A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more time in the trees than previously assumed. This finding from the Max Planck Institute challenges long-standing ideas about the anatomy and evolution of gorillas.



Western and Bwindi mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">gorillas</a>, studied across Gabon and Uganda, were observed over many years. Even the largest males, weighing up to 170 kg, showed substantial tree use. 



Adult females in Loango spent 34% of their time in trees, while Bwindi females clocked 21%. That is a huge jump from the 7% figure for Virunga gorillas.



Study lead author Dr. Martha M. Robbins is a zoologist in the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute</a> for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“Adult females spent 20% to 30% of their time in the trees, while silverbacks spent 18% to 20% of their time being arboreal, which is much more than 2 to 7% found previously in the Virunga mountain gorillas,” said Dr. Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-gorillas-different-tree-habits">Different gorillas, different tree habits</h2>



The Virunga population shaped our early understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">gorilla</a> habits. These highland gorillas live in fruit-scarce zones and rarely climb. But the new study included data from five groups in Bwindi and one in Loango, totaling nearly 5,200 observation days.



The findings are clear: tree use varies widely between populations. Even juveniles and subadults in Bwindi and Loango spent 32% to 43% of their time in trees - double the rate seen in Virunga’s younger gorillas.



The researchers also found that body size plays a role but does not prevent tree climbing. 



“This demonstrates that the large body size of gorillas is not necessarily a limiting factor to tree climbing and that gorillas can be just as arboreal as some chimpanzee populations,” said co-author Rhianna Drummond-Clarke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-is-not-just-about-fruit">Climbing is not just about fruit</h2>



The researchers expected fruit to be the main driver behind climbing. While gorillas did climb more while eating fruit, the full story is more complex. In Loango, adult females were more arboreal when eating leaves than fruit. In Bwindi, the reverse was true.



Even silverbacks, the heaviest individuals, climbed trees to eat fruit. At Bwindi, silverbacks were arboreal 82% of the time they ate fruit. But fruit formed just 14% of their diet, meaning most of their tree time involved eating leaves.



At Loango, gorillas often ate fallen fruit from the ground. This shows fruit-eating can be a terrestrial act too. Meanwhile, western gorillas also ate lots of tree leaves, about 30% of their diet, driving folivorous tree use, similar to some monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-is-the-main-reason-to-climb">Feeding is the main reason to climb</h2>



What were the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/">gorillas</a> doing in trees? Mostly feeding. Adult female gorillas were far more likely to climb while feeding than when resting or traveling.



Even when eating nonfruit, Loango females climbed more than Bwindi ones. This likely reflects differences in diet and foraging strategy. The energy payoff from fruit seems to outweigh the climbing cost, especially for massive silverbacks.



Also, Loango females were heavier climbers than their Bwindi peers when not eating fruit. This surprising reversal shows that even leaf-seeking gorillas may spend considerable time off the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-ape-evolution">What this means for ape evolution</h2>



These results have big implications. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">Gorillas</a> have long been labeled as terrestrial because of their bulk and plant-heavy diets. But that view no longer holds. The study shows gorilla arboreality spans all life stages, from infants to adults.



That shift affects how we interpret the fossil record. Gorilla-like bones have been taken to suggest ground-based life. But frequent tree climbing changes the picture. 



“We demonstrate that large body size and a largely folivorous diet in apes are also consistent with frequent arboreality,” noted the study authors.



Studies of limb proportions and bone strength now suggest a range, from more tree-based western gorillas to more ground-based Virunga ones. 



This means our models of ancient human relatives may need adjustment. Gorilla-like features may not imply they lived solely on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-are-tree-climbers-not-just-walkers">Gorillas are tree climbers, not just walkers</h2>



Gorillas are not just forest-floor giants. They climb often and for various reasons. From feeding on leaves to exploring the canopy, these behaviors offer key insights into how apes, including humans, evolved.



Future research may look into how such large animals navigate trees. They might distribute their weight across branches or use special movement strategies, similar to orangutans or chimpanzees. 



This research opens new doors in our understanding of ape mobility and evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00590-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gorillas spend much more time in trees than we previously thought

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more...

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy after members of Howard Carter’s team died not long after opening Tutankhamun’s tomb.



Decades later, a similar fate befell scientists who entered the crypt of Poland’s King Casimir IV. Within weeks, 10 of the 12 researchers succumbed to respiratory illness, and investigators traced the deadly outbreak to dormant A. flavus spores. 



Long dismissed as a toxic mold, Aspergillus flavus has revealed a new role: producing compounds that match some of the most trusted cancer therapies for acute myeloid leukemia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-aspergillus-flavus-the-basics">Understanding Aspergillus flavus - the basics</h2>



This fungus is commonly found in soil, decaying vegetation, and grains. It thrives in warm, humid environments, which makes it a persistent problem in agricultural settings - especially in crops like corn, peanuts, and tree nuts. 



What makes it particularly concerning is its ability to produce aflatoxins, which are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds. 



Aflatoxin contamination in food can pose serious health risks to both humans and livestock, prompting strict regulations and regular testing in the food industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mold-s-molecular-treasure-map">Mold’s molecular treasure map</h2>



The breakthrough came from Sherry Gao’s laboratory at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where researchers hunt for drugs hidden in microbial genomes.



The team focused on ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides, or RiPPs - small, ring-shaped molecules known for complex bioactivity. Scientists have cataloged thousands of RiPPs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">bacteria</a>, but they've found only a handful in fungi.



“Purifying these chemicals is difficult,” explained lead author Qiuyue Nie, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pennsylvania. Moreover, scientists can easily overlook the genes that direct their synthesis.



Using a two-pronged strategy, the team first compared the chemical fingerprints of a dozen Aspergillus strains, then zeroed in on gene clusters likely to encode RiPP machinery. 



Turning those genes off caused the mysterious chemical peaks to vanish. This confirmed the researchers had found an active RiPP factory inside the tomb-dwelling mold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-mold-to-cancer-medicine">From tomb mold to cancer medicine</h2>



Isolation and structural analysis revealed four previously unknown molecules sporting an intricate lattice of interlocking rings. The scientists named them asperigimycins in honor of their fungal source.



Two of the four showed notable activity against leukemia cells straight out of the flask, but a chemical tweak proved transformative.



By adding a fatty tail identical to one found in royal jelly - the nutrient-rich substance that turns ordinary bee larvae into queens - the team produced a lipid-capped asperigimycin. It matched cytarabine and daunorubicin, drugs that have anchored leukemia care since the 1970s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-drug-gets-inside">How the drug gets inside </h2>



Why did that extra lipid unleash such power? Gao’s group deployed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/">CRISPR</a>-based screen, knocking out genes in leukemia cells and tracking changes in drug uptake. 



One transporter, SLC46A3, emerged as essential. It normally shuttles nutrients out of lysosomes, the cell’s recycling compartments. The researchers learned that the fatty tag let the mold-derived asperigimycins hitch a ride through this portal.



“This gene acts like a gateway,” Nie said. “Knowing that lipids can affect how this gene transports chemicals into cells gives us another tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oral-peptides-pave-the-way-for-new-drug-development/">drug development</a>.” 



The insight may rescue other cyclic peptides that falter in trials because they cannot cross cellular barriers efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disarming-cancer-s-dividing-machinery"><a></a>Disarming cancer’s dividing machinery</h2>



Microscopy and biochemical assays showed that the modified asperigimycins halt tumor growth by sabotaging microtubules, the protein scaffolds that haul chromosomes apart during mitosis.



Intriguingly, the mold-derived molecules left breast, liver, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-can-sniff-out-lung-cancer/">lung cancer</a> lines largely untouched, as well as an array of bacteria and yeast. 



That selectivity hints at fewer side effects for patients, a perennial challenge for chemotherapy agents that indiscriminately target all fast-dividing cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mold-modern-answers">Ancient mold, modern answers</h2>



For decades, scientists debated how fungi construct RiPPs, often mistaking them for non-ribosomal peptides. The current study resolves that puzzle by linking chemical signatures to the responsible genes.



“The synthesis of these compounds is complicated, but that’s also what gives them this remarkable bioactivity," said Nie.



Comparative genomic scans have already flagged similar RiPP gene clusters in dozens of other molds, suggesting a trove of undiscovered molecules with antibiotic, antiviral, or immunomodulatory potential. According to Nie, this is an unexplored region with tremendous potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-to-trial">From tomb to trial</h2>



The next step is to test asperigimycins in mice to gauge toxicity, dosage, and efficacy in living organisms. Success there could pave the way for human clinical trials. Gao, reflecting on the journey from tomb lore to lab bench, recalls one guiding principle.



“Fungi gave us penicillin. These results show that many more medicines derived from natural products remain to be found,” Gao said.



Nature’s pantry still holds untold remedies waiting to be unlocked. With each advance in genomic mining and synthetic tailoring, the line between microbial menace and medical marvel grows ever thinner.



It’s a testament to evolution’s vast chemical imagination - and to scientists bold enough to mine mold and other microbes for the next life-saving drug.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41589-025-01946-9">Nature Chemical Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Toxic mold found in ancient tombs has been engineered into a promising cancer drug

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy...

Smiling,Mature,Mother,And,Adult,Daughter,On,Sofa,In,Living

Imagine chatting over coffee with your grandmother when she pauses mid-sentence and mutters, “Oh, what’s the word I’m looking for?” That familiar snag - scientists call it word-finding difficulty (WFD) - often arrives long before gray hair or reading glasses. It can feel trivial, yet it quietly hints at how the brain ages.



Those hesitations pop up everywhere, from grocery aisles to family reunions. They even slip into laboratory tasks designed to stress-test language. 



Far from mere annoyance, a faltering word can help clinicians spot trouble brewing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-during-sleep-decides-if-new-or-old-memories-are-replayed/">memory networks</a> years before other symptoms emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-word-finding-difficulty-wfd">Word-finding difficulty (WFD)</h2>



Early work at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> and <a href="https://www.baycrest.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baycrest Health Sciences</a> ties WFD to the same neural highways that falter in Alzheimer’s disease. 



Researchers note that slower speech, rather than the odd lapse, tracks most closely with overall cognitive health. 



Beyond disease, fresh evidence links verbal fluency to longevity; adults who keep words flowing live longer than peers whose speech grows hesitant.



Because everyday talk is complex, scientists break the puzzle into manageable pieces. 



Clues come from spontaneous pauses like “um,” “uh,” and from those frustrating “tip-of-the-tongue” moments when meaning is clear but the sound won’t surface. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-wfd-theories">Three WFD theories</h2>



One camp blames a global slowdown. The processing speed theory says an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/">aging brain</a> resembles an old laptop that needs a beat to open each file. 



Neural transmissions still fire, just more leisurely, leading to extra silence before the right syllable appears.



Another view, the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33934024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inhibition deficit</a> hypothesis, argues that older adults struggle to hush irrelevant notions. Competing names or ideas intrude, and mental traffic control can’t wave them aside quickly. 



Yet real-world conversations rarely show a flood of wrong guesses, casting doubt on inhibition as the chief culprit.



A third explanation zooms straight into language. The <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319777924_Research_into_Tip_of_the_Tongue_State_Transmission_Deficit_Model_vs_Blocking_Hypothesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission deficit</a> hypothesis pictures vocabulary as a layered web: concept at the top, word form in the middle, and sound at the bottom. 



Age loosens the link between the middle and bottom tiers, so the speaker knows the concept but can’t launch its sound. That fragile connection makes spoken naming harder than listening or reading, which rely on sturdier routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picture-word-game">Picture-word game</h2>



To probe these ideas, scientists use <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35389697/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">picture-word interference</a> tasks. Volunteers see a picture - say, a dog - while a word flashes or plays. If that word is “cat,” its meaning overlaps and slows the answer. 



If it is “fog,” the shared consonant kick-starts articulation. This setup teases apart semantic and phonological forces without the messiness of free conversation.



Moving experiments online has boosted participation. Researchers turned the task into a fast-paced game, keeping attention high across all ages. 



Reaction times shrink into the millisecond range, revealing hiccups long before a listener hears any stumble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-125-volunteers-revealed">What 125 volunteers revealed</h2>



In one study, 125 adults aged 18 to 85 tackled the game, logged executive-function scores, and recorded natural chat for later analysis. 



Older participants slowed markedly when “cat” accompanied a dog image and enjoyed less help from a “fog” cue. Those patterns matched the weakened pathway predicted by the transmission deficit hypothesis.



Yet when daily speech samples were scored, neither semantic slowdown nor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-planning-how-our-brains-prepare-to-speak/">phonological</a> boost predicted real-life WFD. 



Instead, overall reaction time - the raw speed of pulling any word - stood out as the best indicator. The finding nudged attention back toward general <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/">processing speed</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-outpaces-distraction">Speed outpaces distraction</h2>



Follow-up work confirmed that the cadence of ordinary talk mirrors cognitive vitality. The University of Toronto team found that people who spoke more slowly also scored lower on tasks requiring planning and focus, even when word-finding errors were rare. 



Crucially, pauses to chase a lost word did not track with decline; what mattered was how briskly sentences rolled once the right words appeared.



This distinction eases common worries. A brief hunt for a noun may simply reflect normal aging, whereas a gradual slowdown in fluent speech could wave a red flag earlier than memory tests. 



Clinicians now argue that talking speed belongs in standard cognitive checkups, alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-you-position-your-arm-can-alter-blood-pressure-readings-according-to-scientists/">blood pressure</a> and reflex taps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-early-detection">Looking ahead to early detection</h2>



The picture-word game offers a quick, engaging way to capture subtle shifts before they tip into impairment. Because it measures speed and accuracy together, it may outshine traditional naming lists for spotting risk early. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-baby-talk-reveals-about-infant-learning/">Speech-analysis</a> software, already parsing recordings for millisecond pauses, could soon alert physicians when a patient’s verbal tempo drifts.



