<p>Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (<em>Homo sapien</em>) share not only a common ancestor with both these primates, but we also share over 98% of our genome. But while these two great ape species have many similarities, they are actually quite different animals. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-and-chimpanzee-taxonomy">Bonobo and Chimpanzee Taxonomy</h2>



<p>Physically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> are quite similar, and together, they make up the sole members of the genus <em>Pan. </em>Their genus shares the family Hominidae with the other tailless great apes like gorillas and orangutans. Originally, researchers assumed bonobos were just a subspecies of chimpanzees. </p>



<p>In fact, until <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=943824&amp;print_version=PRT&amp;source=to_print#null" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1954</a>, scientists called them pygmy chimpanzees. Eventually, the two ape species were seen as distinct. Over the years, research has continued to reveal differences between chimpanzees (<em>Pan troglodytes</em>) and bonobos (<em>Pan paniscus</em>). Keep reading to learn more about the ecology of these two primates along with some of their key differences.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-amp-range">Distribution &amp; Range</h2>



<p>Both chimpanzees and bonobos live in the tropical jungles of central Africa. However, bonobos have a much smaller range. In fact, bonobos are <a href="https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a> to a small region of the Congo River Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>



<p>On the other hand, chimpanzees are found across twelve countries in east, central, and west Africa. Though both species can be found in the Congo River Basin, bonobos stay south of the river while chimpanzees can be found to the north.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_222261151.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903275"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rolands">Patrick Rolands</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-and-bonobos-look-different">Do Chimpanzees and Bonobos Look Different?</h2>



<p>At first glance, it might be hard to tell the two primates apart, but, in fact, chimpanzees and bonobos have a few key differences in appearance. To start, they have quite different body shapes. Bonobos are slender with long lanky limbs. Chimps, on the other hand, are much burlier. </p>



<p>Additionally, chimpanzees display sexual dimorphism as the males are significantly larger than the females. In contrast, bonobo females and males are much closer in size. Their coloration differs slightly as well. </p>



<p>Bonobos have dark black faces from birth, while baby chimps have pale pink faces that darken with maturation. You can always tell a bonobo from a chimp by their lips! Bonobos have bright pink lips while chimpanzees have dark lips. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Trait</strong></td><td><strong>Chimpanzees</strong></td><td><strong>Bonobos</strong></td></tr><tr><td><em>Lip Color</em></td><td>Bright Pink Lips</td><td>Dark Lips</td></tr><tr><td><em>Build</em></td><td>Slender</td><td>Robust</td></tr><tr><td><em>Face Color</em></td><td>Black</td><td>Darkens with age</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A table highlighting the key physical differences between chimpanzees and bonobos.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h2>



<p>Both chimps and bonobos are primarily frugivores, preferring to munch on the wide variety of fruit available in the tropical forests of central Africa. However, bonobos are more likely to <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.393.9208&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">add vegetables to their diets</a> by grazing on stems, leaves, and flowers. </p>



<p>Additionally, while bonobos won’t shy away from a protein source like worms or ants or the occasional duiker (small antelope), chimps tend to be a bit more carnivorous. </p>



<p>Seemingly tied to competition for status and mates, male chimpanzees will go on violent hunting sprees, mostly targeted at the smaller colobus monkeys. Bonobo communities tend to hunt for meat about twice per month, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-generous-share-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">share</a> their prey generously with the group. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-vs-bonobo-behavior">Chimpanzee vs. Bonobo Behavior</h2>



<p>The most dramatic differences between chimps and bonobos lie in their social behaviors. Not only fascinating from an ecological perspective, but primate behavior can also give us clues to human evolution. </p>



<p>In the field of evolutionary anthropology, scientists use <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/204757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate studies</a> to answer questions. Chimpanzee and bonobo behavior can help us understand if certain human behaviors are part of our genome or learned through societal pressures.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure">Social Structure</h3>



<p>Both primates live in social groups of mixed males and females, with bonobos generally occupying larger groups. Both groups use a fission-fusion structure in which smaller foraging teams reunite at night to sleep. </p>



<p>However, there are several key divergences in how the primates interact between ages and genders. Chimpanzee communities have a clear hierarchy of males that defend clearly marked territories. </p>



<p>On the other hand, wild bonobos are less strict with their territory borders and operate under a more matriarchal society. These trends in social structure are built on the social bonds between individuals.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_2111507969.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903276"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/anolis01">Edwin Butter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-society">Chimpanzee Society</h4>



<p>For chimpanzees, the relationships between males define the group structure. A classic example of natural selection, chimps compete for power in the group which translates to more chances to mate and pass on their offspring. </p>



<p>The more dominant alpha males intimidate younger chimps and have more offspring. However, this fierce competition comes at a violent cost. Chimps are known to commit both infanticide and cannibalism to increase their chances of fathering offspring. </p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-society">Bonobo Society</h4>



<p>In contrast, female bonobos run the show south of the Congo River. In general, bonobo society has much more interaction between genders and ages, and female bonds are critical. While young males stay with their natal groups, adolescent females disperse to find a new group. </p>



<p>In the quest to become accepted, the new female will pamper the higher-ranking females. Sexual behavior between females is extremely common, and this new female will use <a href="https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2011_syllabus/2011_websites/subramanian_jaime/genesis.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socio-sexual behaviors</a> to eventually bond with all the non-related female bonobos.  </p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h4>



<p>Both species of great ape have complex communication with several similarities. However, their vocalizations sound quite different. Chimpanzees have lower-pitched voices, letting out barks and grunts. Bonobos are higher-pitched, and their vocalizations sound like squeals and yelps.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_235455565.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903277"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshuadavenport">Joshua Davenport</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h3>



<p>One of the most well-known fun facts about these two primates is their creative tool use! Chimpanzees have been observed using a plethora of tools from absorbant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-drinking-sticks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking sticks</a> to makeshift shovels. To help with foraging, chimp mothers intentionally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teach their young</a> to use specific herbs like a spoon in a termite mound. </p>



<p>Bonobos have also been seen to use tools including rocks and sticks. Due to the nature of their habitat, wild bonobo populations are understudied, and most of the tool observations have been made in captivity. Who knows what else they could be up to in the jungle?! </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, the IUCN red list lists both chimpanzees and bonobos as endangered. Most of their population declines come as a result of human action. Whether deforestation, poaching, urban development, or the impending threat of climate change, these primate populations are at risk.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While all species deserve protection, certainly we owe it to our closest living relatives to treat our shared planet with a bit more thoughtfulness. </p>



<p>Conservation efforts to protect both these species have garnered attention since Jane Goodall made her first observations. However, slowing the devastating effects of climate change and habitat destruction is critical to the survival of these two amazing apes!</p>



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Chimpanzees vs. Bonobos: What’s the Difference?

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s cut it the chase: yes, a walrus is a mammal. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">For those of us without biology degrees or much experience near arctic oceanic ecozones, it can be tricky to distinguish the differences between groups of animals. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In addition to </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ontocetus-posti-extinct-walrus-like-mammal-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">being mammals</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, these are massively cool creatures on planet earth. Let’s swim a little deeper into the details of their life cycle, habitat, and other facts.</span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887020" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1504064579-1.jpg" alt="walrus on ice" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>The Blubbery Basics</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">So, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">walrus are mammals</a>. We’ve covered that. The scientific name for them is </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Odobenus rosmarus</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and another common name for them is “morse”. They are huge animals living in the arctic sea.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There are </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">two subspecies of walrus</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">: the Atlantic walrus and the Pacific walrus, their names in reference to where they are endemic. The male Pacific walrus is the biggest of the species weighing up to 3,700 pounds and stretching 12 feet long. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Walruses have grey skin that is 1-2 inches thick. They are covered in reddish hairs, making them look cinnamon-colored from far away. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Both sexes have tusks and whiskers but there is some sexual dimorphism and the males are generally about a third bigger than the females. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">For food, walrus mostly consume clams and mussels but will also indulge in fish and occasionally seals. They use their whiskers to identify prey along the seafloor. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Walrus are really social animals -- sometimes living in communities of 100 or more individuals. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887021" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1279466188-1.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Where To See A Walrus</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Walruses aren’t deep water creatures, and they can be found on coastal regions and inhabiting margins of ice shelves. These mammals will haul themselves out of the water to rest on land and bask in the sun. They will use their flippers to crawl around as necessary. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some places known for their walrus populations are </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Svalbard, Norway, Alaska, parts of Russia and Canada.</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> And while international travel is off the table during a global pandemic, the internet is a great option for watching footage of these giant blubbery animals as </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rH77gte9lVI&amp;ab_channel=USGS" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">they “haul out” </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">and for getting a sense of just how dense these communities can be. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887023" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1750677527.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Symbolism and Significance To Humans</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Walruses have contributed significantly to the socio-economic conditions of humans. As a source of food and ritual importance, walruses have driven </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">hunting practices and trading exchanges</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, particularly in regard to the blubber of the animal’s bodies and the ivory of their tusks. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">With this significance comes conflict. Some hunters insist on the unlimited rights of traditional hunting practices, but this is in contrast to some marine biologists and conservationists who seek protection for the walruses in order to ensure the long-term </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">viability of the species</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887024" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_92818954.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="669" />
<h2>Walrus And Climate Change</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The conflict between indigenous hunters and conservationist is not unique: like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-refuses-list-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">many other species</a> on planet earth, walruses habitats and viability is deeply affected by climate change. Many populations of walruses have had to </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">seek out new, southern coastlines</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> as ice shelves melt. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">As the environment of the arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">changes rapidly</a>, it puts pressure on the creatures who live in those areas. Scientists have declared that we are living through the </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">6th great extinction</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in the history of Earth. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">“Haul outs” are a new phenomenon - walruses are collecting in mass on land when they used to do so on the ice. This is dangerous for the walruses as the animals are easily spooked. Tourist helicopters disturb them and cause stampedes - killing otherwise healthy individuals. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Plus, when walruses spend their time on land instead of ice, their </span><a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/climate-change-puts-the-pacific-walrus-population-on-thin-ice" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">access to prey</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> decreases to alarming levels. Many will starve to death as a result. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887025" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_315960593.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Activism In The Face Of Crisis</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">For walruses, and for all of us, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/climate-change-in-the-21st-century/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climate crisis</a> is a horrifying reality that grows in urgency with each passing day. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">We must advocate for our planet and hold governments and corporations responsible for the damage that has already been caused while simultaneously reimagining our cityscapes and personal habits to become sustainable. </span>

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Is A Walrus A Mammal?

Let’s cut it the chase: yes, a walrus is a...

Jaguars,From,The,Pantanal,,Brazil.

What Is a Keystone Species? These Four Examples Will Help Explain

Our ecosystems are vast networks of nuanced connections. With such...

Closeup,Of,A,Bombus,Terrestris,,The,Buff-tailed,Bumblebee,Or,Large

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you remember much from elementary school, you know bees are important. One of planet earth’s beloved beneficial pollinators, these busy bodies transfer pollen between plants, increase yields of crops and create the tantalizingly sweet and earthy elixir known as honey - a global market valued around </span><a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/5090/honey-market-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">7 billion US dollars</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Indeed, when you take a big-picture look at things, much of our society and culture is built around an on-going love story between bees and agriculture. This is because so much of human society is directly tied to agricultural systems that allowed for social expansion. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Without beneficial pollinators like bees, who’s to say where homo sapiens might be today? Perhaps not so far from the caves of our </span><a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">neanderthal relatives</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But as is often the case, this love story is not so simple. Let’s peel back some layers, and embrace the sticky details. It’s imperative that we do - for the bees and for us to survive. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1883569" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883569 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/bees-4751541_1280-1024x690.jpg" alt="bees" width="1024" height="690" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/terrianneallen-11192675/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4751541" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Terry Sharp</a>][/caption]
<h2>In The Bee-ginning</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">For over </span><a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/11/humans-have-been-using-bees-least-9000-years#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">nine thousand years</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> at least, bees have been an integral part of human food culture. Reaching back to the </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758027/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">stone age</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, the use of honey is depicted in paintings and in medicinal texts. Bees pollinate thousands and thousands of species of plants. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These plants include potato, onion, cabbage, peppers, chestnuts, watermelon, cucumber, carrots, sunflowers. The list goes on. It’s very likely that most meals you eat are made possible by these bumbling friends. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These agricultural collaborations are ongoing today. Every year, farmers spend millions of dollars to </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">rent hives</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and pollinate their crops. Bees contributed </span><a href="https://cms.business-services.upenn.edu/morrisarboretum-blog/303-agriculture-and-bees-what-consumers-need-to-know.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">24 billion dollars</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to U.S. agriculture in 2016. In the U.S. alone, bees also produced 161.8 million pounds of raw honey. These little guys just don’t stop. </span>
<h2>How does it work?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">A bee collects pollen and nectar from a flowering plant. This happens <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-pollen-place-plants/">in nature</a> or in a curated, maintained farm field. Pollen from the stamen (the plant’s male reproductive organ) sticks to the little hairs on the bee’s body. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The bee then transfers the pollen to the next plant it visits. Honey bees, in particular, provide up to 80% of pollination for cultivated crops. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1883570" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1883570 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/apiary-1867537_640.jpg" alt="bee hive" width="640" height="426" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/pexels-2286921/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1867537" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pexels</a>][/caption]
<h2>Disaster For The Bees Is A Disaster for Agriculture</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">In 2006, beekeepers reported disturbing news: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/usda-suspends-national-honey-bee-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">colonies of bees</a> were disappearing. Hives were completely abandoned for reasons people could not yet explain. Fourteen years later, the causes of this colony collapse disorder are still unclear. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Farmers continue to lose upwards of </span><a href="https://cms.business-services.upenn.edu/morrisarboretum-blog/303-agriculture-and-bees-what-consumers-need-to-know.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">45% of their bees each winter</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> - a heartbreaking statistic that is also quite terrifying when you reflect on the implications of a world without these pollinators. So much of the beauty we experience - and the food we eat - is thanks to bees. We have to find a way to protect them. </span>
<h2>Bee Aware</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">As is the case for ecosystems across the globe, the climate crisis will determine the fate of all of us - bees and people alike. Without swift and radical action in regard to sustainability on a global scale, the truth of it is that none of us stand much of a chance. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you care about survival, about flowers, fresh food on the table, healthy ecosystems, and beneficial insects, the most important action you can take is voting for leaders who will prioritize the planet’s health by holding corporations and Big Ag accountable for their pollutive and unethical practices. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">We need leaders who will introduce and pass effective legislation to reverse humanity’s current course. While it may already be too late, it is also criminal to do nothing in the present moment. </span>
<h2>Bee an Ally</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">A sustainable future will require systemic change. There are individual actions you can take as well. Consider tearing up your lawn and planting a pollinator garden of native plants to your area. Then convince your neighbors to do the same. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Consider buying your produce from organic farmers who prioritize pollinator habitats and protective measures for the insects and birds of your region. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’re especially concerned about bees, make sure you are not buying any plants or supporting any merchants who sell green goods that include neonicotinoids. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some farmers and growers commonly use this pesticide that is linked to declining bee populations. It is detrimental. Legislation restricts this in the European Union. The Trump Administration in the U.S. has </span><a href="https://news.bloombergenvironment.com/environment-and-energy/epa-curbs-use-of-12-bee-harming-pesticides" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">rolled back restrictions</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This is unacceptable to any person concerned for bee populations. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1883571" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883571 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/macro-4364962_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="bee and flower" width="1024" height="682" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/edmondlafoto-7913128/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4364962" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">edmondlafoto</a>][/caption]
<h2>Keep Working</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">When it comes to the love story between bees and agriculture, we must believe in the power of a sustainable future. The story isn’t over yet. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In a delightful twist, perhaps it is the spirit of the ever-busy honey bee that can provide the blueprint for what we as human beings must do to turn things around: keep going, keep working, spread beauty in the world, and do so together. </span>

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Bees and Agriculture: A Love Story

If you remember much from elementary school, you know bees...

Amazing,Colorful,Pseudocreobotra,Wahlbergii,Female.,Spiny,Flower,Mantis,Show,Wings

<p>The long, spindly appendages and bulging eyes of a praying mantis looks about as far from a human as you can imagine. Despite their alien appearance, insects are animals, just like you and me.</p>



<p>Insects share the kingdom Animalia with all animals on earth. However, the impression that insects are so very different from us is well founded. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-important-roles-in-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> diverged from mammals and other animals long ago. Scientists estimate that the last common ancestor of humans and insects <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14772000903562012" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">lived over 500 million years ago</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-is-phylogeny">What is Phylogeny?</h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-full size-medium wp-image-1869019"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Phylogenetic-tree-of-life_1medium.jpg" alt="Phylogenetic tree of life" class="wp-image-1916861"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phylogenetic tree of life</figcaption></figure>



<p>Phylogeny, the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among different species or groups of organisms. It is a fascinating and essential aspect of biology. Phylogeny allows us to unravel the complex tapestry of life on Earth, tracing the myriad connections between all living and extinct species. Through phylogenetic analysis, scientists gain insights into the origins, diversification, and interrelationships of species. It also helps identify broader patterns of biological evolution.</p>



<p>The evolutionary relationships between organisms are often represented as branching diagrams called phylogenetic trees or <a href="https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/54-cladistics/cladograms.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cladograms</a>. These diagrams depict the inferred relationships based on shared characteristics and genetic information. Each branching point (or node) represents a common ancestor. The tips of the branches represent the species or groups being studied. The length of the branches may indicate the degree of evolutionary change or divergence over time.</p>



<h3>Applications and Implications of Phylogeny</h3>



<p>Phylogenetic analysis involves comparing various aspects of organisms. These include morphological features (body structure, organs, or other physical traits), molecular data (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-dna-found-in-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> or protein sequences), and behavioral traits. By analyzing these data, scientists can identify similarities and differences among species and make inferences about their evolutionary relationships.</p>



<p>It has wide-ranging applications in various fields of biology, such as taxonomy, ecology, and conservation biology. For example, understanding the evolutionary relationships between species can help researchers classify organisms more accurately. This also helps shed light on the origins of biological diversity, and identify key traits that have evolved in response to specific environmental pressures.</p>



<p>Phylogeny is a powerful tool for understanding the complex relationships between organisms and the history of life on Earth. By tracing the branches of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-visually-stunning-tree-of-life-is-available-online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree of life</a>, scientists can gain insights into the evolutionary processes that have shaped the myriad species that inhabit our planet. In turn, this knowledge can inform our approach to preserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-can-lead-to-total-ecosystem-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, combating disease, and uncovering the secrets of the natural world.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-are-arthropods">What are Arthropods?</h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large is-resized size-medium wp-image-1869020"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/dovetail-3495224_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="A Dovetail butterfly flying near some yellow daisys." class="wp-image-1869020" width="800"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dovetail Butterfly</figcaption></figure>



<p>Arthropods are a large and diverse group of invertebrate animals belonging to the phylum Arthropoda. They are characterized by having exoskeletons made of chitin, segmented bodies, and jointed appendages (legs, antennae, and other specialized structures). </p>



<p>The name "arthropod" comes from the Greek words "arthron" (joint) and "podos" (foot), reflecting their jointed appendages. This phylum also includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millipedes-have-unique-genetic-features-not-seen-in-other-arthropods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">millipedes</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indiana-jones-was-right-small-scorpions-are-more-deadly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scorpions</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solitude-and-isolation-makes-spiders-aggressive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-blend-avoid-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a>.</p>



<p>Arthropods are the most abundant and diverse group of animals on Earth. There are more than a million described species, representing around 80% of all known animal species. This phylum can be divided into several subgroups, including:</p>



<h3>Insects (class Insecta)</h3>



<p>The largest and most diverse group of arthropods, insects include species such as ants, beetles, butterflies, and bees. They typically have three main body segments (head, thorax, and abdomen), six legs, and one or two pairs of wings (in most but not all species).</p>



<h3>Arachnids (class Arachnida)</h3>



<p>This group includes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arachnids</a> typically have two main body segments (cephalothorax and abdomen) and four pairs of legs. Unlike insects, they do not possess wings or antennae.</p>



<h3>Crustaceans (subphylum Crustacea)</h3>



<p><a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Crustacea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crustaceans</a> are primarily aquatic arthropods, including species such as crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and barnacles. They have two main body segments (cephalothorax and abdomen) and exhibit a wide variety of appendages. These appendages are adapted for feeding, locomotion, and sensory functions.</p>



<h3>Myriapods (subphylum Myriapoda)</h3>



<p>This group includes centipedes and millipedes. Myriapods have elongated, segmented bodies with numerous legs, with each body segment typically bearing one or two pairs of legs.</p>



<p>Arthropods play essential roles in ecosystems worldwide, serving as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-can-benefit-from-the-expansion-of-solar-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, decomposers, and food sources for other animals. They also have economic and medical importance, with some species serving as agricultural pests or vectors for diseases.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-is-an-insect">What is an Insect?</h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large is-resized size-medium wp-image-1869021"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/flowers-769454_1280-1024x708.jpg" alt="A praying mantis on a orange flower." class="wp-image-1869021" width="800"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Praying Mantis</figcaption></figure>



<p>An insect is a type of invertebrate animal that belongs to the class Insecta within the phylum Arthropoda. Insects are the most diverse and numerous group of animals on Earth, with over a million described species. These species account for more than half of all known living organisms. They can be found in nearly every habitat, from terrestrial to aquatic environments and from polar to tropical regions.</p>



<p>Insects share several common characteristics that distinguish them from other arthropods:</p>



<h3>Body segmentation</h3>



<p>The insect body is typically divided into three main segments – the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains sensory organs (eyes, antennae) and mouthparts adapted for feeding. The thorax bears three pairs of legs and, in most cases, one or two pairs of wing. The abdomen houses the digestive, reproductive, and other internal organs.</p>



<h3>Exoskeleton</h3>



<p>Like all arthropods, insects possess an exoskeleton made of chitin, a tough and flexible material that provides structural support, protection, and a barrier against water loss.</p>



<h3>Jointed appendages</h3>



<p>Insects have six jointed legs, with each leg consisting of several segments connected by flexible joints. These legs allow for a wide range of movement. They are often specialized for different functions, such as walking, jumping, or grasping.</p>



<h3>Wings (in most species)</h3>



<p>Many insects have one or two pairs of wings, which enable them to fly. However, some insects are wingless or have reduced wings that are not used for flight.</p>



<h3>Metamorphosis</h3>



<p>Most insects undergo a process called <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/46/6/655/702188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metamorphosis</a> during their development, where they transition through different life stages with distinct forms and functions. Insects can have either complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, and adult) or incomplete metamorphosis (egg, nymph, and adult).</p>



<p>Insects play crucial roles in ecosystems as pollinators, decomposers, and food sources for other animals. They can also have significant impacts on human activities, with some species serving as pests in agriculture and forestry, or as vectors for diseases. </p>



<p>Conversely, other insects are beneficial to humans, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a> that produce honey and pollinate crops, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-the-smell-of-fear-to-control-garden-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ladybugs</a> that help control pest populations.</p>



<h2 id="h-delicate-balance-human-impact-on-insect-populations">Delicate Balance: Human Impact on Insect Populations</h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large is-resized size-medium wp-image-1869022"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bumble-bee-2361336_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="A bumble bee flying over a flower with a blurry background." class="wp-image-1869022" width="800"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Bumble Bee</figcaption></figure>



<p>Insects, the most diverse and numerous group of animals on Earth, play critical roles in ecosystems as pollinators, decomposers, and food sources for other organisms. However, human activities have significantly impacted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-and-climate-warming-have-cut-insect-populations-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect populations</a> worldwide, leading to declines in many species and disruptions in ecological balance. This section explores the various ways in which human actions have influenced insect populations and the potential consequences for ecosystems and human well-being.</p>



<h3>Habitat Loss and Fragmentation</h3>



<p>One of the primary ways humans have impacted insect populations is through habitat loss and fragmentation, often resulting from urbanization, agriculture, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>. As natural habitats are destroyed or divided into smaller, isolated patches, insect populations may decline due to the reduction in available resources, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microclimates-protect-species-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microclimates</a>, and diminished genetic diversity. </p>



<p>Habitat loss can also disrupt the complex relationships between insects and other organisms, such as plants and their pollinators or predators and their prey.</p>



<h3>Chemical Pollution</h3>



<p>The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture has had significant effects on insect populations. While pesticides can help control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-a-molecular-alarm-system-to-respond-to-insect-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural pests</a> and protect crop yields, they can also harm non-target insect species, including beneficial pollinators like bees and natural predators of pests. </p>



<p>Insecticides can accumulate in the environment, resulting in long-term exposure for insects, which can lead to population declines, reduced biodiversity, and disruptions in food chains.</p>



<p>Additionally, other forms of chemical pollution, such as industrial waste or <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-strongest-ever-pollution-standards-cars-and" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions</a>, can impact insect populations by contaminating their habitats, food sources, or breeding sites.</p>



<h3>Climate Change</h3>



<p>Climate change, driven by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, has wide-ranging effects on ecosystems, including alterations in temperature, precipitation, and the frequency of extreme weather events. </p>



<p>These changes can affect insect populations by altering their habitat conditions, range distributions, life cycles, and interactions with other species. For example, rising temperatures may cause some insects to shift their geographic ranges, which can lead to local declines or extinctions in some areas and the potential invasion of new habitats in others.</p>



<h3>Invasive Species</h3>



<p>Human activities, such as global trade and transportation, have facilitated the introduction of non-native species into new environments. Some of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> can negatively impact native insect populations by competing for resources, preying on native species, or introducing diseases. </p>



<p>For example, the introduction of the Asian long-horned beetle has led to the destruction of native tree species in North America, impacting the insects that rely on these trees for habitat and food.</p>



<h3>Consequences and Conservation Efforts</h3>



<p>The decline in insect populations can have cascading effects on ecosystems and human well-being. For instance, the loss of pollinators may lead to reduced crop yields and the decline of wild plant species, while the loss of insects as a food source can impact the populations of insectivorous animals like birds and bats. </p>



<p>Furthermore, declines in insect populations can disrupt ecosystem services, such as decomposition and nutrient cycling, which are vital for maintaining soil fertility and supporting plant growth.</p>



<p>To address the human impact on insect populations, conservation efforts should focus on preserving and restoring natural habitats, implementing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/developing-climate-smart-agricultural-practices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agricultural practices</a> that minimize pesticide use, and mitigating climate change through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. </p>



<p>Additionally, measures to prevent the spread of invasive species and promote the recovery of threatened insect populations should be prioritized.</p>



<h3>Conclusion</h3>



<p>Human activities have had far-reaching consequences for insect populations, with potential ripple effects throughout ecosystems and for human well-being. By recognizing the importance of insects and adopting conservation measures that protect their habitats and minimize harmful practices, we can work towards preserving the delicate balance of nature and ensuring the continued survival of these vital creatures.</p>

Are Insects Animals?

