of predators lack halos. Others, where predator populations have collapsed due to overfishing, still show clear halos. 



Something else must be shaping these patterns - something embedded in the landscape itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-shelter-layout-and-halo-formation">Reef shelter layout and halo formation</h2>



The new study points to the layout of coral shelters as a missing piece of the puzzle. The researchers examined how the spatial distribution of reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structures</a> influences halo formation. Do halos behave differently when coral is clustered tightly versus scattered widely?



The team used Heron Island on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef to test their ideas. This site is a hub for reef science and faces ongoing threats from climate change, including coral bleaching, storm damage, and ocean acidification.



The study explored how coral shelter layout affects where herbivores graze. Some corals are clustered closely together and provide tightly packed shelter, while others are more dispersed. 



The scattered corals create more distance between safe zones. The team predicted that these differences would shape how halos appear - or disappear - across the seascape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-predict-halo-shapes-on-reefs">Models predict halo shapes on reefs</h2>



To explore this, the researchers built two mathematical models. The first was geometric. It examined how simple circular shapes - representing coral patches - overlap on the seafloor. This helped predict how much vegetation should remain in areas around the patches, depending on how the shelters are arranged.



Study lead author Theresa Ong is an assistant professor of environmental studies at Dartmouth.



“If the shelter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> is tightly packed in one space, then there’s not much room for nervous prey to explore and less vegetation to eat. But if shelter is more evenly distributed, the halos carve out more empty space in the landscape and their distinctive patterns disappear into one another as they overlap," noted Professor Ong.



The geometric model revealed that clustered coral leads to clearer, more distinct halos. Scattered coral causes the rings to overlap and blur, making them harder to detect. This may explain why halos vary across reefs - even when predator presence remains constant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grazing-patterns-change-over-time">Grazing patterns change over time</h2>



Geometry only tells part of the story. Grazing patterns change over time as vegetation regrows and fish populations fluctuate. So, the team developed a second model - one that added time and movement into the equation.



The dynamic model showed two scenarios. When coral patches are dispersed, fish must travel further to feed. This can lead to overgrazing - vegetation disappears, fish numbers drop, vegetation returns, and the cycle begins again. Halos may vanish and reappear in a rhythmic pattern.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/coral-reef_grazing-halos_great-barrier-reef_credit-Google-Earth_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/coral-reef_grazing-halos_great-barrier-reef_credit-Google-Earth_1s.webp" alt="Overview view of Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, and close-up view of a selected reef region (box in overview) where macroalgae cover is dense and coral halos (vegetation-free space surrounding coral patch reefs) are prevalent. Example 1X-scale plots (47 × 47 m) are indicated by arrows to illustrate increasing dispersion in coral patch distributions. Credit: Google Earth Pro" class="wp-image-1968578"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Overview of Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, and close-up view of a selected reef region (box in overview) where macroalgae cover is dense and coral halos (vegetation-free space surrounding coral patch reefs) are prevalent. Example 1X-scale plots (47 × 47 m) are indicated by arrows to illustrate increasing dispersion in coral patch distributions. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Google Earth Pro</figcaption></figure>



When coral is clustered, grazing remains more localized and consistent. This leads to more stable halo patterns. 



The models suggest that both stable and cyclic halos can exist on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy reefs</a> - and both tell stories about how the ecosystem is functioning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-changes-are-alarming">Not all changes are alarming</h2>



A major insight from the study is that halo patterns - whether stable or oscillating - are not in themselves signs of reef health or decline. What matters more is how those patterns change over time.



“Oscillating halos are not necessarily a sign of overfishing or poor reef health,” said Ong. “What’s more concerning is if static halos suddenly start cycling or if cyclic halos suddenly become static, which could indicate a major shift in system health and resilience.”



In other words – it’s not the presence or size of the halo that reveals the truth, but whether its behavior shifts in ways that suggest underlying ecological change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-satellites-for-reef-surveillance">Using satellites for reef surveillance</h2>



Studying coral reefs directly is expensive and difficult. That’s where satellite imagery offers a powerful advantage. Researchers can quickly scan large areas and assess general patterns - even from space.



“There are a lot of endemic species on reefs, especially on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a>, which we could easily lose due to the compounding effects of climate change and overfishing,” noted Professor Ong.



“So gaining a better understanding of how halo patterns reflect reef community dynamics may be useful in reef conservation efforts.”



Halos might become an early warning system. Their changes could alert scientists to shifts in predator numbers, herbivore behavior, or coral shelter integrity - all of which influence reef resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halo-dynamics-beyond-reefs">Halo dynamics beyond reefs</h2>



The models developed by the team aren’t limited to coral reefs. They apply to any system where grazing happens near shelter. 



Think of cattle grazing near trees, or deer feeding near forest edges. The same logic - of safety shaping movement - plays out across many ecosystems.



Still, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a> are especially fragile. Climate change is heating the oceans, acidifying waters, and disrupting food webs. Even subtle changes in reef structure can lead to major ecological shifts.



From overlapping rings of sand to predictive models and satellite imagery - this work reveals that coral reefs are writing their own story in patterns we can now begin to understand. We just have to learn how to read the halos.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/735688" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What 'grazing halos' and parrotfish reveal about coral reef health

Coral reefs are among the most dazzling ecosystems on Earth....

Bats in the dense tropical forests stretching from Panama to Brazil don’t hunt by sight - they listen.



One species, the fringe-lipped bat, doesn’t fly aimlessly in search of food. Instead, it tunes into the love songs of frogs and toads. But here’s the twist: not every song leads to a safe or tasty meal.



Some frogs are too big. Others are toxic. So how do these bats know which calls are worth following? It turns out, they learn through experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-what-s-edible-takes-time">Learning what’s edible takes time</h2>



Researchers at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (<a href="https://stri.si.edu/">STRI</a>), together with scientists from Purdue University, found that fringe-lipped bats aren’t born knowing which calls to trust. Instead, they learn as they grow. This study offers the first clear evidence that predators who eavesdrop on other species' signals sharpen their skills over time.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-habits-of-fringe-lipped-bats-revealed-in-their-poop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fringe-lipped bats</a> are among nature’s most skilled eavesdroppers. They key in on the mating calls of more than a dozen frog and toad species in their habitats. 



As soon as they hear the right call, they swoop in within seconds. But not every call promises a safe bite. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-a-third-eye-for-direct-light-sensing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> defend themselves with toxins. Others are just too large to handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-avoid-bad-frogs">How bats avoid bad frogs</h2>



To avoid a bad meal, adult bats have developed a keen ability to filter out the wrong calls - like a spam filter for frog croaks. What scientists didn’t know was whether this ability was instinctual or learned. That question sparked this new study.



"It's truly remarkable that these bats hunt using the calls of an entirely different group of animals in the first place, and we have wondered for a long time how these bats acquire this unusual skill," said Logan James, STRI postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-bats-face-frog-audio-test">Wild bats face frog audio test</h2>



To figure it out, the research team captured both adult and juvenile fringe-lipped bats from the wild. They then played recordings of 15 different frog and toad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-frogs-rely-on-illusions-to-deceive-their-enemies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating calls</a> - some from palatable species, others from toxic or oversized ones.



As expected, the adult bats were picky. They clearly responded more often to calls from edible frogs. The younger bats, however, weren’t as selective. On average, juveniles reacted similarly to all the calls, regardless of the frog’s palatability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-danger-detection-takes-practice">Danger detection takes practice</h2>



The one thing they could do was recognize larger prey by sound, just like the adults. But they hadn’t yet learned to identify which species were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-poison-frogs-store-their-toxins-without-harming-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic</a>. This finding suggests that young bats rely on size cues early on, while their ability to detect danger develops with time and experience.



"We knew from previous research that these bats are very clever and can learn during experiments, but we had not tested whether their aptitude for learning had a role in fine-tuning their responses to sound cues from their natural prey," said James.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-juvenile-bats-still-learning-the-ropes">Juvenile bats still learning the ropes</h2>



This research is the first to compare how predators of different ages respond to the same eavesdropping cues. And the results are surprisingly relatable. Like many young animals - and even human kids - these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-kill-more-female-and-juvenile-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">juvenile bats</a> need time to build up their decision-making skills.



"We have studied this fascinating species for years, and in many aspects, we understand its behavior very well," said Rachel Page, staff scientist at STRI and one of the study's senior authors.



"But this was the first time we had ever tested juvenile bats. It was so interesting to see that, like human children, young bats needed time and experience to hone their discrimination skills."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-widespread-predator-pattern">A widespread predator pattern</h2>



The findings point to a much broader pattern in nature. Fringe-lipped bats may not be the only predators who learn this way. Many animals might be sharpening their hunting instincts through trial and error.



Ximena Bernal, a research associate at STRI and professor at Purdue University, is one of the study's senior authors. 