Meanwhile, everyday habits still matter. Conversational practice, storytelling, word games, and even learning new languages keep those neural pathways exercised. 



Just as daily walks support the heart, lively chatter supports the mind. And when a loved one stalls on a name, patience helps more than finishing the thought for them. 



Sometimes the right word arrives on its own schedule - one more reminder that brains, like conversations, thrive when given a little time to breathe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13825585.2024.2315774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists identify a speech pattern that is a clear indication of a person in cognitive decline

Imagine chatting over coffee with your grandmother when she pauses...

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees...

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically. New research shows that a similar boost happens in our closest cousins.



An international team led by <a href="https://bloomington.iu.edu/">Indiana University</a> scientists has discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">bonobos</a> become more upbeat after hearing the giggles of their companions. This finding pushes the evolutionary history of positive emotions back millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-changed-ape-choices">Laughter changed ape choices</h2>



To explore laughter’s influence, the researchers designed a cognitive-bias test often used in animal psychology to gauge optimism or pessimism.



First, they trained bonobos at the <a href="https://www.apeinitiative.org/">Ape Initiative</a> in Des Moines, Iowa, to recognize two kinds of boxes: black ones that always contained a delicious snack and white ones that were always empty.



Once the apes consistently chose black and ignored white, the experimenters introduced a third, ambiguous gray box. They then played one of two sounds: recorded bonobo laughter or a neutral control noise.



“We know that other apes, like chimpanzees, have contagious laughter during play," said lead author Sasha Winkler, a primatologist at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. "We were wondering if that behavior could be explained by positive emotions produced from the sound itself.” 



If the bonobos felt a surge of good feeling after hearing laughter, the team expected them to treat the uncertain gray box as if it were the rewarding black one.



That is exactly what happened. “Think of it like the rose-colored glasses effect,” Winkler said. “The bonobos were much more likely to approach the gray boxes after hearing laughter, treating them like the rewarded boxes, and indicating a more optimistic expectation of finding a treat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-optimism-to-our-ancestors">Tracing optimism to our ancestors</h2>



This study is the first experimental proof that great-ape laughter can shift mood and cognition the way human laughter does.



“The tendency to behave more optimistically after hearing laughter suggests that the sound alone induced a positive emotional state in bonobos,” said senior author Erica Cartmill, the director of Indiana University’s Cognitive Science Program.



“This is the first study of which we're aware to measure a positive affect shift in nonhuman primates from a brief experimental intervention.”



Great apes -&nbsp; bonobos, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/">chimpanzees</a>, gorillas, orangutans - all emit play calls that acoustically resemble human chuckles. Earlier work tied those sounds to a common evolutionary origin. The new findings add a cognitive twist.



“Our results suggest that laughter in other apes shares not only phylogenetic and behavioral similarities with human laughter but also perhaps some of the same cognitive-emotional underpinnings,” Winkler noted.



“This emotional contagion appears to have been present in the primate lineage long before the evolution of language.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-empathy-and-apes">Laughter, empathy, and apes</h2>



Emotional contagion is often described as a foundational element of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-benjamina-the-oldest-evidence-of-social-empathy-in-humans/">empathy</a> - the capacity to share another’s feelings. As Winkler put it, “studies like ours can help to untangle the evolutionary building blocks of empathy, communication, and cooperation in humans.”



By revealing that a simple vocal cue can brighten outlooks in bonobos, the research suggests that the mechanisms linking social sound to positive mood were already in place in a common ancestor millions of years ago.



Cartmill added that the work answers a long-standing bias in emotion research. “Our emotions influence many aspects of cognition, including memory, attention, and decision-making, but research has historically focused on negative emotions with clear behavioral correlates, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-pathway-discovered-that-suppresses-fear/">fear</a> and aggression.”



“We wanted to better understand the relationship between positive affect and cognition in our closest living relatives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kanzi-and-the-future-of-empathy">Kanzi and the future of empathy</h2>



The experiments involved four bonobos, including the celebrated language-using ape Kanzi, who recently passed away.



“I feel incredibly grateful to have had the opportunity to work with Kanzi while he was still alive,” Winkler said. 



“We hope this brings greater public awareness of the remarkable similarities between us and bonobos, who are an endangered species. We have so much to learn from these incredible animals.”



Future studies will test whether laughter exerts similar cognitive effects in chimpanzees and other primates. They will also explore how social context - for example, hearing laughs from friends versus strangers - modulates optimism.



For now, the discovery that bonobo giggles brighten expectations highlights a shared emotional heritage and hints that a simple laugh has been boosting group spirits since long before humans walked the Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02594-8">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Laughter lifts bonobo moods, offering clues to human emotion

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically....

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World Microbiome Day, it aims to protect microbial diversity before it disappears. This nonprofit project, inspired by the Svalbard Seed Vault, wants to preserve crucial microbes from people, animals and the environment.



"The Microbiota Vault Initiative represents a proactive effort to protect and preserve the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">microbial</a> life that is essential for the health of our planet and its inhabitants," noted Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello, who leads the initiative.



With guidance from 25 scientists across different continents, the Vault is shaping global policy on microbial conservation. By archiving healthy microbes, the Vault could help future generations prevent health crises and ecological collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbes-are-disappearing">Why microbes are disappearing</h2>



Microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/">communities</a> keep our systems running. In humans, they help digest food, shape immunity and reduce disease risk. In soil, they recycle nutrients and maintain plant growth. In permafrost, they trap carbon and control methane emissions.



But modern lifestyles are chipping away at these microbial partners. Dominguez-Bello’s research shows that cesarean births, antibiotics, and formula feeding disrupt gut microbes. Industrial diets also harm beneficial species.



"The microbiome is under big threat, a threat that is in many ways analogous to climate change," warned Martin Blaser, the Henry Rutgers Chair of the Human Microbiome at Rutgers University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbiota-vault-is-different">Why Microbiota Vault is different</h2>



Unlike seed banks that back up crop genetics, this vault goes further. It stores unique microbes that might never be collected again. Samples come from human stool, fermented foods and, soon, vulnerable environments. 



Already, over 1,200 human samples and 190 food samples have been cryopreserved at minus 80 degrees Celsius (minus 112 degrees Fahrenheit) in Zurich.



The initiative stores backup copies at the depositor’s request. All rights remain with local collectors. They can ask for DNA sequencing under open-access terms. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-known-nutrient-can-boost-your-brain-and-fight-cancer/">vault</a> itself does not patent or commercialize anything.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-effort-ethical">What makes this effort ethical</h2>



From the start, ethics and fairness have guided every decision. Depositors retain full control. Communities that supply samples get proper recognition and share in any future benefits.



"We are absolutely committed to developing the Microbiota Vault in a way that maximizes equity around the world.," stated Dominguez-Bello.



Workshops help researchers adopt standard protocols. The Global Microbiome Network symposia (<a href="https://www.microbiotavault.org/event/glomine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GloMiNe</a>), held annually, bring together scientists, ethicists, and policymakers. Locations so far include Peru, Africa, Asia and Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-helps-the-climate">Microbiota Vault helps the climate</h2>



Losses in microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-link-between-obesity-anxiety-and-gut-microbiome-changes/">biodiversity</a> threaten both human and planetary health. For instance, Bifidobacterium infantis, once common in infant guts, is declining in industrial societies. This loss links to higher allergy and diabetes risks.



Other examples are equally worrying. The bacterium Helicobacter pylori, though known for causing ulcers, once helped regulate immune responses. Its decline may contribute to the incidence of asthma and metabolic issues. 



In nature, Methanoflorens stordalenmirensis, which is found in Arctic permafrost, helps control methane storage. Losing it could worsen climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-for-the-future">Building for the future</h2>



The current Microbiota Vault development phase, called “Growth Phase 1,” will run to 2029. Scientists aim to collect 10,000 samples and build a permanent vault in a cold region like Switzerland or Canada. Future steps include adding samples from threatened environments and improving global capacity.



Though techniques for restoring microbes remain uncertain, storing them now may support future therapies and climate recovery. Reintroducing extinct microbes may not be possible, but preserving them offers a vital safety net.



"If it is too late, and key members of the microbiome are gone, like the dodo bird, we can't restore them, unless we have them safely stored away" remarked Blaser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-joins-global-efforts">Microbiota Vault joins global efforts</h2>



This is not just a scientific project. It is a worldwide call to recognize microbial diversity as essential heritage. The Vault works with Indigenous communities, emphasizes depositor sovereignty, and engages with global biodiversity policies, including the Nagoya Protocol.



The initiative also partners with other efforts like the Global Microbiome Conservancy and the U.K. Crop Microbiome Cryobank, building a united front to conserve life’s smallest allies.



The Microbiota Vault is not a backup plan, it is a lifeline. In the face of ecological and health threats, it offers a rare chance to act before more vital microbes are lost.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61008-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Microbial vault: The race to save Earth's disappearing microbes

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World...

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a single variety: the creamy Hass. That genetic sameness has streamlined production into a multibillion-dollar industry. 



But it also invites disaster, as uniform orchards can collapse quickly when faced with a new pest, pathogen, or heat wave.



To find a different path, experts from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> have traveled far back in time - 11,000 years - to a Honduran rockshelter whose charred ancient avocado pits chronicle the birth of the crop and offer clues to a more resilient future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-fossils-in-a-cave">Avocado fossils in a cave</h2>



El Gigante, perched high in the western Honduran highlands, is a natural vault. Its dry interior has preserved plant remains that would normally rot in the humid tropics.



“It’s a truly incredible preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plant fossils</a> and an abundance of avocado remains in a tropical region where plants generally do not preserve well,” said co-author Heather B. Thakar, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&amp;M.



Layer upon layer of seeds, rinds, and other botanical scraps lie undisturbed, creating a sequential record of human meals - and human influence on local plants - stretching back to the end of the last ice age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-outlived-their-giants">Avocados outlived their giants</h2>



According to the scientists, avocados first evolved to entice gigantic browsers such as gomphotheres and mammoths.



“Avocados are an amazing food source for humans, rich in healthy fats and nutrients that are essential to us,” Thakar said.



“But they originally evolved as a food source for ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/">megafauna</a> like giant sloths (gomphotheres) and mammoths that lived in the Americas during the last ice age.”



When those animals disappeared, humans stepped in to fill the ecological vacancy. Evidence at El Gigante shows early foragers selectively tending wild trees, nurturing seedlings with bigger seeds and fleshier fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-over-thousands-of-years">Farming over thousands of years</h2>



The team radiocarbon-dated hundreds of pits and rinds to build an exceptionally fine-grained timeline. Measurements revealed a steady upsizing: seeds grew larger and rinds thicker as the centuries passed.



“Through traditional forest management practices, people were selecting bigger and thicker-skinned avocados,” Thakar noted.



By 7,500 years ago, fruit size and durability hint that growers could harvest and transport avocados across larger distances. Full domestication appears roughly 2,000 years ago. 



That makes avocado cultivation in Honduras older than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">maize</a>, beans, or squash - crops that would later dominate Mesoamerican farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-lessons-for-future-crops">Past lessons for future crops</h2>



“Our work with El Gigante's avocado remains offers valuable information about resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change,” Thakar said.



Unlike modern orchardists who propagate identical Hass cuttings through grafting, ancient farmers planted seeds, preserving genetic variety.



“Much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> of ancient avocados still exists in wild populations in Mexico and Central America,” Thakar added.



“By developing new avocado varieties through seed selection from both modern domesticated plants and wild populations, we may have a better chance of adapting to these changing conditions than relying on cloning alone.”



Broadening commercial stock with traits such as drought tolerance or disease resistance could buffer future harvests against environmental shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-avocado-cave-earns-global-notice">Ancient avocado cave earns global notice</h2>



Scientists and local communities alike recognize El Gigante not just for its cultural importance, but for its scientific value as well. 



Honduras has proposed the shelter for <a href="https://www.wmf.org/videos/content-world-monuments-fund-and-unesco-world-heritage-sites?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22461168217&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAD4zJBFj8U_yyOJyxKFquaCnnbg_W&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw64jDBhDXARIsABkk8J4mTznkcgn5ncX37Yk-yEugipmynhK175QfaNBsiUamSXP-bxWKUXQaAi-cEALw_wcB">UNESCO World Heritage</a> status, and Thakar’s team supplies documentation to bolster the case.



“All of the research that we have undertaken is used in support of El Gigante's recent nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage site,” she said.



Although the site’s awkward three-meter climb has deterred looters, occasional campers and hunters do stray inside - making formal protection urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cave-full-of-agriculture">A cave full of agriculture</h2>



El Gigante also stores early evidence for squash and maize domestication. Thakar is actively working on a publication that details the arrival of maize and the 4,500 years of diversification and improvement of this globally important crop.



Thakar's methods - radiocarbon dating, stable-isotope chemistry, and 3-D morphometrics - merge hard science with cultural anthropology. 



She applies this toolkit across Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua to map humanity’s long partnership with plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-modern-lessons">Ancient farming, modern lessons</h2>



“The vast majority of food consumed today is a product of domestication,” Thakar said.



Understanding that protracted process can guide modern breeders. Ancient cultivators operated without greenhouses or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/">genetic engineering</a>, yet they produced crops - like avocadoes - exquisitely tuned to local soils and climates.



Unearthing those forgotten lineages may reveal alleles lost in today’s streamlined varieties. 