The long, spindly appendages and bulging eyes of a praying...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Whether you think of the charismatic fuzz of a bumblebee, the thrum of a hummingbird, or delectable treats from honeybees, the approximately 200,000 species of pollinators come in all shapes and sizes, and all have different habitat needs. That’s where a pollinator garden comes into play. Growing plants that provide nectar and pollen is one of the best ways to support pollinator species.</span>
<h2>What Is a Pollinator Garden, and Why Does It Matter?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">A pollinator garden attracts the critters that pollinate flowering plants. As a quick review, pollinators are animals that support plant reproduction by transferring pollen between flowers. Because of pollination, new seeds develop and new generations of plants can grow. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">About </span><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/plantsanimals/pollinate/#:~:text=Three%2Dfourths%20of%20the%20world's,bees%20help%20increase%20crop%20yields." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">three-quarters of the world’s plants rely on pollinators</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, including over 30% of crops. In other words, you have pollinators to thank for one in every three bites of food you eat! Along with playing a critical role in Earth’s ecosystems, pollinators are responsible for keeping a diversity of tastes and nutrients in our meals. Between disease and habitat loss, pollinators around the world are facing declines in population. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Planting your own pollinator garden can help reverse these declines. By growing diverse plants to support the equivalent diversity of pollinators, we keep both delicious food on our plates and our local ecosystems thriving. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1881551" align="alignnone" width="3648"]<img class="wp-image-1881551 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/diane-helentjaris-TNCzF-sa3jA-unsplash.jpg" alt="Bee pollinating a flower" width="3648" height="2736" /> Planting a pollinator garden provides resources to a variety of pollinator species.[/caption]
<h2>How to Plant a Pollinator Garden</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">As you start building your pollinator garden, there are a few key things to keep in mind. Beyond these tips, the design of your garden is up to you! Follow along to learn which plants to grow, when to grow them, and other ways you can spruce up your pollinator habitat.</span>
<h2>Step 1: Choose the Right Spot</h2>
<h3>All About the Sun</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Though flowering plants can grow in both sun and shade, the target is attracting pollinators. Insects rely on the temperature of their environment to regulate their body temperature. In warmer areas, insect pollinators have more energy to eat, find mates, care for their nests, and pollinate! In cooler spots, pollinators will be less active. Don’t be discouraged if you don’t get much sunshine - a shady pollinator garden is better than nothing. But if possible, </span><b>plant your pollinator garden in a sunny spot.</b>
<h3>Big or Tiny</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Whether you are a farmer with acres of land or live in a tiny apartment, you can plant a pollinator garden! There are plenty of resources for designing pollinator gardens that fill up larger spaces, including this </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">aesthetic one that emulates hexagonal honeycomb</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. With more space, you can provide extra resources for pollinators to create a more inclusive habitat. Find more tips on providing nesting and resting habitat below. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If space is the limiting factor, the Pollinator Partnership created an easy way to </span><a href="https://www.pollinator.org/window-box" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">design window box pollinator gardens</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This tool provides guidance on plants that attract local pollinators along with ones that flourish in a window box.</span>
<h2>Step 2: Native Plants</h2>
<h3>Native Bees = Native Plants</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">While we often think of honey bees when prompted with ‘pollinator,’ they were brought across the Atlantic in the early 17th century by European settlers who wanted to continue beekeeping. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">North America boasts about 4,000 native bee species, not even counting the butterflies, beetles, flies, birds, and small mammals that pollinate! </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Often, only these native species are able to pollinate native plants and are </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">two to three times more efficient than honey bees</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. In fact, squash, tomatoes, apples, and blueberries can only be pollinated by native bee species. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, that’s not to say honey bees don’t play an important role. As domesticated animals, beekeepers often ‘follow the bloom’ as they take their hives on the road, traveling to farms and orchards that need their pollination services. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Additionally, our tea and toast would be much less appealing without the sticky golden nectar we can harvest from them. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">in the words of Mace Vaughan</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, the co-director of the Pollinator Program at the Xerces Society, “Keeping honey bees for pollinator conservation is like keeping chickens for bird conservation.” </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">With most of the attention on pollinators being directed at honey bee conservation, the native species often go unnoticed. When designing your pollinator garden, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prepare-bees-pollinator-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">planting a diversity of native plants</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> will ensure that the native bees, butterflies, and other pollinators have the resources they need to thrive. </span>
<h3>What to Plant</h3>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Find plants native to your region.</b> <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/guides?gclid=Cj0KCQjww_f2BRC-ARIsAP3zarG9SLZdfcaIBgZ5JWpJ_yvd0ZdGWIkDzijMPGrLaorznLiGvt6HKLYaAi_7EALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Use this helpful guide from pollinator partnership</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to inform your plant choices for your pollinator garden. To learn more, just enter your zip code, and receive a free PDF with a guide to the local pollinators in your region, which plants to grow, and when to grow them.</span></li>
 	<li><strong>Inspire yourself from the plants you see.</strong></li>
 	<li><b>Plant a variety of shapes and sizes. <span style="font-weight: 400;">Different species of pollinators prefer different colors, patterns, shapes, and sizes of blooms. The table below provides some general guidance on what flower attributes will attract different types of pollinators.</span></b></li>
</ul>
<table style="height: 538px;" width="772">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;"><b>Pollinator</b></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><b>Flower Color</b></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><b>Other tips</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bees</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Blue &amp; purple</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant flowers with Bilateral Symmetry</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Butterflies</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Yellow, orange, pink, &amp; red</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant host plants for the caterpillars</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Flies</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Pale, dull browns</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plants flowers that are funnel-shaped</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Beetles</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">White</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant fragrant flowers.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bats</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">White</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant fragrant, night-blooming flowers.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Moths</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">White</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant fragrant, night-blooming flowers.</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Hummingbirds</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Red, pink &amp; fuchsia</span></td>
<td><span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant tube-shaped flowers</span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div></div>

[caption id="attachment_1881552" align="alignnone" width="4256"]<img class="wp-image-1881552 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/maria-sheehan-EXhQYizpCZE-unsplash.jpg" alt="Hummingbird pollinating a flower" width="4256" height="2832" /> Red tubular flowers attract hummingbirds.[/caption]
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Keep flowers blooming</strong>. <span style="font-weight: 400;">Different pollinator species are more active at different times of the year. Plant flowers in your pollinator garden with a variety of bloom times. Consequently, this practice will maximize the number of pollinators you can support.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Plant in groups.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">Pollinators find plants more easily if they grow in groups with similar colors. Cluster a few plants of the same species close together and section your garden into color groups.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>What Not to Include</h3>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Avoid hybrid plants. <span style="font-weight: 400;">Plants that are bred to grow more appealing flowers for the human eye often sacrifice nectar and pollen resources that support pollinators.</span></b></li>
 	<li><strong>Avoid pesticides.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">Pesticides can be extremely harmful to pollinators, especially for bees and caterpillars. If you must use pesticides, read the labels carefully to find one that is less toxic like the </span><a href="https://ag.umass.edu/fruit/ne-small-fruit-management-guide/appendices-resource-material-listings-conversion-tables-0#:~:text=Most%20fungicides%2C%20herbicides%20and%20miticides,very%20low%20toxicity%20to%20bees." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">biological insecticide </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bacillus thuringiensis</span></i></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span></li>
</ul>
<h2>Step 3: Beyond the Flowers</h2>
<h3>Pollinator Habitat</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">In addition to growing flowers that provide food for pollinators, you can spruce up your garden with other features that support pollinators’ entire life cycles. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Leave an area with downed tree limbs or brush to serve as nesting habitat for native bees.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Grow host plants for butterfly caterpillars.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Placing rocks in sunny spots give pollinators warm places to rest and re-energize.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Provide water, either a pool or drip, for pollinators to drink and collect minerals they need for reproduction.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Not only will a pollinator garden attract and support native pollinator species, but the benefits carry outward and upward. Pollinator gardens create habitats for predator invertebrates (like spiders) that will help control yard pests. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Entire ecosystems benefit from pollinator gardens because they provide food for native bird species, filter stormwater, and restore topsoil. Your backyard can become a</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turn-backyard-healthy-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;"> haven for all types of wildlife</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">!</span>

[caption id="attachment_1881547" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1881547 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/nature-3262489_1920.jpg" alt="Native Bee Hotel" width="1920" height="1285" /> Building a native bee hotel in your pollinator garden supports bees' entire lifecycles.[/caption]
<h3>Build a Bee Hotel</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you want to really go above and beyond with your pollinator garden, build a native bee hotel. Because most native bees are solitary bee species, they don’t live in social colonies like honey bees. Instead, they build their nests underground, in trees, and in fallen logs. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Consequently, building a native bee house increases pollinator habitat by providing shelter and nesting areas. In addition, they are pretty inexpensive and simple to build. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Modern Farmer</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and the </span><a href="https://thehoneybeeconservancy.org/2017/12/09/bee-hotels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Honey Bee Conservancy</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> provide some great tips to get started on a DIY bee hotel.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">To sum up, building a pollinator garden can be as simple as planting a few flowers in a window box or as grand as creating an entire ecosystem in your backyard. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Climate change, disease, and habitat loss<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/uk-bees-declining-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> threaten pollinator survival</a>. Growing your own pollinator garden can help provide these hard-working species the resources they need to survive.</span>

Have you ever grown your own pollinator garden? How did it go? Let us know about your pollinator garden experience in the comments below!

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How to Plant an Excellent Pollinator Garden

Whether you think of the charismatic fuzz of a bumblebee,...

Common,Lionfish,{pterois,Volitans},Is,An,Invasive,Species,In,The

Invasive Species Introduction (Plants & Animals)

Asian carp in the Mississippi River. Kudzu vine in Fiji....

A,Beautiful,Majestic,Lion,Sits,In,A,Regal,Pose,With

A hundred years ago over 200,000 lions roamed Africa and Asia. Today, that number is about 20,000. That's a 90% reduction in the population of one of the most charismatic creatures in the world. So, is the lion endangered?

It seems like it should be easy to say whether a species is endangered or not. The poor vaquita in the Sea of Cortez is an unarguably, critically endangered animal. At last count, scientists think there are fewer than 19 individuals.

Lions, however, are more complicated. They span dozens of countries on two continents. In fact, some populations are of 'least concern,' whereas others are 'critically endangered.' How could the same species have all these designations?
<h2>Let's Think About Populations Instead of the Entire Species</h2>
The field of Conservation Science is a lot more than simply preventing the disappearance of entire species from the planet. Extinction is the worst-case scenario, but there are plenty of undesirable options between an unthreatened species and an extinct one.

The lion, for example, is currently extinct in 26 countries (possibly 33). Some of these countries include Morocco, Iran, Egypt, Turkey, and Congo. These <em>regional</em> extinctions are significant. Each population of now-extinct lions had unique genes to thrive in a particular environment.

When all lions from North Africa disappeared, all lions suited to live in that harsh, desert climate also disappeared. Lions no longer roam anywhere in the Middle East, either.

If humans decide to reintroduce lions to these desert areas, where will we choose the lions from?

If, for example, a population of lions still lived in Egypt, then those would be the obvious candidates for reintroduction to the Middle East. However, none of the currently extant (meaning existing, or alive) populations of lions know these kinds of landscapes. Compared to the now-extinct North African lions, reintroduction with other African lions could be difficult.

I will focus on the conservation status of four regions of lions that are currently alive.

[caption id="attachment_1877494" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1877494 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/800px-Lion_distribution.png" alt="lion distribution" width="800" height="698" /> This map was made in 2009. The present distribution is much smaller in West Africa now than it was in 2009. Map courtesy of<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion#/media/File:Lion_distribution.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Tommy Knocker</a>[/caption]
<h2>Western and Central Africa Endangered Lions</h2>
These lions are the most threatened on the planet. I mentioned above that lions are possibly extinct in 7 additional countries. All of these countries are in Western and Central Africa. This is because lion populations in this region have declined two-thirds in the last 20 years.

Only one substantial population remains in all of Western and Central Africa, which is on the border of Burkina Faso and Benin (it's okay if you have to look at an atlas). This population might have as many as 200 lions, but all other West and Central African populations have fewer than 20 individual lions.

The conservation community largely ignored this region in lion conservation efforts. Plenty of sufficient habitats exists for lions throughout this region. However, the prey is naturally less dense here compared to the rest of Africa.

This landscape has more forests and deserts, which don't have the same <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carrying capacity</a> for large animals as places like the Serengeti National Park. This lack of prey made these lions evolve to be smaller and hunt in smaller prides than their Eastern and Southern African counterparts.

The human population of West African countries has increased rapidly over the last few decades. Unfortunately, the presence of more humans is almost always bad for wildlife.

Food shortages from overfishing increased the demand for bushmeat. This bushmeat is the prey for lions. Since the natural abundance of bushmeat was already low in this region, any human hunting of this prey is particularly bad for lion populations.

As is stands, this region's lions are considered critically endangered. It is very possible that the West African lion will become extinct in the very near future unless successful conservation programs are quickly put into place.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877497" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lion-565820_1280.jpg" alt="lion cub" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Endangered Lions in India</h2>
The story of the Asiatic lion is tragic, but at the same time hopeful.

The Asiatic lion used to roam all of the Middle-East through the very southern tip of India. Like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-tigers-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Caspian tiger</a>, hunters systematically persecuted Asiatic lions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Unlike the Caspian tiger, which went extinct, the Asiatic lion eked out a home in one small area of southeastern India, in the province of Gujarat.

Only 18 lions existed in 1893. (How people estimated lion populations in 1893 is beyond me.) An Indian ruler used this area as his private hunting grounds, which saved the lions from persecution.

The Indian government established the Gir Forest to protect these lions in 1965. Since then, areas around the Gir Forest have been protected as well. In 1994, the lion population was up to 284 lions. In 2010 it was 411 lions. The last census, in 2017, counted 650 lions.

These lions have reached their carrying capacity within their protected habitat. This means that new lions need to move outside of protected areas, into areas more densely populated and used by humans. About a third of the lions now live in areas among villages and people. The lions live in and around 1000 villages in India.

This crowding increases the potential for human-lion conflict. However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IUCN</a>), the most established group for conservation ratings, uplisted the Asiatic lion from 'Critically Endangered' to 'Endangered' in 2008.
<h3>What About the Future of the Indian Lion?</h3>
While this population is currently healthy, it is still vulnerable to many risks. Canine distemper virus, which lions can contract from encounters with dogs, has begun to affect this lion population. Last year, it killed 34 lions. This virus is very contagious and could wreak havoc on the lion population in a matter of weeks under the wrong circumstances.

Also, if the Gir Forest burns or gets affected by some natural disaster, the population would be at risk because they have nowhere else to go. The next step for Indian lion conservation is to establish a second population somewhere else in the country. This way, if one population faces a large setback, it can be helped by the second population.

Asiatic lions are currently listed as endangered.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877499" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/africa-21787_1280.jpg" alt="endangered lion" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Eastern Africa Endangered Lions</h2>
Eastern Africa is home to the majestic Serengeti plains. This landscape is the quintessential lion habitat. Unfortunately, lions are faring poorly in this region.

A 2015 census showed that the lion population decreased by 60% in three lion generations (about 20 years). A species is considered endangered if it's population shrinks by more than 50% in three generations.

Human-caused habitat loss drives much of the lion population decrease in this area. Lions also occasionally kill cattle. Cattle ranchers become irritated by wildlife threatening their livelihood and resort to dealing with the problem themselves. More often than not, this means killing the lions that killed their cattle.

Some governments try to reimburse cattle ranchers for their loses, but practices like this are difficult to successfully implement. As mentioned, canine distemper virus also threatens these lions.

Fortunately, Eastern Africa has large protected areas. Lions inside these areas seem to be faring okay, with populations only slightly declining. The real loses occurred in populations outside these protected areas, where human-lion conflict is more likely.

While it's difficult to give this large area one conservation rating, the IUCN deems these populations as endangered.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877495" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lion-515029_1280.jpg" alt="hungry lion" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Southern Africa</h2>
Southern Africa has a little bit of good news for conservationists. This region has more money and tourism than other parts of Africa. As a result, parks have more resources to put towards conservation. These parks have installed fences to help keep lions inside and reduce human-lion conflict.

The result?

In the same time frame that Western, Central, and Eastern Africa have lost two-thirds of their lion population, Southern African populations have increased by 12%. In fenced areas across this region, populations increased by 30%, whereas populations in unfenced areas decreased by 10%.

The density of people in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Botswana are 26, 2.5, and 3.4 people per square kilometer, respectively. Compared to Nigeria and Ghana, with a density of 189 and 102 people per square kilometer, it's easy to imagine why lion populations have done better in Southern Africa.

Southern African countries have had more success in lion conservation than other countries, but simply fencing in parks won't save lions in other parts of Africa.

True, sustainable conservation must happen through lifting front-line communities out of poverty and giving them an incentive to conserve, rather than threaten lions. The conservation community has failed in the past and currently by trying to exclude locals from their ancestral homelands to conserve wildlife. This led to general resentment towards wildlife, causing poaching and other undesirable actions.

Conservation ethics aside, the positive population trend in southern Africa, combined with strong local buy-in to conservation, led the IUCN to give Southern African lions a '<strong>least concern'</strong> rating. This is the best rating available.
<h2>Will the Lion Disappear?</h2>
It's worth noting that the IUCN Redlist <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15951/115130419" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">lists the lion as threatened</a>. While it's likely we will see populations go extinct in the near future, the complete disappearance of lions from the planet is unlikely. This is both a hopeful and anxiety-provoking situation with no easy answers.

If you want to practice conservation yourself, start closer to home rather than trying to save the lions. They aren't in our backyard, and other people, such as locals and African biologists, understand them much better than we do.

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Are Lions Endangered? It's Complicated.

A hundred years ago over 200,000 lions roamed Africa and...

Archibald Menzies, one of the great British naturalists, brought this other-worldly tree to the U.K. in 1795. Shortly after its arrival in the U.K., British lawyer, Charles Austin, remarked that "It would be a puzzle for a monkey to climb that tree."

Because the British hadn't given the tree a name yet, apparently Mr. Austin's remark took hold. Thus the namesake of this prehistoric conifer was born.

[caption id="attachment_1878631" align="alignnone" width="1281"]<img class="wp-image-1878631 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/monkey-puzzle-tree-4392008_1920-e1573149790441.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree spikes" width="1281" height="1440" /> Imagine a monkey trying to walk on those spikes![/caption]

During the 1800s, this unique tree had become a garden novelty signifying wealth and status across Great Britain. Currently, it is a common garden tree in New Zealand, Western North America, and Europe. Since it's such a strange being to us, it's sometimes hard to imagine what this tree's native habitat looks like. Where does this mysterious monkey puzzle tree come from?
<h2>The History of the Monkey Puzzle Tree</h2>
The other common name for this tree – the Chilean pine – reveals its origins. This tree grows in the central part of Chile and is also the Chilean national tree. However, some of these trees also grow on the Argentinian side of the Andes. One puzzling thing about the monkey puzzle tree is its evolution.

Botanists believe that this tree evolved over 200 million years ago when dinosaurs still walked the Earth. They think the tough, spiny leaves worked to deter hungry dinosaurs from munching on branches.

Whatever their purpose, the pokey leaves seem to have greatly helped with the survival of the tree. The tree has endured mass extinction, multiple ice ages, and centuries of human use.

The Chilean pine grows in two distinct populations. The majority of the trees thrive in the Andes between 2,000 and 6,000 feet in elevation. An attestation to their resilience, these trees can live for up to 2,000 years. During these years, they can reach upwards of 150 feet tall and 8 feet wide, putting them comfortably within the realm of giants.

Even the leaves of these ancients are old; a study found that the average age of a leaf on a monkey puzzle tree is 24 years old. For comparison, most pine needles only last two or three years!

[caption id="attachment_1878630" align="alignnone" width="1023"]<img class="wp-image-1878630 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Monkey-Tree-Distribution-e1573149466970.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree Distribution in Chile" width="1023" height="1253" /> The range of the monkey puzzle tree. Note the small, coastal populations. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucana_ubicacion.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Stephen Hayden</a>[/caption]
<h2>Humans Love the Chilean Pine</h2>
In fact, we're kind of loving it to death. One look at an old monkey puzzle tree highlights its supremely straight trunk. The tree's knot-free, straight-grained wood is excellent for construction.

Because of this, the tree was critical to the large logging industry in central Chile until 1976 when the government declared the tree a national monument. This slowed commercial logging of the tree until 1990, at which point it was fully banned.

[caption id="attachment_1877822" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877822 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/monkey-puzzle-tree-1007125_1280.jpg" alt="chilean pinecones" width="1280" height="960" /> The tasty pine nuts live inside those large, funky pinecones[/caption]

Aside from timber, this tree offers an excellent food source. The cones of this tree are massive pods, which contain about 200 seeds. They are said to taste like pine nuts. However, they are much, much larger.

Some people are looking into growing this as a nut tree in Scotland, where other nut crops can't survive. Unfortunately, it takes 30-40 years for the tree to begin making nuts, which deters interest. Just think of 1,000 years of food afterward, though!
<h2>Conservation Status</h2>
Both logging and seed collecting by Chileans have had a negative impact on the Chilean pine.

Logging reduced the range of this tree and fragmented populations into smaller groups. While the seed makes great food, over-collection of it has caused a decrease in pine seedlings.

This species is slow to regenerate, and seed collection makes it more difficult for young trees to get established.

In 2013 the IUCN declared the plant endangered. This followed the 2001-2002 wildfires that burnt large swaths of old-growth monkey puzzle tree. Scientists project that climate change will continue to make fires more intense in central Chile, posing a threat to the remaining trees.

Over-grazing by cattle in monkey puzzle tree habitats has degraded the landscape, making it more difficult for trees to survive.

The logging industry in Chile and Argentina has turned towards creating plantations of exotic tree species, often to the detriment of monkey puzzle trees. The practice stresses out the trees and reduces their ability to increase their population.

The Chilean pine seems to respond well to planting. The Global Trees Campaign planted 2,000 trees in the early 2,000s and had a 90% survival rate ten years later.