"This study highlights the power of development and learning to shape eavesdropping behavior, an insight that may extend far beyond bats to other predators also navigating complex sensory environments," said Professor Bernal.



"We hope it will inspire other scientists to examine how early experience modulates predator-foraging decisions."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bats learn which frogs are safe to eat by eavesdropping

Bats in the dense tropical forests stretching from Panama to...

When we think of climate heroes, fish might not be the first thing that comes to mind. Yet many of the species we commonly eat are doing more than just swimming around - they’re busy reshaping the ocean floor.



This quiet activity, known as bioturbation, turns out to be a major player in the process of storing carbon beneath the seabed.



In a recent study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, scientists examined how fish contribute to bioturbation in shallow waters around the U.K.



The research focused on the critical role fish play in mixing ocean sediments and what that means for both the health of marine ecosystems and our changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-slow-climate-change">How fish slow climate change </h2>



The researchers found that 185 fish species actively help churn and rework the seabed. Of those, 120 are regularly caught by commercial fisheries. 



Some of the most active species include Atlantic cod, Atlantic hagfish, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European eel</a>, which are all well-known names in fish markets and kitchens. These fish aren’t just food. They’re key to maintaining the seabed's ability to store organic carbon.



“Ocean sediments are the world’s largest reservoir of organic carbon - so what happens on the seabed matters for our climate,” said <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> Ph.D. student Mara Fischer, who led the study.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/burrowing-crabs-bring-beneficial-bacteria-to-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bioturbation</a> is very important for how the seabed takes up and stores organic carbon, so the process is vital to our understanding of how the ocean absorbs greenhouse gases to slow the rate of climate change," she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-modify-ecosystems">Fish modify ecosystems</h2>



The process of churning and mixing the seabed sediments results in changes to the physical and chemical characteristics of the substrate. It is essentially a form of modifying the ecosystem through burrowing, feeding, digging and disturbing the deposits on the bottom. 



Bioturbation is important for the wider ocean ecosystems, as well as for the sediments on the sea floor.



“We have a good understanding of how invertebrates contribute to global bioturbation - but until now, we have been missing half the story," explained Fischer. “Our study is the first to attempt to quantify the bioturbation impact of fish, and it shows they play a significant, widespread role.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overfishing-threatens-key-fish-species">Overfishing threatens key fish species</h2>



Many of the fish that do the heaviest lifting on the seabed are facing serious threats because they are popular eating fish.



Professor Callum Roberts is an expert in the Center for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“Many of the largest and most powerful diggers and disturbers of seabed sediments, like giant skates, halibut and cod, have been so overfished they have all but vanished from our seas,” said Professor Roberts.



“These losses translate into big, but still uncertain, changes in the way seabed ecosystems work.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-contribution-of-fish">Measuring the contribution of fish</h2>



To measure each fish’s contribution, the team looked at three factors: how the fish rework sediment (called their bioturbation mode), how often they do it, and their body size. This helped them calculate a "bioturbation impact score" for each species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-european-eel">European eel</h3>



The European eel is a burrower, with a bioturbation score of 100 out of 125. It is listed as critically endangered. It is mainly fished using traps and nets and is considered a delicacy in many places. 



However, it faces several threats, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>, habitat loss, diseases, parasites, and climate change.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atlantic-cod">Atlantic cod</h3>



The Atlantic cod, which excavates vertically, also scored 100. It is listed as vulnerable and is caught primarily through trawling and longlining. It is widely consumed in dishes such as fish-and-chips, salted cod, and fresh filets. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-stocks-are-collapsing-globally-as-overfishing-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Overfishing</a>, climate change, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat degradation</a> have led to significant population declines, especially in the North Sea and West Atlantic.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-skate">Common skate</h3>



The common skate is classified as a lateral excavator and has a bioturbation score of 50. It is critically endangered. Although now protected in some areas, it is often caught accidentally as bycatch. 



Common skate numbers have plummeted due to overfishing. The species is particularly vulnerable because of its large size, slow growth, and low reproductive rate - each female lays about 40 eggs every other year, and it takes 11 years to reach maturity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-seabram">Black seabram</h3>



The black seabream is a nest builder with a bioturbation score of 36. It is listed as a species of least concern. It is primarily caught using bottom trawling, gillnets, and hook-and-line. Fishing during the spawning season in April and May can disrupt nest building and reduce population growth. Bottom trawling at this time can destroy nests and remove both fish and eggs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gurnard-fish-species">Gurnard fish species</h3>



The red gurnard, a sediment sifter, scored 16. It is also listed as being of least concern. While historically not a major target for commercial fisheries, the red gurnard has become more commonly fished in recent years, including in Cornwall. It is mainly caught by trawlers. 



There are currently no fishing regulations for gurnard species in the E.U. - no minimum landing size, no quota - raising concerns about sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-support-seabed-health">Fish support seabed health</h2>



It’s surprising how long this important role of fish has gone unnoticed. "Anyone who has spent time underwater, whether snorkeling or diving, knows that fish are constantly digging up the seabed,” said study co-author Julie Hawkins.



“It’s hard to believe that such an obvious and important activity has been largely overlooked when it comes to understanding ocean carbon burial.”



The research was part of the Convex Seascape Survey, a five-year global project led by the University of Exeter, Blue Marine Foundation, and Convex Group Limited. 



The survey is the largest of its kind aimed at learning how oceans and continental shelves fit into Earth’s carbon puzzle.



Understanding how fish support seabed health could help shape future conservation and fishing policies. As climate change accelerates, every part of the system matters - and fish may be doing more for us than we ever imagined.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113625002156?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish are quietly battling climate change on the seabed

When we think of climate heroes, fish might not be...

Humans have reshaped the planet’s green corners into highways, buildings, and sprawling neighborhoods. These developments are now reaching farther into ancient tropical habitats, prompting questions about how wildlife like rats and shrews cope with the shifting environment.



A recent project reveals that small mammals in parts of Borneo’s rainforest are not just adjusting to human-altered landscapes; they may also be exchanging gut bacteria. 



Alessandra Giacomini of <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> helped direct this work, shining a spotlight on how native and invasive species can end up sharing microscopic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a> in ways that might surprise people who think of rats and shrews as entirely separate creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-and-shrews-are-adaptable">Rats and shrews are adaptable</h2>



Urban boundaries in northern Borneo sit next to aging forests. This zone contains four small mammal species, including three rats and one shrew called <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Suncus_murinus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Suncus murinus</a>, which is known to dine on insects and scurry through residential corners.



<a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/44575-Rattus-rattus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rattus rattus</a> and <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/44576-Rattus-norvegicus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rattus norvegicus</a> are the best-known invasive rodents worldwide, with the former often seen in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257670909_The_secret_life_of_the_city_rat_A_review_of_the_ecology_of_urban_Norway_and_black_rats_Rattus_norvegicus_and_Rattus_rattus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">varied settings</a> across Asia. The native Sundamys muelleri appears more comfortable in lush habitats but has somehow found a way to persist near people.



The researchers looked at the <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> of these animals across different sections of the urban-rural boundary. Each species has its own natural feeding style and distinct digestion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diets-cause-high-anxiety-through-changes-in-gut-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, yet certain rodents shared bacterial groups when they occupied similar terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-and-shrews-share-gut-bacteria">Rats and shrews share gut bacteria</h2>



“Our findings suggest that shared environmental use can drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> similarity as much or even more than the genetic relatedness of host species,” said Giacomini. This reveals a pattern where animals living in similar conditions may acquire overlapping sets of gut bacteria.



The scientists noticed that Rattus rattus and the native Sundamys muelleri had particularly close microbiome profiles when found in the same suburban zones.



Habitat appears to be a factor that might nudge bacteria to flow between species, especially when they rummage for food in overlapping patches of vegetation or navigate the same drainage areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-a-changing-habitat">Differences in a changing habitat</h2>



“This raises important questions about the role of gut <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-methane-producing-microbe-discovered-in-the-human-gut/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> in helping animals adapt to new and changing environments,” stated Dr. Konstans Wells, an expert in Swansea University’s animal health research group.



Environment-driven changes appeared strongest in Norway rats, which showed contrasting microbial patterns between city and suburban locations.



Shrews, on the other hand, have diets heavier in insects and do not share digestive traits with rats. Shrew samples had the lowest variety of bacteria in their guts. They still showed some bacterial strains that popped up in the rodents, but in much smaller numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-health-implications">Potential health implications</h2>



Rats are known carriers of certain pathogens linked to human illnesses, such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/leptospirosis/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leptospirosis</a>. 



When invasive rats and local species like shrews trade bacteria, there might be pathways for zoonotic microbes to shift from wildlife to people. This highlights the delicate balance between animals adapting to city life and the unseen microbes that tag along.



Researchers plan to see whether future shifts in land use could place more species in prolonged contact. Gathering evidence about bacterial transfers could inform decisions on limiting potential disease risks. 