“By studying domestication, we can recover ancient varieties and cultural knowledge that has helped humans become the incredibly successful species that we are," said Thakar.



"It's information that can be used to improve our crops today and ensure our continued survival into the future."



From a Honduran cliffside to global orchards, the avocado’s story shows that agricultural resilience springs from diversity - and that sometimes the best way forward is to look back.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417072122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cave discovery of ancient avocados could rescue a global crop

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a...

Closeup,Of,X-ray,Image,Of,Teeth,And,Mouth,With,All

Millions of Americans schedule wisdom‑tooth surgery each year, treating the third molars as little more than biological clutter. However, these grinders hide valuable dental stem cells at their core, and may prove to be critical in the treatment of several serious diseases. 



That routine visit to your dentist could soon double as the first step in a personalized medical plan, now that researchers have confirmed the teeth hide stem cells with a knack for rebuilding bone, cartilage, and even nerve tissue. 



The research was led by Dr. Gaskon Ibarretxe, an associate professor in the Cell Biology and Histology Department at the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Basque Country</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-hidden-cells">Unlocking hidden cells</h2>



Every wisdom tooth shelters a soft core called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39849603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dental pulp</a>, a vascular pocket that keeps the tooth alive. 



Scientists have isolated pulp‑resident cells that behave like immature body builders, able to transform into neurons, heart muscle or bone, once coaxed in the lab.



Ibarretxe’s team recently turned pulp cells into electrically excitable neuron‑like cells, that could fire the voltage spikes that real neurons use to talk.



“That jump from marker expression to genuine electrical activity is essential, because damaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-changes-in-the-brain-between-the-ages-of-11-25-and-how-it-influence-our-decisions/">brain</a> circuits need cells that can send signals,” noted Ibarretxe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harvesting-stem-cells-from-teeth">Harvesting stem cells from teeth</h2>



Roughly 10 million wisdom teeth are removed in the United States every year. Most head straight to a biomedical‑waste bin, yet each freshly extracted tooth offers a painless harvest of living tissue.



Dentists usually perform these surgeries on teens or young adults, an age sweet spot when pulp cells still divide briskly and carry few DNA errors.



Laboratories already partner with oral‑surgery clinics to bank teeth on dry ice, then ship them to GMP‑grade freezers where the pulp is processed and stored in liquid nitrogen. 



<a href="https://stemodontics.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stemodontics</a>, one such service, calls the practice “biological insurance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-stem-cells-are-medical-assets">Dental stem cells are medical assets</h2>



Most extracted wisdom teeth are discarded without a second thought, but some companies now offer preservation kits to turn this waste into long-term medical assets. 



The kits are sent to dental offices ahead of time and include all materials needed to keep the dental stem cells in the pulp viable during transport.



Unlike embryonic or cord blood stem cells, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24850632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dental pulp stem cells</a> are collected with minimal ethical concerns, since the tissue would otherwise be thrown away. 



This makes them a practical choice for expanding access to personalized regenerative therapies, especially as the cost of stem cell banking continues to fall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-stem-cells-and-disease">Dental stem cells and disease</h2>



Pre‑clinical studies show that dental‑pulp cells can ease motor symptoms in rodent models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/">Parkinson's</a> disease by replacing lost dopamine‑making neurons.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/">Alzheimer’s</a> research, the same cells secrete growth factors that protect synapses and may slow the buildup of toxic proteins. A 2024 <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2024.1440334/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> outlined how pulp‑derived cells help clear amyloid plaques and calm brain inflammation.



Clinical momentum is growing. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41591-025-00036-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a> recently reported early‑phase trials in which stem‑cell implants survived and released dopamine in people with Parkinson’s. 



While those trials used embryonic lines, dental stem cells may offer similar benefits without the ethical baggage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-personal-biobank">Building a personal biobank</h2>



Banking one’s own dental stem cells eliminates immune‑rejection worries, and can shave months off treatment timelines that would otherwise require donor matching.



Extraction logistics are straightforward: the oral surgeon places each tooth into a sterile vial, couriers rush the package to a lab, and technicians thaw, isolate, and freeze the pulp cells in under 24 hours.



The upfront fee rivals that of cord‑blood banking, yet the potential payoff spans decades because adult stem‑cell lines can be expanded repeatedly for multiple therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-used-in-multiple-health-issues">Stem cells used in multiple health issues </h2>



Outside the nervous system, dental stem cells build mineralized tissue faster than bone‑marrow cells, making them attractive for use in jaw repair after tumor surgery.



Cardiologists have tested dental‑pulp secretions in mice with heart failure and found improved ejection fractions, hinting at the potential for future cardiac patches grown from a patient’s own molar.



Orthopedic researchers see value too: in vitro, the cells lay down collagen and calcium in orderly sheets that mimic healthy cartilage, a property that could revolutionize joint‑repair grafts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-therapies-for-disease">Breakthrough therapies for disease </h2>



Regulators still need long‑term safety data, especially because transplanted cells must integrate without forming tumors.



Researchers are drafting multicenter trials that compare pulp‑cell implants with standard deep‑brain stimulation for movement disorders. 



If the dental stem cells restore function and trim health‑care costs, dentists may soon hand every patient a preservation kit along with post‑op ice packs.



The field also faces equity questions: wisdom‑tooth banking should not become a luxury limited to families who can afford elective services. Public biobanks or insurance incentives could close that gap.



For now, the message is simple: before tossing those molars, consider the regenerative gold hiding inside. The next breakthrough therapy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer's</a> disease or spinal‑cord injury may start with the tooth your dentist once called an inconvenience.



The study is published in <a href="https://stemcellres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13287-025-04134-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stem Cell Research &amp; Therapy</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stem cells from extracted wisdom teeth are like "medical gold," able to treat multiple diseases

Millions of Americans schedule wisdom‑tooth surgery each year, treating the...

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s ancient past reveals societies already grappling with climate instability, using various coping strategies to adapt. 



During the Holocene Epoch, which began around 11,000 years ago, ecosystems transformed drastically. 



A wet phase known as the African Humid Period brought widespread rains for millennia. It was followed by increasing aridity, shrinking lakes, and expanding deserts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-climate-strategies-were-flexible">Ancient climate strategies were flexible </h2>



Faced with these upheavals, ancient African societies responded not with uniformity but flexibility. 



The communities crafted livelihoods that mixed herding, cultivation, fishing, and foraging. These combinations helped them survive long-term environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">change</a>.



"What we see is not a linear story of progress but a complex mosaic of strategies that helped people stay resilient. That has real lessons for food systems today," said Leanne N. Phelps, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-show-climate-driven-changes">Bones show climate-driven changes</h2>



The research team analyzed isotopes from human and animal remains across Africa. These isotopes carry the chemical signature of consumed foods. For instance, C3 plants like wheat grow in cooler, wetter areas. C4 plants such as millet and sorghum thrive in hot, dry regions.



By grouping individuals with similar isotope profiles, the team identified isotopic niches. These niches matched unique livelihood strategies. Then, researchers linked these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">strategies</a> with archaeological and ecological data.



One key finding: pastoral-based diets had the widest range of carbon values. That suggests livestock-based lifestyles adapted to diverse conditions. C3 crop-based strategies, on the other hand, were more limited in range and geography.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-pastoralism">The role of pastoralism</h2>



Pastoralism was the most common livelihood in the archaeological record, appearing at 61% of studied sites. 



Pastoral systems showed high variation in diet and environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">setting</a>, from dry savannas to elevated plateaus. Some involved cattle or camel specialization. Others blended livestock with foraged or aquatic foods.



By contrast, ancient cultivation based on C3 plants like wheat and barley appeared in fewer locations and narrower climate zones. 



These farming systems depended more on stable water sources, such as those in the Nile Valley or Ethiopian highlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-foraging-and-blended-strategies">Fishing, foraging, and blended strategies</h2>



Aquatic-based diets showed strong enrichment in nitrogen isotopes, indicating heavy fish consumption. These strategies were especially common near coastal zones or large lakes, including in South Africa and around Lake Chad.



Some communities combined foraging and farming or practiced mixed herding-hunting-fishing strategies. 



In the Zambezi Basin, such blending appeared around 2,000 years ago. It may reflect social contact between Bantu-speaking farmers moving south and San hunter-gatherers moving north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-climate-strategies-across-regions">Distinct climate strategies across regions</h2>



Different regions across the African continent developed distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-elite-responsible-for-majority-of-global-climate-warming/">strategies</a> in response to their unique environmental conditions. 



In East Africa, the presence of elevated terrain combined with highly seasonal rainfall created favorable conditions for the development of specialized pastoral systems. 



These highland areas offered varied microclimates that could support livestock grazing even during challenging periods, allowing herding communities to flourish.



On the other hand, West Africa experienced a slower progression toward intensive food production. This delay may have been influenced by several factors. 



One key challenge was the prevalence of livestock diseases, particularly trypanosomiasis, which is spread by tsetse flies and affects cattle health. 



Additionally, the region's flatter landscapes and relatively uniform ecological zones may have limited the range of adaptable subsistence strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-patterns-and-climate-adaptation">Dietary patterns and climate adaptation </h2>



Isotopic evidence from human and animal remains reveals how dietary patterns shifted over time. In the northern parts of Africa, declining rainfall led to increased reliance on C3 plants, which grow better in cooler, wetter environments. 



Meanwhile, in southern regions, rising rainfall levels were associated with greater consumption of C4 plants and expanded use of livestock, signaling a growing emphasis on pastoralism. 



These dietary shifts reflect broader trends in ecological adaptation and livelihood restructuring across millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ancient-climate-strategies">Learning from ancient climate strategies </h2>



Ancient Africa's response to climate instability shows that survival came from adaptability. The research concludes that no single solution worked across the continent. Instead, resilience emerged from flexible strategies that reflected local conditions.



"If we want climate solutions and global environmental change solutions to work, they need to be rooted in an understanding of the way that people have been using available resources throughout time," said Phelps.



This deep-time perspective reveals a crucial insight: durable strategies come from local knowledge, ecological awareness, and diversified livelihoods. Past success stories may yet help shape tomorrow’s responses to a changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(25)00130-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ancient societies used mixed strategies to survive climate change

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s...

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is trying something new. 



Engineers have taught the spacecraft how to roll - hard. This isn't just a simple tilt. These are full-body rolls, sometimes nearly upside down.



The purpose is to see deeper beneath the surface of Mars and hunt for signs of water and ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teaching-mars-orbiter-to-roll">Teaching Mars Orbiter to roll </h2>



The new technique comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 



Between 2023 and 2024, MRO performed three massive rotations - what the team calls "very large rolls" - to boost the performance of one of its key instruments.



“Not only can you teach an old spacecraft new tricks, you can open up entirely new regions of the subsurface to explore by doing so,” said Gareth Morgan of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-planning-and-careful-balance">Advanced planning and careful balance </h2>



Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was originally built to roll up to 30 degrees to aim its cameras and sensors at specific features on the Martian surface. 



It's a flexible platform, designed to twist and turn in space so scientists can target impact craters, landing zones, and more.



“We’re unique in that the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farewell-to-gaia-the-spacecraft-that-mapped-the-milky-way/">spacecraft</a> and its software are designed to let us roll all the time,” said Reid Thomas, MRO’s project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



But the bigger rolls - 120 degrees or more - are something else entirely. These require advanced planning and careful balance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-why-every-roll-counts">Mars Orbiter: Why every roll counts</h2>



MRO's five main science instruments all have different needs. When one is pointed at Mars, others might lose their ideal view.



That means every maneuver is scheduled weeks in advance. Teams negotiate which instruments will be active and when. 



An algorithm takes over from there, guiding the orbiter to roll and aim while keeping its solar panels locked on the Sun and its antenna aimed at Earth. For very large rolls, even those systems go dark temporarily.



“The very large rolls require a special analysis to make sure we’ll have enough power in our batteries to safely do the roll,” Thomas said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flipping-for-stronger-radar-returns">Flipping for stronger radar returns</h2>



The massive rolls are especially helpful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shallow-ice-discovered-on-mars-could-help-future-human-missions/">SHARAD</a>, the Shallow Radar instrument on board. It is designed to see about half a mile to 1.2 miles (0.8 - 1.9 kilometers) below the Martian surface. 



SHARAD can also differentiate between ice, rock, and sand - a crucial capability for identifying water that future astronauts might one day use.



“The SHARAD instrument was designed for the near-subsurface, and there are select regions of Mars that are just out of reach for us,” said Morgan. “There is a lot to be gained by taking a closer look at those regions.”



Normally, SHARAD's signals bounce off parts of the orbiter before hitting Mars, which muddies the data. But by flipping the spacecraft 120 degrees, SHARAD gets a clean line of sight. That single move boosts signal strength tenfold or more.



This improvement is big, but it comes with tradeoffs. During the maneuver, MRO can't communicate with Earth or recharge its batteries. That limits the team to one or two very large rolls each year - for now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-instruments-with-new-tricks">Old instruments with new tricks </h2>



SHARAD isn’t the only instrument adjusting to new routines. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/">Mars Climate Sounder</a>, a radiometer built at JPL, is also leaning into MRO’s roll capability. It tracks temperatures and atmospheric changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/">Mars</a>, revealing patterns in dust storms and cloud formations.



Originally, this instrument used a gimbal to adjust its view. But the gimbal started to fail in 2024. Now, the Climate Sounder depends on the orbiter's roll maneuvering instead.