This high survival rate is uncommon for endangered plant species, which provides some hope for the future of the monkey puzzle tree in its native habitat.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chile-volcano-overdue-eruption/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Volcanoes</a> add an additional explosive challenge for these trees. Even though they have lived with volcanoes for millions of years, they are more prone to volcano impacts now. Lava flows can destroy an entire, isolated population, whereas historically, interconnected populations were more resilient.

[caption id="attachment_1877824" align="alignnone" width="799"]<img class="wp-image-1877824 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/799px-Araucaria_in_Conguillio.jpeg" alt="Monkey puzzle trees in a winter storm" width="799" height="599" /> These monkey puzzle trees would argue that they do just fine in snowstorms. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucaria_in_Conguillio.JPG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Grm.gustavo</a>[/caption]
<h2>What About Outside of Chile?</h2>
While the monkey puzzle tree faces some major threats in its native habitat, it is having great success seducing gardeners around the world. The tree has weaseled its way into almost every neighborhood along the west coast of the U.S.

The tree does great in any well-draining soil. It prefers slightly acidic soil but should grow well in just about anything with the right climate.

In gardens, the tree will max out at about 80 feet tall, rather than 150 feet in its native habitat. It will, however, continue to produce tasty seeds, as long as another tree of the opposite sex is around to pollinate the cones. Be sure to get a female tree! Males won't ever produce those tasty nuts.

People argue over the minimum temperature at which these trees can grow. While they grow reliably at temperatures as cold as 20°F, some people have succeeded in growing them in much colder places, such as Logan, Utah.

While the tree does well in cool weather, it does very poorly in heat. For this reason, it grows much better in places like the West Coast rather than the East Coast or the American South. The tree will get very stressed out in prolonged temperatures above 80°F.

Many nurseries stock these funky relicts. If you decide to plant one, be sure to baby it for a good three or four years. After that, the tree will be well established and need little care.

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What is a Monkey Puzzle Tree?

Archibald Menzies, one of the great British naturalists, brought this...

Neem oil is something of a panacea for gardeners. Neem oil uses range from killing unwanted insects, to preventing powdery mildew, to getting rid of nematodes. It's a great, natural first line of defense against most of the common garden diseases and pests.
<h2>History of the Neem Oil Tree</h2>
Neem oil comes from the seeds of the neem tree, which is native to the Indian subcontinent. Indians recognized the therapeutic value of neem at least <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3695574/#:~:text=Neem%20in%20Indus%20Valley%20civilization,-On%20the%20Indian&amp;text=The%20earliest%20documentation%20of%20neem,about%204%20500%20years%20ago." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4,500 years ago</a>, where it had all sorts of medical uses in the ancient Indus valley civilizations.

As Indians moved around the world in the 20th century, they brought the neem tree with them. It now grows in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3695574/#:~:text=Neem%20in%20Indus%20Valley%20civilization,-On%20the%20Indian&amp;text=The%20earliest%20documentation%20of%20neem,about%204%20500%20years%20ago." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">at least 30 countries</a>, mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The neem tree grows quickly, making it valuable for firewood. As mentioned above, it also has great medicinal value. The tree provides effective shade, as well. Neem can grow in hot places, up to 120F, with relatively little water.

Some African nations that border the southern edge of the Saharan desert are<a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2019/09/what-northern-community-did-after-i-rescued-them-from-desertification-newton-jibunoh/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> planting walls of neem trees</a> to prevent the desert from expanding into their country as a result of human-made climate change.

Being such a climate-resilient tree with tons of medical and agricultural uses, it's understandable that the UN would designate the neem tree as the <a href="https://neempedia.com/neem-tree-of-the-21-century/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">"tree of the 21st century."</a>

[caption id="attachment_1884871" align="alignnone" width="538"]<img class="wp-image-1884871 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/tree-277970_640.jpg" alt="neem tree" width="538" height="640" /> Neem Tree. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/sarangib-37542/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bisnhu Sarangi</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/tree-azadirachta-indica-neem-tree-277970/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h2>How Does Neem Oil Work?</h2>
Well, we don't <em>really</em> know. The most important compound in neem oil seems to be azadiratchin. Azaricatchin is a very complex organic molecule, with many functional groups. A functional group is part of a molecule that can interact with another molecule, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, or perhaps a neurotransmitter. Because azaricatchin has an unusual amount of these functional groups, it is able to perform in a wide variety of ways.

The neem tree evolved to contain this molecule to deter the desert locust. This bug can destroy trees in India, but they avoid the neem tree at all costs because the azadiratchin will kill them.

<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/azadirachtin" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Research reveals</a> that azadiratchin can turn off the cells in insects 'brains' that cause them to feel hunger or the need to eat. As a result, they starve to death. It is plausible that neem interacts with other insects in completely different ways, due to all of its functional groups.

Neem oil also contains an <a href="https://neemfoundation.org/about-neem/chemistry-of-neem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abundance of other compounds</a> that may explain its ability to apply to so many insects, diseases, and health issues.
<h2>Benefits of Neem Oil vs. Other Pesticides and Insecticides</h2>
Pesticides and insecticides are meant to kill pests. This means that they are inherently toxic and have an impact on the greater ecosystem than just the crops they get sprayed on. You've probably heard of the great bee die-off. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-dramatically-reduces-wild-bee-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A large part of the blame</a> for our bees dying should be put on pesticide use.

<a href="https://pollinator.cals.cornell.edu/threats-wild-and-managed-bees/pesticides/neonicotinoids/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">These chemicals</a> have destroyed many populations of good pollinators. Pesticides are also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9498903/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">verifiably cancer-causing</a>. Moreover, many pests have become resistant to commonly used pesticides and insecticides. This resistance makes them 'superpests' because commonly used methods don't work to control them.

That's the world of "conventional" insecticides and pesticides.

Neem oil, on the other hand, is 100% natural. Sunlight breaks neem oil down into non-toxic compounds within 100 hours, meaning it is far less likely to contaminate the surrounding environment than manufactured pesticides.

[caption id="attachment_1884873" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884873 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/salad-2482457_1280.jpg" alt="lettuce, garden" width="1280" height="719" /> Healthy lettuce grows in a field. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/silviarita-3142410/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Silvia Rita</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/salad-herbs-vegetables-cultivation-2482457/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixaba</a>y[/caption]

Neem is only toxic to the kinds of small insects that eat the oil, meaning it is targeted towards the bad insects (tomato hornworms, aphids, etc.) while having less of an effect on the good insects (bees, earthworms). In addition to being a fungicide, neem also has little toxicity to mammals.

<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4472983/#:~:text=Neem%20oil,-Very%20few%20studies&amp;text=After%2040%20generations%2C%20these%20studies,that%20of%20non%2Dtreated%20aphids." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Research has led scientists</a> to determine that neem oil is "quite interesting in terms of its durability" because it appears that pests don't effectively develop a resistance against it. This could mean that neem oil is a longer-term solution for crop and garden pests that currently used, industrial insecticides.

For the home gardener, neem is the obvious choice for a safe, economic, non-toxic pesticide.
<h2>A Short Note on Pesticide Safety</h2>
However, do <a href="http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/neemgen.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">exercise some caution</a> when using neem oil. Wash your hands, don't use it on dishes you eat from, and only use the concentration recommended on the bottle. Neem can be irritating to the skin and stomach if ingested. As long as you're careful, you should be fine.

Most pesticides are toxic to eat, so you shouldn't spray them close to the harvest date of your crops. As we explored before, neem isn't nearly as toxic as these other pesticides. Since neem oil degrades in about 100 hours, you can use it within a week of harvesting. I wouldn't use it fewer than seven days before harvest, but conceivably you can use it four days before. This is especially useful if you have a late-season infestation that threatens your crop just before you plan to harvest it.

[caption id="attachment_1884872" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1884872 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/cactus-4864211_1920.jpg" alt="neem oil use" width="1920" height="1275" /> A gardener sprays neem oil on an indoor cactus. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/renateko-15186262/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Renate Köppel</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/cactus-casting-plant-green-flowers-4864211/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h2>How to Use Neem Oil as a Gardener</h2>
Now that we understand the neem tree and the background of neem oil, we can jump into the many uses of neem oil for the gardener.

I suggest buying a concentrated version of neem oil that you dilute at home rather than a 'ready to use' formula. It's much cheaper and lasts longer. The 'ready to use' neem oil is in a spray bottle that you can use immediately.

If you get the concentrate, measure a dilute solution of neem oil and water in a handheld spray bottle to apply the pesticide. The exact dilution depends on what the product recommends but is usually around two tablespoons of neem oil per gallon of water. Most spray bottles are about one quart, so two teaspoons of neem should be sufficient for a typical spray bottle.

Neem is an oil, so it doesn't dissolve into water. You must make sure to vigorously shake the bottle before spraying the solution on plants. Some people use a small dash of dish soap or natural soap, like Dr. Bronners, to help distribute the oil in the water better.

Neem works best when applied early in the morning. If you live in a humid area, don't apply neem in the evening because the added moisture on your plants may make them more vulnerable to diseases during a cool spring or summer night.
<h3>Nematodes</h3>
Nematodes are tiny worm-like creatures that live in the soil or on your plants. They can suffocate your plant by attacking its root network. They can also act as predators on your plants, killing beneficial insects.

Since nematodes are so small, they are susceptible to neem oil. The larger, beneficial earthworms aren't hurt as much by neem because they are larger creatures. You can drench the soil with the dilute solution of neem oil to kill nematode eggs. If nematodes are on the leaves, spray the leaves once a week.

[caption id="attachment_1884874" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884874 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/mildew-5251894_1280.jpg" alt="powdery mildew" width="1280" height="853" /> Powdery mildew on a plant. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/fotoblend-87167/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Willfried Wende</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mildew-brennessel-mushroom-spores-5251894/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h3>Powdery Mildew</h3>
A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-infection-makes-plants-more-vulnerable-to-later-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">classic garden fungus</a>, powdery mildew strikes any gardener who lives near the ocean or in a humid place. Powdery mildew usually looks like white mold growing on the leaves. It is genus/family-specific, so it can jump between closely related plant species.

Spraying a plant with neem oil once a week may get rid of powdery mildew. However, if it is late in the season the plant might be dying anyway, so there's no real point in saving it.
<h3>Spider Mites</h3>
Spider mites are tiny spider relatives that can quickly destroy your garden. To cull them first cut out any parts of plants that are affected by the spider mites. Put this plant material directly into the yard waste bin. You don't want to give the spider mites a chance to move around your garden by setting the affected material on the ground near your other precious plants.

Next, spray all parts of the affected and surrounding plants (don't forget under the leaves) with neem oil once a week until the mites are gone.
<h3>Fire Blight</h3>
Fire blight is a bacterial disease the affects fruit trees in the rose family, mostly apple and pear. It hits hardest in wet, cold springs and is rapidly contagious. It's easier to prevent fire blight rather than treat it.

To prevent fire blight, spray neem oil over the entire tree when you notice the buds starting to swell in the spring. Hit the thick branches and trunks particularly well. This preventative measure works best when <a href="https://www.kenwoodpress.com/pub/a/9209?full=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">combined with other antibacterials</a>, such as a copper spray.

[caption id="attachment_1884875" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884875 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/leaf-482600_1280.jpg" alt="aphids" width="1280" height="882" /> Aphids suck the sap from a plant. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/catkin-127770/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Catkin </a>via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/leaf-aphid-aphids-pest-branch-482600/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h3>Aphids</h3>
Aphids use their little mouths to cut into the plants and suck the sap out of them. If neem oil covers the plant, aphids must ingest it in order to get to the sap. When aphids ingest neem oil, they die.

Spray the entire plant with neem oil every seven days until the aphids are gone. If you wish to use neem as a preventative, spray if every two weeks on the area prone to aphid infestation.
<h3>Using Neem Oil Indoors</h3>
Neem is a great option for houseplant enthusiasts. Since it's non-toxic, it is safe to use inside if you tend to get any powdery mildew, fungus gnats, or other common houseplant pests. If it's not too much trouble, take the plants outside to spray them. If not, no worries! It's fine to spray neem inside your house.

Similarly, neem works great for greenhouses.
<h3>Fungus Gnats</h3>
Fungus gnats are annoying tiny bugs that can reproduce prolifically on hot, summer days. They are mostly an issue with indoor houseplants. Their larvae live in the soil and munch on plant roots. The adults fly around fruit or produce on the counter.

To prevent the gnats from getting worse, spray a generous amount of neem oil directly onto the soil of your houseplants every two days for a week to control fungus gnats.

To really destroy the gnats, you can water your plants with a dilute solution of neem oil.

As you can see, neem oil is a fascinating plant with vast potential. Once you begin using neem, you'll wonder how in the world you ever gardened without it!

Featured image by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/115307189@N08/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jimmy Tikhak</a> via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neem_seed.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wikimedia Commons</a>

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<span style="font-weight: 400;">The overwhelming majority of our Earth’s surface - 71% - is water. Of that water, </span><a href="https://www.usbr.gov/mp/arwec/water-facts-ww-water-sup.html#:~:text=Water%20covers%20about%2071%25%20of%20the%20earth's%20surface.&amp;text=97%25%20of%20the%20earth's%20water,most%20industrial%20uses%20except%20cooling).&amp;text=3%25%20of%20the%20earth's%20water%20is%20fresh." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">97%</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of it is located in our oceans. Somewhat counterintuitively, this means that the vast majority of Earth’s topographic features - valleys, plains, mountains - are located under water as well. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1884693" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1884693" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/awdfaw-1024x576.png" alt="ocean floor features" width="1024" height="576" /> [Image courtesy of the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-floor-features" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NOAA Office of Education</a>][/caption]<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let's take a look at many prominent submerged features. Before taking the plunge, stop for a moment to examine the above diagram from the </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration </span><a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-floor-features" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">(NOAA).</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> It will serve as a convenient visual guide as we descend into the deep.</span>
<h2>Continental Shelf</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Continental shelves are large landmasses that surround each of the continents. This area is usually very shallow (comparatively), typically less than a few hundred feet. Continental shelves account for roughly </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">8%</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of all submerged features. Interestingly, continental shelves can drastically vary in size. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">For example, the continental shelf off the coast of Siberia extends </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">1,500 km</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (930 miles) into the Arctic Ocean. Conversely, off the coast of Africa, the continental shelf extends </span><a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/curriculum/section4a.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">only 10 km</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (6 miles) into the Atlantic Ocean.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Continental shelves also serve as bastions of biological diversity. According to some estimates, about </span><a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/ology-cards/180-continental-shelf#:~:text=The%20shallow%2C%20sunlit%20waters%20of,found%20along%20the%20continental%20shelf." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">90% of the world’s fish</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> are found along the continental shelf. More interestingly, practically all of the world’s oceanic plants and most types of algae also live along the continental shelf. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Perhaps the most famous of continental shelves is the </span><a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/protecting-the-arctic/take-deep-dive/bering-strait-gateway-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bering Strait</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">A mountain of evidence</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> supports the hypothetical land bridge that anthropologists, geologists, and climate scientists believe allowed humans to cross over to North America from Asia some </span><a href="https://www.nps.gov/bela/learn/historyculture/other-migration-theories.htm#:~:text=As%20of%202008%2C%20genetic%20findings,Americas%20by%2016%2C500%20years%20ago." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">17,000 years ago</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Although the strait is now underwater, it is just barely submerged. The deepest section is less than 55m (180 feet) underwater. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1884694" align="alignnone" width="445"]<img class="wp-image-1884694 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/continental-slope.jpg" alt="ocean floor features; continental slope diagram" width="445" height="210" /> [image via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Continentalmargin.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wikimedia Commons</a>][/caption]
<h2>Continental Slope</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The end of the continental shelf is referred to as the continental slope. Geologists may refer to this location as the “</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">seaward border of the continental shelf.</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">” This ocean feature accounts for roughly 9% of the entirety of the ocean floor. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">On average, the ocean's continental slope descends into the sea at an angle of 4°. This may not seem like much, but over the course of 100km (60 miles) of the continental slope, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/">ocean depth</a> will increase by 70 km (43 miles)!</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">While the average slope of descent for continental slopes is 4°, some are </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">much steeper</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. About 1,600 km (1000 miles) off the Cape of Good Hope, Africa, the continental slope drops some 20,000 feet over the course of only 16 km (10 miles). This corresponds to an average slope of 70°!</span>
<h2>Abyssal Plain</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Abyssal plains are the most common land feature on planet earth. They make up half of all of the ocean floor. The </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">International Hydrographic Organization</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (<a href="https://iho.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">IHO</a>) defines abyssal plains as “extensive, flat, gently sloping or nearly level region at abyssal depths.” </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Abyssal depths are approximately 3,000-6,000 meters (10,000-20,000 feet). When the IHO says that these plains are flat - they’re not kidding. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Compared to continental slopes, which fall roughly 2,800 meters (9,000 feet) for every 1,000 meters (3,000 feet), abyssal plains fall, on average, less than 1 meter per 1000 meters!</span>

Abyssal plains are also the largest habitat<span style="font-weight: 400;"> on earth. Even so, extremely little is known about the organisms that inhabit this zone. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This is mainly due to the stark lack of sunlight that penetrates to these depths. Sunlight only reaches roughly 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) down into the ocean. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Considering that the abyssal plains exist, at the shallowest depth, at 3,000 meters, absolutely no sun reaches the floor here. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1884695" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1884695 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/bora-bora-685303_1920-2-1024x461.jpg" alt="ocean floor features" width="1024" height="461" /> [Image via Pixabay from <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/mariamichelle-165491/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mariamichelle</a>][/caption]
<h2>Abyssal Hill</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Abyssal hills</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> are exactly what they sound like: relatively small hills that rise out of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-the-hadal-zone/">abyssal plain</a>. These features comprise roughly 30% of the ocean floor. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Typically, they rise no more than a few hundred meters above the abyssal plain and are less than 100 meters (300 feet) in width.</span>
<h2>Seamount</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Breaking down the term seamount we see two parts: sea and mount. The “sea” part references the fact that these features are under water. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The “mount” part stems from “mountain.” Putting these two together, you have the definition of a </span><a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/seamounts.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">seamount</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">: an underwater mountain! Importantly, seamounts cannot break the water’s surface. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1884696" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1884696" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/awf.jpg" alt="mariana trench" width="1024" height="683" /> [Image via Wikipedia. 1840489pavan nd / <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA]</a>[/caption]
<h2>Ocean Trench</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Deep, deep below the water’s surface lie vast, unexplored regions of the ocean floor: </span><a href="https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/ocean-topics/seafloor-below/ocean-trenches/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">trenches</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. These underwater canyons are the deepest spots in the ocean. In fact, from sea level, the surface of the earth extends further down than it does up! </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Mt. Everest is the tallest point on earth (elevation wise) at 8,848 meters (29,029 feet). In comparison, the Mariana Trench stretches down 11,034 meters (36,201 feet) below the surface. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If we were to place Mt. Everest in the bottom of the trench, its summit would still be about 1.6 km (1 mile) below the surface!</span>
<h2>Volcanic Island</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Volcanic islands are usually referred to by their common name: islands. </span><a href="https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/Missions/Coasts/Tales-of-the-Coast/Americas-Coasts/Hawaiian-Coast/Volcanic-Islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">By definition</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, seamounts that break the water's surface are called islands. In places like Hawaii, one can actually see the process of new land being formed as lava cools as it enters the ocean. </span>

<a href="https://www.nps.gov/havo/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is a prime example of this. Islands make up a relatively tiny fraction of the total area, but they are very numerous. The amount of islands in the world is </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">practically impossible</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to estimate. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Presently, </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">the estimation ranges</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> from about 5,000 oceanic islands to over 100,000. This figure also changes over geologic time. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Islands tend to be somewhat unstable, and as global sea levels fluctuate over millions of years, new islands are exposed while others are submerged.</span>

[Featured image via Pixabay from <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/mariamichelle-165491/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mariamichelle</a>]

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Ocean Floor Features You Should Know About

The overwhelming majority of our Earth’s surface - 71% -...

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<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Humans have pondered the beginning of the universe since our species evolved. Generations of people have looked towards the sky as a source of amazement, religion, and wonder. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Thankfully, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/cosmology/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over the last several centuries</a>, scientists from around the world have begun to piece together empirical data to support a variety of hypotheses about how all of life as we know it began. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Today, let’s take a closer look at an age-old question: what are the theories of the universe?</span><br /><img class="alignnone wp-image-1882781 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/solar-system-11188_1280-1024x640.jpg" alt="big bang explosion, one theory of the universe" width="1024" height="640" /></p>
<h2>The Big Bang Theory</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The most robust, well-supported theory as to the origins of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. A Belgian priest, </span><a href="https://www.luc.edu/catholicstudies/newsevents/featuredintellectual/archive/name,306772,en.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Georges Lemaître</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, first suggested the idea of big bang theory in the 1920s. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Since then, Einstein’s theory of relativity and modern science has lent credibility to this developing theory.</span></p>
<h3>Big Bang Assumptions</h3>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Before we can get into specifics, let’s understand a few basic assumptions concerning the Big Bang Theory.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Each of the following points is assumed to be true in the universe, and this notion is part of the foundation upon which the Big Bang rests. </span></p>
<ul>
<li><b>The universe </b><b>is constant</b><b>.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> This one is first for a reason; it’s important. Our modeling and understanding of the world hinge on the idea that physical properties are the same everywhere. For example, we assume <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/100-years-since-einsteins-theory-of-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gravity</a>, electricity, magnetism, and light all behave the same way, even in far off places in the galaxy and universe. <br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>The universe </b><b>is homogenous</b><b>.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Secondly, we assume that the universe is roughly the same in all directions. You can think of these like shovelfuls of dirt. Some scoops might have big rocks, some might have worms, and some may have more clay than others. But, in the long term, every 100 shovelfuls will be roughly the same in composition.<br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>The universe is not centered around us.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Physicists refer to this notion as the “</span><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25171345?seq=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">privileged location</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.” This means that earth is somewhere in the universe, but we really have no idea where it is in relation to the “edge” (more on that later).<br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>The universe has a beginning.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> All matter and energy that has ever been and that will ever be were created during the Big Bang. No new material or energy has been created since then.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Basics of the Big Bang</h3>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The Big Bang is the leading theory as to the origins of the universe as we know it. It describes the mechanism by which everything we know started as a small singularity that ballooned into the earth, solar system, galaxy, and universe. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The easiest way to understand this theory is through a timeline, so let’s dig in.</span></p>
<ul>
<li><b>1 second.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> During the first second, the temperature around the big bang was about </span><a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">5.5 billion degrees</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Celsius (10 billion Fahrenheit). There would have been nothing to see at this point, though. According to </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">NASA</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, “the free electrons would have caused light (photons) to scatter the way sunlight scatters from the water droplets in clouds.”<br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>3 seconds.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> The initial explosion contained all the necessary subatomic particles for atoms and molecules: neutrons, protons, and electrons. The first basic elements form at this point: hydrogen, helium, and lithium. <br /></span></li>
<li><b>380,000 years.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> For the first time, light emerges into the universe. This radiation (light) is referred to as the cosmic microwave background. First predicted to exist in 1948 by </span><a href="https://cosmology.carnegiescience.edu/timeline/1948" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Ralph Alpher</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, it is a signature mark of the Big Bang. This background of microwaves can still be observed today, and it used to estimate the age of the universe. <br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>300 million years.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> We’re jumping forward a bit here. As the initial burst of atoms and gas expands, gravity starts to become a relevant factor. Pockets of different densities of gas </span><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-a-star-born/#:~:text=A%20star%20is%20born%20when,until%20the%20fusion%20reactions%20begin." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">give birth to stars</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and collections of stars start to form galaxies. <br /><br /></span></li>
<li><b>~9 billion years.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Our sun forms. The universe is roughly 14 billion years old, and our sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old. </span></li>
</ul>
<p><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882782" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/earth-1617121_1920-1024x575.jpg" alt="earth from space" width="1024" height="575" /></p>
<h2>Steady State Universe</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The steady state universe hypothesis breaks one of the key Big Bang Theory assumptions. The </span><a href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/steady_state.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">steady state hypothesis</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> states that matter and energy are being created continuously, steadily. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">First theorized in the 1920s by Sir James Jeans, the theory imagines a universe without a real beginning or end. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In the steady state view, the universe has always been expanding and creating matter, and it will continue to do so. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Although the theory has been revised and updated throughout the middle of the 20th century, an overwhelming amount of contradictory evidence supports the notion that the steady state hypothesis is largely false. </span></p>
<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-1882783 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/universe-2742113_1280-1024x482.jpg" alt="cosmos" width="1024" height="482" /></p>
<h2>Level II Multiverse</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The multiverse concept </span><a href="https://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/PDF/multiverse_sciam.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">is complicated</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. And, that may still be an understatement. One of the driving factors leading to the development of this theory is the seemingly perfect nature of physics in our universe. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Light, gravity, physics… they all seem to work together perfectly to allow life to exist in our universe. This can be viewed as a major coincidence or an inevitability given a large number of trials. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-possible-other-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">multiverse</a> concept postulates that multiple universes exist, simultaneously, and they each have different physical constants. For example, maybe a universe 2.0 (or 3.0 or 18.0 or 821.0) exists along with ours where light travels at a different speed. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Changing this speed changes an exceptionally large number of other universal constants, and thus, everything we know about our universe.</span></p>
<h2>Simulation Theory or Simulation Hypothesis</h2>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">Scientists and philosophers are buzzing about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-humans-living-in-a-simulated-world/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Simulation Hypothesis</a>. It's not just sci-fi anymore - this idea has real philosophical roots and tech advances backing it up.</p>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">The theory goes like this: our whole reality might be a digital simulation. Earth, the universe, everything - all created by super-advanced beings.</p>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">It sounds wild, but serious thinkers are on board. They're using math from quantum physics and information theory to back it up.</p>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">Their logic? If advanced civilizations can make complex simulations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">we're probably in one</a>.</p>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">Nick Bostrom, a philosopher, lays it out: either humans never reach that level of tech, advanced civilizations don't bother with simulations, or we're almost definitely in one now.</p>
<p class="whitespace-pre-wrap break-words">Think about it -- if beings out there can and want to run ancestor simulations, fake realities could outnumber the real deal by a ton.</p>
<h2>Correct Hypothesis?</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">So, where does that leave us? What is the “correct” theory for the origin of the universe? By a large margin, the Big Bang is the most well-supported, evidence-based theory. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">That being said, new technology and new instruments allow us to gather different data every decade, so we will have to see what the future holds! </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">What other theories of the universe have you heard of? How do you think this all got here?</span></p>
<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>


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What Are the Current Theories of How the Universe formed?