There is growing interest in whether animals like rats and shrews, with flexible appetites or broad tolerance for disturbed spaces, are better at adapting microbiomes to new diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-more-microbial-exchanges">Tracking more microbial exchanges</h2>



Dr. Tamsyn Uren Webster and Dr. Wells are expanding these efforts. They want to examine whether other communities of creatures exhibit a similar overlap of microscopic life.



Borneo’s rainforests remain a frontier for biodiversity, yet people continue to occupy these spaces with shops, farms, and new homes.



It is possible that native wildlife, including certain rodents, will keep settling near people as the push for housing spreads. Researchers wonder if these animals will pick up even more bacteria from one another, creating scenarios where local and foreign species unknowingly blend their gut microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-rodents-will-thrive">Predicting which rodents will thrive</h2>



Seeing rats and shrews in a city might seem normal, but their exchanges of gut bacteria could have wide-ranging consequences.



These hidden microbes can shape how creatures digest food and defend themselves against infections. They can also carry disease-causing agents that might slip into human populations if left unchecked.



Scientists believe that understanding each animal’s unique gut flora helps predict which species are poised to thrive. Over time, these data might become a key ingredient for policymakers who aim to manage invasive rodents in newly built neighborhoods. 



The hope is to balance development with safeguards against the unforeseen effects of living alongside opportunistic animals.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.17782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rats and shrews living close together trade gut bacteria

Humans have reshaped the planet’s green corners into highways, buildings,...

We often celebrate social friendship as a pillar of health, longevity, and happiness. Across species, from humans to gorillas and other animals, social bonds appear to enrich lives. Yet, what if these connections don’t always help? What if social behavior sometimes drains more than it gives?



A recent study from the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, in collaboration with the universities of Exeter and Zurich, uncovers this hidden complexity. 



By tracking 164 wild mountain gorillas over 21 years in Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park, researchers revealed a nuanced picture of how friendship and social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roles</a> influence survival and reproduction.



This research doesn’t just apply to gorillas. It reflects the deeper currents of our own evolutionary past. It forces us to rethink whether more friendship always means better health or longer life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-don-t-always-help-gorillas">Social bonds don’t always help gorillas</h2>



In humans, the social environment ranks among the strongest predictors of health and lifespan. Similar patterns emerge in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social mammals</a>, suggesting ancient evolutionary links. 



But even with the known benefits of connection, individuals often vary in how social they are. Some display behaviors that seem, at first glance, to defy evolutionary logic.



The mountain gorillas in this study helped clarify that contradiction. Scientists looked at both individual social traits and broader group characteristics to explore how these elements influence fitness. 



The findings reveal a pattern of highly context-dependent outcomes. The costs and benefits of sociality change with sex, group size, and the nature of relationships.



Despite strong fitness benefits tied to social bonds, not everyone gains equally. A female gorilla’s experience of friendship might be very different from a male’s - and what works in one group may not work in another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shifting-equation-of-friendship">The shifting equation of friendship</h2>



The research uncovered a striking set of contrasts. Female gorillas in smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> who maintained strong bonds were less likely to fall ill. 



However, these same females had fewer offspring. On the other hand, females in larger groups who had strong ties were more likely to get sick but also had higher birth rates. Health and reproduction pulled in opposite directions.



For males, the trade-offs played out differently. Those with strong, stable bonds had fewer injuries - perhaps because allies provided safety - but experienced higher rates of illness. These findings shake the assumption that sociality always leads to better outcomes.



“Having a lot of strong social relationships is often really good - but sometimes it isn’t,” said Dr. Robin Morrison, lead author and senior researcher at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-stress-makes-male-gorillas-sick">Social stress makes male gorillas sick</h2>



Why would strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-friendships-social-bonds-evolve-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> lead to more illness in males? The answer may lie in the costs of bonding itself. 



“It’s possible that males expend more energy by having close social ties, as they have to defend females and offspring, and the stress of this may reduce their immune function,” explained Dr. Morrison.



In other words, it isn’t always the risk of disease transmission that causes illness. The emotional and physical toll of guarding others, staying vigilant, and maintaining dominance might chip away at the immune system. 



This insight links emotional labor with biological consequences - a concept that resonates far beyond the gorilla world.



The gorillas remind us that relationships, while powerful, demand energy. Sometimes, the social load can overwhelm the very systems meant to protect us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-traits-shift-the-balance">Group traits shift the balance</h2>



The study didn’t stop at individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pets-increase-life-satisfaction-as-much-as-marriage-or-close-friendships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>. The researchers looked closely at the traits of entire gorilla groups - size, cohesion, conflict, and stability - and how they altered the effects of personal social styles. 



What they found was a dynamic interaction. Group context shaped whether a gorilla’s social strategies helped or harmed.



In small groups, friendly females enjoyed low illness rates but had fewer babies. In large groups, the same friendly behavior led to more sickness but also higher reproduction. These trends show that social advantages are not fixed - they shift depending on who surrounds you.



“With these forces pushing in different directions, the ‘optimal’ social type will depend on an individual’s sex, age, offspring and wider social group,” said Dr. Sam Ellis from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-social-traits-help-gorillas">Not all social traits help gorillas</h2>



The implications stretch beyond the animal kingdom. In humans and other social mammals, researchers often treat connection as inherently good. But the gorilla study highlights a deeper complexity. In some cases, behaviors once considered maladaptive - like avoiding others - can yield unexpected benefits.



“In some situations social traits that we’ve previously thought of as maladaptive can have important benefits,” said Dr. Ellis.



The paper’s title, “Group traits moderate the relationship between individual social traits and fitness in gorillas,” captures this balance. It shows that both personal and social group characteristics shape the path to survival and reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-term-look-into-gorilla-life">A long-term look into gorilla life</h2>



This research would not have been possible without long-term observation. For over two decades, scientists tracked interactions among gorillas in Volcanoes National Park. The study paints a detailed portrait of lives marked by leadership, loyalty, loss, and resilience.



“This paper highlights the incredible value of long-term studies to furthering our understanding of the evolution of sociality and how the benefits or costs of sociality can vary considerably across different environments,” said Dr. Tara Stoinski, CEO and Chief Scientific Officer of the <a href="https://gorillafund.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a>.



Funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.snf.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNSF</a>) and the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, the project demonstrates how essential sustained research is in revealing the deeper workings of social evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-gorillas-behind-the-research">The gorillas behind the research</h2>



The study includes unforgettable case studies that bring the numbers to life. Gutangara, a successful mother, lives in one of the park’s largest groups. Though she forms many friendships, Gutangara spends most of her time with her offspring, both young and grown. She holds the record among the observed gorillas with eight surviving children.



Maggie, once the top-ranking female in the Bwenge group, was both fierce and nurturing. She often initiated grooming but could also be aggressive. After the dominant male’s sudden death, she led the group. However, after merging with a neighboring group, she could not adjust and chose to leave. She vanished into Congo, her fate unknown.



Titus, a silverback male, lost his parents early to poaching. Despite this, he became the dominant male at just 15. Known for his gentleness, he had deep bonds with the females in his group. 



They often stayed in physical contact with him - an unusual trait among gorillas. His soft leadership helped him maintain dominance for 20 years.



Cantsbee, another silverback, ruled his group for 22 years and fathered at least 28 children. Known for his peaceful authority, he rarely fought but always protected others. He shared a deep bond with his son Gicurasi, who took over as leader later. When Cantsbee grew ill, he left the group, returning only once before passing away in solitude.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-in-social-strategies">Diversity in social strategies </h2>



What this study reveals is the delicate, ever-shifting calculus of social behavior. Fitness doesn’t rely solely on closeness. It emerges from how an individual fits into their specific group, under particular conditions, during specific life stages.



By revealing how personal and group traits interact, this research offers a new view of evolution. It suggests that diversity in social strategies isn’t just tolerated - it may be necessary. In gorillas, as in humans, there is no one right way to connect. 



Sometimes, stepping back is just as important as reaching out.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2421539122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some gorillas get sick from being 'too social'

We often celebrate social friendship as a pillar of health,...

Close,Up,View,Of,A,Sea,Otter,(enhydra,Lutris),Who

When ochre sea stars began dissolving along the Pacific coast in 2013, marine biologists feared a domino effect in the rocky intertidal zone. The orange-and-purple Pisaster ochraceus is a classic “keystone” predator - remove it, and the tightly knit ecological web can unravel. 



What no one predicted was that the die-off would reverberate far beyond the tide pools, ultimately reshaping the menu - and the numbers - of sea otters hunting in adjacent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kelp forests</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-falling-sea-stars-and-rising-mussels">Falling sea stars and rising mussels</h2>



Sea-star wasting syndrome swept from Alaska to Baja California with unprecedented speed, leaving many local Pisaster populations functionally extinct in a matter of months. 