“Rolling used to restrict our science, but we’ve incorporated it into our routine planning, both for surface views and calibration," said Mars Climate Sounder’s interim principal investigator, Armin Kleinboehl of JPL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-still-delivers-after-18-years">Mars Orbiter still delivers after 18 years</h2>



NASA's Mars Reconnaissance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">Orbiter</a> has been circling the Red Planet since 2006. It's an aging but incredibly capable machine. 



These new rolling maneuvers show that even after 18 years in space, it's still finding new ways to contribute.



By shifting its body in bold new directions, MRO is helping us see what lies beneath the Martian dust - and just maybe, where water waits to be found.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mars Orbiter taught to 'roll over' for a view beneath the surface

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter...

Ever get so mentally drained that your brain just says, “I’m done”? That feeling of cognitive fatigue may not be as mysterious as it seems. 



In a recent study, researchers used brain scans to track what happens in our heads when fatigue sets in - and how we decide whether to keep going or give up.



The research team from <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/som">Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine</a> and the Kennedy Krieger Institute studied 28 healthy adults using functional MRI. The goal was to observe brain activity during moments of cognitive fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-mental-fatigue">A closer look at mental fatigue</h2>



The volunteers - 18 women and 10 men between the ages of 21 and 29 - were paid $50 to participate. They also had the chance to earn more money depending on their performance. Before starting any tasks, each person received a baseline MRI scan.



Inside the MRI machine, participants were given <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">memory</a> exercises. They saw sequences of letters and had to remember where certain ones appeared. The farther back a letter was in the sequence, the harder it was to recall, making the task mentally taxing. 



Before and after each exercise, the participants rated how mentally tired they felt. They also got feedback on their performance and could earn bonuses between $1 and $8 depending on the difficulty of the task they chose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-key-brain-areas-light-up">Two key brain areas light up</h2>



The scans revealed something striking. When participants felt mentally tired, two brain regions showed a noticeable increase in activity. 



The right insula - a deep brain area linked to feelings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/">fatigue</a> - and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which helps manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">working memory</a>, both lit up. In fact, the activity in these areas more than doubled compared to the baseline.



Dr. Vikram Chib is an associate professor of biomedical engineering at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and a research scientist at Kennedy Krieger Institute.



“Our lab focuses on how [our minds] generate value for effort,” said Dr. Chib. "We understand less about the biology of cognitive tasks, including memory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-improves-memory-formation-and-recall/">recall</a>, than we do about physical tasks, even though both involve a lot of effort.”



Dr. Chib noted that while cognitive tasks clearly wear people out, there’s still a lot to learn about how and why that fatigue builds up in the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motivation-matters-a-lot">Motivation matters - a lot</h2>



Participants were more likely to push through harder tasks when the rewards were higher. The research team noticed that people needed strong financial incentives to stay mentally engaged.



“That outcome wasn’t entirely surprising, given our previous work finding the same need for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incentives-help-pregnant-women-quit-smoking/">incentives</a> in spurring physical effort,” said Dr. Chib.



It seems the brain weighs whether mental effort is “worth it,” and only goes the extra mile when it sees a clear benefit.



“Our study was designed to induce cognitive fatigue and see how people’s choices to exert effort change when they feel fatigue, as well as identify locations in the brain where these decisions are made," explained Dr. Chib.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-fatigue-in-mental-health">Rethinking fatigue in mental health</h2>



Fatigue is a major challenge in conditions like PTSD and depression. Understanding how it works in healthy brains is a first step toward better treatment.



“Now that we’ve likely identified some of the neural circuits for cognitive effort in healthy people, we need to look at how fatigue manifests in the brains of people with these conditions,” said Dr. Chib.



He believes the same scanning techniques could eventually help doctors classify cognitive fatigue more objectively. That could open the door for new therapies, including medication and cognitive behavioral therapy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-brain-scans-don-t-show">What the brain scans don’t show</h2>



The team is quick to point out the limitations. Functional MRI tracks blood flow in the brain, which signals general activity, but it doesn’t capture the finer details of neuron-level behavior.



“This study was performed in an MRI scanner and with very specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-can-boost-brainpower-and-productivity/">cognitive tasks</a>. It will be important to see how these results generalize to other cognitive effort and real-world tasks,” said Dr. Chib.



Still, the findings offer a clearer view into how we respond to mental exhaustion - and what it takes for the brain to keep going.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/45/24/e1612242025">JNeurosci</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mental fatigue: When the brain needs a reason to keep going

Ever get so mentally drained that your brain just says,...

Gold is everywhere - in our phones, computers, medical devices, and satellites. But getting it out of the ground or from discarded electronics usually means dealing with cyanide, mercury, and a lot of toxic waste. 



That’s been the trade-off: valuable metal at a steep environmental cost. But now, researchers at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia are showing there’s a better way.



The Flinders team, working across green chemistry, engineering, and physics, has developed a safer, more sustainable method to recover gold. 



The method works not only on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-iron-ore-deposits-reveal-a-1-3-billion-year-old-secret/">ore</a>, but also on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/">electronic waste</a> and even scientific byproducts. Instead of relying on mercury or cyanide, the technique uses materials that are widely available and far less toxic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-gold-from-e-waste">Extracting gold from e-waste</h2>



At the heart of the method is trichloroisocyanuric acid - a common disinfectant used in pool and water treatment. When mixed with salt water, it becomes a powerful gold extractor. 



Once the gold is dissolved, it’s captured by a sulfur-rich polymer developed by the Flinders team. The polymer binds selectively to gold, even in complex mixtures full of other metals.



Then comes the clever part: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-polymers-that-are-considered-safe-release-harmful-toxins/">polymer</a> can be broken down to release the gold and be recycled for future use. This makes the entire process cleaner, safer, and more circular.



“The study featured many innovations including a new and recyclable leaching reagent derived from a compound used to disinfect water,” said Professor Justin Chalker, who leads the Chalker Lab.



“The team also developed an entirely new way to make the polymer sorbent, or the material that binds the gold after extraction into water, using light to initiate the key reaction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-safer-option-for-small-scale-miners">A safer option for small-scale miners</h2>



The method has already been tested on a wide range of materials, including e-waste, ore concentrates, and mixed-metal scrap. And it's not just a lab experiment. The researchers are planning to scale it up, working with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gold-mining-causes-long-lasting-damage-in-the-amazon-rainforest/">mining</a> companies and recycling facilities to put it into real-world use.



“The aim is to provide effective gold recovery methods that support the many uses of gold, while lessening the impact on the environment and human health,” said Professor Chalker.



This is especially important in small-scale and artisanal mines around the world, where mercury is still widely used to extract gold. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-pollution-in-the-amazon-is-recorded-in-tree-rings/">Mercury pollution</a> from gold mining is one of the leading sources of contamination globally. The team worked with experts in the United States and Peru to test the new method on gold ore, with the goal of offering safer alternatives to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gold-from-a-mound-of-e-waste">Gold from a mound of e-waste </h2>



The researchers aren’t just solving a technical problem. They’re trying to make sure the solution actually fits into real systems -economic, environmental, and social.



“We are especially grateful to our engineering, mining, and philanthropic partners for supporting translation of laboratory discoveries to larger scale demonstrations of the gold recovery techniques,” noted Professor Chalker.



Dr. Max Mann, one of the study's lead authors, highlighted the scale of the problem. “This paper shows that interdisciplinary collaborations are needed to address the world's big problems managing the growing stockpiles of e-waste.”



Dr. Thomas Nicholls noted that the newly developed gold sorbent is made using a sustainable approach in which UV light is used to make the sulfur-rich polymer. He explained that recycling the polymer after the gold has been recovered further increases the green credentials of this method.



“We dived into a mound of e-waste and climbed out with a block of gold! I hope this research inspires impactful solutions to pressing global challenges," said Dr. Harshal Patel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-gold-recovery">A path forward for gold recovery</h2>



The work out of Flinders University is more than just a chemistry breakthrough. It’s a potential roadmap for how science can rethink an entire process - replacing toxic practices with something smarter, cleaner, and just as effective.



Dr. Lynn Lisboa connected the project to the bigger picture. “With the ever-growing technological and societal demand for gold, it is increasingly important to develop safe and versatile methods to purify gold from varying sources," she said.



If the new extraction method continues to succeed at larger scales, it could help rewrite how the world mines, recycles, and values one of its most sought-after elements.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01586-w">Nature Sustainability</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Turning trash into treasure: Scientists are safely extracting gold from e-waste

Gold is everywhere - in our phones, computers, medical devices,...

Earth’s oceans keep long, detailed logs of climate change, and some of the best pages come from fusulines - shells smaller than a grain of sand. 



A recent study shows that these tiny record‑keepers flourished when the planet cooled yet nearly vanished, twice, when volcanic heat spiked global temperatures.



The work was led by Professor Shuzhong Shen of <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a>. The research team stitched together 299 rock sections and 1,391 fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">species</a> to build an unusually sharp picture of past marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fusulines-recorded-carbon-changes">Fusulines recorded carbon changes</h2>



The stars of the study are <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/foraminifera/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraminifera</a>, single‑celled protists that build carbonate shells. One order, Fusulinida, blanketed the seafloor from 344 million to 252 million years ago and behaved like “carbonate rock factories,” pumping out vast reefs as they grew.



Shen’s data reveal two bursts of diversification, one during late <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/carboniferous" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carboniferous</a> cooling and another as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Permian-Period" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Permian</a> began. 



The first wave produced small, simple shells; the second favored larger forms with honeycomb‑like walls that likely hosted photosynthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">partners</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fusulines-declined-in-warm-spikes">Fusulines declined in warm spikes</h2>



When the climate <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba6853" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooled</a>, glaciers locked up water, sea levels dropped, and new shallow habitats opened. Fusuline species counts tripled during that 40‑million‑year chill, echoing a pattern seen in later planktonic cousins during the Cenozoic cooling trend.



Warm pulses told a different story. The Kasimovian warming about 304 million years ago wiped out roughly 45 percent of fusuline species in less than one million years, and the curve plunged again as temperatures climbed between 294 million and 284 million years ago.



The end‑Permian supervolcano sealed their fate. During that episode, 59.5 percent of remaining species disappeared in a window shorter than the span between human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/">generations</a> today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-from-volcanoes-drove-extinctions">Carbon from volcanoes drove extinctions</h2>



Shen’s timeline lines up each extinction spike with a pulse of basalt from giant volcanic provinces such as Emeishan and Siberia. 



Those eruptions injected <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo3031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> fast enough to heat surface oceans by 5 to 10 °F, acidify seawater, and strip it of oxygen, a triple hit <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/benthic-organisms" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benthic organisms</a> could not dodge.



Carbon‑isotope <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/111/9/3316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> show the oceans turned more acidic whenever the 87Sr/86Sr ratio dipped, a fingerprint of fresh volcanic rock weathering. 



At the same time, modeled oxygen levels dropped below the threshold needed to support large seafloor life - matching modern observations where foraminiferal diversity declines sharply in low-oxygen zones



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orbital-cycles-mattered-less">Orbital cycles mattered less</h2>



Beyond the headline crashes, Shen’s team spotted weak but persistent <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milankovitch cycles</a>, grand wobbles in Earth’s orbit that last around two million and one million years. 



During the minima of those cycles, gentler seasons may have favored glacier growth and nutrient runoff, nudging speciation upward.



The cycles explain no more than ten percent of the diversity curve, yet their fingerprint is clear enough to remind us that even slow orbital nudges modulate life. 



Still, the sharpest rises and falls match rapid volcanic events, confirming that climate severity, not orbital pacing, set the main tempo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-rise-threatens-ocean-life-again">Carbon rise threatens ocean life again</h2>



“Mitigating climate change and protecting ecosystems is an urgent task of our time,” emphasized Professor Shen. The study’s most sobering line compares rates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-euarthropod-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-insect-evolution/">ancient</a> warming with today’s rates.&nbsp;



Current <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12060277/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑driven warming</a> runs at least ten times faster than the pace that eliminated fusulines, and modern reef‑building calcifiers already show stress in warmer, more acidic seas. 



If past is prologue, sustained greenhouse gas emissions could push today’s carbonate shell builders, corals, coccolithophores, large benthic foraminifera, toward the same cliff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-linked-extinction-cycles">Carbon-linked extinction cycles</h2>



To reach sub‑45,000‑year resolution, the team fed every first‑ and last‑appearance datum into a constrained‑optimization algorithm called <a href="https://www.nhm.uio.no/english/research/resources/past/help/conop.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CONOP</a>. 



Supercomputers iterated millions of possible stratigraphic orders until the tightest fit emerged, turning scattered field data into a single high‑definition timeline.



Rarefaction tests showed that sampling gaps do not skew the pattern; three different resample sizes reproduced the same peaks and troughs. 



By filtering out trends longer than ten million years, the researchers isolated the shorter cycles that hint at orbital pacing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-and-fall-of-fusulines">The rise and fall of fusulines</h2>



The experts then ran multivariate regressions against seven environmental proxies, from carbon isotopes to sea‑level curves. 



The best model, which combines carbon dioxide, seawater strontium, oxygen availability, and carbon isotopes, explains 81 percent of the diversity swings, leaving little doubt that physical climate set the rules of life and death for fusulines.



Fusulines vanished, but their story still speaks. They show that rapid warming can silence even dominant, resilient lineages, and they underline how cooling phases can seed explosive innovation.



Marine ecosystems today sit at a similar junction, with greenhouse gases climbing and volcanic analogs replaced by smokestacks and exhaust pipes. 



The fossil record offers no comfort that life can adapt at the speed we are forcing, but it does offer a clear warning.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv2549" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny ocean creatures have always gone extinct during Earth's past climate warming periods

Earth’s oceans keep long, detailed logs of climate change, and...