Humans have pondered the beginning of the universe since our...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Until recently in human agricultural history, soil tilling was done by hand. Eventually, machine technology advanced so that tilling machines could be manually pulled by animals. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Today, a wide variety of motorized and fully mechanical tilling machines exist. While these machines have helped cultivate nutritional soil for millennia, is tilling necessary? Today, let’s take a look at the history of tilling and better understand: what is no-till farming?</span>

[caption id="attachment_1884165" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1884165 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/wheat-3241114_1920.jpg" alt="wheat field" width="1920" height="1245" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/candiix-7097598/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Candiix</a>[/caption]
<h2>Plant Biology Basics</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Plant science is complicated, but the basics are not. At the end of the day, plants only need a few key ingredients to grow. Let’s take a look at some plant biology basics to get a better understanding of why tilling may be useful.</span>
<h3>Elemental “Nutrients”</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Unlike animals, plans do not “eat” other organisms for their nutrients. Well, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-flytraps-have-a-previously-unknown-trigger/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">some do</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, but that is a rare exception. In order for plants to survive, they still need to take in essential elements. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Among the most important are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These are commonly referred to as a group: NPK. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most fertilizers will have all three of these elements in varying amounts, depending on the type and purpose of the fertilizer. </span>

<a href="https://www.nofa.org/soil/html/nitrogen.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Nitrogen</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is present in abundant amounts in all proteins and is an important element in chlorophyll. </span>

<a href="https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/phosphorus-basics" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Phosphorus</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is necessary for the main source of chemical energy in plants, ATP.  </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Finally, </span><a href="https://extension.umn.edu/phosphorus-and-potassium/potassium-crop-production#:~:text=Role%20in%20plant%20growth,regulate%20the%20rate%20of%20photosynthesis." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">potassium</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is necessary for water movement and salt retention. </span>
<h3>Water</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Very obviously, plants need water. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Some plants</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> require a small amount of water. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Others</span> <span style="font-weight: 400;">require a massive amount of H</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">2</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">O. Regardless of how much water a plant needs, they all use it for the same basic purposes: rigidity, transportation, and electrons. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">First, the water helps plants to stand upright so their leaves can be exposed to the sunlight. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Second, important salts and sugars dissolve in the water allowing the plant to traffic them to various locations. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Third, in order to carry out </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">photosynthesis</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, plants need a source of electrons. All of these vital functions are accomplished by water. </span>
<h3>Sunlight and CO2</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Like water, sunlight is another plant necessity that is required in varying degrees for different plants. Like you learned in high school biology, plants use the energy of the sun’s rays to turn the carbon from CO</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">2</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> into glucose and O</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">2</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. The plant will use this sugar both to build itself (</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amateur-scientist-potential-plant-waste/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">cellulose</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) and for energy. </span>

[caption id="attachment_1884164" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884164 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/arable-500343_1280.jpg" alt="no till farming; crop furrows" width="1280" height="853" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/catkin-127770/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Catkin</a>[/caption]
<h2>Why Till, Anyway?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Before we dive into no-till farming, we need to understand why farmers and gardeners would employ tilling in the first place. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Break up hard soil:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Plants need loose, malleable soil to grow! The roots must be able to penetrate the soil. Tilling can aid in this process by breaking up dense chunks of dirt that stand in the way.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Deep nutrients:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Tilling can be a very effective means of delivering nutrients (NPK) deep into the soil. The turning action is able to blend the soil, and when combined with fertilizer, this process helps to create healthier soil.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Kill weeds:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> The tilling process also helps to destroy weeds. The churning action grinds them up, leaving more nutrients for the plants you want to grow. </span></li>
</ul>
<h2>Cons of Tilling</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">While there can be many benefits, tilling doesn’t come without its downsides. There are several reasons why farmers may shy away from religiously tilling their fields. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Soil structure:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Natural soil is different than dirt. Soil, according to the </span><a href="https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=13063" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">University of California</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Agriculture and Natural Resources department, is “composed of bedrock and mountain stones broken down over eons by wind and rain.” Soil contains nutrients, minerals, and microorganisms that help plants grow. Tilling can disturb the physical structure of the soil. Over time, this can lead to soil becoming compacted, i.e. dense. This provides a poor environment for the roots and starves microorganisms of much-needed oxygen. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Soil moisture:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Tilling has the tendency to </span><a href="https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/dealing-wet-soils" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">dry out</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> otherwise-moist soil. This is obviously not ideal for any plant, especially young ones. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Helps weeds:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> This may seem counterintuitive as we just discussed tilling as a means of killing weeds! Sometimes, tilling can have the opposite effect. Instead of grinding up fledgling weeds, the tilling actually brings weed seeds closer to the surface, allowing them to germinate. </span></li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1884166" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1884166 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/hoe-2448148_1920.jpg" alt="hand till" width="1920" height="1280" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/congerdesign-509903/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">congerdesign</a>[/caption]
<h2>No-Till Advantage</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">So then, what causes some farmers to employ no-till techniques? There are many reasons why farms of all sizes may choose to go no-till.</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Time:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Quite obviously, tilling soil takes time. With a bonafide tractor, tilling can go as fast as about five acres per hour. The issue is that the </span><a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Todays_Reports/reports/fnlo0220.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">average farm</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in the United States is 444 acres. At even 10 acres per hour, that is an entire week’s worth of just tilling. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Erosion: </b><span style="font-weight: 400;">Over the course of many seasons of tilling, the results can be catastrophic. According to </span><a href="https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/frequent-tillage-and-its-impact-soil-quality" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Iowa State University</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, “Producers... may experience high erosion rates and degradation of topsoil, where nearly all organic matter is located. Removal of topsoil by erosion contributes to a loss of inherent soil fertility levels.” </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Microbiome:</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> By and large, plants are unable to use naturally occurring nitrogen in the soil. Plants need the help of bacteria that assist with the process of </span><a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/biological-nitrogen-fixation-23570419/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">nitrogen fixation</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, whereby nitrogen is broken down into usable forms. Tilling has the tendency to disrupt the soil microbiome. This leads not only to decreased nitrogen fixation but decreased soil health overall.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">In short, tilling represents part of a short-term solution to a long-term problem. Issues such as </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">monocropping</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exploitation-deforestation-madagascar/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">slash-and-burn</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, and </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">fertilizer run-off</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> all contribute to the degradation of our soil. Tilling is no different. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">No-till farming may yield fewer crops in the immediate future, but it is a positive step towards sustainable farming.</span>

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What Is No-Till Farming? And Why Do Farmers Do It?

Until recently in human agricultural history, soil tilling was done...

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Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it was that penicillin you took to get better or those cultivated mushrooms you ate for dinner yesterday, you have mycology to thank. Mycologists are scientists who dedicate their careers to all things fungi.

It may be surprising to hear that mycology is not a booming discipline. Most universities don't offer programs in mycology and this doesn't seem to be changing. Fungal pathogens infect over 1 billion people worldwide. They also destroy one-third of global food production! Why aren't there more mycologists working on this stuff? On the other hand, humans benefit from many species of fungi, including those we eat and use as medicine.

[caption id="attachment_1892126" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892126 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/calocera-viscosa-4511805_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="862" /> Fungi come in all sorts of unusual shapes and size. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/calocera-viscosa-goatee-cockscomb-4511805/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">How Are Mycology, Mycorrhizae, and Mycelia Different?</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Mycology is the study of fungus, which is an entire kingdom of life. Mycology is to fungi as botany is to plants. Most scientists consider mycologists to be a type of microbiologist.</p>
<p data-marked="true">To date, scientists have named over 70,000 fungal species. Researchers believe there are up to 20 times that many fungus species out there. This means there could be about 1.5 million species of fungi on planet Earth. For some context, there are only about <a href="http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">350,000 named species</a> of flowering plants. The fungi kingdom is massive and we know so little about it!</p>
<p data-marked="true">Mycelia is simply the vegetative part of fungi. It is a branching, often invisible substance that is home to many wonders. If you have ever seen a white, webby substance in wet woodchips or in the soil, that is mycelium. Mycelia can form vast networks of fungus. One such network is thought to be the <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/606952-largest-living-organism#:~:text=The%20largest%20living%20organism%20is,equivalent%20to%201%2C350%20soccer%20fields." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largest organism</a> on the planet.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Mushrooms, in contrast, are the fruiting bodies of these mycelial networks. They are the reproductive structures of fungal organisms. If we compare fungus to a peach tree, the mycelia would be the roots, wood, and leaves of the tree. The mushroom would be the flowers and peaches.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Mycorrhizae are the mycelia that grow in a symbiotic relationship with a plant host (more on this later).</p>


[caption id="attachment_1892128" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892128 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/4973009538_0daca97095_c.jpg" alt="mycelia, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> Mycelia growing between pine needles. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Laurel Fan</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/4973009538" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Flickr</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">The Origins of Mycology</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Humans have an older relationship with fungi than with agriculture. By analyzing plaque on ancient human teeth, <a href="https://www.mpg.de/9173780/mushrooms-food-source-stone-age" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientists revealed</a> that hunter-gatherers in Europe ate mushrooms as early as 18,000 years ago. Ever since then, our species has found hundreds of uses for this kingdom of life.</p>
<p data-marked="true">In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, groups like the Mycological Society of America and the British Mycological Society began to organize mycologists into a broader community. More recent groups, such as the North American Mycological Association, International Mycological Association, and <a href="https://mikrobiologie.eurofung.tu-berlin.de/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EUROFUNG</a> have bolstered the mycological community. By publishing ground-breaking research in their <a href="https://imafungus.biomedcentral.com/?gclid=CjwKCAjwqIiFBhAHEiwANg9szp2cRtU_p0VNTsrEAyR62Xe8OSPknv1xzGZth_hsctD-zHX59rcf0BoCpzMQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientific journals</a>, these societies have aided the development of mycology around the world.</p>

<h3 data-marked="true">Trends in Mycology</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Fungi remain understudied across the globe. There are various reasons for this. First, fungus is inherently difficult to study. Most species of fungi are impossible to grow in a lab. In nature, fungi have a short 'fruiting' period where mushrooms are visible. Without mushrooms, it is really hard to find mycelia.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Few universities offer classes or programs that specialize in mycology. Fungi experts were formerly housed within botany departments (which is funny, since fungi are actually <a href="http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more closely related to animals</a> than plants). However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-plant-blindness/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">botany departments are shrinking</a>, they are less interested in supporting their mycologist colleagues. These department-less mycologists have a hard time fending for themselves in university politics.</p>
<p data-marked="true">While the number of amateur mushroom hunters may have increased in the last decade, the number of people studying fungi hasn't. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461316300896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Some mycologists</a> think that the lack of coordination, cooperation, and specialization within their scientific field is to blame for the decreasing funding towards mycology at universities.</p>


[caption id="attachment_1892127" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892127 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="853" /> A picture of the underside of a mushroom. Taxonomists often use the 'gills' of a mushroom to identify the species of fungus. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/agaric-mushroom-disc-fungus-yellow-2638701/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h2 data-marked="true">What Makes a Fungus?</h2>
<p data-marked="true">All fungi share a handful of common characteristics. In taxonomy, fungi are an entire kingdom of life (although the 'kingdoms' are <a href="https://thebiologynotes.com/three-domain-system/#:~:text=The%20three%2Ddomains%20of%20Carl,%2C%20Fungi%2C%20Plantae%2C%20Animalia.&amp;text=The%20main%20difference%20from%20earlier,splitting%20of%20archaea%20from%20bacteria." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">always in dispute</a>).</p>
<p data-marked="true">At the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002320.pub2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most basic level</a>, fungi have eukaryotic cells. This means that the cells have a nucleus. This differentiates them from prokaryotic bacteria. Fungi are also multicellular. This separates them from eukaryotic bacteria.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Animals and plants are other groups with eukaryotic cells. Fungi are different from animals because fungi can't move. They also reproduce by spores rather than sexually. Fungi are distinct from plants because fungi can't make their own food via photosynthesis. Instead, they absorb food from their surroundings. This process is called decomposition.</p>
<p data-marked="true"><a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenlh.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lichens</a> are unusual kinds of fungi. They are a symbiotic, obligate relationship between a species of algae and a species of fungi. Where do lichens fit into the tree of life? Beats me.</p>
<p data-marked="true">By far the largest order of fungi is ascomycetes, which contains the vast majority of named fungi species.</p>

<h2 data-marked="true">Areas of Mycology</h2>
<p data-marked="true">From biotechnology to addiction therapy, mycologists cover a wide variety of topics. Fungi touch many aspects of our lives. They are in our daily food, our backyards, and our medicine. Here is a quick overview of some topics mycologists study.</p>


[caption id="attachment_1892130" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892130 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/mushrooms-1603667_1280.jpg" alt="chanterelles, mycology" width="1280" height="853" /> Edible mushrooms can be big business! These chanterelles can cost up to $30 a pound. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/blende12-201217/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gerhard G.</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mushrooms-food-mushrooms-mushroom-1603667/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Edible Fungi</h3>
<p data-marked="true">I'm sure you've eaten lots of mushrooms if you've made it this far into the article. Mushroom cultivation is a <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/mushroom-market#:~:text=The%20global%20mushroom%20market%20size,market%20over%20the%20forecast%20period." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">booming business</a> as more people turn to plant-based diets. However, outside of a handful of species of fungi, most edible fungi species must be wild-harvested. These species include <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/an-introduction-to-gourmet-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">true delicacies</a>, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-chanterelle-mushrooms-and-cook-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chanterelles</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">truffles</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-morel-mushrooms-and-avoid-false-morels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">morels</a>. Mushrooms don't only taste delicious, they are super healthy, too. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-consumption-linked-to-45-percent-lower-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A recent study</a> determined that daily mushroom consumption is linked to a 45% decrease in cancer! Some emerging health-food trends include the arctic fungus superfood, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chaga</a>.</p>

<h3 data-marked="true">Mychorrizae and the Environment</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Fungi perform crucial roles in our environment. Every ecosystem needs decomposers. Decomposers are organisms that break down material. Without decomposers, logs and dead animals would never rot into the Earth. Fungi are essential decomposers in the ecology of many habitats.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Fungi also aid plant growth. With the exception of the pea family, plants can't make their own nitrogen. Nitrogen is an absolutely critical element plants need to grow. Mycorrhizae can convert nitrogen present in our atmosphere to the kind of nitrogen useable by plants. The plants use this nitrogen and in return give the mycorrhizae energy. These symbiotic relationships increase the biodiversity and resiliency of ecosystems on our planet.</p>

<h3 data-marked="true">Medical Mycology</h3>
<p data-marked="true">We should all be thankful for fungi because they are directly responsible for the increase in the human lifespan. The discovery of penicillin in 1928 had profound consequences on the human species. Penicillin works by distracting the enzyme in bacteria that produce cell walls. This distraction results in dead, disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin led to the antibiotic revolution. These drugs were a large part of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5354621/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing the human lifespan</a> by nearly 30 years in places such as the U.S.</p>


[caption id="attachment_1892129" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892129 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/35158892481_0f91121e43_c.jpg" alt="fungal disease, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> A fungal disease of bananas causing cigar end-rot. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scotnelson/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scot Nelson</a>[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Pathogenic Fungi</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Fungi are the largest source of plant disease. These fungi cause diseases in many ways. They can enter a plant through leaves, bark, or roots. Some economically devastating fungi can destroy entire harvests of the world's most important crops.</p>
<p data-marked="true">These crops include rice, corn, cereals, bananas, tomato, cotton, and so many more. These fungi are serious business. It's no wonder that many of the employed mycologists focus on plant pathology.</p>

<h3 data-marked="true">Entheogenic (a.k.a. Magic) Mushrooms</h3>
<p data-marked="true">Yes, <em>those</em> kinds of mushrooms. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psilocybin</a> is a hallucinogenic compound found in certain species of fungi. This group of mushrooms is found all around the world.</p>
<p data-marked="true">The first evidence of human use of these mushrooms dates back 7000-9000 years ago. This evidence is based on trippy prehistoric rock art in northern Africa.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Today there is a research boom in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">powerful mushrooms</a>.</p>
<p data-marked="true">There is strong, emerging evidence that psilocybin can drastically help people with addiction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-could-help-millions-who-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">depression</a>. In a few decades, we may see a much broader acceptance of these medicinal mushrooms.</p>

<h2 data-marked="true">Why Aren't There More Mycologists?</h2>
<p data-marked="true">Short answer: I don't know. It really seems like we need more people studying these species. Fungi can be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wildly beneficial to humans</a> and also incredibly destructive.</p>
<p data-marked="true">Maybe they are hard to research. Maybe research into fungi just isn't sexy enough for government or private funding. Whatever the case, it seems like an increase in people studying fungal biology would help the human species as a whole.​</p>
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A Beginner's Guide to Mycology

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Penjing is an ancient Chinese art form of creating landscape scenes on a miniature scale.  This art form is also known by the name </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">penzai</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">. The scenes feature living plants that artists and care-takers meticulously prune and cultivate to express emotion. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Penjing pieces can be whimsical, surreal scenes. Artists will include miniature figurines, such as a horse or person, communicating a dream-like narrative of natural elements. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Above all, the aim of this art form is to embody the principles that govern nature. Today we'll explore the basics of this ancient art form and the various elements that define it as it exists in modernity. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887966" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1743823430.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>History of Penjing</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Dating all the way back to the 1st Century AD (and perhaps even earlier), practitioners of Daoist mysticism have endeavored to create landscape scenes in miniature. People see it as a means to focus on and increase the properties we might experience at full-size sights. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In the art form’s earliest versions, it was said to be a legendary power to </span><a href="http://www.magiminiland.org/Paintings/Chinato960.html#Courtiers" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">shrink entire landscapes</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> down to the size of a wide pot. Buddhist monks from China brought the art form to Japan. Members of the aristocracy and even </span><a href="https://mbgna.umich.edu/matthaei-botanical-gardens/gardens/bonsai-and-penjing-collection/history/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">samurai practiced it</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Today, s</span>tudents often study for ten or more years to gain sufficient skills in the craft.

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In Chinese, </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://mbgna.umich.edu/matthaei-botanical-gardens/gardens/bonsai-and-penjing-collection/understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">“pen” means pot</a>,</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and “jing” is translated to landscape or scenery. When done well, these art pieces are living odes to nature that convey a reverence and appreciation of the natural world that is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-blue-tears-blooms-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deeply embedded</a> in Chinese traditional culture. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Penjing is an artistic style that emulates a wild, natural aesthetic. Plantlife is on display in a controlled landscape form. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Contrarily, bonsai is a more refined, controlled style of depicting nature </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">initially inspired</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> by the Chinese practice of Penjing. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Miniature landscapes are a popular art form around the world today, delighting and enthralling children, botanists, and art collectors alike. </span>
<h2>Styles of Penjing</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">China <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-co2-emissions-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">is big.</a> With that scale comes regional personality and difference. The art of penjing reflects these distinctions, with particular styles of penjing differentiated </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">between geographical and cultural locations.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This includes Lingnan style, Taiwan style, Shanghai style, and Yangzhou style, for instance. Experts in the art form consider there to be three main categories within these geographical categories. </span>
<h3>Shumu - 樹木盆景</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The Shumu style is a landscape of trees, which artists plant within a container. Penjing experts define this style through the use of trimming, pruning, and wiring the landscape into a cultivated vision. This style is very similar to the bonsai traditions of Japan. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887967" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1743823424.jpg" alt="Penjing shumu" width="1000" height="684" />
<h3>Shanshui - 山水盆景</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Shanshui penjing style is a landscape that features a rock inside a tray of water. Artists carefully select and place stones in the water. Often, artists incorporate small living plants into the composition as well. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887968" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1742832908.jpg" alt="Shanshui penjing" width="1000" height="828" />
<h3>Shuihan - 水旱盆景</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Shuihan style landscapes are miniature creations that might contain trees, rocks, water, and additional tiny figurines of houses, animals, and people. Artists combine the previous two styles to create Shuihan landscapes. As a result, these detailed landscapes communicate an abstract narrative. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887969" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1742832878.jpg" alt="Shuihan style penjing" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>An Evolving Artform</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Part of the beauty of penjing as an art form is that it is a fluid and evolving form of expression due to the ways particular artists will experiment. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The style and the content of the artform are increasingly varied according to penjing artist </span><a href="https://www.bonsai-nbf.org/blog-archive/tag/shumu+penjing" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Zhao Quingquan</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Regardless of how the art form changes in technical definition, the art aims at “</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">seeing the big from the tiny</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">” and conveying universal emotions. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887970" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1802172988.jpg" alt="penjing" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>How To Practice Penjing At Home</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ten years of intensive study at a </span><a href="http://cpro.hkbu.edu.hk/enews2005/20050224a.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">botanical garden</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in Shanghai might not be a realistic endeavor for most of us. <strong>Luckily, that doesn’t mean that the gorgeous, peaceful aesthetics of this art form can’t be appreciated in your own home or garden. </strong></span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Finding a shallow pot with drainage is a critical place to start. For almost all miniature landscapes, you are going to need access to bright light and consistent, temperate temperatures. These are the easy steps. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Next up? Research - lots and lots of research, but this can be a highlight of the process. For example, you can dream up the scene you want to emulate or pay homage to, and then work to collaborate with the plants you grow to make it real. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There’s a </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">booming bonsai industry</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in the western world with best-selling books and Pinterest boards to get ideas. Often, local garden shops will sell miniature-friendly varieties of plants, rocks, and moss to buy and use. The </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">endless information</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of the internet is at your fingertips. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most importantly, a stubborn combination of curiosity and patient experimentation will be your most important guides in cultivating these miniature scenes of striking beauty into your own life. </span>

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What is the Chinese Art of Penjing? (It's Not the Same as Bonsai)

Penjing is an ancient Chinese art form of creating landscape...

Some plants have rightly earned their larger-than-life reputations. As one of the longest-used recreational drugs, murdering toxins, and beneficial medicines, deadly nightshade is certainly one of the most historically significant plants.

Used to induce hallucinations, to murder, for beauty, and for ecstasy, deadly nightshade is a plant with abundant history.
<h2>The Greater Nightshade Family</h2>
The deadly nightshade is so notorious that botanists named an entire plant family after it. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-peppers-nightshades-infamous/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nightshade family</a>, Solanaceae, is home to some of the finest garden plants. Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, and peppers are all in the nightshade family.