On the Monterey Peninsula, field teams led by the <a href="https://marine.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Multi-Agency Rocky Intertidal Network</a> (MARINe) watched decades-old monitoring plots lose nearly every visible star by late 2013.



Without those relentless predators to keep them in check, California <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-mussels-are-ideal-for-ecosystem-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mussels</a> began carpeting the rocks. Within three years, mussel cover tripled, climbing from roughly five percent of available surface to more than eighteen percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-sea-stars-more-otters">Fewer sea stars, more otters</h2>



That population explosion did not go unnoticed by the region’s most charismatic marine mammal. <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> scientists had already logged tens of thousands of hours observing southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-help-kelp-forests-recover-but-theres-more-to-the-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea otters</a> as they surfaced with prey.



Before 2013, mussels represented a minor side dish - less than seven percent of the typical otter diet. By 2016, the proportion had leapt to nearly eighteen percent, effectively pushing mussels into staple territory. 



“Our research shows that the loss of a predator in one ecosystem can send shockwaves into another,” said lead author Joshua Smith, a research scientist at Monterey Bay Aquarium. 



Mussel abundance appears to have acted like an all-you-can-eat buffet. The local otter census, which had hovered around 373 animals through 2012, rose to an average of 535 between 2014 and 2024. 



Because otters consume prey at the surface, scientists could verify that many of those extra calories were coming directly from the burgeoning mussel beds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-tide-pools-and-kelp-forests">Linking tide pools and kelp forests</h2>



The experts coined the term “keystone interdependence” to describe the phenomenon: the fate of a key predator in one habitat alters food webs - and potentially population dynamics - in an adjoining habitat. In this case, a tide pool predator’s collapse reshaped the foraging landscape of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kelp forest</a> hunter.



“It’s an example of how ecosystems are connected through keystone predation in ways that we haven't understood before,” Smith noted. Long-term MARINe records were crucial for pinning down that connection. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/otters_sea-stars_Pisaster-ochraceus_linked_credit-MBA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/otters_sea-stars_Pisaster-ochraceus_linked_credit-MBA_1s.webp" alt="Monterey Bay Aquarium led reserach published in the journal Science Advances shows that a mass die-off of ochre sea stars (often called Pisaster ochraceus) due to a sea star wasting event created a mussel boom – offering sea otters an unexpected prey buffet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MBA" class="wp-image-1968424"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Monterey Bay Aquarium led reserach published in the journal Science Advances shows that a mass die-off of ochre sea stars (often called Pisaster ochraceus) due to a sea star wasting event created a mussel boom – offering sea otters an unexpected prey buffet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MBA</figcaption></figure>



Four intertidal sites around the peninsula have been surveyed regularly for decades, yielding counts of Pisaster, estimates of mussel coverage, and precise measurements of bed expansion toward the sea. 



When those data were matched with the aquarium’s otter-foraging database, the correlation between star loss, mussel gain, and otter diet shift became unmistakable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-lived-reward-for-otters">Short-lived reward for otters</h2>



While the loss of sea stars- and subsequent mussel windfall - has helped otters, researchers caution that the benefit may be short-lived. 



With no predators to prune them, mussels are now reaching sizes that recovering sea stars cannot easily handle.



Even if sea stars populations rebound, it may take years for size structures - and the prior equilibrium - to return. Scientists suspect the otters will eventually pivot again, either as mussels dwindle or as other prey become more profitable.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate</a> variability complicates the forecast. The sea-star collapse overlapped with the northeast Pacific’s record-breaking 2014-2016 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-warn-of-an-alarming-rise-in-marine-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine heatwave</a>.



Warmer water stressed kelp forests, sea-urchin numbers exploded, and otters temporarily targeted urchins to protect their kelp refuge. 



Once the mussel bonanza emerged, the mammals switched menus again, underscoring their role as flexible generalists in a rapidly changing ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predators-and-resilient-ecosystems">Predators and resilient ecosystems</h2>



“Predators like sea stars and sea otters are essential to maintaining resilient ecosystems. When these predators are removed, everything crumbles,” Smith said. 



Study co-author April Ridlon, director of U.S. and California science at the aquarium, noted that the findings challenge conventional single-habitat conservation planning.



“The findings of this study show that predators are important for enabling ecological resilience, and that when predators decline in one ecosystem, the consequences may be manifest in another,” she explained.



Senior sea otter biologist Leilani Konrad added that protecting predators in one realm can inadvertently bolster resilience in the next. 



“Our findings of keystone interdependence reveal that conservation of predators in one ecosystem can enhance resilience that transcends ecosystems and protects biodiversity," said Konrad.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-ecosystems-with-missing-links">Fragile ecosystems with missing links</h2>



As marine heatwaves and disease outbreaks become more frequent under climate change, scientists expect further surprises in how coastal food webs respond. 



The Monterey Bay team is now using drone surveys, time-series photography, and genetic tools to track whether young sea stars can gain a foothold amid shells too large to crack.



The researchers are also watching for the day when otters - having trimmed the largest mussels - adjust their diet yet again, perhaps returning their focus to urchins if kelp forests rebound. 



For now, the study offers a rare silver lining: one group’s misfortune has provided temporary relief to another threatened species.



Yet it also sounds a cautionary note about the fragility of such balances. The intertwined stories of stars, mussels, and otters illustrate that in nature, no ecosystem stands alone - and that losing a single link can tug on threads stretching far beyond our initial field of view.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu1028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea otter populations thrive when sea stars vanish from an area, but why?

When ochre sea stars began dissolving along the Pacific coast...

A rarely seen shark that spends its life in the darkest waters has been thrust into the spotlight by a surprising new predator. Recent reports indicate that killer whales have been captured on camera going after a prickly shark nearly 3,600 feet down, marking the first documented attack of its kind.



This footage offers new insight into the behavior of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-rely-only-on-one-breath-between-dives-to-conserve-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex hunters</a> and the quiet giants lurking along the ocean floor. 



Researchers find the event both curious and concerning, given how little is known about the slow-moving prickly shark, the status of which is officially given as “data deficient.”



“The sighting of the rare prickly shark aggregating on Panama’s seamounts is a momentous find,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefanie-Kaiser-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stefanie Kaiser</a> from the <a href="https://www.senckenberg.de/en/institutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Senckenberg Research Institute</a> and Natural History Museum. She highlighted the importance of these sightings. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-prickly-shark">Understanding the prickly shark</h2>



Prickly sharks (<a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/fishes/prickly-shark-echinorhinus-cookei-pietschmann-1928/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Echinorhinus cookei</a>) spend much of their lives away from human view, tucked below 100 feet (30 meters) and down as deep as 3,600 feet (1,097 meters) in tropical and temperate waters. 



They have a bulky form and multiple, thorn-like denticles along their skin, which act as a tough shield.



Each shark can grow to about 13 feet (4 meters) in length. They move slowly, which may make them vulnerable if a skilled hunter manages to get close enough for a strike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-orcas-matter-here">Why orcas matter here</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-orca-day-the-crucial-role-of-the-oceans-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Killer whales</a>, also known as orcas (Orcinus orca), are considered apex predators. They are highly social mammals with strong group coordination, and they can weigh anything between 8 and 11 short tons.



In many regions, their prey includes seals, rays, and sometimes large sharks. 



A prickly shark poses a challenge because of its spiny hide, yet the event captured in the Gulf of California suggests orcas can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt to unexpected prey</a> when the situation calls for it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-sightings-and-research">Collaborative sightings and research</h2>



Local fishers, tourist operators, and scientists joined forces to share observations that shed light on this under-studied shark species. 



In one notable discovery, a camera positioned about 50 feet (15 meters) away recorded a group of orcas closing in on a solitary prickly shark, while employing coordinated tail slaps and strategic teamwork.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/killer-whale_attacks_spiny-shark_first-time_credit-Frontiers-in-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/killer-whale_attacks_spiny-shark_first-time_credit-Frontiers-in-Science_1s.webp" alt="(A) A prickly shark with a bite from orcas; (B) Orcas swimming near a prickly shark; (C) Orca tearing a prickly shark apart. Photos from Frontiers in Fish Science" class="wp-image-1968418"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(A) A prickly shark with a bite from orcas; (B) Orcas swimming near a prickly shark; (C) Orca tearing a prickly shark apart. Click image to enlarge. Photos from Frontiers in Fish Science</figcaption></figure>



“These images, along with personal accounts, confirm unusual feeding behavior in a deep-sea environment,” reported the team behind this finding. 



They consider this coordinated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-have-hunting-and-eating-habits-that-we-never-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orca strategy</a> a sign of how flexible these whales can be when scouring for scarce food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-links-to-human-activity">Links to human activity</h2>



Some observers believe industrial fishing may be leaving an ecological vacuum. <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.energy.31.020105.100235" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Overexploitation</a> of top predators in many coastal zones pressures orcas to roam different waters in search of sustenance. They appear ready to exploit new feeding options, including bottom-dwelling species.