We know the oceans are changing. But how have they changed over the last half-billion years? Until now, we had no clear measure of how the total mass of ocean life - not just its variety - has evolved over deep time. 



In a first-of-its-kind effort, scientists from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> measured how the biomass of marine organisms - the actual amount of living material in the ocean - has changed over the last 540 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-changes-in-ocean-life">Long-term changes in ocean life</h2>



The study shows a long-term trend of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-causes-biomass-loss-beyond-directly-affected-areas/">biomass</a>, with noticeable crashes during major extinction events. This pattern closely tracks with known increases in marine biodiversity, suggesting a deep link between how much life the ocean holds and how varied that life is.



Study lead author Pulkit Singh is a postdoctoral scholar in Earth and Planetary Sciences in the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



“Understanding the amount of biomass is important because it represents key traits about an ecosystem that are not captured by the number of species or even the number of niches that they fill,” said Singh.



“But as we move into the past, our measurements of biomass are very limited, so that was the big gap in biological history we wanted to fill with our study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-life-changes-across-history">Ocean life changes across history</h2>



Getting to this result took years of meticulous work. Singh and his team dug into data from over 7,700 marine limestone samples spanning hundreds of millions of years. 



The samples came from more than 100 published studies and Singh’s own data collection. Each rock was cut and polished into slices thin enough for light to pass through, then examined under a microscope. 



Using a method called petrographic point-counting, the researchers calculated what percentage of each sample was made up of skeletal remains - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-shells-can-help-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/">shells</a> from animals, certain algae, and single-celled protists.



It’s not just busywork. The amount of shell material in these rocks tells scientists how much living material existed at different points in Earth’s history. 



More shells in the ocean generally mean more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">living things</a>. And more life usually means more energy flowing through ecosystems - a strong signal of planetary health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-measuring-biomass">The challenge of measuring biomass </h2>



Tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> through deep time has been part of science since the 19th century. But measuring biomass - the total amount of living material - is a much rarer effort. 



Measuring biomass demands massive amounts of data and offers no guarantee of a clear pattern.



“The first quantitative effort to document and graph biodiversity across geological time was made in 1860, but until Pulkit’s paper, there’s never been a corresponding biomass-across-time paper,” noted senior study author Professor Jonathan Payne. 



“I’m impressed by his intellectual courage to go and take a chance on a project like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomass-over-millions-of-years">Biomass over millions of years</h2>



The earliest rocks examined, from the Cambrian period about 540 million years ago, showed low shell content - under 10 percent on average. 



By the Ordovician, starting around 485 million years ago, shell percentages rose. This increase lines up with the Cambrian Explosion, a period when life rapidly diversified.



Early on, sponges were major players. Later, they were overtaken by echinoderms (ancestors of starfish) and arthropods like trilobites. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gradual-increase-in-biomass">A gradual increase in biomass </h2>



Over the next 230 million years, shell content stayed mostly above 20 percent, aside from big dips during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-life-became-strangely-uniform-after-earths-worst-mass-extinction/">mass extinctions</a>.



One of the sharpest declines came during the Permian-Triassic extinction about 250 million years ago - the “Great Dying.” Shell material dropped to just 3 percent. 



Life rebounded after that, although smaller setbacks followed during the end-Triassic and the well-known Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 66 million years ago.



In our current era - the Cenozoic - shell volume climbed above 40 percent, boosted by creatures like mollusks and corals. “The overall pattern that we were able to capture is that it’s a gradual increase,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consistent-biological-patterns">Consistent biological patterns </h2>



The team knew they had to rule out alternative explanations. Maybe shell-boring predators were less common in the past. Maybe certain environments were overrepresented in the data. 



To check, the researchers sorted samples by depth, latitude, and geological setting. The trend held steady.



“The more tests we did and the more we divided our dataset, we realized that these big biological patterns we were seeing stayed over time,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-ocean-life-keep-growing">Why did ocean life keep growing?</h2>



The answer may come down to diversity. As life evolved to fill more ecological roles, it got better at using available energy. Organisms became more specialized, more interconnected. 



That allowed ecosystems to recycle nutrients more efficiently - from sunlight-eating phytoplankton to decomposers returning nutrients to the cycle.



“The overall idea is that there is more food available in ecosystems and because of that, the ecosystems can support more life, there’s more energy available, and that leads to greater abundance expressed in biomass,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-are-rapidly-changing-ocean-life">Humans are rapidly changing ocean life</h2>



The study paints a long view of life’s upward climb, but it ends before the modern age. Today’s oceans face threats from overfishing, pollution, acidification, and climate change. 



Researchers agree - we’re already in the middle of a human-caused sixth mass extinction. And if biodiversity keeps falling, we may see long-term drops in biomass too - with effects that could last millions of years.



“From our study’s perspective, modern times are quite complicated given the extent of human activity that’s rapidly altering conditions planetwide, including in the oceans,” said Payne. 



“But our findings show that overall biomass is linked to biodiversity and that losses in biodiversity may suppress productivity for geologically meaningful intervals, adding one more argument of why conserving biodiversity is essential for the health of humans and our planet.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225007353">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossils reveal 500 million years of changes in ocean life

We know the oceans are changing. But how have they...

For 50 years, scientists believed that fish schools saved energy by swimming in diamond formations. This view, rooted in models by Weihs and Lighthill from the 1970s, shaped decades of research and robotic design. 



However, new research from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard</a> scientists turns that theory on its head. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">Fish</a> don't move in neat, flat diamonds. Instead, they prefer dynamic, three-dimensional ladders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-fish-schooling-patterns">A new look at fish schooling patterns</h2>



The researchers tracked six giant danios swimming continuously for ten hours in a recirculating flow tank. They used synchronized side and bottom cameras, along with deep learning software, to collect detailed 3D data on fish positions. 



This advanced setup allowed the team to record over 260,000 frames where at least four fish were clearly visible and trackable from both views.



The findings challenged long-held assumptions about fish schooling patterns. Only 0.1% of the frames showed fish in the classical diamond formation, long thought to be the most energy efficient. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-mostly-swim-in-ladders">Fish mostly swim in ladders</h2>



Instead, the fish predominantly adopted a new three-dimensional arrangement termed the ladder formation. In this pattern, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/">fish</a> were staggered vertically, with some swimming slightly above or below others, rather than maintaining a flat side-by-side structure.



The ladder pattern appeared in 79% of fish pairings, making it by far the most common. Additionally, only 25.2% of all fish pairs swam in the same horizontal plane. This indicates that vertical positioning is a key feature of natural fish school behavior, something that earlier two-dimensional studies overlooked. 



The study reveals that fish prefer dynamic 3D arrangements that likely reduce drag without requiring precise alignment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-fish-ladder-works">Why the fish ladder works</h2>



“When swimming, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-alternative-seafood-can-help-save-our-oceans/">fish</a> on average generate a jet going backward, like the jet engine of a plane,” said Hungtang Ko, lead author of the study. Staying out of that jet reduces drag.



The ladder formation allows this. A fish swims slightly above or below the one in front, avoiding the jet while still staying close. This creates energy savings similar to the diamond model but with less need for perfect timing or alignment.



The diamond model assumes fish must synchronize tail beats and stay level. But in real schools, coordination varies. Fish rarely beat tails in exact anti-phase, a condition the diamond pattern needs to be effective.



Even in controlled experiments, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> constantly rearranged positions. The average pattern changed every 48 seconds for individuals and 32 seconds for the whole school.



Ko’s team observed that fish ladder formations shift based on flow rate. As speed increased from 1.6 to 5.6 body-lengths per second, the fish ladder stretched longer. This adaptation resembled behavior in other biological collectives, like fire ant rafts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-fish-in-three-dimensions">Tracking fish in three dimensions</h2>



Older studies limited fish to shallow tanks or still water, forcing unnatural formations. This experiment used deeper tanks and steady flow, removing boundary effects. 



The researchers trained AI to detect nose and tail positions in 3D space using SLEAP.ai and a custom MATLAB pipeline.



According to the heatmaps, fish were most likely to swim either above and behind, or below and ahead, of a partner - never directly inline.



This ladder structure formed naturally, not by training or conditioning. It shows how real-world conditions reshape what we think of as “efficient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-beyond-biology">Why this matters beyond biology</h2>



The Nagpal lab is designing robot fish swarms inspired by these new insights. By mimicking ladder formations, underwater robots might conserve energy, move more smoothly, and navigate better in tasks like reef monitoring.



“The collaboration is a two-way street,” said Ko. “We can use computer vision to discover how and why animal groups do things together. And then we can ask, what kind of real-world robotic system could this biological insight be applied to?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-schools-conserve-energy">Fish schools conserve energy </h2>



This study shows that energy savings don’t come from holding a perfect formation. Instead, savings come from many temporary, varied arrangements. 



Even fish that constantly shift positions still gain benefits by staying out of each other's wake.



The study also raises new questions. Can robot fish switch positions while still conserving energy? Do vertical ladders work better in turbulent water? Future experiments, especially using robotic models, may find answers.



For now, one thing is certain. Nature prefers complexity over perfection. Fish don't swim in flat diamonds. They climb invisible ladders, one body length at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-06150-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish swim in schools by stacking like ladder rungs

For 50 years, scientists believed that fish schools saved energy...

Climate, geology, and biology together gave rise to one of Earth’s most dramatic turning points: the Cambrian explosion. About 530 million years ago, most of the basic body plans of organisms that have survived until now emerged.



Yet a new study argues that key elements of this revolutionary event actually took shape earlier - perhaps ten-plus million years before the formal start of the Cambrian Period.



The research relies not on bones or shells, but on trace fossils - the tracks, burrows, and other imprints left by organisms as they crawled through ancient sediments.



Co-authors Olmo Miguez Salas of the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> and Zekun Wang of London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> analyzed these subtle signatures. 



The goal was to reconstruct early animal anatomy and behavior during the Ediacaran-Cambrian transition, roughly 545 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-ancient-life">Fossil traces reveal ancient life</h2>



Traditional fossil studies skew toward creatures with hard parts, because bones and shells preserve most readily in rock. Trace fossils capture a different story: the activities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/">soft-bodied animals</a> that rarely leave skeletal remains.



“The trace fossil record provides valuable information about evolutionary periods when soft-bodied fauna were dominant,” Miguez Salas said.



“Fossil traces reflect the behavior of the organism that generates them, which is determined by habitat and responses to environmental stimuli. Therefore, they are an indicator of the palaeoecological conditions in which the organisms that generated them lived.”



That focus is especially useful for the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary, a time when soft-bodied organisms still outnumbered shelly ones and ecological dynamics were in rapid flux.



Early burrowers and crawlers disturbed microbial mats on the seafloor. This paved the way for new feeding strategies, novel body plans, and ultimately the hard-part explosion more familiar to paleontologists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-how-life-moved">Fossils show how life moved</h2>



By quantifying the widths, lengths, and winding patterns of fossil trackways such as Archaeonassa, Gordia, Helminthopsis, and Parapsammichnites, the team derived scaling laws that link track size to the animals’ own proportions. 



The results show that organisms with streamlined, elongated profiles were already active 545 million years ago.



“These organisms probably possessed coelomic hydrostatic bodies, with an anteroposterior axis, muscles, and possibly segmentation,” Miguez Salas said.



“Furthermore, these organisms could move in a specific direction (directional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-all-kangaroo-ancestors-hopped-as-a-means-of-locomotion/">locomotion</a>) and probably possessed sensory capabilities to move and feed on heterogeneous substrates in a habitat dominated by microbial mats.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-predate-cambrian-explosion">Traits predate Cambrian explosion</h2>



Such abilities - directional crawling, muscular movement, possible segmentation - echo the hallmarks of bilaterian animals that dominate the modern biosphere. 



If those traits existed well before 530 million years ago, then the lineage-splitting events that scientists historically assign to the Cambrian must have roots in the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/591-million-years-ago-complex-life-emerged-on-earth-magnetic-field-ediacaran-period/">Ediacaran</a>.



“Therefore, the so-called Cambrian explosion and its evolutionary implications may have occurred much earlier than estimated,” Miguez Salas added.



Instead of a sudden burst, the data point toward a protracted interval of experimentation. Ecological engineering by active burrowers created niches that later organisms exploited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-reveals-ancient-mobility">Math reveals ancient mobility</h2>



Until now, suggestions of pre-Cambrian complexity leaned heavily on qualitative observations - isolated sites showing possible bilateral tracks or ambiguous body impressions. What sets the new paper apart is its mathematical approach.



The authors modeled modern track size to body length, then applied that scaling framework to ancient trace fossils. The outcome is a statistically grounded estimate of early animal width, length, and locomotion speed.



“This new discovery opens the door to quantitatively study future Ediacara trace fossils and to corroborate that the explosion did not happen in the Cambrian, but many millions of years earlier,” Miguez Salas said.



The same scaling rules could probe other critical transitions, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-sparked-explosive-evolutionary-period-of-life-on-earth/">Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event</a>, offering a consistent yardstick for comparing evolutionary shifts across geologic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-shift-life-s-timeline">Fossils shift life’s timeline</h2>



If complex bilaterians were shaping seafloor habitats 545 million years ago, paleontologists must rethink long-held assumptions. Environmental and genetic triggers like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/">oxygen</a> rise, ocean shifts, or gene changes may need rethinking for the Cambrian proper. 



Those factors may have been in motion earlier, with the visible “explosion” marking only the point when hard parts made diversity easier to preserve.