The Solanaceae family is a relatively large plant family. There are over 2,500 species within it. Most of these are native to the Americas. On one hand, some of these plants produce scrumptious fruits, tubers, and vegetables.

On the other hand, many other nightshade plants contain toxic chemicals. The family is full of powerful botanical compounds.

[caption id="attachment_1888086" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1888086 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_497825218.jpg" alt="tomatoes deadly nightshade" width="1000" height="664" /> Tomatoes are a charismatic plant in the nightshade family.[/caption]

The most common of these toxic plants is tobacco. The leaves of the live tobacco plant are actually incredibly potent and can cause tobacco field workers to get a form of poisoning.

Less known, but more toxic plants in the Solanaceae family include datura, brugmansia, henbane, and mandrake. These plants can all cause <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17153152/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">death with only a small dose</a>. Some risky folks use these plants recreationally as drugs because they induce hallucinations.

In fact, this group of plants has been <a href="https://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura_info6.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener">used recreationally</a> for thousands of years. Users typically report these hallucinations to be quite unpleasant.

It is far too easy to overdose on these wild plants because their chemical compounds are extremely potent. Additionally, the concentration of these compounds can vary widely between individual plants.

Deadly nightshade falls squarely into this long history, both as medicine and a poison.

[caption id="attachment_1888087" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/black-nightshade-shrub-berries-wide-leaves-1042661992" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="wp-image-1888087 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1042661992.jpg" alt="Deadly nightshade berries" width="1000" height="667" /></a> Berries hang from the deadly nightshade plant.[/caption]
<h3>The Deadly Nightshade Plant</h3>
The deadly nightshade plant is native to Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. It is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-gardeners-guide-to-perennial-identification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">herbaceous perennial</a> that grows about three to four feet tall and wide. It has naturalized in shady areas of the eastern United States. In the U.S. it usually grows near creek beds.

All parts of the plants are poisonous. The roots contain the highest concentration of toxins. In fall, the deadly nightshade produces dark, black berries. While these berries may look enticing, they are dangerous!

[caption id="attachment_1888090" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dionysus-bacchus-wine-statue-portrait-501367912" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="wp-image-1888090 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_501367912.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></a> A statue of Dionysus looking sufficiently drunk off wine.[/caption]
<h2>Ecstasy - Deadly Nightshade Cults</h2>
Some of the earliest mentions of nightshade are in classical Greek and Roman times. The god <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dionysus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dionysis</a>, or Bacchus, was the god of wine and ecstasy. Sounds like a fun god, right?

It should come as little surprise that Dionysis has a cult following. This wasn't a cult following like Rocky Horror Picture Show or Monty Python but a real cult.

This cult was a bit scandalous. They brewed a special wine, called Bacchus wine. This wine contained grapes, nightshade berries, and other herbs.

As a group, the cult would drink this wine and enter a sort of hallucinatory, trance-like state. It is believed that orgies often followed the dancing. What else would you expect from the god of wine and ecstasy?

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888091" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_488553367.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Hallucination - Deadly Nightshade and Witches</h2>
Moving forward to the middle ages, deadly nightshade became associated with witches and sorcerers. Witches believed the plant to be closely tied to the devil himself.

They brewed potions with deadly nightshade, mandrake, and other toxic plants for fortune-telling. As potent hallucinogens, it's easy to see how using these plants led people to think witches were crazy.

Have you ever thought of where the witch's broomstick came from? Look no further than deadly nightshade. Allegedly, witches infused bear lard with nightshade, mandrake, hemlock, and henbane. They called this salve <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.106.7273&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">'flying ointment'</a>, which they used on themselves to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-hallucination/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hallucinations</a>.

The most receptive areas of the skin to topical ointments are the genitals. Witches apparently used broomsticks to apply the flying ointment to this area.

<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/girl-cherries-by-ambrogio-de-predis-751013056" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888092" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_751013056.jpg" alt="witch with deadly nightshade" width="772" height="1000" /></a>
<h2>Beauty - The Bella Dona</h2>
In the Italian Renaissance, nightshade experienced a new life. When a deadly nightshade tincture is dropped into the eyes, it dilates the pupils. Dilated pupils were considered the ultimate beauty during this time. Therefore, women used nightshade eyedrops before galas and masquerades to court men.

This is where we finally encounter the origins of the scientific name for deadly nightshade; <em>Atropa belladona</em>. In Italian, bella dona means 'beautiful woman'.

However, this beauty-inducing plant could have some negative side effects. Along with its neuroactive chemicals, chronic use of nightshade eyedrops could <a href="https://sites.evergreen.edu/plantchemeco/deadly-nightshade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cause blindness</a>!

Some other common names for deadly nightshade include sorcerer's cherry, witch's berry, devil's herb, and murderer's berry.

[caption id="attachment_1888093" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/flower-atropa-belladonna-1668357202" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="wp-image-1888093 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1668357202.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></a> A deadly nightshade flower[/caption]
<h2>Murder - Macbeth Kills With Deadly Nightshade</h2>
In Shakespeare's famous play, Macbeth, the Scottish poison their enemy's liquor supply with deadly nightshade. The Scottish defeat the Danes with this sneaky act of poisoning.

This Shakespearean plot may actually be based on reality. Real-life Macbeth is thought to have poisoned his enemies in a similar way!

In fact, it was relatively common in Roman times for armies to attempt to poison enemies' food and liquor with belladonna. Deadly nightshade may have been one of the first biological weapons.

[caption id="attachment_1888115" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1888115 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_238070647.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="729" /> Union soldiers in the Civil War[/caption]
<h2>Medicine - Deadly Nightshade Healing Civil War Soldiers</h2>
All medicines are toxins at some dosage. However, while the opposite isn't always true, some toxins also happen to work as medicines. Deadly nightshade has useful medicinal compounds, which made it a staple in the American Civil War medicine kit.

The National Museum of Civil War Medicine <a href="https://www.civilwarmed.org/belladonna/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">states</a> "Belladonna could be used to treat a variety of ailments such as neuralgias, whooping cough, scarlet fever, spasmodic asthma, intestinal cramps and to dilate the pupil of the eyes." In fact, belladonna has been used as <a href="https://sites.evergreen.edu/plantchemeco/deadly-nightshade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an anesthetic</a> since the first century!
<h2>Nightshade's Sketchy Chemicals</h2>
So how does nightshade actually affect the body? The most important compound within the plant is atropine. This chemical makes up the other half of the scientific name, <em>Atropa belladona</em>.

Atropine is an <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/anticholinergics#uses" target="_blank" rel="noopener">anticholinergic</a>. This means that it inhibits the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine interacts with and activates the parasympathetic nervous system.

This part of the nervous system is responsible for digestion, salivation, breathing, heart rate, and urination. In layperson's terms, the chemicals in nightshade decrease the body's ability to digest, salivate, urinate, and perform other functions.

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888116" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1336295177.jpg" alt="deadly nightshade flower" width="1000" height="656" />
<h2>The Effects of Deadly Nightshade Poisoning</h2>
Deadly nightshade poisoning sounds extremely unpleasant. According to a 2012 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361210/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">medical study</a>, nightshade can cause "hallucinations, psychosis, agitated delirium, seizures, coma, respiratory failure or cardiovascular collapse."

The same study noted that in children, nightshade produced "meaningless speech, lethargy, coma and absence of tachycardia are the ominous signs in deadly nightshade intoxication."

Nightshade can be so toxic that as few as two berries can kill a child. As little as 10 berries are thought to be able to kill an adult.

A <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.106.7273&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clinical study from 1911</a> showed a 12% death rate from people poisoned with nightshade. Even <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361210/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eating meat from animals</a> that ate nightshade can cause nightshade poisoning!

However, since then, the invention of respirators and modern medicine has greatly reduced the number of people who actually die from deadly nightshade poisoning.
<h2>Is Deadly Nightshade Ultimately a Lifesaver?</h2>
Atropine is regularly used in modern medicine <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196064484804473" target="_blank" rel="noopener">for resuscitation</a>. Since it increases the heart rate, atropine can revive a person whose heart has stopped beating.

Because deadly nightshade poisoning very rarely leads to death these days, can we really call the plant deadly? It may actually save more lives than it kills! Perhaps we should rename this plant to honor the lives it has saved rather than the lives it has taken.

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Is Deadly Nightshade Really Deadly? Misnomers of the Botanical World

Some plants have rightly earned their larger-than-life reputations. As one...

As a plant geek and gardener, I get asked 'what are perennials?' all the time. Usually, plant identification is tricky and full of inconsistencies and surprises. Luckily, perennial identification is straightforward. The concept of a perennial plant is easy to grasp!
<h2>What Are Perennial Plants?</h2>
By the broadest definition, a perennial plant is any plant that lives more than two years. This definition means that all trees and shrubs qualify as perennials. That's easy, isn't it?

However, in horticulture, many people use "perennial" differently. In their eyes, perennials are plants that live more than two years <em>and</em> die back to their roots every year.

These horticulturally defined perennials disappear in the winter and come back every spring. They are usually attractive flowers, such as larkspur, hostas, and daylilies.
<h2>How Are They Different from Annuals?</h2>
Annual plants live for just one season, from spring until fall. Annuals tend to grow quickly. They need to complete their entire life-cycle in just a few months, from seed to leaf to flower back to seed. Annual plants never get truly woody, a key to their identification.

Some of the best garden plants are annuals, like tomatoes (more on them later), squash, and basil. Annuals grown for flowers are typically show-stoppers, like cosmos, sunflowers, zinnias.

A third type of plant exists, called a biennial. These plants grow leaves the first year and flowers the second year.

[caption id="attachment_1883542" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1883542 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/dahlia-1643808_1280.jpg" alt="dahlia" width="1280" height="802" /> Dahlias are some of the most unquestionably gorgeous bulb-perennial garden flowers. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/alexas_fotos-686414/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Alexas Fotos</a>[/caption]
<h2>What Does 'Woody' Mean for Perennial Identification?</h2>
Woody perennials resemble the classic square and rectangle situation. Not all rectangles are squares, but all squares are rectangles. Likewise, not all perennial plants are woody, but all woody plants are perennials.

With every year, plants add a new layer of tissue to themselves. Think of tree rings, for example. Only the most recent growth is alive and moving water and sugars throughout the plant.

That's the growth closest to the bark of the plant. All the older growth in the middle of the plant dies and becomes purely structural. <em>This dead, structural tissue is what we commonly call wood.</em>

Therefore, a plant must live multiple years in order to create wood, since it is made from previous years' growth. So all plants that have wood are perennials.

Don't be fooled by short shrubs! Some 'woody' plants, like wild blueberries, can be just a few inches high. These are still woody, perennial plants, even if they seem more like annuals. You just have to get on your knees and look really, really close!

[caption id="attachment_1883546" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1883546 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/mint-5218681_1280.jpg" alt="mint, perennial" width="1280" height="852" /> Mint is a vigorous non-woody perennial. Many gardeners find that mint takes over without frequent pruning. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ivabalk-782511/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iva Balk</a>[/caption]
<h2>What About Non-Woody Perennial Identification?</h2>
Many perennials aren't woody because all of their above-ground parts die in the winter. Underground, their roots, bulbs, or tubers store enough energy for the plant to come back the next year.

Grass-like plants are annuals or perennials, but never biennials. Many of our charismatic native grasses, such as turkey foot and buffalo grass, are perennials.

Most sane people use perennial grasses for their lawns. How disappointing would your lawn be if it only lasted one year! We should all be thankful for perennial grasses.

All bulbs are perennial. Think about it; plants wouldn't put all their energy into making big, juicy bulbs if they were annuals.

Annuals need to put as much energy as they can into producing seeds, since they die in the fall. These big bulbs aren't seeds, so annuals have no interest in them. Bulbs store all the energy needed for starting next year's growth.

Tubers are perennials, too. Tubers are sort of like bulbs. They are technically thickened parts of the roots. Potatoes, yams, and sweet potatoes are common tubers.

Many common flowers are perennials. But there are also tons of annual flowers. There isn't an easy way to tell if a flower is a perennial or an annual. There are good online guides that can help you out, though.

Some commonly grown perennial flowers are delphinium, columbine, salvia, and penstemon. Some of the best medicinal 'herbs' are actually perennial flowers, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-yarrow-uses-and-where-to-find-it/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">yarrow</a> and echinacea.

Phew! With all those categories out of the way, you're on the path to being great at perennial identification!

[caption id="attachment_1883544" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1883544 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/peacock-butterfly-3514955_1280.jpg" alt="echinacea, perennial wildflower" width="1280" height="853" /> Echinacea is a non-woody perennial. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/suju-165106/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Susanne Jutzeler</a>[/caption]
<h2>What About My 'Perennials' That Don't Come Back Every Year?</h2>
Some people get disappointed when they buy 'perennial' flowers that don't come back the next spring. Tulips are a common example of a perennial that fails to regrow.

Sometimes, perennials don't regrow because they lack the proper soil nutrients. Other times, as with tulips, they have put so much energy into growing bright flowers that they simply didn't save enough energy to flower next year.

Many times, perennials will grow leaves but not flowers during their second year. In some cases, they will flower the third year after being planted, having saved up enough energy.

Sometimes plants we use as annuals are actually perennials. Pansies are a good example. While technically perennials, most people replace pansies every year because they don't look as good during year two.

Other plants people typically grow as annuals but are actually perennials are potatoes, peppers, and even tomatoes!

[caption id="attachment_1883545" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1883545 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/tomatoes-879441_1280.jpg" alt="tomato, annual" width="1280" height="884" /> Tomatoes are tricky! In nature, they are perennials even though nearly everyone grows them as annuals. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/congerdesign-509903/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CongerDesign</a>[/caption]
<h2>Are Volunteers Perennials?</h2>
Most gardeners are familiar with volunteers. Volunteers are plants that sprout but the gardener didn't seed or plant that year. These volunteers are welcome surprises in many cases.

On first thought, these volunteers might seem like perennials because they come up every year. However, they are distinct from perennials.

In a vegetable garden, most volunteers can either be annuals or perennials, but they have grown from a new seed rather than the previous year's roots. Perhaps you let a tomato ripen for too long and it fell into the soil. If the seeds found a nice spot, they might become a volunteer plant the next spring!

Common garden volunteers are tomatoes, squash, melon, beans, and sunflowers.

Now you can enjoy your garden even more, knowing perennial identification.

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Gardener's Guide to Perennial Identification

As a plant geek and gardener, I get asked 'what...

<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">One of the best things about being a gardener is being able to reap what you sow. Vegetable plants in particular are some of the most reliable crops to grow in the garden. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">But, in many places, winters are just too cold and they can succumb to the frigid weather. Even perennial vegetables, which can persist through the winter, may fall victim to freezing temperatures or persistent frost. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">One way around this is by using a greenhouse! Greenhouses protect plants by guarding them against the elements outside, whether it’s the bone-chilling cold or leaf-burning sun. This way, plants are able to grow year-round in a climate-controlled environment, and often have a higher yield than they would otherwise. </span></p>
<h2>What Are Perennial Vegetables?</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many vegetables, like carrots and lettuce, are </span>annual species<span style="font-weight: 400;"> that need to be planted each spring. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-gardeners-guide-to-perennial-identification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Perennial vegetables</a>, on the other hand, live multiple years and reward their caretakers with fresh produce year after year. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The key to perennials is that they don’t have to be reseeded each year. Just plant it once, and wait! Perennial vegetables are often some of the easiest things to grow in the garden. </span></p>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887899" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1112958560.jpg" alt="greenhouse" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h2>Why Plant Perennials in a Greenhouse?</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">If perennial vegetables can survive through the winter, what’s the point of planting them in a greenhouse? It’s true that many perennials are able to survive through the extremes of winter and summer. But, a greenhouse isn’t only about keeping plants alive. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The biggest advantage of a greenhouse is being able to control the environment inside. By being able to regulate the temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and light, as well as protect plants from pests or pathogens, greenhouses keep plants stress-free. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">If a plant doesn’t need to worry about producing chemicals for defense, or cooling itself off in extreme heat, it can focus entirely on flower and fruit production. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The other advantage of a greenhouse is its ability to extend the growing season of plants. Perennial vegetables can survive in the outdoors, sure, but inside a greenhouse, their growing season can easily be greatly extended. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">A longer growing season means higher yield, as a vegetable plant can produce both earlier and later in the year. So, while all the outdoor vegetables are getting ready for winter, a perennial vegetable in a greenhouse will still be happily producing its crop. </span></p>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887900" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1708853974.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h2>Perennial Vegetables to Grow in a Greenhouse</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Not all perennial vegetables are suitable for a greenhouse. Although some plants would theoretically do better in a greenhouse, their growth form or sheer size wouldn’t be best for indoor life. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">For example, blackberries and raspberries grow fast and can be unruly, and their spiny stems would pose a risk to the plastic walls of a greenhouse. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In addition, some sun-loving plants would rather be outside than in a greenhouse - at least during summer. In the winter, these plants would be thankful to be inside a greenhouse to protect them from the cold. </span></p>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887902" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1728321280.jpg" alt="perennial artichoke" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h3>Green Vegetables</h3>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Although many green vegetables are annuals, especially leafy greens, some are perennials. Even though they can be dormant in the winter, they will grow fast and furious in the spring and summer when in the comfort of a greenhouse. Here's a shortlist of some perennial green vegetables that will do well in a greenhouse</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Asparagus</strong>  - </span>When grown in a garden bed, asparagus can produce stems for up to 20 years!</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Artichoke</strong> - </span>As herbaceous perennials, artichokes live more than a year but are typically short-lived (1 or 2 years). They will do well in a greenhouse and can grow to be 2 meters (6 feet) tall, so it needs space!</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Chives</strong> - </span>Chives are vigorous growers and will provide abundant stems for you to enjoy. They are also one of the best vegetables to eat fresh.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Rhubarb</strong> - </span>Rhubarb needs at least a year to become established. Resist the temptation to harvest its stems in the first year, and rhubarb can grow to be 20 years old!</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Spinach</strong>  - </span>Not all spinach varieties are perennial. Try some exotic varieties like Ceylon, Sissoo, or New Zealand spinach.</li>
</ul>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887903" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1080150941.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h3>Roots and Bulbs</h3>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Lots of vegetables produce their edible parts underground in the form of tubers or bulbs, which are specialized roots. Many of these can be sustainably harvested and grow as perennials in the garden, in or out of a greenhouse. </span></p>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Garlic</strong> - </span>Although garlic is normally grown as an annual, it’s also possible to treat it as a perennial. Once planted, forget about it for a couple of years. Then, bulbs can be harvested from the plant while still leaving enough in the ground to produce more for future harvests. Garlic works especially well as a perennial in a greenhouse, where its dormancy period is shortened and sustainable harvesting can happen sooner.</li>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Ginger</strong> - </span>Ginger is a tropical plant, so it can’t survive temperatures colder than 50 degrees F even in a greenhouse. But, that just means greenhouses are perfect places to grow ginger in cooler climates where temperatures won't drop too far.</li>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Sweet Potato</strong> - </span>Sweet potato grows as a vine, and like ginger, can’t survive cold temperatures. In order to harvest the plant, you must actually remove the whole root from the soil, which kills the vine. Waiting a couple of years for it to become established allows you to harvest only some of the root, leaving the rest to continue growing.</li>
</ul>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887904" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1253877862.jpg" alt="perennial vegetable leafy green" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h3>Herbs</h3>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many herbs are perennial plants that love to grow in pots. In addition, they can thrive in the dappled light of a greenhouse. Here's a few easy-to-grow herbs that will thrive in a greenhouse.</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Lemon Balm</strong> - </span>Lemon balm doesn’t like high humidity, so keep the soil somewhat dry. It also changes taste when it flowers, so nip those flower buds as soon as you see them.</li>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Mint</strong> - </span>This is one of the easiest herbs to grow, and also one of the hardiest. It will do especially well in a greenhouse, but try growing it in a pot so it doesn’t take over a garden bed.</li>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Oregano</strong> - </span>This aromatic herb will regrow vigorously when picked. It's also easy to grow and will thrive in a greenhouse setting</li>
<li><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Parsley</strong> - </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Parsley is a biennial, but in a greenhouse, you can extend its growing period and take advantage of its fragrant leaves for longer than you would be able to otherwise.</span></li>
</ul>
<p><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887906" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1443100013.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></p>
<h2>Seasonal Greenhouse Perennial Vegetables</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many perennial vegetables are suitable for greenhouses, but only during the winter months. These are plants that you can grow in pots and move around freely in order to give them the best conditions. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bell peppers and chili peppers are perfect examples of seasonal greenhouse residents. When grown in pots, put them in full sun so they get their preferred amount of light. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">These plants don’t do very well in the cold, however, so they are often brought inside during winter. Instead of taking them indoors, put them in a greenhouse! The controlled climate in a greenhouse will protect peppers from cold winters until it’s warm enough for them to go outside again.</span></p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Perennial vegetables are perfect plants to grow in a greenhouse. Home greenhouses are possible to make even with little space or to buy with a tight budget. If you do take advantage of a greenhouse, you’ll be rewarded with higher yields and an extended growing season for your vegetables. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">If you already have some perennials in an outdoor garden bed, you can even build a makeshift greenhouse directly on top of the bed to protect your plants from cold winters. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Hopefully, now you have an idea of the benefits of growing perennial vegetables in a home greenhouse. In addition, you have some ideas of which vegetables can last for years in a greenhouse!</span></p>
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Gardener's Guide to Perennial Vegetables for a Home Greenhouse

One of the best things about being a gardener is...