Although official records remain sparse, fishers near the southwestern Gulf of California say the prickly shark is occasionally brought up as bycatch on deep-set gear. 



Such reports highlight the urgency of learning more about its life cycle and movement patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prickly-shark-conservation">Prickly shark conservation</h2>



Management plans for deep-sea creatures face an uphill battle when so little data exist. Conservationists seek more thorough tracking of fishing activities, and enforcement in protected zones.



“Some of the best ways to reinforce the protection of the Marine Protected Area is by keeping the satellite monitoring program of fishing vessels in the area operational 24/7,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefanie-Kaiser-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kaiser</a>. 



She and others want to detect unlawful practices that may jeopardize seldom-seen marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seamounts-as-hidden-havens">Seamounts as hidden havens</h2>



Certain rocky structures under the sea - often called seamounts - are teeming with exotic species that gather there for food or mating. 



Sharks rely on these areas for improved feeding opportunities and cooler waters, whether cruising just a few hundred feet below the surface or descending thousands of feet.



Prickly sharks spotted in these locales reinforce the idea that seamounts act like underwater oases for biodiversity. 



Since orcas can be flexible, they might turn their attention to these zones, heightening the need for stricter oversight of fishing vessels around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-science-goes-next">Where science goes next</h2>



Researchers want to learn whether prickly sharks rely on these depths for most of their life stages or whether they only make seasonal journeys. 



They also hope to reveal how often killer whales target them. Updates to industrial fishing policies may arise if these predatory interactions influence shark populations across the eastern Pacific.



More advanced tagging, underwater surveys, and ongoing input from local communities will help paint a clearer picture. 



Experts consider each fresh glimpse into the life of spiny sharks a critical step toward protecting a creature whose future remains uncertain.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/fish-science/articles/10.3389/frish.2025.1437507/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Fish Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep-sea photos capture killer whales attacking a rare prickly shark for the first time ever

A rarely seen shark that spends its life in the...

Invisible industrial pollutants called PFAS are chemicals steadily building up in polar bears, seals, seabirds, and in humans who depend on Arctic wildlife for food. 



A new investigation reports concentrations high enough to endanger hormone balance, immunity, and long‑term survival across the Far North.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-chemical-spread-in-the-arctic">Tracking chemical spread in the Arctic</h2>



The work follows per‑ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-microbes-discovered-destroys-pfas-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a>) as they ride winds and currents from distant factories to the polar ice. 



Researchers from the United States, Finland, the Faroe Islands, Denmark, Canada, Norway, and the United Arab Emirates combined field data with computer models to trace the chemicals’ spread.



“The research highlights how PFAS can affect reproduction, immune systems, and even increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-in-tap-water-increase-cancer-risk-by-up-to-33/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer risk</a> in both humans and animals,” said co‑author Khaled Abass, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sharjah</a>.



“Alarmingly, people living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-alters-the-atmosphere-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> who rely on traditional foods such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammals</a> are also exposed to these chemicals,” Abass said.



Hunters who prize seal, whale, or walrus now face a dilemma between cultural practice and safety. Because PFAS accumulate in fatty tissue as they climb the food web, a single meal can deliver a substantial dose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-arctic-chemicals-affect-humans">How Arctic chemicals affect humans</h2>



“The long‑range transport of PFAS reminds us that environmental problems don’t respect borders - what we release in one part of the world eventually ends up in another,” said co‑author  Elsie M. Sunderland, a professor of environmental chemistry at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>.



Once dissolved in seawater or attached to airborne dust, the molecules drift northward year after year, freezing into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-is-losing-its-cooling-power-making-the-earth-even-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> or settling in snow. 



“Physiological, endocrine, and reproductive effects linked to PFAS exposure were largely similar among humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-an-energy-deficit-due-to-lack-of-food-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a>, and Arctic seabirds,” wrote the study authors.



“For most polar bear subpopulations across the Arctic, modeled serum concentrations exceeded PFOS levels in human populations, several of which already exceeded the established immunotoxic thresholds for the most severe risk category.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-health-risks-across-species"><a></a>Shared health risks across species</h2>



“The similarities in health effects across species - humans, animals, and birds - are deeply concerning and underscore the interconnectedness of environmental and human health,” said lead author Rainer Lohmann of the <a href="https://www.uri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rhode Island</a>.



“The Arctic acts like a mirror - what we find here reflects the global scale and persistence of PFAS pollution. It’s a warning signal we cannot ignore,” noted study senior author Pál Weihe of the <a href="https://www.setur.fo/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Faroe Islands</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-humans-and-animals">Vulnerable humans and animals</h2>



Even the remote pack ice cannot block the spread. “Even in the most remote corners of our planet, industrial pollution finds its way into the bodies of animals and people. PFAS are persistent, mobile, and harmful - we need a global solution,”  Abass said.



Field surveys back his concern. “The Arctic is uniquely vulnerable, and both legacy (old) and emerging PFAS continue to be detected at concerning levels,” he noted.



“For most polar bear subpopulations across the Arctic, modeled serum concentrations exceeded PFOS levels in human populations, several of which already exceeded the established immunotoxic thresholds for the most severe risk category.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-variants-keep-appearing">New variants keep appearing</h2>



Rules have removed some early PFAS from commerce, yet factories keep releasing substitutes. “Increasing trends of certain long‑chain PFCAs (C9–C20), including PFNA, are observed in the Arctic, highlighting the persistence and ongoing threat of these contaminants,” the authors explained.



“Communities that rely on traditional diets face significantly higher PFAS concentrations than those relying more on market foods. In fact, similar results can even be found in industrialized countries, showing that Arctic Indigenous communities involuntarily serve as sentinels of contamination concerns.



“PFAS contamination poses challenges to food security and sovereignty as well as to multiple species’ health across the Arctic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-to-protect-the-arctic">Action needed to protect the Arctic</h2>



The project grew from the <a href="https://www.amap.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program</a> and has already reached ministries in Denmark, Canada, and elsewhere.



“While specific industry engagement is not highlighted, the work directly informs global policy discussions and regulations affecting chemical manufacturers and environmental health bodies,” Abass said.



The team urges tougher international standards, faster phase‑outs, and investment in safer substitutes. Only global cooperation, they argue, can prevent “forever chemicals” from undermining Arctic ecosystems - and the communities that depend on them - for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724064301?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Forever chemicals threaten Arctic wildlife and human health

Invisible industrial pollutants called PFAS are chemicals steadily building up...

A groundbreaking new study has produced the most complete evolutionary tree of birds ever assembled.



The researchers combined decades of genetic and ecological data to trace how every known bird species is connected, creating a powerful resource for understanding the history of bird evolution and offering a foundation for future research.



The study was led by Professor Emily Jane McTavish and her team at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. They worked to gather and organize data on 9,239 bird species, pulling from nearly 300 published studies released between 1990 and 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-map-for-birds">An evolutionary map for birds</h2>



In addition to this, the data covered another 1,000 species, bringing together a vast pool of information. This effort resulted in a single, unified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a> that can easily be updated and shared as more studies are published in the future.



“People love birds, and a lot of people work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>. People publish scientific papers about birds' evolutionary relationships all the time,” McTavish said. “We synthesized all the data to have unified information all in one place.”



The team noted that this synthesis tree has the potential to support a wide range of research projects. It can help scientists explore key questions about bird evolution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-have-a-surprising-effect-on-island-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, and ecology. 



Even more importantly, the same methods used to construct this tree could be applied to other groups of animals and plants, making it a valuable tool far beyond ornithology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bird-evolutionary-tree-is-formed">A bird evolutionary tree is formed</h2>



The idea for this massive undertaking first took shape about four years ago. Eliot Miller, who was then working at the Cornell Lab, reached out to McTavish with the proposal. At the time, McTavish had already been involved for nearly a decade with software development for the <a href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/opentree/argus/opentree15.1@ott93302" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Tree of Life</a> (OpenTree) project, which is designed to map how all living species are related.



“Many dozens of bird phylogenies (studies of evolutionary histories using genetics) get published every year, yet their findings - with implications for everything from taxonomy to our understanding of ancestral characters - aren't necessarily being used for downstream research,” Miller said.



“Our project should help to close this research loop so that these studies and their findings are better incorporated into follow-up research."



McTavish noted that even though she and Miller had not worked together before, the collaboration felt natural and productive.



“Eliot is really into birds, and the lab is full of bird experts, and they also develop birding apps such as Merlin and Ebird, so that was their side of it," said McTavish. "And I've been working on this software to combine evolutionary trees, so that was my side of it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-all-species-on-earth">Linking all species on Earth</h2>



The OpenTree project is a large-scale collaboration between evolutionary biologists and taxonomy specialists who aim to construct an accurate and comprehensive evolutionary tree. This tree seeks to describe how every named species on Earth is related to all others. 