The study also underscores how behaviors - burrowing, mat-grazing, sediment mixing - can serve as evolutionary catalysts. Mobile animals turning over sediment could have unleashed nutrients, altered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbial communities</a>, and spurred arms races that drove further innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-fossils-may-still-reveal">What fossils may still reveal</h2>



Future expeditions into late Ediacaran strata may uncover additional trace fossil assemblages to test the new timeline. 



High-resolution 3D scans, geochemical proxies, and refined radiometric dating can link track-making horizons to precise ages and environmental conditions.



Meanwhile, the mathematical framework introduced by Miguez Salas and Wang equips researchers worldwide to translate faint surface scribbles into vivid portraits of Earth’s earliest movers and shakers.



In shifting the Cambrian explosion’s fuse back several million years, the fossil record reminds us that life’s history often blurs textbook boundaries. Evolution, like geology itself, tends to roll out gradually - until we gather the evidence to see its subtler steps.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/doi/10.1130/G53332.1/655874/Quantitative-decoding-of-Ediacaran-locomotory">Geology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cambrian explosion: Fossils push back the rise of complex life

Climate, geology, and biology together gave rise to one of...

We used to think leopard seals had broad diets, but new research suggests that many individuals are picky eaters - with big consequences.



While the species as a whole eats many prey types, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-seals-rely-on-visual-cues-to-navigate-cloudy-waters/">individual</a> seals often specialize. This pattern has ecosystem-wide effects, especially in the predator-rich waters off Cape Shirreff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seals-prefer-specific-diets">Leopard seals prefer specific diets</h2>



The research team analyzed stable isotope values (δ15N and δ13C) from 46 whiskers of 34 seals. This long-term data covered a decade. 



The results showed that 59% of the seals were dietary specialists, 28% were intermediates, and only 13% were true generalists.



Specialists fall into two categories. High trophic level specialists likely hunt fur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seal-pregnancies-reveal-clues-for-treating-birth-complications/">seal</a> pups and large fish. Medium to low trophic level specialists target krill, penguins, and cephalopods. 



The research suggests that individual differences in diet shape local food webs more than previously assumed.



“Even though leopard seals as a species eat a wide variety of prey, most individuals actually focus on just a few types of food,” said study co-author Dr. Emily Sperou from <a href="https://www.baylor.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor University</a>. 



“This means that a few highly specialized seals can have a much bigger effect on certain prey populations than we previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-seal-diets-don-t-change">Some seal diets don’t change</h2>



The study revealed two long-term foraging styles. Some individuals, like seal 397, maintained high trophic level specialization for up to ten years. 



Others, like seal 12, changed diets significantly across five years, from specialist to generalist.



This variability suggests behavioral flexibility. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/">Seals</a> might shift strategies depending on prey availability or competition. Such changes could buffer the species against ecosystem shifts.



“A few specialists can help shape entire ecosystems,” said study co-author Dr. Patrick Charapata. 



“Understanding these patterns in leopard seals and other top predators can help us better predict and manage changes to prey populations and the greater ecosystem these species live in.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seal-diets-and-prey-populations">Leopard seal diets and prey populations </h2>



Larger female leopard seals were found to consistently feed at higher trophic levels compared to males. This means they targeted prey that are themselves predators or occupy higher positions in the food web. 



Interestingly, all the individuals identified as high-level dietary specialists in the study were female. Their greater body size likely plays a key role in this pattern. 



Bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-have-a-surprising-survival-strategy/">seals</a> are physically capable of capturing and consuming larger, more energy-dense prey, such as Antarctic fur seal pups. This access to richer food sources gives them an energetic advantage and increases their impact on prey populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individuals-with-a-large-impact">Individuals with a large impact</h2>



The data also showed that females had broader isotopic ranges in their whisker samples. This suggests they influence a wider range of the ecosystem through their feeding habits. They do not just eat more; they affect more parts of the food web.



A few large females were found to be responsible for most of the observed predation on fur seal pups. One individual, identified as seal 397, stood out in particular. She had the highest number of recorded pup captures in the study. 



Her method involved ambush style attacks, showing strategic hunting behavior that likely made her even more effective. This highlights how a small number of powerful individuals can have an outsized effect on an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diets-change-with-prey-numbers">Diets change with prey numbers</h2>



The data revealed a sharp drop in δ15N values between 2015 and 2017. This trend aligns with a known decline in Antarctic fur seals and some penguin species. Researchers believe the drop reflects a reduction in nitrogen-rich prey.



From 2017 to 2023, the number of leopard seals at Cape Shirreff fell by 76 percent. The few that remained, like seal 397, regained access to higher trophic prey. As competition dropped, δ15N values began rising again.



The study reshapes how we think about predator roles. Individual specialization can reshape ecosystems. Just a few high-impact predators may shift prey dynamics dramatically.



For instance, a pod of five orcas once consumed 8,500 sea otters annually. Leopard seals may be exerting similar pressure on fur seal colonies.



Current conservation strategies often assume that all individuals in a species behave alike. But this study warns against such assumptions. Ignoring individual-level behavior might cause poor management decisions, especially under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seals-and-prey-dynamics">Leopard seals and prey dynamics</h2>



The study relied on stable isotope data but did not include direct prey identification. Future research could pair isotopic signatures with tracking and observational data.



While this study was focused on Cape Shirreff, genetic data indicate that these findings may apply to leopard seals across the Southern Ocean.



The research shows how a few individual predators can shape the fates of entire species. Leopard seals remind us that even in the coldest oceans, personal dietary choices matter.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.71593" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Leopard seal diets are reshaping Antarctic ecosystems

We used to think leopard seals had broad diets, but...

Once thought unique to humans, grief may exist in other species too. New research from Osaka University shows that Japanese macaques react to dying and dead group members with surprising emotion.



Published in the journal Primates, the study reveals responses beyond mothers mourning infants. It focuses instead on how macaques behave around dying or deceased adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assamese-macaques-show-how-aging-affects-our-social-networks/">companions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaques-stay-near-dying-friends-nbsp">Macaques stay near dying friends&nbsp;</h2>



Japanese macaques live in complex societies and form long-term grooming partnerships. Researchers tracked grooming and proximity over several years to explore whether social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-tolerance-helps-monkeys-pass-along-new-skills/">closeness</a> influenced their behavior during death-related events.



“It’s incredibly rare to document these kinds of behaviors in wild animals,” said lead author Masayuki Nakamichi from <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka University</a>. 



Macaques with strong grooming histories often stayed close to the deceased. Others kept their distance, especially when they had no prior bond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visible-decay-alters-behavior">Visible decay alters behavior</h2>



Maggots played a central role in group reactions. In three of the four documented deaths, the bodies showed infestation. This strongly affected how others responded.



Monkeys typically avoided touching or approaching maggot-covered individuals. Some jumped away after sniffing the wound. Others looked and then left quickly.



Yet in one exceptional case, the group’s alpha female, Pet, groomed a dying male named Rikinio even as flies swarmed around him. She picked maggots from his back and ate them.



“The fact that some individuals remained near deceased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulawesi-macaques-face-unknown-threats-from-plastic-waste/">companions</a> they had close relationships with suggests that these macaques have emotional capacities that resemble human compassion,” said study co-author Kazunori Yamada.



This behavior suggests macaques can form deep attachments and remain emotionally affected by death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaques-react-to-different-deaths">Macaques react to different deaths</h2>



Case 1 featured Rikinio, a high-ranking male wounded by a rival. Most macaques avoided him once his wound became infested. Pet alone groomed him and consumed maggots during the process.



Case 2 followed another male, K75, who declined from old age. Though his body showed no visible wounds, flies and rain had changed his appearance. Familiar group members hesitated to come near, possibly recalling his earlier condition.



Case 3 involved Pet79, a female from the dominant kin group. After returning from a long absence, she was groomed by her daughters. A month later, with maggots visible in her wounds, even close family avoided her.



Case 4 described Pet87, who died in winter. His body had no maggots. Group members remained close. A juvenile female groomed his corpse. Her mother had groomed Pet87 regularly when he was alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disease-avoidance-may-play-a-role">Disease avoidance may play a role</h2>



Macaques appear to avoid corpses showing signs of infestation. This may be a survival behavior. Avoiding flies and maggots likely reduces the risk of disease.



Many reacted by sniffing their fingers after contact or rubbing them on the ground. These actions suggest discomfort triggered by smell or touch.



When the corpse showed no damage or signs of infestation, macaques behaved calmly and remained nearby. This pattern supports the idea that visible decay, more than death itself, shapes avoidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-death-awareness-in-macaques">Death awareness in macaques</h2>



Some behaviors hint at cognitive recognition of death. One low-ranking male, who avoided a higher-ranking male while alive, stayed near his corpse. Possibly, he understood the male no longer posed a threat.



Other group members hesitated to enter areas where a corpse lay still. This unusual caution may reflect recognition that something was not normal.



These findings suggest that macaques feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-on-monkey-island-made-macaques-more-socially-tolerant/">emotions</a> like grief and compassion, at least in simple forms. The depth of their understanding remains unclear, but their actions show social bonds do not always end with death.



“More observations of death-related events in more species will be needed to fully understand the emotional responses of non-human primates to the dead,” said Nakamichi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-forward-in-primate-thanatology">Path forward in primate thanatology</h2>



To learn more, the researchers want to combine behavioral studies with physiological data. Measuring hormone levels, tracking stress responses, and observing reactions to smell may offer deeper insights.



Chimpanzees, for example, show aversion to the scent of putrescine, a chemical linked to decay. Similar tests in macaques may reveal if scent triggers their aversion or if vision plays a bigger role.



This study challenges long-held beliefs about grief. Japanese macaques show emotion toward the dying and dead, guided by bonds and sensory cues.



They remind us that even in the forest, empathy may bloom. Loss does not go unnoticed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-025-01196-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Japanese macaques have social bonds that persist beyond death

Once thought unique to humans, grief may exist in other...

Squid are famous for flashing from glass-clear to kaleidoscopic in the blink of an eye, but biologists have long puzzled over the physical trick behind the act.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.uci.edu/">University of California, Irvine</a>, joined by cephalopod experts at the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole, took that mystery head-on.



By peering into squid skin in three dimensions, they uncovered a hidden forest of nano-columns built from an uncommon protein called reflectin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-squid-skin-bends-light">How squid skin bends light</h2>



These columns act much like tiny mirrors, bouncing or passing light depending on how close together they sit.



Alon Gorodetsky, an expert in chemical and biomolecular engineering at UC Irvine, is the senior author of the research.



“In nature, many animals use Bragg reflectors [which selectively transmit and reflect light at specific wavelengths] for structural coloration,” he said. “A squid’s ability to rapidly and reversibly transition from transparent to colored is remarkable."



"We found that cells containing specialized subcellular columnar structures with sinusoidal refractive index distributions enable the squid to achieve such feats.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-master-shapeshifter">Studying the master shapeshifter</h2>



The animals under study were longfin inshore squid, Doryteuthis pealeii. “These are longfin inshore squids – Doryteuthis pealeii – that are native to the Atlantic Ocean,” Gorodetsky said.



“Marine Biological Laboratory has been famous for studying this squid and other cephalopods for more than a century. We were fortunate to be able to leverage their world-class expertise with properly collecting, handling, and studying these biological specimens.”



Inside the squid mantle, shimmering cells known as iridophores - or iridocytes - hold the secret. 



To visualize them without disturbing their delicate innards, the team used holotomography, a form of quantitative phase microscopy that maps how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-succeed-in-converting-light-into-a-supersolid-that-flows-like-a-liquid/">light</a> bends through a sample.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squid-skin_color-change_montage_credit-UCIrvine_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squid-skin_color-change_montage_credit-UCIrvine_1s.webp" alt="Digital camera images of the entire body (top left) and dorsal mantle (top right) of a squid show the splotches' blue, green, yellow, orange and red iridescent (angle-dependent) colors. An individual splotch (bottom, from left) transitions from transparent to red to orange to green at 0, 60, 90 and 120 seconds, respectively, when subjected to chemical and neurophysiological stimuli. Credit: Alon Gorodetsky Lab, UC Irvine" class="wp-image-1975656"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Digital camera images of the entire body (top left) and dorsal mantle (top right) of a squid show the splotches' blue, green, yellow, orange and red iridescent (angle-dependent) colors. An individual splotch (bottom, from left) transitions from transparent to red to orange to green at 0, 60, 90 and 120 seconds, respectively, when subjected to chemical and neurophysiological stimuli. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Alon Gorodetsky Lab, UC Irvine</figcaption></figure>



Georgii Bogdanov, a postdoctoral researcher in chemical and biomolecular engineering at UC Irvine, is another lead author of the study.



“Holotomography used the high refractive index of reflectin proteins to reveal the presence of sinusoidal refractive index distributions within squid iridophore cells,” he said.



Reflectin platelets form spiral columns inside iridophores, enabling cephalopods to control how their skin transmits and reflects light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-borrowing-nature-s-blueprint"><a></a>Borrowing nature’s blueprint</h2>



Once the researchers understood the architecture - the stacked, spiraling Bragg reflectors - they wondered whether they could engineer something similar.



Studying squid color change inspired flexible materials that shift appearance using tiny, wavy Bragg reflector columns. They added nanostructured metal films, enabling the materials to also shift appearance in the infrared spectrum.



Using a mixture of polymer chemistry, nanofabrication, and metal coatings, the group built thin films that shift color when stretched, pressed, or heated. 



They went a step further by tailoring the same films to tune their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/">infrared</a> emission. This allows the material to hide or reveal heat signatures as well as visible hues.