<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Fungi are a fascinating, abundant, and necessary part of our planet. Although they may seem like a basic form of life on our planet, the characteristics of fungi are actually incredibly complex and there is still a ton we’re learning about them. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many people know fungi just as the mushrooms we see above ground. But, there’s actually an entire underground world to these organisms far more complex and massive than what we see. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many types of fungi live very different lives, and each has its own life strategy. Here, we’ll go over some different characteristics of fungi and what their functions are.</span></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/mushrooms-116973_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom fruiting body caps" class="wp-image-1884743"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-types-of-fungi">Different Types of Fungi</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">First, let’s quickly go over different types of fungi, which can be split up into broad categories. Some examples include mushrooms, yeast, mold, mildew, and rust fungi. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Mushrooms are definitely the most conspicuous fungus around, with many being edible and/or downright beautiful. They are what you see in the fall growing out of dead logs when you hike through the woods. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Yeast is an incredibly important fungus in the food world, as it’s a necessary component for bread and beer, among other things. Mold, mildew, and rust are commercially important types of fungi, as these often attack food plants like corn and wheat.</span></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-what-we-can-see">Fungi Characteristics: What We Can See</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Now we can start talking about some characteristics and functions of different fungal features. We’ll start with the above-ground parts of fungi before digging a little bit deeper. After all, the visible parts of fungi are what we’re most familiar with and are easiest to find and understand. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The above-ground parts of fungi almost always function for reproduction. They are called “fruiting bodies,” even though fungi don’t technically produce fruits as plants do. Instead, the fruiting bodies of fungi produce spores that are dispersed by various methods, revealing all sorts of different characteristics and functions.</span></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom gills spore dispersal" class="wp-image-1884739"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-release-the-spores">Release the Spores!</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Perhaps the most common method of spore dispersal is by air. Most mushrooms we’re familiar with (like the ones we eat) release spores from “gills.” If you’ve ever picked a mushroom and noticed frilly lines on the underside of the cap, these are the gills! </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Spores are almost lighter than air, so when a mushroom is ready, it just releases its spores and the wind will take care of the rest. Fungus spores can travel incredible distances, and regularly float around <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-discover-fungal-shrapnel-floating-through-the-atmosphere#:~:text=Nanoparticles%20of%20Fungal%20Spores%20Have%20Been%20Detected%20Floating%20in%20Our%20Atmosphere,-DAVID%20NIELD&amp;text=%22The%20appearance%20of%20large%20numbers,breaking%20down%20from%20larger%20particles.%22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">high in the atmosphere</a>!</span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Water is another mechanism for spore dispersal. Water -dispersed spores are often characteristically shaped as to keep them afloat. Some even have flagella on them, which can actively move a spore allowing it to “swim” through water! </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">One type of fungus, called bird’s nest fungi, has one of the most interesting types of water dispersal in the fungus kingdom. Its fruiting body is shaped like a cup and contains little spore packets that resemble eggs in a nest. When a raindrop hits the cup just right, the spore packet is launched into the air!</span></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/977px-Birds_Nest_Fungus_Cyathus_olla_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg" alt="Bird's nest fungus Cyathus olla" class="wp-image-1884740"/></figure>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;"><br>Finally, some fungi rely on animals to disperse their spores, much like how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">flowering plants rely on pollinators</a>. Mushrooms can smell like anything from fruit to rotting meat, which attracts insects such as beetles or carrion flies to the fruiting body. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The insect then gets covered in spores and releases them on their walk through the forest. One study found that <a href="https://microbiologysociety.org/publication/past-issues/light/article/circadian-rhythm-in-fungal-bioluminescence-nature-s-bright-idea.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bioluminescent fungi attract insects</a> to disperse their spores!</span></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-the-underground">Fungi Characteristics: The Underground</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Once a spore is successfully dispersed, it must turn into a fungus. The spore begins to grow underground and develop into mycelium, which is the non-reproductive vegetative part of a fungus. The mycelium is a network of cells that can be microscopically small or easily visible to the human eye.</span></p>



<p>If you’ve ever removed the top layer of soil in the forest, especially in the fall after dead leaves accumulate, you may have noticed some fluffy white stuff mixed in with the soil. What you’re seeing is the mycelium of a fungus! Mycelium is a common fungi characteristic and its function is the same.</p>



<p>Mycelium can spread for literal miles underground, like this honey fungus in Oregon which is thought to be the largest organism in the world!</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/640px-Oyster_mushroom_Pleurotus_ostreatus_mycelium_in_petri_dish_on_coffee_grounds.jpeg" alt="Mycelium oyster mushroom hyphae" class="wp-image-1884741"/></figure>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;"><br>The function of mycelium is essentially the same function of plant roots: to absorb nutrients. Unlike plants, fungi can’t produce their own energy through photosynthesis, so they need to get 100% of their nutrients and energy through their mycelium.</span></p>



<p>Tiny hair-like structures called hyphae make up the mycelium, and these thin strands of cells are responsible for digesting organic compounds into energy for the fungus. To do so, the hyphae secrete <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-digestive-plant-enzymes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">digestive enzymes</a>.</p>



<p>These enzymes break down nutrients that are often large and complex, like proteins and carbohydrates, into smaller more usable forms. Then, the hyphae absorb the simpler compounds directly into the mycelium.</p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Some fungi are very picky as to where they get their nutrients. For example, certain plant pathogens only attack specific plant species and can’t get their nutrients from any others. Other fungi are generalists and can break down nutrients from all kinds of dead organic material.</span></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1884742 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/1024px-Cordyceps.jpg" alt="cordyceps fungus entomopathogenic" class="wp-image-1884742"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cordyceps fungus. Image by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cordyceps.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Erich G. Vallery</a> via Wikimedia commons.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-characteristics-and-function-in-action">Fungi Characteristics and Function in Action</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Some types of fungi provide incredible examples of the variety of life strategies out there. Perhaps the most fascinating fungi in this regard are the entomopathogenic fungi. “Entomo” means related to insects, and “pathogenic” means causing disease. So, these are fungi that cause a very peculiar ailment in insects.</span></p>



<p>First, a spore becomes airborne. An insect eventually breathes in the free-floating spore and becomes infected. The spore will develop into a fungus inside the body of the insect and eventually hijack the insect’s nervous system, creating a literal zombie!</p>



<p>The fungus forces the insect to climb to a high place and hold on for dear life. Then, the fungus begins to create the fruiting body which erupts out of the insect’s body and releases its spores. Then, the process can start all over again!</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1884767 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/IMG_3291.jpeg" alt="characteristics of fungi" class="wp-image-1884767"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Moss and fungi growing on a log. Image by the editor.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-ecological-functions">Fungi Ecological Functions</h2>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The characteristics of fungi not only function to keep the organism alive and reproduce, they also function on a broad ecological scale. For example, the fruiting bodies of fungus are important food and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">medicine</a> for many animals, including humans! The mycelium is incredibly important for the forest as a whole. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In fact, without mycelium, the soil wouldn’t have enough “glue” to keep it together and would wash away entirely. Many fungi have extremely important symbiotic relationships with plants and animals. Perhaps the most notable of these relationships are fungi called mycorrhizae. </span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Mycorrhizae associate with plant roots, and are essential for plants to acquire important nutrients like phosphorus that are otherwise inaccessible to the fungus’ above-ground counterpart.&nbsp;</span></p>



<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Hopefully, you now have a better understanding of fungi characteristics and what their function is!</span></p>



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Understanding Fungi: Characteristics and Function

Fungi are a fascinating, abundant, and necessary part of our...

Nature vs. nurture is the central question in human development. How much of who we are is predetermined by our genes? How much is created by our environment?

The answer may not be as two-sided as we once thought.

The real story is far more complex. Changes outside the sequence of genes change the way life develops. The implications of the “epigenetic” changes are vast.

Research in this area is active. The impacts of epigenetics are not yet fully understood.

Epigenetics is an exciting new area of research within genetics. It reveals how factors other than your genetic code change who you are. Some of these factors are even passed between generations.

This means the lifestyle of your parents may influence your development. This research is being applied to topics from cancer to addiction.

Epigenetic changes have three key components. Epigenetics...
<ol>
 	<li><strong>Change the expression of genes.</strong></li>
 	<li><strong>Do not change the “code” of your DNA.</strong></li>
 	<li><strong>Are passed to new cells or even offspring.</strong></li>
</ol>
<h2>Brief Overview of Genetics</h2>
We all know that DNA is the blueprint for life. But how do genes create a living, breathing person?

DNA is made up of four repeating units, called bases. A letter represents each base. These letters spell out a recipe. By following the steps, cells create protein. These proteins have many jobs. Some organize the cell, others communicate. There are at least 20,000 of these proteins, each contributing to who you are.

Every cell in your body contains the same DNA. This is your genome and it is unique to each person, animal, or plant. Your DNA contains two versions of each gene, one from each parent.

Our cells replicate all the time. They do this by dividing in half through a process called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mitosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mitosis</a>. During mitosis, the cell duplicates its DNA. This ensures that both cells have the information they need. Epigenetic information is also copied in this step.

[caption id="attachment_1870792" align="alignnone" width="391"]<img class="wp-image-1870792 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Sperm-egg.jpg" alt="A microscopic photo of a sperm fertilizing an egg" width="391" height="265" /> <em>Sperm fertilizing an egg</em>[/caption]

A separate sort of division creates sperm and eggs (gametes). This process (called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/meiosis-cytology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">meiosis</a>) results in the genome splitting in two. Each cell has only one version.

When a sperm fertilizes an egg these two halves are combined. During this process, most epigenetic information is lost.
<h2>History of Epigenetics</h2>
The study of epigenetics comes out of a simple question. If every cell has the same DNA, why are they so different?

Your eyes and your toes have the exact same genetic information. Obviously, there is more at play than just your genes.

The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3941222/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">first mention of the term epigenetics</a> was in 1942. Dr. Conrad Waddington used it to describe the “whole complex of developmental processes” between “genotype and phenotype.”

This research looked at how a fertilized egg becomes a human. The early ideas of epigenetics were quite broad.

The term “epigenetics” now refers to something more specific. Modern epigenetics research explores non-genetic changes copied during mitosis.

Epigenetic modifications to an embryo's genes help stem cells “differentiate.” Other changes influence this process as well. Epigenetics refers only to the changes that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392256/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">persist when a cell divides</a>.
<h2>Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance</h2>
It was long believed that the epigenome was completely wiped clean when a new embryo formed. Recent evidence has shown that this is not entirely true.

Most epigenetic changes are reset between generations. However, some of these changes are <a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">inherited between generations</a>.

The persistence of experience through generations is an exciting finding. This finding reveals a process that moves far faster than natural selection.

Also, this process is non-random. Genetic mutations happen at random and generally provide no benefit. On the other hand, many epigenetic changes are direct responses to the environment.

There have always been parts of inheritance that are not explained by classical genetics. This “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4517414/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">missing heritability</a>” has puzzled geneticists. Epigenetic inheritance helps answer these questions.

These discoveries will help us better understand complex genetic disorders. By looking at inheritance beyond the genetic code, we may be able to predict and prevent disease.
<h2>Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance</h2>
We're not sure yet. Though there have been compelling studies that point to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, it is difficult to prove.

Showing definitive proof in humans is <a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">difficult for a number of reasons</a>.
<ol>
 	<li>Long lifespans of humans make multi-generation studies difficult.</li>
 	<li>Humans have complex genomes. Therefore, not all genetic variation is accounted for.</li>
 	<li>Human studies are not done in a lab. There are many factors at play in peoples lives.</li>
 	<li>Effects in the fourth generation must be observed. The mother carries both the fetus and its reproductive cells. Therefore she can directly affect three generations, without inheritance (herself, her child, and her grandchildren).</li>
</ol>
Epigenetic inheritance is well-established in plants. Studies with lab rats have also shown epigenetic inheritance.

Diet, chemical exposure and even nurturing have shown lasting effects in rats. This provides a good case that transgenerational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-passed-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">epigenetic inheritance occurs in humans</a>.

This topic is an active area of research. Discoveries have been made that make a good case for epigenetic inheritance in humans.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-life-experiences-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Research in model organisms</a> will help us understand how these processes could work in humans. However, understanding the full scope of these effects requires more research.
<h2>How Does Epigenetics Work?</h2>
[caption id="attachment_1870793" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870793 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Epigenetic_mechanisms-1024x614.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="614" /> <em>Epigenetic mechanisms. Visual created by the National Institute of Health</em>[/caption]

Many mechanisms of epigenetic change exist. We have summarized some of the most common epigenetic changes.
<ol>
 	<li><b>Methylation:</b> This mechanism This modifies the base “cytosine”, or the C in the A-T-C-Gs of our genes. These changes generally cause the gene to turn off. This is common in cancer cells. When genes regulating the cell turn off, the cell can grow uncontrollably. Methylation is the best-studied mechanism. This is because it is easier to study. Methylation was the first type of epigenetic change observed.</li>
 	<li><b>Histone Modification:</b> Histones are what store your DNA. They are proteins that work sort of like spools to roll up the DNA. They organize DNA and control what genes are visible. Changes to histones can influence the genes they hold. There are many ways histones are modified. Each change has a different effect on the related genes.</li>
 	<li><b>Regulatory RNA:</b> RNA is DNA’s older brother. It was probably the first form of genetic information. RNA is made up of similar parts to DNA but plays many different roles. It is primarily used to translate from genes to protein. Genes are expressed by these proteins, and RNA also has an epigenetic role. MicroRNAs are a type of RNA molecule that doesn’t create protein. Instead, MicroRNAs silence a gene by removing RNA before it becomes a protein.</li>
</ol>
These three categories cover most of the research into epigenetics. However, other forms of epigenetics do exist. It is possible that more mechanisms will be discovered.
<h2>Causes of Epigenetic Changes</h2>
A huge variety of things can cause epigenetic changes - and we probably don’t know about all of them, yet!

What you eat, how stressed you are, your exercise habits, chemical exposure, aging, and radiation can all cause epigenetic changes - to name a few. Some diseases, like Alzheimer's, also cause epigenetic changes.

For example:
<ol>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ol>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/high-fat-diet-in-fruit-flies-links-epigenetics-to-inherited-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">In fruit flies</a>, a high-fat diet leads to an increased risk for heart disease thanks to epigenetic changes.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/a-fatty-diet-may-affect-behavior-across-generations-through-epigenetic-mechanisms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">A high-fat diet in mice</a> can lead to increased body fat percentage three generations later, when traced through paternal bloodlines.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/stress-hormone-causes-epigenetic-changes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Methylation of the Fkbp5 gene</a> (an epigenetic change) that is brought on by stress may relate to PTSD and other mood disorders.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/exercise-linked-to-epigenetic-benefits-that-keep-the-brain-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Exercise in mice</a> helps drive epigenetic changes that keep their brains healthy.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/the-epigenetics-of-sleep-3-reasons-to-catch-more-zzzs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Getting enough sleep</a> can help reduce potentially harmful methylation; more sleep also reduces stress and helps prevent associated negative epigenetic changes.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
In short, there are myriad factors every day that can impact your epigenetics. Most good self-care and health advice, like eating healthy, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly, will also help you avoid harmful epigenetic changes while benefitting from positive changes.
<h2>Epigenetic Therapies</h2>
[caption id="attachment_1870794" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870794 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/pill-1884775_1920-1024x614.jpg" alt="Four pills on a white background." width="1024" height="614" /> <em>Medications can take advantage of epigenetic mechanisms.</em>[/caption]

Epigenetics has been shown to play a role in many different diseases. This has led to research into controlling the epigenome. We may be able to reverse epigenetic changes that cause disease.

Drugs are being developed that target epigenetic changes. Medications that have epigenetic effects have <a href="http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,1952313-2,00.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">been approved for cancer treatment</a>.
<h3>Exposure Therapy</h3>
Exposure therapy is the use of triggering or frightening stimuli in a controlled environment. This technique has shown great promise for reducing mental disorders such as anxiety.

<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3961057/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Recent research</a> shows that epigenetics may be at play. Successful exposure therapy is associated with epigenetic changes. The use of drugs that increase epigenetic changes may make these techniques even more effective.
<h3>Difficult Target</h3>
Epigenetic drugs are far from perfect. They come with a wide range of side effects. This is because it is hard to target a specific epigenetic change. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392256/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">These drugs turn on hundreds of genes while turning hundreds of others off.</a>

These drugs come with many risk and uncertainties. Therefore, they are only used in extreme cases, such as cancer. In the future, our aim may improve. Epigenetic therapies have the potential to treat many different conditions.
<h2>Examples of Epigenetics in Real Life</h2>
The first time I heard about epigenetics in a human’s real life was an overview of <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2add0e702efbfe47689eaaf82ef12f32/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;cbl=28214" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lars Olov Byrgen’s research</a>, summarized in a great <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/251885-you-are-what-your-grandpa-eats" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Radiolab episode</a>.

In the episode, they looked into the case of a northern county of Sweden. This remote area had volatile harvests, leading to some years of plenty and other years of starvation and suffering.

The researchers found that boys who enjoyed the years of gluttony actually had sons and grandsons who lived shorter lives.

On average, the grandchildren of boys who had big crop yields as kids lived <i>six years less</i> than the grandchildren of boys who endured near-starvation as kids.

Once Bygren and his team controlled for socioeconomic variability, the gap in lifespan jumped to a jaw-dropping 32 years.
<h2>So… Can Stress Change My DNA?</h2>
[caption id="attachment_1870795" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870795 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/laptop-3087585_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Woman biting a pencil and looking at a laptop on a wooden desk." width="1024" height="683" /> <em>Though stress can't change your DNA itself, it may cause epigenetic changes.</em>[/caption]

Well, epigenetics doesn’t change the actual coding of your DNA. Being stressed out doesn’t change your DNA - but it can cause epigenetic changes, influencing gene expression.

Adverse childhood experiences can affect the way that a child’s genes are expressed. For example, repeated exposure to high stress as a child leads to methylation of the DNA.

This sets the stress response to “high,” leaving the adults unable to cope with stress appropriately later in life. Stress can affect a child’s entire genome, from stress responses to health factors.

Stressed-out father mice are more likely to father offspring that struggle to cope with stress (see the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5130105/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">study from NCBI here</a>). The offspring of stressed-out father mice were more likely to be depressed, underestimate risk, and have metabolic issues.

The researchers caused stress in the mice by removing their mother periodically while they were nursing, then subjecting the mother mouse to a cold dip in some water. The pups from these litters displayed depressive symptoms, as expected.

But interestingly, the male pups from these litters passed on the negative effects to their own offspring, and even their grand-offspring!

The researchers focused on patrilineal relationships and used in vitro fertilization. This reduced the possibility that the depressive behaviors were learned.
<h2>Epigenetics in Addiction</h2>
Finally, there’s some fascinating research that suggests that epigenetic changes might be responsible for some aspects of addiction. There’s some question as to whether drug addiction causes epigenetic changes, or if the epigenetics changes led to the addiction.

But, according to a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463407/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2012 article by Nielson et. al.</a>, “Studies on the DNA methylation changes found in drug addiction suggest a possible role for epigenetics in predisposing an individual to an increased vulnerability for addiction.”

Epigenetics can seem technical and confusing, but it is an important aspect of how your genes shape you (and an exciting frontier on how you can shape your genetic expression).

Epigenetic changes can occur due to a variety of factors, including stress and diet. These changes can pass on to future generations in some cases, and may influence their behavior as well.

-----

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What is Epigenetics?

Nature vs. nurture is the central question in human development....

99.93%,Fine,Dysprosium,Isolated,On,White,Background

<div class="flex flex-grow flex-col max-w-full">
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<p>Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is part of a group of elements known as the rare earth elements.</p>
<p>Despite their name, rare earth elements, including dysprosium, are quite abundant in the Earth's crust. Dysprosium is a soft, silver-colored metal that is highly magnetic and valuable for various technological applications.</p>
<h2>Where dysprosium is found</h2>
<p>Dysprosium is not found as a free element in nature. Instead, it is usually found in minerals such as xenotime and monazite.</p>
<p>These minerals contain other rare earth elements as well. To obtain dysprosium, scientists use processes like solvent extraction and ion exchange to separate it from other elements.</p>
<h2>How dysprosium is used</h2>
<h3>In technology</h3>
<p>One of the most important uses of dysprosium is in the creation of powerful permanent magnets. These magnets are essential for many modern technologies, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Wind turbines:</strong> The magnets help convert wind energy into electricity.</li>
<li><strong>Electric vehicles:</strong> Dysprosium improves the performance and efficiency of the motors.</li>
<li><strong>Smartphones and computers:</strong> The magnets are used in hard drives and other components.</li>
</ul>
<h3>In medicine</h3>
<p>Dysprosium also plays a role in medical imaging. It is used in some MRI machines (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to enhance the quality of the images. This helps doctors see inside the human body with greater detail.</p>
<h2>Why dysprosium is important</h2>
<p>Dysprosium is an essential element in modern technology and various industries. Its unique properties make it invaluable for several high-tech applications. Here are some reasons why dysprosium is so important:</p>
<h3>High magnetic strength</h3>
<p>One of the key features of dysprosium is its high magnetic strength. This property is crucial for making powerful permanent magnets. These magnets are used in a wide range of applications, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Electric Vehicles (EVs)</strong>: Dysprosium-enhanced magnets are vital for the motors in EVs, making them more efficient and powerful.</li>
<li><strong>Wind Turbines</strong>: The magnets help convert wind energy into electricity more effectively, contributing to renewable energy solutions.</li>
<li><strong>Electronics</strong>: Dysprosium magnets are used in hard drives, speakers, and other electronic devices, enhancing their performance and reliability.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Heat resistance</h3>
<p>Dysprosium has excellent heat-resistant properties. This makes it ideal for use in high-temperature environments where other materials might fail. For instance:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Industrial Motors</strong>: Dysprosium helps maintain the performance of motors and generators that operate at high temperatures.</li>
<li><strong>Aerospace Applications</strong>: Components made with dysprosium can withstand extreme temperatures, making them suitable for use in aircraft and spacecraft.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Role in green technology</h3>
<p>As the world moves towards more sustainable energy sources, dysprosium plays a critical role in this transition. It is a key component in technologies that reduce our reliance on fossil fuels:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Wind Energy</strong>: Dysprosium is essential for the efficient operation of wind turbines, a major source of clean energy.</li>
<li><strong>Electric and Hybrid Vehicles</strong>: The efficiency of EVs and hybrids relies heavily on dysprosium-enhanced magnets, contributing to lower carbon emissions and reduced air pollution.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Enhancing medical technology</h3>
<p>Dysprosium is also important in the medical field. It is used in some advanced imaging technologies, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>MRI Machines</strong>: Dysprosium can be used in contrast agents that improve the quality of images produced by MRI machines, helping doctors diagnose and treat medical conditions more accurately.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Industrial and commercial applications</h3>
<p>Beyond technology and medicine, dysprosium has several industrial and commercial uses:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Lighting</strong>: Dysprosium is used in the production of certain types of lighting, including high-intensity discharge lamps.</li>
<li><strong>Nuclear Reactors</strong>: Dysprosium is used as a control material in nuclear reactors due to its ability to absorb neutrons.</li>
</ul>
<p>From enhancing the efficiency of electric vehicles and wind turbines to improving medical imaging and industrial applications, dysprosium plays a crucial role in advancing technology and promoting sustainability.</p>
<h2>Challenges in obtaining dysprosium</h2>
<p>Obtaining dysprosium is not straightforward due to several significant challenges. These challenges include environmental concerns, technical difficulties, and geopolitical issues.</p>
<h3>Environmental concerns</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Mining Impact</strong>: Extracting dysprosium involves mining minerals like xenotime and monazite. Mining operations can lead to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water pollution. This environmental impact is a major concern for both local communities and global ecosystems.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Toxic Byproducts</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: The processes used to extract dysprosium from minerals can produce toxic byproducts. These include radioactive waste and harmful chemicals, which must be carefully managed to prevent environmental contamination.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Technical difficulties</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Complex Extraction Process</strong>: Dysprosium is usually found mixed with other rare earth elements, making it difficult to isolate. The extraction process involves multiple steps, including crushing the ore, using acids or solvents to dissolve the minerals, and separating dysprosium through methods like solvent extraction and ion exchange.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Cost and Efficiency</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: The extraction and refining processes are expensive and energy-intensive. Developing more efficient and cost-effective methods is an ongoing challenge for scientists and engineers.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Geopolitical issues</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Supply Concentration</strong>: The majority of rare earth elements, including dysprosium, are mined and processed in a few countries, notably China. This concentration of supply can lead to geopolitical tensions and supply chain vulnerabilities.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Trade Restrictions</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Geopolitical factors can lead to trade restrictions or export controls, impacting the global availability and price of dysprosium. Countries reliant on imports for their technology industries may face shortages or increased costs.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Sustainable solutions</h3>
<p>To address these challenges, researchers and industry leaders are exploring several strategies:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Recycling</strong>: Developing methods to recycle dysprosium from used electronics and other products can reduce the need for new mining operations and lower the environmental impact.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Alternative Materials</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Scientists are investigating alternative materials that can replace dysprosium in certain applications, reducing dependency on this rare earth element.</span></li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Improved Mining Practices</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Implementing more sustainable mining practices and stricter environmental regulations can help minimize the negative impacts of dysprosium extraction.</span></li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Diversifying Supply Sources</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Encouraging exploration and development of new rare earth element deposits in different parts of the world can reduce geopolitical risks and create a more stable supply chain.</span></li>
</ul>
<p>By addressing these challenges, we can ensure a more sustainable and reliable supply of dysprosium for the future, supporting the continued advancement of technology and green energy solutions.</p>
<h2>Fun facts about dysprosium</h2>
<ul>
<li>Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 by a French chemist named Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran.</li>
<li>The name "dysprosium" comes from the Greek word "dysprositos," which means "hard to get."</li>
<li>Dysprosium is often mixed with other elements to create special materials, like terfenol-D, used in sensors and actuators.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Dysprosium and the future of technology</h2>
<p>In summary, dysprosium is a fascinating element that plays a vital role in our modern world. From powering green energy solutions to enhancing medical technology, its unique properties make it a key player in advancing technology and improving our lives.</p>
<p>By understanding and managing its extraction and use, we can continue to benefit from this remarkable rare earth elements.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>


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What is Dysprosium?

Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">A traditional summer delicacy for some and a culinary curiosity for others, rhubarb has a reputation for both its tangy flavor and mystique. Although it rarely makes its way to the table, it adds both taste and nutrition when it does. Rhubarb even boasts an array of health benefits! Here we’ll dive into what makes this colorful stalk so special!</span>
<h2>What Is Rhubarb?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">With beautiful pink and green stalks and huge heart-shaped leaves, this celery look-alike certainly stands out in the garden. </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rheum-rhabarbarum/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Culinary rhubarb</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rheum rhubarbarum</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">) is in the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae) and shares the genus </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rheum </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">with upwards of 50 fascinating species. Another example, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rheum-palmatum/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Chinese rhubarb</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rheum officinale</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">) has been widely used for its medicinal benefits of </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">improving digestive health</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">As a food, rhubarb has only gained popularity in the past few centuries. Though it's especially popular in sweets, it may surprise you that rhubarb is technically a vegetable! </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">When we eat the roots, stems, or leaves of plants, we are eating vegetables. On the other hand, fruits develop from flowers and carry seeds. </span>

<b>Fun Fact: In the 1940s, the U.S. legally designated rhubarb as a fruit to avoid high tariffs on vegetables.</b>

<img class="wp-image-6239 size-full" src="https://www.plantsnap.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/rhubarb-growing.jpg" alt="Rhubarb Plants" width="5616" height="3744" />
<h3>Rhubarb in the Garden</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">One huge perk of rhubarb is its growing season. It’s able to survive (and even thrive) wintry conditions, so it makes a great crop for higher latitude gardens. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Additionally, it is one of the </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">first crops</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> ready in the spring! So if you’re an impatient gardener, planting this easy-going plant could give you more instant gratification.</span>
<h2>Wait...Rhubarb Is Poisonous?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Yes and no. But don’t freak out! You may have noticed when looking at recipes or passing the rhubarb in the grocery store, that only the stalks or stems of the plant are used for cooking. </span>Rhubarb stalks are safe to eat (and delicious), while the leaves do more harm than good.
<h3>The Culprit: Oxalic Acid</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">To clarify, the toxicity of rhubarb leaves is due to </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">oxalic acid</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. But oxalic acid is found in many veggies. In fact, broccoli, spinach, and Brussel sprouts all contain the same chemical. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, the concentration of oxalic acid is much higher in the plant's leaves. Though the lethal dose of oxalic acid would require eating quite a few leaves, smaller amounts could leave you with a bad stomach ache. </span>

<b>Fun Fact: It’s a myth that rhubarb increases in toxicity over the summer. It is recommended to harvest in the late spring and early summer, but only because the stalks tend to become woodier &amp; more difficult to eat as the season progresses.</b>

[caption id="attachment_1884020" align="alignnone" width="1707"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1884020" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/monika-grabkowska-7QKxN0uLgKI-unsplash-scaled.jpg" alt="Rhubarb stalks" width="1707" height="2560" /> Image by<a href="https://unsplash.com/@moniqa?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Monika Grabkowska</a>[/caption]
<h2>Health Benefits</h2>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Lowers Cholesterol</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Fiber, fiber, fiber. It’s so important for our digestive health and maintaining healthy cholesterol. Eating rhubarb even helps</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> lower cholesterol</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. With a whopping 2 grams of fiber per cup of rhubarb, let’s dig in! </span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Strong Bones and Healthy Hearts</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Rhubarb packs a double punch with both</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> vitamin K and calcium</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Vitamin K is necessary for healthy blood clotting along with general bone and heart health! Additionally, calcium supports healthy teeth and bones.</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Big Brain Energy</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Vitamin K gets another mention! Important for </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">limiting neuron damage to the brain</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, vitamin K is linked to preventing Alzheimer’s, strokes, and ALS. And you can get </span><a href="https://www.aicr.org/resources/blog/health-benefits-of-rhubarb/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">one-third</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of your daily portion of vitamin K in just a half a cup of rhubarb!</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Prevent Cancer</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The same chemicals that give the rhubarb stalks such beautiful colors also reduce the risk of cancer. Called anthocyanins, these compounds are antioxidants and support </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">cancer-preventative cell signaling</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and absorb free radicals.</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Get a Glowing Complexion</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Rhubarb can delay skin aging! </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Vitamin A</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in rhubarb fights free radicals a helps delay cell damage that causes wrinkles.</span>

[caption id="attachment_1884018" align="alignnone" width="1440"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1884018" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/rhubarb-4757691_1920.jpg" alt="Chopped Rhubarb" width="1440" height="1920" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/emorycontact-10811096/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4757691" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">emorycontact</a>[/caption]
<h2>Rhubarb in the Kitchen</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Rhubarb’s incredible tart flavor comes from</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> mali</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">c</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> acid</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Though this chemical packs a sour punch, it’s not the culprit of the infamous poison. Many dessert recipes will incorporate plenty of sugar to cut the intensity of rhubarb.  </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But overdosing on sugar isn’t necessary to enjoy the vegetable. In fact, rhubarb can be made into </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">pickles</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">salsas</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, and </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">salads</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">! Try thinking of a recipe that benefits from a tart addition (lemon or lime), and try substituting rhubarb to add some summery zest to your meal. </span>
<h3>Easy As Pie</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">We know why we really came here. Delicious flakey crusts, the perfect balance of sweet and tart, and the overwhelming taste of summertime. You can pair it with other fruit or let it fly solo. To put it simply, rhubarb makes a great pie. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">We’ve put together some tips on making a great rhubarb pie:</span>

<b>The Crust</b>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rhubarb holds a lot of moisture. When added to pies, this can result in a patisserie nightmare: the soggy bottom. When choosing a crust recipe, opt for using a combination of shortening and butter to benefit from the structural integrity of the shortening and the decadent flavor of the butter.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">You can also sprinkle a bit of sugar on the bottom crust before adding the filling to create a thin caramelized layer between the crust and the fruit.</span></li>
</ul>
<b>The Filling</b>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">After mixing the rhubarb with sugar, let sit for a while in a colander. The sugar will seep some water from the stalks, and you can drain this off before adding to the pie!</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Add the thickener (often corn starch) only after your filling is drained. That way, you won’t lose any thickener in the draining process. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rhubarb has a strong flavor itself, but feel free to experiment with additional spices. Maybe sprinkle in some cinnamon or cardamom or add some rose or lavender for a more floral take. Add other fruit like strawberries is a classic way to spruce up a rhubarb pie.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Both delicious and nutritious, adding rhubarb to your summertime traditions is a great way to spice up your cooking and gain some notable health benefits.</span>

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Rhubarb Benefits, Uses, and the Holy Grail of Pie

A traditional summer delicacy for some and a culinary curiosity...

Terraced,Paddy,Field,In,Mae-jam,Village,,,Chaingmai,Province,,

<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">People around the world have discovered clever ways to farm in tough conditions. Their land could be too dry, too wet, too hot, or prone to insects or damaging storms. If the land is too steep, people might try terrace farming. Cultures in Peru, Japan, the Philippines, Mexico, the Mediterranean, East Africa, Yemen, and China have all independently created the concept of terrace farming, or terracing.</span></p>
<p> </p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;"><img class="alignnone wp-image-1874101 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0009.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1280" height="739" /></span></p>
<p> </p>
<h2>Why Doesn't Regular Farming Work on Hills?</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Conventional farming removes all trees and plants to replace them with a crop, such as wheat. This sort of farming fails on steep slopes because it creates erosion and landslides. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Erosion</a> is the process of s</span>oil wearing away due to water or wind. Without trees and other vegetation to slow down water, rain storms cause significant erosion on the land.</p>
<p>The water has less resistance as it runs down the hill, so it can run faster and pick up more soil as it moves.</p>
<p>This erosion carries vital nutrients and productive soil downhill, away from the farmland. Over many years, this sort of erosion can cause a slope to become infertile.</p>
<p>Additionally, a de-vegetated slope is more prone to mudslides if it becomes waterlogged from lots of rain.<strong> A mudslide could ruin an entire years crop and make the land much harder to farm in the future.</strong> Yikes!</p>
<p> </p>
<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-1874100 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0008.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1920" height="1030" /></p>
<p> </p>
<h2>How Is Terracing Done?</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Terracing turns a slope into level, benched out steps by moving soil and creating retaining walls. This restructuring allows un-farmable hillsides to become stable, productive farmlands. Some typical crops grown in terraces include barley, wheat, potatoes, corn, tea, olive, grape vines, coffee, and rice.</span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;"> A terrace is typically about 2-3 meters wide and 50-80 meters long. Some terraces flood with rain water, such as those used to farm rice. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">A terrace usually has one outlet for water to drain into the terrace below. This lower terrace stops the water and prevents it from gaining enough speed to cause erosion. This way, the water deposits any soil in the downhill terraces as it slows down.</span></p>
<p> </p>
<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-1874099 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0007.jpg.jpg" alt="terraces, terrace farming" width="1280" height="648" /></p>
<p> </p>
<h2><strong>Advantages of Terrace Farming</strong></h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Science has validated the millennia-old tradition of terrace farming. When growing potatoes in Canada, researchers found that terracing on a steep <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5355443/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">slope reduced erosion by 20-1</a>. In Japan, terracing even reduced erosion compared to the same landscape planted with trees!</span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In China, terracing on a shallow slope <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095633915300642" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">decreased soil nutrient loss by 90%</a>. It also decreased the amount of soil lost by 60-90%, and increased general soil moisture by 21%. In arid regions of Ethiopia, terraced farms produced up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5985715/#!po=50.0000" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">33% more food during drought years</a> compared to conventionally farmed slopes. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Terracing increases soil moisture because rain to soaks into flat areas rather than running downslope. Many dry regions will become more arid with climate change. This means terracing is a climate resilient solution. </span></p>
<p> </p>
[caption id="attachment_1874098" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1874098 size-full" style="font-size: 16px;" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_0006.jpg.jpg" alt="machu picchu, inca" width="1280" height="960" /> Terracing was used to supply in the Incan empire with much of its' food. It is believed the Incans farmed the area of Yellowstone using terraces. Machu Picchu is a stellar example of well-built terraces.[/caption]
<p> </p>
<h2>Preserving Cultures</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Culturally, terrace farming preserves indigenous techniques from around the world. An area in the Philippines received the first “Living Cultural Landscape” designation by UNESCO. There, cultures wove the farming technique into their land and traditions for centuries. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Machines such as tractors and chemical appliers aren't used on terraces because of the structures’ highly irregular shapes. This lack of mechanized labor promotes traditional ways of living, such as farming small pieces of land with hand tools. Without machines and chemicals, terrace farming has a much lower carbon footprint than conventional farming.</span></p>
<p> </p>
<h2>Challenges</h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Terrace farming certainly has difficulties, as well. Terracing requires massive inputs of labor. Creating a terrace requires moving tons of soil and building hundreds of meters of stone walls, typically by hand. Once established, terraces need routine maintenance to continue functioning. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Historically, labor was readily available in rural, mountainous areas of the world. Currently, however, young, able-bodied people move to cities to become educated and work higher paying jobs. Older women and men maintain the terraces, instead. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">This lack of labor results in less upkeep. <a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/terracing-double-edged-solution-farming-difficult-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Once a terrace is abandoned</a>, the retaining walls crumble and nearly all of the productive topsoil is lost to wind and water erosion. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">From a natural point of view, steep slopes are some of the only areas spared from human manipulation. In places where all flat areas and small hills have been deforested, steep slopes are important for the remaining wildlife and plants. If terrace farming increases, these remnant ecosystems will inevitably be lost.</span></p>
<p> </p>
[caption id="attachment_1874095" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1874095 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/42352857652_fc340ae92a_z.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="416" /> Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/131880272@N06/42352857652" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cultivar413</a>[/caption]
<p> </p>
<h2><strong>Terracing At Home</strong></h2>
<p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Terracing is not only applicable to farmers. Many homeowners build terraces if their yard is on a slope! Homeowners can then grow gardens and fruit trees, or create pleasant sitting areas where previously they had an unusable slope. Garden terraces also make for beautiful landscapes. And as an added plus, if you grow berries on terraces you can pick them from the terrace below without having to bend over!</span></p>
<p> </p>


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What Is Terrace Farming?

People around the world have discovered clever ways to farm...

Pile,Of,Colorful,Blankets,Made,From,Fleece,,All,Rolled,Up.

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Since outdoor clothing brand Patagonia introduced fleece in the early 1980s, it’s become a wardrobe staple for nature lovers across the globe. But the light, breathable fleece microfibers aren't as environmentally friendly as its fan-base might suggest. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">It’s made from synthetic textiles -- specifically polyester, acrylic, and nylon -- and in a single washing machine cycle, </span>fleece can shed hundreds of thousands of tiny plastic particles known as microfibers<span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These microfibers contribute to global plastic pollution and can harm both marine organisms and the humans who eat them. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Before we go any further, let’s cover what exactly microfibers are and how they travel from our fleece sweaters into the bellies of fish.</span>

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872025 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fleece-233768_960_720.jpg" alt="fleece microfiber plastic pollution" width="960" height="639" />
<h2><strong>What Are Microfibers? </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Microfibers are a subgroup of microplastics -- pieces of plastic typically defined as smaller than five millimeters (even thinner than a strand of hair) and composed of various synthetic polymers.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The water from washing machines takes microfibers down the drain, through wastewater treatment plants (</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">which are unable to filter out 40 percent of all microfibers</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">), and eventually into rivers, lakes, and oceans.</span>
<h2><strong>How Are Microfibers Harmful to the Environment?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">It’s clear the accumulation of plastic in surface waters is detrimental to the environment. But since they’re not visible to the naked eye, it’s easy to underestimate the power of microfiber accumulation. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">According to a 2011 study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clothes-dryers-release-millions-of-microfibers-into-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microfibers</a> make up the majority of human-made debris on shorelines around the world.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Because they’re so small and pervasive in our oceans, microfibers can easily be consumed by fish and other marine wildlife. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Though the effects of this consumption are still being determined, research shows that ingesting microfibers </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">decreases the appetites of </span><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b04026?journalCode=esthag" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Carcinus maenas </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">(crabs)</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">increases the mortality of </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Daphnia magna</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (water fleas).</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In </span><a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/chi-great-lakes-plastic-fibers-scientists-20150109-story.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">a 2015 interview with the </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Chicago Tribune</span></i></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, chemist Sherri Mason said that in her research studying microscopic litter in the Great Lakes, she found that while other kinds of microplastic were able to be excreted by fish, she’d seen microfibers laced through their gastrointestinal tracts. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">"The longer the plastic remains inside an organism,” Mason explained, “the greater the likelihood that it will impact the organism in some way."</span>
<h2><strong>How Are Fleece Microfibers Harmful to Humans? </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Although some doubt that humans ingest or are affected by these smaller organisms’ ingestion of microfibers, toxic chemicals in microfibers could bioaccumulate in the sea creatures we eat and ultimately negatively impact human health. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, the problem extends beyond our seafood: </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">microplastics have been </span><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b03163" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">found in table salt in China</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, and in tap water all over the world. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The US has the highest tap water contamination rate -- </span><a href="https://orbmedia.org/stories/Invisibles_plastics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">microfibers </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">existed in 94 percent of the samples tested.</span>
<h2><strong>Patagonia Studies</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">In acknowledgment of their role in the early popularization of synthetic fleece, over the past several years Patagonia commissioned two scientific research studies to assess how many microfibers a single washing machine cycle releases, and compared their own products to off-brand fleece. </span>

<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.6b03045" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">The results</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> found that one fleece garment can shed up to 250,000 microfibers; that both older and lower-quality clothing sheds more microfibers than newer and higher-quality clothing; and that top-load machines shed more than front-load machines.</span>
<h2><strong>Can the Spread of Fleece Microfibers Be Stopped?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Patagonia responded to their studies’ findings with plans to inform customers about microfibers and proper care for synthetic items, as well as the benefits of using washing machine filters. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Patagonia is also helping fund a company called Tersus Solutions, which invented a waterless washing machine that cleans clothing with pressurized carbon dioxide. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, it’s unlikely that consumers would purchase these machines for the sole purpose of preventing fiber loss from their fleeces. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Other recent studies</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> suggest that apparel companies like Patagonia could mitigate the proliferation of microfibers with knitting techniques designed to reduce fiber loss, tighter yarns, and pre-washing and vacuuming textiles at manufacturing facilities. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Additionally, beyond the apparel industry, wastewater treatment plants could install filtration systems.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There’s also precedent for legislation limiting the production of microplastics. The US banned microbeads, a type of microplastic used in toothpaste and cosmetics, with the passing of the Microbead-Free Waters Act in 2015. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In 2018, California lawmakers struck down a bill that would require clothing with more than 50 percent microfiber-containing synthetic materials to have a label informing consumers to hand-wash the product.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Less than half a century since the advent of fleece, microfibers are everywhere—in oceans, marine life, and even our drinking water. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Though it's probably impossible to reverse the damage that’s already been done, changes in the manufacturing of synthetic apparel, the way consumers wash synthetic apparel, and new laws could help prevent the problem from getting any worse.</span>

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The Dirty Secret of Fleece: Microfibers and Plastic Pollution

Since outdoor clothing brand Patagonia introduced fleece in the early...

James,Webb,Telescope,In,Outer,Space,On,Orbit,Of,Earth.

<p>NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has lifted off! It's an exciting day for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/space-exploration-progress-impact-forecast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space enthusiasts among us</a>. And even if you aren't as well versed in space exploration and discovery, the Webb Telescope has exciting potential that will impact all of us here on planet earth. News outlets have described the telescope's journey as a quest "to the edge of time itself" and scientists eagerly anticipate new data about the birth of the universe as the telescope flies into action.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Today we're going to take a look at the details of the James Webb Telescope, what scientists anticipate this technology can accomplish, and what it might mean for us back here on Earth's surface as we navigate challenging times on both global and local scales.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For as vast and expansive as our home galaxy is, our connections to each other and the questions that inspire these pursuits define our species and illuminate critical information and survival - on this planet and beyond.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-the-james-webb-telescope"><strong>​The James Webb Telescope</strong></h2>



<p>The James Webb Telescope (JWST) <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ViXoWdbF-Ys&amp;ab_channel=SciNews" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">launched on Christmas morning</a> - December 25, 2021. At the same time when many children around the globe rushed to see what Christmas presents had landed from Santa in the night, the JWST lifted off from the Ariane 5. The launchpad is part of <a href="https://www.ualrpublicradio.org/npr-news/2021-12-25/nasa-just-launched-the-most-powerful-space-telescope-ever-watch-it-here" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europe's spaceport located in Kourou, French Guiana</a>. The rocket ignited and sent the telescope rocketing out of our atmosphere and into space. "We are expecting to see the light from the first galaxies that formed some 100 [million], 200 million years after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-the-theories-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>," NASA administrator Bill Nelson said<a href="https://www.ualrpublicradio.org/npr-news/2021-12-25/nasa-just-launched-the-most-powerful-space-telescope-ever-watch-it-here" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> in a recent briefing</a>.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-big-picture-behind-a-powerful-telescope"><strong>The Big Picture Behind A Powerful Telescope&nbsp;</strong></h3>



<p>NASA developed the JWST in partnership with the Canadian Space Agency and the European Space Agency (ESA). The intention behind the JWST is that it will succeed and expand the Hubble Space Telescope, which has enchanted scientists and children alike for <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/space-telescope-launched-on-daring-quest-to-behold-1st-stars#:~:text=Hawley%2C%20in%20fact%2C%20is%20more,vision%20from%20a%20defective%20mirror." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the last 30 years.</a> The Hubble telescope succeeded in determining the age of our universe (13.8 billion years). It has helped scientists to discover two moons around pluto. The images from Hubble contributed to calculations on how fast the universe is expanding. It illuminated that almost every galaxy we have so far discovered has a black hole, anchoring its center. The JWST is the next step in these significant leaps in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/cosmology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our cosmic understanding</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Even though JWST is intended to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-captures-the-development-of-baby-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supersede Hubble</a>, it is actually only<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/ote/mirrors/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> half the size of the older space telescope</a>. However, Webb's primary mirror is over 6 times larger than Hubble's. The mirror is <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/ote/mirrors/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">21 ft in diameter</a>. Made of gold-coated beryllium reflector, it has 18 hexagonal mirrors. Scientists have designed the Webb Telescope in this way to provide improved infrared resolution of images and will also empower an exciting amount of new investigations in the fields of astrophysics, astronomy, and cosmology.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large is-resized"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1060652471.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900282" width="500" height="282"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/NASA+images">NASA images</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-design-elements"><strong>Design Elements&nbsp;</strong></h3>



<p>A critical design element of the telescope is its sunshield. The sunshield is important because the mirrors must be cold and out of the sun's heat. It is designed to always block the mirrors from the sun, moon, and earth and will <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/sunshield.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passively radiate</a> the telescope's heat into space. The shield is made up of 5 layers. Each successive layer is cooler than the last. The vacuum created between each layer functions as insulation - which disrupts the conduction of heat better than a single, large layer. Overall, the shield will protect the telescope so that the sensitive scientific instruments will be better able to detect infrared light from <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/sunshield.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">very distant and faint objects.</a>&nbsp;</p>



<h4 id="h-the-instruments"><strong>The Instruments&nbsp;</strong></h4>



<p>The <a href="http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/MIRI/miricooler.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM)</a> is the telescope's framework. It incorporates four scientific instruments as well as a guide camera. The four instruments are: the NIRCam (Near InfraRed Camera) which is an infrared imager; <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/jwst/-/45694-nirspec-the-near-infrared-spectrograph" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRSpec (Near InfraRed Spectrograph)</a> will also perform spectroscopy over the same wavelength range; <a href="https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/miri.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIRI (Mid-InfraRed Instrument)</a> will measure the mid-to-long-infrared wavelength range from 5 to 27 μm; and <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/fgs.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FGS/NIRISS (Fine Guidance Sensor and Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph)</a> - which will stabilize the light of sight of the telescope's observatory.&nbsp;</p>



<p>There is also <a href="https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/observatory/bus.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a "spacecraft bus"</a> - a term which, if you grew up in the 1990s and early 2000s, may remind you of Mrs. Frizzle and her magic school bus, but is actually in reference to the primary support component of the telescope which will provide computing, communication, electrical power, propulsion and structural parts to the telescope as a whole.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>These scientific instruments and frameworks add up into an incredible piece of space technology. This technology enables ongoing and yet-to-be-determined investigations and explorations that will include some very far-reaching elements of our universe. But what is it that we're hoping to find in the far reaches of space, exactly? Aliens?&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-scientists-hope-to-find"><strong>What Scientists Hope To Find&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>When Homo sapiens look up into the sky, we tend to ask big questions. What we seek up there in the stars can be an ineffable quandary - but it can also be a scientific hypothesis. Telescopes have already empowered us to learn so much about our solar system. From the Aztec star charts, <a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/finding-our-place-in-the-cosmos-with-carl-sagan/articles-and-essays/modeling-the-cosmos/galileo-and-the-telescope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">to 1600's Netherlands</a>, to Galileo, and up to today, these discoveries have shaped our species and planted seeds of cosmic curiosity.</p>



<p>With the James Webb space telescope launch, there is a continued legacy of hopes, dreams, hypotheses, and explorations that become possible to undertake for us as a species. There are big questions to pursue - as has been true in every decade of our evolution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Examples specific to this telescope launch include the formation of first galaxies and the potential identification of habitable exoplanets and their atmospheres. We might be able to glimpse the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-59782057" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first stars to light up the universe.&nbsp; </a>The telescope will be able to observe <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-webb-will-join-forces-with-the-event-horizon-telescope-to-reveal-the-milky-way-s" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes and quasars</a> with unmatched sensitivity and detail - possibly revealing the mysteries of their complex structures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/dec/24/bill-nelson-nasa-administrator-interview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nasa administrator Bill Nelson</a>, JWST has the potential to "open up the secrets of the universe".&nbsp; It can sound like a sci-fi novel to the uninitiated - but it is real life, in the real world, floating in a real universe and fascinating mystery and astronomy principles. The first images from the Webb telescope are expected to arrive <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-webb-telescope-launches-to-see-first-galaxies-distant-worlds" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in summer 2022.</a></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_751195177.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900283"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/sadovskivadim">Vadim Sadovski</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-who-is-james-webb"><strong>Who Is James Webb?</strong></h2>



<p>Obviously, the stakes are quite high as is anticipation. While we wait for the images of the telescope to come in, maybe we can take the time to ask: who is James Webb? And why did NASA and global collaborators choose to name this incredible telescope after him?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Webb ran the fledgling space agency, NASA, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/about/faqs/whoIsJamesWebb.html" target="_blank">from 1961 - 1968</a> and is most linked to the Apollo space program of that era. To many, he is a government figure whose work balanced human curiosity and space flight with science. According to <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/about/faqs/whoIsJamesWebb.html" target="_blank">NASA's online site</a>, Webb "did more for science than perhaps any other government official and that it is only fitting that the Next Generation Space Telescope would be named after him". There has been controversy over Webb's legacy and potential involvement in<a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html" target="_blank"> the "lavender scare"</a> that took place in NASA's history - an assault on LGBTQ workers of which there is a continued need for reconciliation. NASA declined to change the name.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe announced the name of JWST, he explained that "[James Webb] took our nation on its first voyages of exploration, turning our imagination into reality."</p>



<h2 id="h-space-science-and-travel-in-the-time-of-coronavirus"><strong>Space Science And Travel In The Time Of Coronavirus&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>It is a striking moment in history. A telescope that can reach the ends of time, named for a man whose life work was dedicated to human curiosity and potential, launched on Christmas day in the midst of a harrowing global pandemic. 2021 was a year characterized by misinformation, ghastly politics, and crumbling social structures that we all depend upon - and also, apparently, hope and optimism via telescope. It's a lot to take in.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The questions surrounding how we use our resources and who gets to decide is an emotional debate. We do not all agree and acute crisis surrounds all but the luckiest of our species. Billionaire business owners launch themselves into space while their workers contract a deadly virus from working in warehouses for wages that do not cover even the most basic living expenses. Where do space travel and space science fit into all of this? Especially when a project like JWST comes at a high cost, of course. The commissioning cost for the telescope swoops in at a whopping <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/25/science/webb-telescope-cost.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8.8 billion dollars - so far.</a> Our dominant culture is coming around the fact that our resources are not infinite. Our planet has limitations that will demand our adherence, one way or another.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1558058690.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900284"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/DimaZel">Dima Zel</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-in-conclusion-a-big-beginning"><strong>In Conclusion, A Big Beginning&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The Webb Telescope isn't some impulsive whimsey of spending and space colonization. This technology has been in the works since the 1980s. This telescope and observatory have the potential to revolutionize our understanding of the universe - and better inform our understanding of how our planet and our species fit into that cosmic web.&nbsp;</p>



<p>And boy, do we ever need some perspective. As the omicron variant rages through our communities we will all answer these philosophical and tangible debates according to our lived experiences and value systems. Maybe the James Webb Space Telescope, in addition to illuminating certain astronomy and cosmology theories, might also apply to our mundane, everyday lives. What does it mean to turn our imaginations into reality? How might our own planet look if we were able to cultivate connective relationships and a shared curiosity?</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lift Off! The James Webb Telescope Is Headed to Space

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has lifted off! It's an...