The platform functions like a wiki, where users can upload data manually to update relationships between species.



McTavish explained that as new studies and data reshape our understanding of how species are connected, users can add this updated information to the Tree of Life. This process ensures that the tree remains as current as possible, reflecting the latest scientific insights.



Today, the Open Tree of Life includes over 2.5 million species, and its coverage is continually expanding. Advances in genome sequencing have provided a flood of new data, helping to fill in the many gaps that remain in our understanding of life’s evolutionary history.



McTavish, who works as a biologist in the Department of Life and Environmental Sciences at the School of Natural Sciences, has been developing software that can automatically integrate this steady flow of data into the OpenTree. The recent synthesis of bird species adds another critical piece to the global puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-future-discoveries"><a></a>Looking ahead to future discoveries</h2>



The creation of this comprehensive bird evolutionary tree is more than just an academic exercise. It provides a practical, accessible framework that other scientists can use to answer new questions.



By offering a clear picture of how bird species are related, researchers can better explore patterns of adaptation, speciation, and ecological interaction across the avian world. Moreover, the methods developed through this work are not limited to birds. 



They can be applied to a wide range of other life forms, helping scientists to construct equally detailed evolutionary maps for plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammalian-tree-of-life-traces-evolution-of-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, insects, reptiles, and more. This opens the door to broad, cross-species research that could reveal large-scale patterns and processes shaping life on Earth.



By building tools that automatically update as new data emerges, the OpenTree project also ensures that researchers can work with the most current knowledge available. This dynamic, living map of life’s connections has the potential to reshape not only how we understand evolution, but also how we study the world’s biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409658122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

All birds, one tree: Complete evolutionary map reveals hidden links

A groundbreaking new study has produced the most complete evolutionary...

It is not every day that an owl sporting a vivid orange hue appears in the wild. Bird enthusiasts have been left wide-eyed by this unusual discovery, which hints at a puzzle hidden in the bird’s genetic blueprint.



<a href="https://natsci.msu.edu/news/2024-03-msu-welcome-kevin-mcgraw.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kevin McGraw</a>, biology professor at Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>), became intrigued by this rare coloration once photos surfaced. 



He notes that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-living-in-cities-are-usually-more-colorful-and-less-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color variations in birds</a> can be inherited through genes that affect pigment production or be caused by environmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-that-defied-the-norm">The color that defied the norm</h2>



“I went home feeling on cloud nine because I worked so hard and put so many hours into this owl,” said wildlife photographer <a href="https://www.instagram.com/exposingnaturethroughmylens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julie Maggert</a>, who spent days patiently trying to capture a still image. 



Orange is not a shade people typically associate with the snowy owl, a bird usually clad in white with subtle dark bars.



Some scientists point to genetic quirks called mutations as possible triggers for its unexpected look. Genes involved in melanin pathways usually shape plumage color, but rare glitches can flip that script.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-of-an-environmental-influence">Hints of an environmental influence</h2>



“This animal got exposed probably to something unique. But I would say we can’t be too, too sure. It could have happened to mom, and mom could have passed that on to the young,” stated Kevin McGraw at the end of his observation. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/rare-orange-snowy-owl-genetic-mutation.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orange feathers raise questions</a> about toxins or pollutants in the owl’s habitat. 



Experts in avian genetics argue that stressors such as chemicals can upset normal pigment formation. These disturbances may lead to unexpected hues that stand out in stark contrast to a snowy background.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-melanin-and-color-shifts">A closer look at melanin and color shifts</h2>



The orange coloration likely stems from altered production of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/pheomelanin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheomelanin</a>, a pigment that usually creates rusty or reddish hues in birds. 



Unlike <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/eumelanin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eumelanin</a>, which gives feathers black or brown tones, pheomelanin can become more prominent when environmental stressors disrupt the balance between pigment pathways.



According to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/112/5/395/6272461">studi</a><a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/112/5/395/6272461" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a><a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/112/5/395/6272461">s</a> on bird pigmentation, pollutants or oxidative stress may flip genetic switches that normally suppress pheomelanin in snowy owls. When these controls fail, colors that are typically hidden can appear in full view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-for-wildlife-fans">Significance for wildlife fans</h2>



Seeing a bird so far removed from its typical colors prompts both awe and curiosity. People wonder if this color shift impacts the owl’s camouflage or interactions with fellow owls.



“It may be a once in a lifetime opportunity,” said Maggert at the end of an interview. Bird-watchers remain excited to add such a one-of-a-kind sighting to their logs.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-orange-feathers-might-cost-the-owl">What orange feathers might cost the owl</h2>



Researchers believe the owl’s bright orange coloring might do more than turn heads - it could make survival harder. 



With its natural winter-white camouflage disrupted, the bird may be more visible to predators and less effective at sneaking up on prey.



“This animal might find it harder to forage or avoid being targeted,” noted Kevin McGraw. While striking to humans, the unusual hue could come at a price in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-genetic-picture">The bigger genetic picture</h2>



Researchers have long analyzed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genotype to phenotype</a> connection in birds to understand how coloring evolves. 



This orange snowy owl highlights how a single event - like a genetic glitch - can make plumage stray from tradition.



Observing exotic colors can also broaden our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grasp of color variation</a> in other species. Similar anomalies, such as white orcas and blue lobsters, remind us that nature often defies straightforward expectations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-bird-science">What this means for bird science</h2>



Creamsicle’s discovery is sparking new interest in studying color mutations in wild bird populations. 



Researchers now have a fresh reason to investigate how often these mutations occur and whether environmental triggers like pollution play a recurring role.



Some scientists suggest this bird might help uncover links between pigment genes and external stressors in cold-climate species. It’s a reminder that rare sightings can push science to ask better questions and dig deeper into nature’s surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birders-can-help-scientists">How birders can help scientists</h2>



Amateur photographers and bird-watchers often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spot rare traits</a> before scientists do. Maggert’s dedication shows how community observations can lead to important discoveries in wildlife biology.



Researchers encourage birders to document odd sightings with clear photos, dates, and locations. These field notes, when shared responsibly, can become useful data points in long-term studies on bird health and genetics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Scientists will continue to test feathers for chemical signatures or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-cuckoo-colors-provide-evolutionary-advantages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual pigment pathways</a>. They aim to confirm whether external pollutants sparked the change or if it is purely genetic.



Either way, the orange snowy owl underscores how slight genetic changes can produce big surprises. As curiosity grows, so does our desire to preserve habitats that allow such remarkable birds to thrive.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7710" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Photographer captures a rare snowy owl that intrigues scientists because of its genetic mutation

It is not every day that an owl sporting a...

Humans have marveled at fossils for centuries. Yet many people still wonder why some animals leave beautifully preserved remains, while others fade without a hint of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a>.



Scientists have tackled this question head-on at the University of Lausanne (<a href="https://www.unil.ch/unil/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNIL</a>). Shortly after conducting their experiments, lead researcher Nora Corthésy emerged with fascinating <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59372-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insights</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-animals-become-fossils">Why some animals become fossils</h2>



Fossils are not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bones</a>. They can include muscle impressions and even traces of internal organs.



Preservation can seem chaotic because not every creature is equally likely to become part of the rock record. 



When Farid Saleh, Swiss National Science Foundation Ambizione Fellow at UNIL, and his team looked at why this happens, they found that the chemical properties within a carcass help determine if it will eventually fossilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-alter-their-surroundings">Animals alter their surroundings</h2>



During decay, certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shell-fossils-lapworthella-fasciculata-reveal-ancient-predator-prey-battle-517-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> spark rapid changes in oxygen levels around the body. Bigger carcasses and those packed with more proteins seem to lower local oxygen supply.



“This means that, in nature, two animals buried side by side could have vastly different fates as fossils, simply because of differences in size or body chemistry,” said Corthésy. “One might vanish entirely, while the other could be immortalized in stone” noted Saleh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decaying-animals-control-fossil-formation">Decaying animals control fossil formation</h2>



Some <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Pbio...19..107B/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> have observed that proteins break down more swiftly than lipids. This quick decay can reduce oxygen around the carcass faster, shielding the body from further breakdown.



When oxygen is scarce, different bacteria thrive by using <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/24839" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alternative elements</a> for energy. This sets the stage for a chemical environment that can swap original tissues with durable minerals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-conditions-shape-what-endures">Chemical conditions shape what endures</h2>



Scientists have linked extremely low <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59372-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redox potential</a> to the formation of minerals like pyrite or calcium phosphate, which capture fine details of once-living organisms. 



A large, protein-rich animal can slip into this state more easily, leading to a better chance of fossilization.