“These bioinspired materials go beyond simple static color control, as they can dynamically adjust both their appearances in the visible and infrared wavelengths in response to stimuli,” said co-author Aleksandra Strzelecka, a PhD student at UC Irvine.



“Part of what makes this technology truly exciting is its inherent scalability," she said. "We have demonstrated large-area and arrayed composites that mimic and even go beyond the squid’s natural optical capabilities."



This opens the door to many applications ranging from adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> to responsive fabrics to multispectral displays to advanced sensors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-optics-from-squid-skin">Future optics from squid skin</h2>



The implications stretch far beyond a novelty coating. The same Bragg-style stacks could sharpen laser output, filter signals in fiber-optic lines, and boost solar-cell efficiency. They could also enable real-time structural health monitoring in bridges and aircraft.



“This study is an exciting demonstration of the power of coupling basic and applied research,” Gorodetsky said. “We have likely just started to scratch the surface of what is possible for cephalopod-inspired tunable optical materials in our laboratory.”



Every advance stemmed from squid skin cells with tiny winding columns just hundreds of nanometers wide. Despite their size, these structures could orchestrate a light show visible from meters away.



The team’s work shows how decoding those natural nanostructures can lead to devices that humans manufacture by the meter rather than by the molecule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squid-inspired-tech-evolves">Squid-inspired tech evolves</h2>



Researchers aim to speed up film response and develop biodegradable versions for sensors and medical patches.



Meanwhile, the discovery reaffirms why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">cephalopods</a> remain a favorite subject for materials scientists: they are masters of manipulating light without a single pigment or battery.



In the lab, that mastery is starting to take shape as fabrics that cool soldiers in the desert by day, buildings that shimmer to reduce air-conditioning loads, and flexible screens that display both artwork and thermal data.



The next chapter, as Gorodetsky’s group sees it, will be written where biology and engineering merge. 



The squid’s split-second shape-shifting trick has journeyed from the Atlantic deep to a microscope slide and into a polymer film. 



Soon, it may appear on your jacket sleeve or smartphone case, blending vivid color with invisible infrared control just like in cephalopods.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn1570" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists unlock the light-bending secrets of squid skin

Squid are famous for flashing from glass-clear to kaleidoscopic in...

Anyone who has ever tossed and turned at night knows how much sleep matters. Stress, social distractions, and even the weather can disrupt our rest. And it turns out we’re not the only ones.



Orangutans - some of our closest living relatives - face similar challenges, and they’ve figured out a relatable solution: they nap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tired-minds-and-busy-days">Tired minds and busy days</h2>



Life in the rainforest is no easy task for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-use-complex-vocal-patterns-found-in-human-language/">orangutans</a>. Every day involves travel, food gathering, social puzzles, and constant movement - mental and physical strain is inevitable.



“Moving through the canopy, finding food, solving problems, navigating social relationships; these are all tiring and cognitively demanding tasks,” said&nbsp;Alison Ashbury, the study’s first author. 



“When an orangutan doesn’t get enough sleep, it does what any sleep-deprived human might do: it climbs into bed, lies down, and takes a nap.”



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) and the University of Konstanz in Germany, together with collaborators at the Universitas Nasional in Indonesia, studied wild orangutans in the rainforests of Sumatra. 



The goal was to understand how these great apes manage their sleep in the wild and what that can teach us about the evolution of rest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-orangutan-bedtimes">Monitoring orangutan bedtimes</h2>



For over 14 years, the team collected behavioral data on 53 adult orangutans at the Suaq Balimbing Monitoring Station. They followed the animals through 455 days and nights, closely watching how and where they slept.



Each evening, adult orangutans build a sleeping “nest” high in the treetops. This nest acts as a bed, with branches woven together to form a secure platform. 



The orangutans even add leaves for a mattress and pillow. Mothers share nests with their nursing babies, but otherwise, adults sleep solo. At dawn, they leave the nest and begin the day.



“From our point of view on the ground, we usually can’t see orangutans at all in their night nests, but we can hear them rustling around, getting comfortable,” said Caroline Schuppli, the study’s senior author and a group leader at MPI-AB. “Eventually, everything goes quiet and still. And the reverse happens in the morning.”



The researchers measured the period of nighttime silence as a proxy for sleep. Although they couldn’t directly monitor brain activity, the length of this quiet period closely matched patterns of actual sleep observed in captive orangutans and wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-walk-in-lines-just-to-stay-near-their-friends/">baboons</a>. On average, orangutans slept for nearly 13 hours each night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-interrupts-orangutan-sleep">What interrupts orangutan sleep?</h2>



Several factors disrupted sleep. Orangutans had shorter sleep periods when they built their nests close to others and when nights were colder. Sleep was also reduced on days when they had traveled farther.



“We thought it was really interesting that just being near other orangutans when building a night nest was linked to shorter sleep periods,” said Ashbury. “Imagine you stay up late hanging out with your friends, or your roommate is snoring so loudly in the morning that you get up early. I think it’s a bit like that."



"They’re prioritizing being social over sleeping, or their sleep is being disrupted by others nearby, or even both.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naps-after-sleepless-nights">Naps after sleepless nights</h2>



The team also explored how orangutans compensate for lost sleep. They found a consistent pattern: when orangutans had shorter nighttime sleep, they napped more during the day. In fact, for every hour less sleep the night before, they added 5 to 10 extra minutes of nap time the next day.



“For people, even a short nap can have significant restorative effects,” noted the researchers. “It’s possible that these naps are helping orangutans reset physiologically and cognitively after a poor night’s sleep, just like they do in humans.”



The orangutans used simple, quickly built day nests for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-afternoon-naps-impact-our-health/">naps</a>. These nests took less than two minutes to construct, lacked many of the comfort features of night nests, and were used solely for short rest periods.



“Day nests are less sophisticated, have fewer comfort elements, and are made quicker than night nests,” said Schuppli. “But even so, when we’re able to see an orangutan resting in a day nest, we see that their bodies are relaxed and their eyes are closed. They really do appear to be sleeping.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naps-and-brain-power">Naps and brain power</h2>



Scientists have long recognized the Suaq orangutans for their exceptional mental abilities. Their frequent napping habits may play a role in supporting this cognitive edge.



“Among all studied orangutan populations, the Suaq orangutans arguably exhibit the widest range of cognitively demanding behaviors,” said Schuppli, who also directs research at the site. 



“This may be linked to their relatively high propensity for daytime nest use. Either they need these high-quality naps to meet their cognitive demands, or their cognitive abilities can come about because they take high-quality naps in day nests so often.”



Another possible factor is their semi-solitary lifestyle. Orangutans don’t live in tight social groups, so they’re free to nap when they feel the need. 



The data showed that orangutans took at least one nap on 41% of observed days, and those naps averaged 76 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-wild-sleep">Lessons from wild sleep</h2>



“Studying sleep in the wild, in the natural social and ecological conditions under which it evolved, is important to broadening our understanding of the evolutionary origins and the ultimate functions of sleep,” said Meg Crofoot, director at MPI-AB and a professor at the University of Konstanz. 



“Why did animals, from humans to primates to spiders to jellyfish, evolve to spend such large portions of their lives in this vulnerable unconscious state? If we’re going to answer this question, we need to bring sleep research out of the lab and into the field. Studies such as this one contribute to that effort.”



Orangutans napping in leafy nests may seem like a simple sight. But their resting habits may hold deeper clues about sleep’s role in intelligence, social life, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-fittest-study-suggests-its-more-a-game-of-chance/">survival</a> - for them and for us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225006694">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Orangutans manage sleep much like humans do

Anyone who has ever tossed and turned at night knows...

Cod once ruled the Baltic Sea - massive, plentiful, and essential to the region’s fishing economy. They often stretched over a meter long and weighed up to 40 kilograms. 



Along with herring, cod once sustained industries, communities, and families. Now, they have vanished - at least in their original form. 



Catching an impressive-sized cod is a rare sight - and is no longer permitted. A ban on targeted cod fishing has been in effect since 2019, following a population collapse.



It’s not just the numbers that plummeted. Cod shrank, and the changes didn't stop at the surface level. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-pressure-rewired-a-species">Fishing pressure rewired a species</h2>



According to researchers from <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/">GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a>, decades of intense fishing pressure didn’t just reduce the population - it rewired the species itself. 



The new study shows that human actions have altered the actual genetic makeup of cod in the Baltic Sea.



“Selective overexploitation has altered the genome of Eastern Baltic cod,” explains Dr. Kwi Young Han, the study’s first author. “We see this in the significant decline in average size, which we could link to reduced growth rates." 



"For the first time in a fully marine species, we have provided evidence of evolutionary changes in the genomes of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/">fish population</a> subjected to intense exploitation, which has pushed the population to the brink of collapse.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-cod-genetics">Changes in cod genetics</h2>



The study links specific genetic changes to a shift in how cod grow and reproduce. The researchers found that genetic variants tied to growth became more or less common over time - classic signs of what’s called directional selection. 



These variants weren’t random either. They matched up with known genes that influence size and reproduction.



The experts also observed changes in a particular section of the cod genome - a chromosomal inversion - that typically helps animals adapt to environmental stress. 



In this case, it followed the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/">selection</a> pattern, reinforcing that the shrinking of the cod isn’t just bad luck or poor diet. It’s evolution, triggered by how we fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-from-the-past">DNA from the past</h2>



To study this long-term shift, the team turned to something unusual: tiny stones in fish ears called otoliths. Like tree rings, they store growth data year by year. 



The scientists used 152 otolith samples collected from the Bornholm Basin between 1996 and 2019 - part of GEOMAR’s Baltic Sea Integrative Long-Term Data Series.



The researchers paired chemical analysis of the otoliths with high-resolution DNA sequencing. They traced how cod growth patterns and genetic traits shifted across nearly three decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/">fishing pressure</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-driven-by-human-activity">Evolution driven by human activity</h2>



The outcome? Cod that grew fast and large used to be common. Now, they’ve nearly vanished. The survivors are the ones that grow slower, mature smaller, and escape early capture.



“When the largest individuals are consistently removed from the population over many years, smaller, faster-maturing fish gain an evolutionary advantage,” noted Dr. Thorsten Reusch, head of the Marine Ecology Research Division at GEOMAR. 



“What we are observing is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolution-takes-place-in-decades-not-millions-of-years/">evolution</a> in action, driven by human activity. This is scientifically fascinating, but ecologically deeply concerning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cod-recovery-isn-t-guaranteed">Cod recovery isn’t guaranteed</h2>



The genetic changes found in cod aren't easily reversible. Cod that grow slowly and reproduce early might be surviving, but they’re also less productive. They mature at smaller sizes and produce fewer offspring. 



Furthermore, the genetic diversity of cod is shrinking. This diversity is crucial for helping species adapt to new conditions.



“Evolutionary change unfolds over many generations,” said Dr. Reusch. “Recovery takes far longer than decline, and it may not even be possible. This is evident in our 2025 length data from the current ALKOR cruise: despite the fishing ban, there’s no sign of a rebound in body size.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-cod-genetics">Significance of cod genetics</h2>



This isn’t just about fish. It’s about how quickly humans can push a species to evolve in real time - and how hard it is to undo that. Genetic changes don’t bounce back when the pressure’s off. They linger, and in many cases, they stick.



“Our results demonstrate the profound impact of human activities on wild populations, even at the level of their DNA,” said Dr. Han. “They also highlight that sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a> are not only an economic issue, but also a matter of conserving biodiversity, including genetic resources.”



The science is clear. Overfishing doesn’t just take fish out of the sea. It leaves a permanent mark on the species. And it might have already cost us more than we can get back.



The full study was published in the journal Science Advances.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humans have changed the genetic makeup of cod

Cod once ruled the Baltic Sea - massive, plentiful, and...

Plateosaurus,Couple,,Dinosaurs,From,The,Late,Triassic,Period,Walking,On

Every visitor to the Natural History Museum in Zurich is greeted by a massive dinosaur skeleton nicknamed “Teoplati.” At first glance, it looks like any other prehistoric fossil on display, except for the presence of a serious bone infection. 



Teoplati’s story is anything but ordinary. 



This eight-meter Plateosaurus, which lived 220 million years ago in what is now Switzerland, met its end in sticky mud - and researchers say it was already struggling long before that. The dinosaur’s right arm, it turns out, was badly infected.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, along with researchers at the Frick Dinosaur Museum, recently studied the fossil and uncovered one of the oldest - and most severe - cases of bone infection ever recorded in a dinosaur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mud-bound-dinosaur-had-a-useless-arm">Mud-bound dinosaur had a useless arm</h2>



Back in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-oldest-known-dinosaur-recently-discovered/">Late Triassic </a>epoch, the Frick Valley in Aargau was a flat, dry landscape prone to sudden flooding. 



Picture a massive clay pit in a semi-arid basin - perfect for trapping large animals like Plateosaurus. Many of these dinosaurs likely died the same way: caught in the mud with no way out.



But this particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-33-foot-jurassic-giant-twice-as-big-as-its-cousin-xingxiulong/">Plateosaurus</a> had even worse odds. It was already injured.



The dinosaur’s right shoulder and upper arm were severely damaged by a chronic infection. 



When researchers examined the bones, they found signs of intense inflammation and deformation - evidence that the animal’s limb had been unusable long before it became stuck in the mud.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ct-scanners-detect-dinosaur-bone-infection">CT scanners detect dinosaur bone infection</h2>



The nearly complete skeleton was unearthed in 2018. Paleontologists from the University of Zurich began studying it closely, especially the damaged limb. 



To get a better look inside, they used high-tech CT scanners at Empa, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology.



These scanners, typically used for industrial research, were the only machines large enough to handle the dinosaur’s massive bones.