<p>Space exploration is a constant source of philosophical, moral, and intellectual debate. Should we spend the resources exploring other planets when we can't even take care of our own? How can we spend billions of dollars on space exploration when people don't have access to clean drinking water? On the flip side, how can we afford <em>not</em> to find out what space has to offer? Perhaps we can mine asteroids for metals we lack here on Earth.</p>



<p>Whatever you think, the technology needed for space exploration gets better every year. The U.S. plans to make a permanent base on the moon, private companies are gearing up for space tourism, and new breakthroughs in science make it more possible for humans to reach Mars.</p>



<p>While the future of humans in space is uncertain, governments and companies are investing billions of dollars to further our understanding of what lies beyond our blue planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-humans-on-the-moon">Humans on the Moon</h2>



<p>Our bright, white moon is only a three-day trip from Earth, yet we still know little about it. In the last five decades, countries have focused more on deep space exploration rather than exploring our neighboring celestial body. But recently, the U.S. decided to change course and put people back on the moon.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886376 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1480426817.jpg" alt="space exploration progress" class="wp-image-1886376"/><figcaption>One of the initial space shuttles launches into space. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ArtsiomP89">Artsiom P</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-progress">Progress</h3>



<p>Believe it or not, the Apollo missions from 1969 to 1972 were the only missions to send people to the moon. In total, only 12 humans have ever set foot on the moon. While several people are always onboard the International Space Station, the station is actually <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moon-to-mars/overview" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">only 1/1000th</a> of the distance to the moon.</p>



<p>In 2017, NASA unveiled <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Project Artemis</a>, the first mission in 50 years to send humans to the moon. After the first two trial runs, Artemis III plans to have a human lunar landing in 2024.</p>



<p>While Project Artemis currently hums along, similar ambitious space programs have ultimately failed due to changes in governmental leadership shifting their funding priorities.</p>



<h3 id="h-impact">Impact</h3>



<p>The twelve people who have set foot on the moon were all men. Project Artemis <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis_plan-20200921.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">will change that</a>, sending the first woman ever to the moon's surface. This much-needed representation could inspire more women to pursue aeronautics and space exploration.</p>



<p>The xEMU, the next-generation spacesuit developed for Project Artemis, will level-up humanity's ability to explore space on foot. The ultimate goal of the xEMU is to create a spacesuit usable for deep space exploration by humans.</p>



<p>Compared with Apollo-era spacesuits, the xEMU allows for greater movement. The supercharged static space dust proved to be an unexpected challenge for the Apollo missions. The new spacesuit doesn't have zippers and all the important components are completely sealed off from the space environment. These improvements will prevent space dust from interfering with the spacesuits. Another cool feature is that the suits can be made for any sized human and can operate from 250F to -250F.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886377 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1042736410.jpg" alt="humans on the moon" class="wp-image-1886377"/><figcaption>Concept art of humans on the moon. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/gorodenkoff">Gorodenkoff</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-forecast">Forecast</h3>



<p>The main goal of project Artemis is to prepare humans for the exploration of Mars.</p>



<p>If all goes according to plan, the Artemis missions will create a permanent human base on the moon. This base will allow humans to explore and study the moon in more depth and with greater ease. Scientists want to use the known water reserves on the moon for deep space exploration. A base on the moon would help humans access this precious water.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Gateway</a>, a structure orbiting the moon, will be a waypoint for crews seeking deep space exploration. This structure will provide spaceships a place to load up cargo and provisions needed for deep space flight.</p>



<p>The lunar infrastructure will also create a hub for the proto space tourism industry.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886378 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1485814658.jpg" alt="space exploration forecast" class="wp-image-1886378"/><figcaption>Virgin Galactic's space flight terminal in New Mexico at Spaceport America. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Grossinger">Grossinger</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-private-industry-in-space-exploration">Private Industry in Space Exploration</h2>



<p>Wouldn't it be cool to go to space, especially without the years of training that astronauts need? For just a <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/articles/virgin-galactics-spaceshiptwo-completes-second-flight-from-spaceport-america/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">few hundred thousand dollars</a>, you might be able to take your own space adventure very soon! While government-funding projects remain the most important in space exploration, private industry isn't entirely new to the field. In fact, private industries already have a large presence in space, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-many-satellites-in-space-do-we-know-about/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nearly half of the 2,000 satellites</a> in space used for commercial purposes.</p>



<h3 id="h-progress-1">Progress</h3>



<p>In the last decade, billionaires have accelerated efforts to bring the private industry into space. Elon Musk's SpaceX, Jeff Bezos' BlueOrigin, and Richard Branson's Virgin Galatic are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-biggest-private-space-companies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">three big players</a> in the private space industry. Virgin Galactic has sold <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50929064#:~:text=If%20all%20goes%20to%20plan,Justin%20Bieber%20and%20Leonardo%20DiCaprio." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hundreds of tickets</a> for $200,000+ in anticipation of its space tourism flights. <strong>It seems likely that one or all three of these companies will operate commercial space flights in the next few years.</strong></p>



<p>On a different note, SpaceX made its first delivery to the International Space Station. This marks the first time a private industry delivered space cargo.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886379 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1063592036.jpg" alt="space exploration, SpaceX Dragon" class="wp-image-1886379"/><figcaption>The SpaceX Dragon capsule, which was the first private ship to deliver cargo in space. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rtmup">Taylor McKnight</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-impact-1">Impact</h3>



<p>Spaceship launches require enormous amounts of fuel. When that fuel burns in the stratosphere, it isn't subject to many forces, such as weather. The gasses and soot from that burnt fuel remain in place, more or less. Unfortunately, these byproducts can be potent greenhouse gases or other climate-altering substances. <strong>If space tourism develops as its investors hope, it's possible that emissions from space tourism <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/101022/full/news.2010.558.html#:~:text=Scientists%20predict%20that%20soot%20from%20commercial%20space%20flight%20will%20change%20global%20temperatures.&amp;text=The%20simulations%20show%20that%20the,ice%20by%205%E2%80%9315%25." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">could equal emissions</a> from all airplanes.</strong></p>



<p>That's a big problem for our climate, which is already changing at a dangerous pace. But on the bright side, uber-rich people will get to see the Earth from space!</p>



<h3 id="h-forecast-1">Forecast</h3>



<p>It's difficult to say how space tourism will pan out. Perhaps it will experience technological or financing difficulties, as it has in the past. Or maybe once the first celebrities fly in space, companies will experience huge demand for their services. It is a remarkably risky business, with huge costs and plenty of safety issues. Would the industry ever recover if a famous celebrity was killed by a spaceship malfunction in space?</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886380 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1791639938.jpg" alt="Blueorigin space exploration" class="wp-image-1886380"/><figcaption>BlueOrigin's rocket facility in Florida. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/jchase">John M. Chase</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<p>However, the private space industry will likely remain relevant as a partner with governments to deliver space cargo and develop new technologies. If companies can profit off of space through these delivery services or extractive practices, such as space mining, they will increase the number of resources dedicated to space exploration.</p>



<p>The private companies argue that space tourism and industry will increase the pace and scale of space exploration technologies. They claim that such developments are the best way to ensure humanity's exploration of deep space.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1724343382.jpg" alt="space exploration, mars" class="wp-image-1886381"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshimerbin">joshimerbin</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-space-exploration-to-mars-and-beyond">Space Exploration to Mars and Beyond</h2>



<p>Mars has an outsized presence in the human imagination. It is a frequent locale for science-fiction novels, a home for hundreds of fictitious aliens, and the planet that has always seemed just out of reach. Based on the cultural narrative, it seems like a given that humans will someday set foot on Mars. But will we really ever get there?</p>



<h3 id="h-progress-2">Progress</h3>



<p>Getting humans to Mars is a lot more difficult than getting humans to the moon. The trip to Mars takes at least 6 months, whereas a trip to the moon is under a week. This extra time means more food, water, and supplies for the astronauts. All of these additions are heavy and bulky. The extra cargo needed for a Mars mission makes it exponentially more difficult to engineer and propel than a lunar mission.</p>



<p>Another challenge with the bulky ship is landing it on Mars. At top speed, a spaceship carrying humans to Mars will <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/timeline/cruise/#:~:text=The%20spacecraft%20departs%20Earth%20at,miles%20(480%20million%20kilometers)." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">travel at 25,000mph</a>. Slowing down this fast and heavy ship is difficult in a thin atmosphere like Mars'. While the thicker atmosphere of Earth provided sufficient friction to slow down the crews landing from the Apollo missions, Mars' atmosphere doesn't. NASA is <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/loftid/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">currently developing</a> a massive sail that the Mars-bound ship can deploy to increase drag as it enters Mars' atmosphere.</p>



<p>Before it can land, this ship must travel the 140-million miles between Earth and Mars. The fuels used to get to the moon aren't sufficient for this extremely long trip. NASA is currently working on <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/6_Technologies_NASA_is_Advancing_to_Send_Humans_to_Mars" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nuclear propulsion</a> as a source of fuel. They are currently having some success with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">novel ion propulsion</a>.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886382 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_751517470.jpg" alt="Martian landscape" class="wp-image-1886382"/><figcaption>A rendition of a Martian landscape. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/pitris">Jurik Peter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-impact-2">Impact</h3>



<p>Mars is the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. If humans had a chance to research Mars on the ground, they might make ground-breaking discoveries into the history of life on Earth and potentially life on Mars. Needless to say, if humans found life on Mars, that would have profound implications for cultures, religions, and governments around the world.</p>



<p>Some people are fascinated with the idea of terraforming Mars. These people want to turn Mars into a second Earth, habitable by everyday humans. If that's our goal, we need to get to Mars first.</p>



<p>Finally, getting humans to Mars is the next stepping stone in humanity's quest for deep space exploration. To get deeper into space, we must first make it to Mars.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886383 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1718419765.jpg" alt="terraformed Mars" class="wp-image-1886383"/><figcaption>Cartoonish concept art of a terraformed Mars. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/GoldenSikorka">Golden Sikorka</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-forecast-2">Forecast</h3>



<p>Some experts think the mission to Mars is impossible without a national effort akin to the Apollo Missions. But NASA <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/multimedia/NASABudgetHistory.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">only receives 10%</a> of the budget it did during the Space Race. With its current funding, it is unlikely NASA will send someone to Mars before the late 2030s, perhaps later. That being said, NASA is under a presidential order to put a human on Mars by 2033.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.spacex.com/human-spaceflight/mars/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SpaceX</a>, on the other hand, claims it will send humans to Mars by 2024. I'm skeptical, but only time will tell.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886384 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1487449580.jpg" alt="space exploration, mars rover" class="wp-image-1886384"/><figcaption>A Mars rover collects Martian rocks. <a href="http://shutterstock.7eer.net/c/77643/108110/1305?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shutterstock.com%2Fimage-photo%2Fmars-explores-surface-planet-elements-this-1487449580&amp;subId1=1487449580">www.shutterstock.com</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-about-deep-space-exploration">What About Deep Space Exploration</h2>



<p>It's safe to say that deep space exploration is a long way off. Even if SpaceX makes it to Mars by 2024, the challenges getting humans to Jupiter, the next closest planet after Mars, will be greater than the challenges overcome to make it to Mars. If humans are to explore past our solar system, we need technologies far beyond our current capabilities. Don't hold your breath for deep space exploration any time before 2050, or perhaps even this century.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Space Exploration: Progress, Impact, & Forecast

Space exploration is a constant source of philosophical, moral, and...

Indoors,Chicken,Farm,,Chicken,Feeding

<span style="font-weight: 400;">What we eat, and the ways we farm our food, are complicated. With more humans on Earth than ever before, factory farming has risen as a way to feed people everywhere. So what is factory farming? Is it good or bad?&nbsp;</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s start with a concrete definition. <strong>Factory farming is defined as </strong></span><strong>a system of rearing livestock using intensive methods, by which poultry, pigs, or cattle are confined indoors under strictly controlled conditions.&nbsp;</strong>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There is plenty to say about the complexities of food and farming. There is incredible pressure on farmers as they do their work. The planet has a growing population that needs to be fed. Asking whether a global industry is “good” or “bad” is never a completely straight forward question. However, if you value the health of the planet, the civil rights of human beings, and you are against cruelty towards animals, there are really no ifs, ands, or buts about it -- factory farming is bad.&nbsp;</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876630" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/silo-1476422_1280-1024x623.jpg" alt="farming industry" width="1024" height="623">

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Agriculture and Society&nbsp;</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">By studying ancient cultures, scientists understand that around 12,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers started to transition to agriculture in order to provide for themselves and their families. With family units becoming more stationary, more complex societies began to form. What started with cultivating wild plants like </span><a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/07/15/485722228/where-did-agriculture-begin-oh-boy-its-complicated" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">peas and lentils</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> would eventually lead to skyscrapers and iPhones.&nbsp;</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The earliest farmers we know of resided in the fertile crescent -- modern-day Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Turkey, and Iran. This was not just one single group of people, though. Isolated groups of </span><a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/07/15/485722228/where-did-agriculture-begin-oh-boy-its-complicated" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">genetically diverse communities</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> remained insular for the first few thousand years. I</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">nstead of a melting pot, these settlements remained separate while trading tools, ideas, and communications with one another. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Over the course of tens of thousands of years, humanity went from domesticating goats to consuming over 550 million Big Mac burgers every year (</span><a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/big-mac-hits-the-big-4-0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">in the United States alone</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">). But at what cost?</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">&nbsp;</span>
<h2><strong>Cruelty Towards Animals&nbsp;</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">According to ASCPA, </span><a href="https://www.aspca.org/animal-cruelty/farm-animal-welfare" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">94% of Americans</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> agree that animals deserve to live abuse and cruelty-free. It is well documented that factory farms contain animals to cages, crates, and crowded pens. A term that pops up again and again while investigating these practices is “</span><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/plantsanimals/livestock/afo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">CAFOs.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">” This stands for concentrated animal feeding operations. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">A CAFO can house thousands or </span><a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/michigan/why-are-cafos-bad" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">millions of animals. </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">These facilities are seemingly efficient means for packing animals together in the smallest space possible. This is done in order to garner the highest profit. Not surprisingly, these operations have extremely negative impacts on animal welfare.&nbsp;</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">For example, while the U.S. slaughters over 9 billion chickens every year and another 30 million are used for egg production, chickens are </span><a href="https://www.aspca.org/animal-cruelty/farm-animal-welfare/animals-factory-farms#Chickens" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">excluded from all federal animal protection laws. </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">Female chickens are debeaked. After </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.farmsanctuary.org/learn/factory-farming/chickens/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mutilation</a>,</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> they are confined to small cages. They are stuffed together so tightly that their movements are extremely constricted. They are unable to live the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-psychology-birds-smart-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">active and social lives</a> that chickens exhibit naturally. When animals are stressed by over-crowded conditions, disease spreads easily.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The more you learn about the conditions of chickens, pigs, cows, and aquatic life in factory farming conditions, the worse it gets. It is difficult to comprehend the level of cruelty humans can exert towards other species. And if you’ve ever driven across the middle states of the U.S, you probably smelled these farms well before you saw them.&nbsp;</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Dead Zones and Other Environmental Factors&nbsp;</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Cruelty towards animals expands when you look at factory farms’ impact on the globe. The environmental effects of factory farms are nothing short of </span><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/04/factory-farming-destructive-wasteful-cruel-says-philip-lymbery-farmageddon-author" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">catastrophic.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Major concerns include the spread of </span><a href="https://www.cornucopia.org/2014/04/scientists-frustrated-factory-farms-scientific-evidence-non-sustainability-mounts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">infectious diseases, water pollution, and air pollution.</span></a>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Phillip Lymbery, the author of </span><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/02/farmageddon-philip-lymber-review-farming" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Farmageddon</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, explains that the focus needs to be </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">“moving the issue out of being a technical niche to get people to understand industrial farming as a big, global problem.” Lymbery stresses the fact that while factory farming might seem more efficient and cost-effective at first, the invisible costs of these operations far outweigh the benefits.&nbsp;</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">One of the previously invisible costs that we are suddenly learning a lot more about are “</span><a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">dead zones.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">” A dead zone is an area in the sea where farm pollutants create algal blooms that “kill off or disperse all </span><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">marine life.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">” One of the largest dead zones is in the Gulf of Mexico. Toxins from the global meatpacking industry are largely to blame.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1876631" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/27232.jpg" alt="deadzone " width="990" height="743">

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Opinion vs. Science&nbsp;</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Factory farming has been talked about as necessary for producing food on a global scale. It lowers costs for farmers. It reduces the prices of meat and dairy for consumers. These statements reveal a narrow economic viewpoint. This perspective assumes that we live on a planet of unlimited resources. If we do not invest in a livable planet, none of that matters.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Scientists and activists have been ringing the alarm bell for years on the dangers of this way of looking at industry and society. With growing awareness of climate change and sustainability practices, people are finally starting to listen. Consumers are not powerless. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Here is some food for thought: </span><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/08/if-everyone-ate-beans-instead-of-beef/535536/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">one third</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of Earth’s land is used for meat and dairy production. However, a recent study shows that if Americans switch their diets from beef to beans, the United States would achieve </span><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/08/if-everyone-ate-beans-instead-of-beef/535536/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">46 to 75 percent of the reductions</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> needed to meet their 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals. This is an exciting prospect. It is possible for us to make different choices, better choices for the health of our planet.&nbsp;</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1876632" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/goat-4362129_1280-1024x654.jpg" alt="goat" width="1024" height="654">

&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">With these factors in mind, do you think factory farming is good or bad? What are your experiences with meat production and consumption?&nbsp;</span>

&nbsp;

What Is Factory Farming? Is It Good Or Bad?

What we eat, and the ways we farm our food,...

If you look up at the sky on any clear night, you are sure to spot a man-made satellite. These devices crisscross the part of earth’s atmosphere called low-earth orbit (LEO). They provide essential services for GPS, telecommunications, images of Earth’s surface, and much more. Seeing all these makes you wonder, how many satellites are there in space that we know about? The Union of Concerned Scientists tracks all available information about satellites in space. They <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">currently list 2,062 satellites</a> orbiting the earth.

&nbsp;
<h2>A Brief History of Satellites</h2>
<h3>What Is a Satellite?</h3>
Though this may seem like a silly question, the answer may surprise you. Though we generally think of satellites as only the pieces of man-made technology that enable us to access Dish TV and use Google Maps, ‘satellite’ is actually a far more general term. <strong><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-a-satellite-58.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Any object orbiting a planet or a star</a> is technically a satellite.</strong> In this article, we will be focusing on artificial satellites.

&nbsp;
<h3>The First Artificial Satellites</h3>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1876342" align="aligncenter" width="1094"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1876342" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sputnik-986.jpg" alt="A replica of the original Russian sputnik satellite that was the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth." width="1094" height="896" /> A Replica of Sputnik[/caption]

&nbsp;

<a href="https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sputnik</a> made history on October 4, 1957, as the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth. Launched by the Soviet Union, this beachball sized hunk of metal ignited the space race. This technological arms race between the USA and the USSR lasted for decades. Though it was the result of the political tensions of the cold war, it resulted in the creation of many technologies that have become essential to daily life.

&nbsp;
<h3>Satellites do Everything</h3>
The ability to launch artificial satellites into space has allowed humanity to do many amazing things. From viewing high-resolution imagery of the entire surface of our planet, to pinpointing your location from a handheld device, we use satellites constantly.

Satellites are used for many things. Beyond the many consumer applications of satellites, governments also rely on these devices. Military communications, intelligence collection and much more is enabled by satellites. These classified satellites are shrouded in secrecy. Some adventurous <a href="https://www.popsci.com/zuma-spy-satellite-amateur-astronomer/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">amateur astronomers track and monitor these secret satellites</a>. There are hundreds of these secret satellites orbiting our planet.

Conservation efforts also <a href="http://mentalfloss.com/article/69903/8-cool-things-we-can-do-satellites" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">benefit greatly from satellite data</a>. Satellites are used to monitor bird migrations, track forest fires, stop illegal fishing and much more. Satellites are also essential to track global warming through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-track-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sea level data</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-confirms-global-warming-trends/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">temperature trends</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-biomass-earth-explorer-satellite/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carbon storage</a>.

&nbsp;
<h3>More Satellites Than Ever</h3>
Many companies and governments deploy satellites. As tech improves, satellites are getting cheaper and cheaper. Tiny “CubeSats” can be built for <a href="https://www.fool.com/investing/general/2016/05/22/got-25000-then-you-can-build-a-satellite-and-a-spa.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">as little as $25,000</a>. Though launching these satellites still costs millions, the barrier to getting an object into space is continually dropping. This means that more satellites than ever are going into space.

With so many satellites in space, crashes with space junk and other satellites are a growing problem. The “Kessler Syndrome” is a prediction about the eventual consequences of all these objects. As more satellites become junk, their risk of colliding and creating more junk increases. This could eventually lead to a domino effect, making low-earth-orbit too congested for satellites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-the-kessler-syndrome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Read more about this phenomenon in our article about the Kessler Syndrome</a>.

&nbsp;
<h2>The Who's Who of Satellites</h2>
The thousands of satellites in orbit around our planet come from many different sources. Both governments and companies own and operate satellites. As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-biggest-private-space-companies/">space industry begins to move further towards private industry</a>, so do the satellites in space. These satellites are constantly growing in number. The Union of Concerned Scientists has taken it upon themselves to do the important work of cataloging all of the satellites in space.

Understanding the origins, paths, and eventual fates of the thousands of satellites in space is important. Though satellites generally enter the atmosphere and burn up, as the number of satellites grows, so do the risks. More companies and governments than ever are launching satellites. Though the USA has the most satellites by far, many small countries have satellites.

Take a look at these charts for more information about the satellites in space. They were created from the Union of Concerned Scientist's dataset using Python Pandas and Plotly. Click on the images for an interactive version.

&nbsp;
<h2>Countries with More Than 10 Satellites</h2>
<a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com/satellite-charts/#satsbynat" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="alignnone wp-image-1876345 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Screenshot_2019-08-09-Screenshot.png" alt="Pie chart showing the proportion of satellites owned by different countries" width="949" height="833" /></a>
<h2>Satellites By Purpose</h2>
<a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com/satellite-charts/#satsbypurp" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="alignnone wp-image-1876346 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Screenshot_2019-08-09-Screenshot1.png" alt="Pie chart showing the proportions of satellites by their purpose." width="983" height="833" /></a>
<h2>Satellites By User</h2>
<a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com/satellite-charts/#satsbyuser" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="alignnone wp-image-1876347 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Screenshot_2019-08-09-Screenshot2.png" alt="Pie chart showing the proprtion of satellites by user" width="1025" height="701" /></a>

How Many Satellites in Space Do We Know About?

If you look up at the sky on any clear...

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