Smaller creatures that do not rapidly reduce oxygen might disappear completely. That difference could explain why many fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deposits</a> from hundreds of millions of years ago feature arthropods more than worms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soft-tissue-chemistry-and-fossil-survival">Soft tissue chemistry and fossil survival</h2>



Fossilization isn’t just about having hard shells or bones. The chemical composition of soft tissues - especially the amount of protein - plays a big role in what gets preserved.



This shifts the focus from structure to substance. A jelly-like creature with high protein could fossilize more readily than a tougher animal low in protein, depending on how the surrounding chemistry reacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-leave-different-fossil-traces">Animals leave different fossil traces</h2>



Even when animals are buried in the same spot at the same time, their bodies don’t decay the same way. A shrimp and a planarian lying inches apart can leave completely different chemical signatures in the sediment.



This means some fossil beds might look biased toward certain species, not because others weren’t there, but because their remains didn’t alter the environment enough to trigger fossilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-paleontology">Why this matters for paleontology</h2>



Understanding how size and body chemistry influence fossilization changes how paleontologists interpret ancient ecosystems. It helps separate the absence of fossils due to true extinction from those missing due to poor preservation.



This distinction matters when reconstructing evolutionary history. If some animals never had a chance to fossilize, their role in the ecosystem could be underestimated or completely overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-animals-we-ll-never-know">The animals we’ll never know</h2>



Some organisms may have lived and died without leaving any physical trace behind. If their bodies decayed quickly and didn’t create the chemical conditions needed for preservation, they might have vanished entirely from the fossil record.



This means the fossil record isn’t a complete history - it’s more like a selective snapshot. Animals with soft bodies and low protein content, such as some early worms, may have existed in abundance, but we’ll likely never find their remains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-fossil-formation">Understanding fossil formation</h2>



Different climates and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-resource-surveys/indicators-salinity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect how proteins and lipids degrade. There may be times when tiny animals end up preserved, but scientists believe that size and body composition often tip the odds in favor of bigger, protein-loaded species.



Although modern labs cannot precisely recreate ancient seabeds or swampy shorelines, today’s experiments are bringing us closer to grasping how our planet’s story is written in stone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59372-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why some animals become fossils, while others just disappear

Humans have marveled at fossils for centuries. Yet many people...

New research suggests that certain animals have a built-in way to reduce tick populations in nature. The discovery focuses on how animals develop immunity after being bitten, possibly paving the way for advanced tick vaccines.



The research was led by Jeb Owen, an associate professor of entomology at <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>. The findings could help ranchers, wildlife managers, and families dealing with the troubles that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-bites-can-trigger-lifelong-red-meat-allergies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ticks</a> bring.



Disease concerns drive a lot of interest in what makes these arachnids flourish in some places and practically vanish in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-ticks-mean-safer-animals">Fewer ticks mean safer animals </h2>



Ticks feed on blood at different life stages and can pass infections to people, pets, and livestock. Diseases such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/rocky-mountain-spotted-fever/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a> and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lyme disease</a> hinge on tick abundance in a given setting, which has made scientists eager to find methods that bring numbers under control.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ticks-are-hitchhiking-on-birds-to-spread-diseases-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ticks</a> can also irritate cattle and wildlife. These animals lose energy when they spend time licking, scratching, or rubbing to find relief from tick bites. 



A further complication is the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red-meat allergy</a>, linked to certain tick species, that can trigger severe problems after eating beef or pork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-build-immunity-after-tick-bites">Animals build immunity after tick bites</h2>



In this study, the scientists observed that deer mice, rabbits, and cattle gained protection once they were exposed to ticks.



After a first round of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-legged-ticks-are-naturally-repelled-by-ant-pheromones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bites</a>, the immune system began identifying key compounds in tick saliva, resulting in a faster response during future bites.



The researchers noted a crucial drop in ticks that successfully fed on hosts with prior exposure. On average, 23% fewer ticks reached adulthood, and adult females produced 32% fewer larvae once a host’s defenses were active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immunity-reduces-ticks-across-generations">Immunity reduces ticks across generations</h2>



As part of the analysis, the team used computer simulations to predict how that reduction might play out in the real world. Their model indicated that the average growth of a tick population could drop by 68% once a host community acquired resistance.



Such resistance was found in the lab even when only a single round of tick <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a> had occurred. Still, major questions remain about how quickly that protection develops in nature and how long it might last if contact with ticks decreases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-animals-show-strong-tick-resistance">Some animals show strong tick resistance</h2>



Past studies focused heavily on rodents in a lab environment, but ticks in the wild latch onto many different creatures. Cattle appeared to develop strong defenses, leading some ticks to fail at feeding or reproduce less effectively.



It is not just smaller animals that benefit. Larger hosts can face blood loss and general stress from persistent tick bites, so fewer successful tick feedings may carry big advantages for farm and ranch operations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-improved-vaccines">Hope for improved vaccines</h2>



The data could give vaccine developers new ideas about how to spark these host responses in a controlled way. Scientists have worked on anti-tick shots for years, though most efforts center on single-host ticks that stay on one animal throughout their life cycle.



“Cumulatively, across the life cycle, the impacts are very large. This gives us new insight into why tick populations go up and down,” said Owen, emphasizing its broader potential.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-immunity-triggers">Future studies on immunity triggers</h2>



Even with this encouraging news, the researchers highlight the need to learn more about the exact signals that set off resistance. Current data show that <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-abiotic-factor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abiotic</a> variables like temperature and humidity still play a critical role in tick survival and spread.



More studies may explore if a single bite can trigger protection or if it takes repeated exposure to trigger significant resistance. 



That knowledge might clarify how often livestock need boosting, or whether wild animals can sustain protective immunity from one tick season to the next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-with-tick-resistance">Animals with tick resistance</h2>



Some experts suggest that wildlife conservation efforts could include ways to enhance natural defenses in certain species. 



It is unclear if such approaches will ever become a practical tool, but the idea has gained traction now that a range of animals seem capable of blocking ticks.



Others see potential for disease control, since fewer ticks mean fewer infection paths for people and animals. A next step might involve field trials that check how well these resistant responses stand up under unpredictable outdoor conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basic-tick-safety-still-matters">Basic tick safety still matters</h2>



While vaccines show promise, the usual advice still holds. Personal protection measures like wearing protective clothing and checking for ticks remain central in many parts of the United States. Keeping landscapes trimmed can also help reduce tick-friendly habitats.



Farmers and wildlife managers could benefit from this natural phenomenon if they find ways to promote or enhance the defense within their herds or local animal populations. The long-term impact might hinge on variables like environment, breed differences, and tick species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877959X2500024X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals develop natural immunity to ticks after being bitten once

New research suggests that certain animals have a built-in way...

Mongolia’s Gobi Desert has long been a treasure trove for dinosaur fossil hunters. But every so often, it reveals a smaller, subtler wonder that shifts how we understand ancient life.



A recent study has revealed&nbsp;Ravjaa ishiii, a new mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> from the Late Cretaceous. Unearthed in the Bayanshiree Formation of Mongolia’s Gobi Desert, this discovery expands our view of early mammalian life inland from ancient coastlines.



Named in honor of Dulduityn Danzanravjaa, a revered 19th-century Buddhist monk, and Kenichi Ishii, the former director of the Hayashibara Museum of Natural Sciences, this mouse-sized mammal belongs to the extinct family Zhelestidae. 



The study, which is published in Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, was a collaboration between researchers from Japanese and Mongolian institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-is-from-a-new-genus">Fossil is from a new genus</h2>



During a 2019 expedition, researchers uncovered a one-centimeter partial jaw in a fluvial sandstone layer. 



This zone, which is rich in small vertebrate remains, had previously yielded only two fragmentary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> specimens. The jaw - catalogued as MPC-M 100s/001 - showed signs of zhelestid traits, but with unique twists.



The molars were unusually tall, and the mandible had structural features that are not seen in other zhelestids. These differences warranted the naming of a new genus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Its presence in inland Mongolia marks a significant shift in our understanding of zhelestid distribution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-structure-hints-at-fruit-based-diet-nbsp">Tooth structure hints at fruit-based diet&nbsp;</h2>



The mammal jaw’s dental features suggest that Ravjaa ishiii had a robust molar structure fit for grinding seeds and fruit. 



The new specimen's molar morphology, in particular, would support a frugivorous or omnivorous diet. Compared to other therian mammals of the period - that are mostly insectivores - Ravjaa ishiii shows a more herbivorous tendency. 



This aligns with the timing of the angiosperm expansion during the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution (KTR). These flowering plants dramatically reshaped ecosystems because they provided new food sources that animals could exploit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-features-show-it-s-a-distant-cousin">Fossil features show it’s a distant cousin</h2>



A detailed phylogenetic analysis placed Ravjaa ishiii as the sister taxon to the Zhelestinae, a subclade within Zhelestidae. 



It stands apart because it lacks certain skeletal features, such as the labial mandibular foramen, and it exhibits uniquely large molars relative to its jaw height.



This makes Ravjaa ishiii not just the first zhelestid found in Mongolia, but one of the most anatomically distinct. Its molar-to-jaw size ratio is the highest known in the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-mammal-jaw-of-its-kind">First mammal jaw of its kind</h2>



Mongolia’s Upper Cretaceous formations, especially Djadokhta and Baruungoyot, have long been known for their rich deposits of mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>.



However, these aeolian (wind-deposited) sites mostly lack zhelestids. Their dominance by multituberculates (another herbivorous group) suggested a different ecological makeup.



The Bayanshiree Formation, with its fluvial (river-deposited) nature, tells a different story. The increased water availability may have allowed zhelestids to thrive. Notably, no multituberculates have been found here, which hints at reduced competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-plant-based-diet">Signs of plant-based diet</h2>



This find may support the idea that zhelestids preferred humid conditions and possibly competed with multituberculates. Their dental adaptations reflect a dietary overlap with multituberculates, which were also mostly herbivores.



Their absence from more arid formations and presence in river-influenced zones strengthens this environmental preference hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammal-jaw-offers-a-glimpse-into-the-past">Mammal jaw offers a glimpse into the past</h2>



"Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the publication process took longer than expected, but we were finally able to establish the scientific importance of this specimen," said Tsukasa Okoshi, lead author from <a href="https://www.ous.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okayama University of Science</a>.



"We hope this research will serve as a starting point for further taxonomic studies of other small vertebrate fossils from the same site and era, and will ultimately help uncover the rich biodiversity - including dinosaurs - that once inhabited the Gobi Desert during the age of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>," added Okoshi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammal-jaw-changes-dinosaur-era-story">Mammal jaw changes dinosaur-era story</h2>



"Finding such a tiny fossil in the vast expanse of the Gobi Desert feels like a gift from the Gobi Desert. It's nothing short of miraculous," noted co-author of the study, Professor Mototaka Saneyoshi.



The discovery of&nbsp;Ravjaa ishiii&nbsp;does more than add a name to a list. It opens new directions in understanding mammalian life during a time of enormous change. The Gobi Desert, which was once a river-fed plain, is still revealing its ancient secrets - one tiny jaw at a time.



This find challenges long-held assumptions about mammalian habitats in the Late Cretaceous. It also highlights the importance of even the smallest fossils in piecing together Earth’s prehistoric ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app012132024.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a>.



Image Credit: Kohei Futaka.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Jaw fossil reveals fruit-eating mammal from the dinosaur age

Mongolia’s Gobi Desert has long been a treasure trove for...

Ants are everywhere - underfoot, under leaves, and under-appreciated. While often overlooked, these tiny insects carry immense ecological weight. Their roles go far beyond scavenging crumbs at a picnic. Each ant species contributes uniquely to keeping ecosystems alive.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> aerate soil, disperse seeds, control pests, and interact with plants in complex mutualisms. They are vital to the everyday operations of ecosystems around the world.



A recent study published in Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution puts ants at the center of an ecological experiment with far-reaching implications. 



Led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Western Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, and James Cook University (JCU), the study investigated what happens when dominant ant species are removed from their environment.



The findings offer insight into the resilience of natural systems - but also a warning. While nature compensates, it may be doing so at a cost few can see coming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-has-backup-ant-species">Nature has backup ant species</h2>



When the researchers removed three common ant species - Iridomyrmex purpureus, Pheidole ampla perthensis, and Tetramorium impressum - they expected a drop in ecosystem performance. These ants were key players in their local environment, handling everything from seed dispersal to scavenging.



Yet the ecosystem didn’t grind to a halt. Other ants stepped in, taking over the roles of the removed species. "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> are everywhere and some people question what all these species do in ecosystems," said study lead author and <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JCU</a> entomologist Dr. Peter Yeeles.



"Here, the research is showing that they provide a built-in redundancy that allows ecosystems to absorb shocks."



"Think of them like pieces of scaffolding. Remove one, or a few, and the structure still stands because each part offers a degree of redundancy to the other parts. Redundancy makes systems resilient. Without it, even small disturbances can cause big collapses."



The researchers observed that species richness increased in plots where dominant ants were suppressed. That increase contributed to higher overall multifunctionality. 



This phenomenon, called functional redundancy, refers to the presence of species that perform similar ecological roles. If one species declines, others can maintain the system by doing the same job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-fill-gaps-but-bring-new-risks">Ants fill gaps, but bring new risks</h2>



While the results initially appeared positive, a deeper look revealed hidden fragilities. The shift in species dynamics introduced new risks. As rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> filled the gaps, they brought with them specialization and less flexibility.



"Losing the common species can be like replacing a few reliable generalists with a team of specialists," explained Dr. Yeeles.



"You might maintain performance, but you also increase the risk if one of them goes missing. With so much reliance on specific roles, losing any more species could cause much greater ecosystem damage than before."



This change from generalist to specialist reliance may make ecosystems more efficient in the short term, but it reduces their capacity to recover from additional shocks. The safety net, once thick with backup options, becomes thinner with each lost species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-ant-species-boost-functions">Some ant species boost functions</h2>



The experts tested four ant-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> functions: granivory (seed eating), scavenging, plant protection, and myrmecochory (seed dispersal via ants). The researchers used experimental plots in southwestern Australia to measure how these functions changed when dominant ants were removed.



Interestingly, some functions improved in suppression plots. Granivory rates increased, and species richness was associated with better multifunctional performance. 



But this came with caveats. For example, the function of plant protection significantly decreased, despite higher species richness. This was linked to the removal of ants known to deter herbivores on plants.



Contrasting effects on different functions revealed that gains in one area could mean losses in another. The balance of ecological tasks - what scientists call “multifunctionality” - became harder to maintain uniformly.



As functions became more dependent on fewer species, the entire system became more sensitive to further disruptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-ant-species-step-up">Hidden ant species step up </h2>



Another key finding of the study was that some ant species, previously minor players, became more ecologically important after dominant species were removed. These ants, once held back by competition, increased in abundance and performance. In some cases, they even enhanced specific functions.



This shift, however, was not random. Ants that had performed poorly in the presence of dominant species showed the greatest functional improvement in suppression zones. 



According to the researchers, this suggests that the removed species had been suppressing the potential of the broader community. While the community as a whole stepped up, its structure was now fundamentally different — and more sensitive to future changes.



The phenomenon aligns with the concept of “low multifunctional redundancy.” In this view, species may overlap in one function but diverge in others. For example, an ant that disperses seeds may not be as good at scavenging. 



Once the generalists disappear, specialists can't always substitute across tasks. That leaves ecosystems reliant on unique species combinations that might be hard to replace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-as-ecosystem-engineers">Ants as ecosystem engineers</h2>



"It is easy to forget how important ants are in the majority of terrestrial ecosystems. They're often referred to as ecosystem engineers because they have such profound effects on the ecosystems they live in," said Dr. Yeeles.



"Some ant species are granivores, meaning they eat seeds, so they regulate plant communities."



"For example, in an agricultural setting, ants consume weed seeds, providing free weed control services. They're also important for soil structure as they dig and increase soil porosity to allow water infiltration. The list goes on."



The study reinforces just how wide-reaching ant functions can be. Their activities influence plant growth, soil health, and nutrient cycling. Remove a key species, and subtle shifts occur that cascade through the ecosystem. 



These shifts may go unnoticed at first, but they accumulate over time, reshaping entire habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-bigger-picture">Looking at the bigger picture</h2>



"Globally, scientists are increasingly concerned about dramatic declines in insect populations, including many once-common species," Dr. Yeeles warned.



"We must act now to protect not only rare species, but also the everyday insects that quietly keep our world running."



The study serves as a wake-up call. Biodiversity loss is not just about rare or exotic creatures disappearing. It includes the steady erosion of common, hard-working species that form the foundation of ecosystem services. 



These services - pollination, pest control, soil fertility - directly affect human food systems, clean water, and climate resilience.



This research moves the conversation beyond simply counting species. It asks us to consider what each species does, how they interact, and what happens when we take their presence for granted. Dominant ants are not just background characters. They are the gears of a complex biological machine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-ant-species-weakens-ecosystems">Losing ant species weakens ecosystems</h2>



The study provides both hope and caution. Yes, ecosystems show an impressive ability to rebound when disrupted. But compensation is not the same as recovery. Each adjustment comes with trade-offs and increased fragility. Functional redundancy acts like insurance - but only up to a point.



As we continue to alter landscapes and apply pesticides, we must recognize the quiet work of ants and other insects. Protecting biodiversity means safeguarding not only the rare but also the reliable. 



For nature to keep running smoothly, it needs all its workers - especially the ones we rarely notice.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02690-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's quiet engineers: What happens when common ant species disappear?

Ants are everywhere - underfoot, under leaves, and under-appreciated. While...

species in Nerillidae

News coming your way