What they found was striking. The Plateosaurus likely suffered from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bone-disease-killed-off-australias-giant-thunder-birds/">osteomyelitis</a> - a serious infection that attacks bone tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-osteomyelitis-is-still-common-today">Osteomyelitis is still common today</h2>



"Osteomyelitis affects many living animals, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-mystery-why-are-mammals-the-only-vertebrates-to-have-only-one-lower-jawbone/">mammals</a> such as humans, as well as birds and reptiles," explained Jordan Bestwick, postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Paleontology at UZH.



"This disease is known to have affected several different dinosaur groups, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sauropods-walked-more-like-hippos-than-elephants/">sauropods</a>, so we had access to a range of specimens to compare our Plateosaurus with." said Bestwick.



"The affected bones in the shoulder and upper arm have unusually rough internal and external textures, altered shapes, and are even fused together - symptoms that are broadly typical of osteomyelitis."



What makes this case so unique is the size of the infected area. 



"Previous studies of osteomyelitis in dinosaurs report localized areas of infection, such as toe bones or a couple of adjacent bones in the spine," explained Bestwick.



"Having an entire infected shoulder and upper arm is very unusual. Although we don't know what initially caused the infection, the animal likely suffered from this disease for a substantial part of its life, possibly rendering its right arm useless."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jurassic-infection-links-dinosaurs-and-humans">Jurassic infection links dinosaurs and humans</h2>



Today, Teoplati stands tall at the entrance of the Natural History Museum at the University of Zurich. 



The skeleton lies in the exact position in which it was found. Next to it stands a life-sized reconstruction that shows what the animal may have looked like in life - including the deformed right arm.



Dennis Hansen, who led the exhibit’s creation at the museum, said the display tells more than just a biological story - it’s a personal one. "We wanted a display that highlights the tragic story of this particular animal," said Hansen.



The exhibit includes a diorama of cracked mud and footprints - some of the dinosaur’s last steps - before it sank beneath the surface.



"Together with the paleo-reconstruction wizards from the Danish company 10 Tons, we created a reconstruction based on the skeleton that also showcases the disease on its right arm and shoulder," said Hansen.



"This makes the display one of the few, worldwide, where the reconstruction of an individual dinosaur includes its pathologies."



In other words, it’s not just a dinosaur. It’s a story of injury, survival, and an unlucky end. Visitors walking into the museum aren’t just meeting an ancient creature - they’re meeting an individual with a history written in its bones.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://sjpp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13358-025-00368-3">Swiss Journal of Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

220-million-year-old Plateosaurus dinosaur died from a crippling bone infection

Every visitor to the Natural History Museum in Zurich is...

Bluebottles - also known as Portuguese man o' war - are jellyfish-like marine creatures with long, stinging tentacles that often wash up on beaches. It's been widely assumed that bluebottles all belong to a single species, but a new global genetic survey has revealed otherwise.



Dr. Samuel H. Church of <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> coordinated the genome work with Australian colleagues, including Professor Kylie Pitt from Griffith University. Their findings overturn two centuries of scientific classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bluebottles-the-basics">Understanding bluebottles - the basics</h2>



The Portuguese man o’ war (Physalia physalis is the main species name), also known as the bluebottle, is a siphonophore - not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/">true jellyfish</a>, although it closely resembles one. 



What makes it extraordinary is that it’s not a single organism but a colonial one - comprised of genetically identical individuals called zooids. 



Each zooid performs a specialized role: one floats, another captures prey with stinging tentacles, a third digests, and yet another reproduces. 



These zooids function together as if they were one being, demonstrating a remarkable example of biological division of labor and cooperative survival.



This organism’s iconic translucent float, or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/pneumatophores" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pneumatophore</a>, sits atop the water like a small sail, catching the wind to move it across the ocean’s surface. 



Beneath it trail long, venomous tentacles - sometimes over 30 feet - that contain specialized cells called nematocysts, which fire harpoon-like structures to inject potent venom into prey. 



Despite its beauty, the sting can be extremely painful to humans and potentially dangerous, though rarely fatal. The man o’ war plays a critical ecological role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">pelagic food webs</a>, preying on small fish and plankton while serving as food for predators like the blanket octopus and loggerhead turtle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-species-of-bluebottles">Four species of bluebottles</h2>



The team sorted the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/portuguese-man-o-war.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> into Physalia physalis, P. utriculus, P. megalista, and a newly named Physalia minuta, the last discovered in waters south of New Zealand. Each species carries distinctive sail colors and float shapes - traits once dismissed as harmless variation.



Genetic markers show the four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/">lineages</a> do not interbreed, even when they occupy the same stretch of ocean. This pattern means evolution is at work in the open sea, not only along coastlines or around islands.



“We were shocked, because we assumed they were all the same species,” said Professor Pitt. Her remark echoes a long‑held textbook view now overturned.



Every colony is a <a href="https://twilightzone.whoi.edu/explore-the-otz/creature-features/siphonophore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">siphonophore</a> - a floating commune of genetically identical zooids that act as one animal. The arrangement lets a bluebottle grow long feeding tentacles while the gas‑filled float keeps the colony at the surface, a lifestyle that defines the <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com/updates/neuston-in-the-great-pacific-garbage-patch-and-the-impact-of-cleanup/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuston</a> layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-beyond-appearance">Differences beyond appearance</h2>



Raw genomes alone rarely hint at an animal’s appearance, so the researchers combed through 4,000 beach photographs. Color signatures and sail angles in the pictures matched the genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-phantom-jelly-discovered-exposed-ecosystem-under-antarctic-iceberg/">lineages</a> one by one.



Citizen scientists had, in effect, been taking field notes for years without knowing it. Their uploads supplied location data that helped map where each species turns up during different wind seasons. 



Machine‑learning tools flagged subtle differences, such as a deep‑purple crest on P. megalista or the small, clear float on P. minuta. Laboratory vouchers later verified those traits under a microscope.



The public photo trove also clarified left‑handed versus right‑handed sails, a feature that decides which way a bluebottle is blown. Such handedness now appears tied to species identity rather than simple developmental chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-separate-bluebottle-species">Ocean currents separate bluebottle species</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/">Ocean</a> circulation models recreated likely drift paths from hatchling to adult, revealing corridors that keep populations apart. 



Prevailing winds in the Pacific sweep P. utriculus west toward Australia, while the South Equatorial Current loops P. megalista into the Atlantic. 



The new species, P. minuta, hugs eddies of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924796319300259" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tasman Front</a>, a route that spirals larvae southward before they ever cross open ocean. Because gonads detach and sink below the surface to spawn, deep water layers also partition gene flow.



Subtle climate shifts could shuffle these corridors and mix the species in the future, but for now the lines stay crisp. That stability gives evolutionary forces room to sculpt body size, venom genes, and reproductive timing without interference. 



The finding challenges a common idea that wind‑powered drifters form one gigantic, well‑mixed population. Instead, even a creature built for travel can remain genetically provincial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluebottle-stings-vary-by-species">Bluebottle stings vary by species</h2>



<a href="https://sls.com.au/bluebottlewatch-a-new-research-project-to-develop-a-bluebottle-prediction-tool-for-our-beaches/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Surf Life Saving Australia</a> ranks bluebottle contact as a leading reason for first‑aid calls, spurring a research grant to build a beach sting forecast. 



Knowing which species is likely to arrive could sharpen those alerts, because tentacle length and venom chemistry differ among the four.



During the summer of 2017, more than <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-01/bluebottle-stings-up-900-per-cent-in-queensland/8313970" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">38,000 people</a> were treated for bluebottle stings in Queensland alone - a spike of 900 percent over the prior season. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-bluebottle-seasons">Forecasting bluebottle seasons</h2>



Public health planners can now add species identity to their toolbox instead of relying on wind direction alone.



Lighter winds often carry the smaller P. minuta onto sheltered south‑facing bays, where novice swimmers gather. 



Lifeguards armed with species‑level forecasts might adjust patrols or signage accordingly. Thermal anomalies that favor jellyfish blooms may not boost every bluebottle equally, given their genetic split.



Future sting seasons could therefore hinge on which lineage catches the breeze rather than on sheer water temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-population-structure-in-the-ocean">Hidden population structure in the ocean </h2>



The bluebottle story joins other case studies of copepods and pteropods that show hidden population structure in the high seas. 



Collectively, these results overturn the old axiom that “everything is everywhere” once an organism can drift. Marine cleanup projects often claim surface life is sparse, implying little ecological risk when skimming plastics. 



Evidence of partitioned diversity urges far more caution before nets sweep across convergence zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Pharmaceutical scouts have isolated novel peptide toxins from P. physalis, but untapped species may hold different compounds with medical promise. A four‑species framework sets a clearer path for bioprospecting teams.&nbsp;



Climate models aiming to forecast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-robots-are-exploring-the-oceans-role-in-climate-control/">oceanic carbon</a> cycling need accurate species counts because each colony’s buoyant gas is nearly 13 percent carbon monoxide. Four distinct production rates could alter estimates of gas exchange at the air–sea interface.



Researchers who track long‑range migrants, from sea turtles to seabirds, can now refine diet studies. Predator scat may tell which bluebottle species dominates a given flyway, adding another layer to ecosystem maps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxin-genes-in-bluebottle-species">Toxin genes in bluebottle species </h2>



Work is already under way to test whether the four lineages differ in toxin genes, an angle that could explain regional differences in sting severity. 



Another puzzle lies in the handedness trait, which might be hardwired by alleles rather than molded by early winds.



Field biologists plan to tag floats with tiny temperature loggers to see how much time each species spends in sun‑baked surface water. Results should reveal whether thermal tolerance helped split the lineages in the first place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00682-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Biologists discover that the "Portuguese man o' war" has multiple species

Bluebottles - also known as Portuguese man o' war -...

Child-directed speech, also known as “baby talk,” plays a vital role in human development. Around the world, caregivers use a distinct vocal style to talk to infants. 



These modified speech patterns help young minds absorb vocabulary and structure. But how did this behavior originate? Could it have evolved from our primate ancestors?



A recent study led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, <a href="https://www.unine.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Neuchâtel</a>, and collaborators across Europe and the U.S. offers new insights. 



The research, published in the journal Science Advances, explores whether great apes use infant-directed vocalizations like humans do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-talk-in-humans-and-apes">Baby talk in humans and apes</h2>



The team observed wild populations of bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. They also included data from human infants across diverse cultures: Shipibo-Konibo, Qaqet, Chintang, and Tuatschin.



To quantify communication, they analyzed vocal behavior during two-minute intervals. They categorized each instance as infant-directed, surrounding, or general vocal activity. 



They followed immature individuals closely, noting all relevant sounds from nearby group members.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-use-baby-talk-way-more">Humans use baby talk way more</h2>



These results highlight how unique human caregiving behavior is compared to that of our closest relatives. Human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-infants-connect-with-the-world-it-all-starts-with-the-feet/">infants</a> are surrounded by vocal input that is not only frequent but also specifically tailored to them. This level of attention likely helps them learn language faster and more efficiently.



Even when focusing only on what mothers said, humans stood out. Mothers spoke directly to their babies far more than ape mothers did. In fact, the difference between human and bonobo mothers was over 400-fold.



Most of the speech around human infants was directed at them. In contrast, great apes showed almost no such targeted communication. 



This suggests that humans may have evolved a special way of teaching language that relies heavily on speaking directly to infants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-direct-speech">Not just direct speech</h2>



Surrounding speech refers to vocalizations that infants can hear but are not directly addressed to them. This type of input was fairly consistent across humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">chimpanzees</a>, and bonobos. 



These species likely live in more socially active environments, where infants overhear conversations or calls.



Orangutans, however, received much less surrounding speech. This fits their more solitary lifestyle, where fewer individuals are nearby to produce vocalizations.



Because infant-directed speech is rare among apes, they may depend more on what they hear in the background. This ambient input could help them learn communication patterns, even without being directly taught.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-talk-helped-humans-evolve">Baby talk helped humans evolve</h2>



The data suggest a sharp evolutionary shift. “Our findings suggest that the tendency to direct vocalizations at infants... has been massively expanded in the human lineage,” the authors wrote.



One possible driver is the need to transmit learned communication. Unlike apes, human language is highly flexible and requires teaching. Infant-directed speech helps children grasp words, tone, and context more easily.



Interestingly, gestures may play a more prominent role in great apes. Repetitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bird-uses-wing-gestures-to-politely-say-after-you/">gestures</a> in apes mirror some features of human baby talk. These findings hint that vocal and gestural teaching modes may have evolved in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-humans-alone-not-quite">Are humans alone? Not quite</h2>



Other species also engage in infant-directed communication. Dolphins change pitch when around calves. Bats alter calls to suit pups. Cats and monkeys use specific sounds to call or calm infants.



However, these communications likely serve different functions, like identification or retrieval. Only in humans do these vocal patterns appear tightly linked to complex language learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-apes-to-understand-ourselves">Studying apes to understand ourselves</h2>



The study opens up new paths. The researchers propose exploring who produces surrounding speech in ape societies, siblings, mothers, or others, and whether that affects learning.



Additionally, they call for deeper study of ape gestures directed at infants. “The gestural modality might represent an additional fruitful avenue for future work."



This research provides strong support that child-directed speech may have evolved to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-can-naturally-learn-multiple-languages-from-birth/">language learning</a>. Our ancestors likely began with ambient communication, then shifted toward more intentional, tailored speech as language grew more complex.



By comparing the way species talk, or don’t talk, to their young, we gain a clearer view of what makes human language so powerful and so unique.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt7718" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Baby talk may explain what sets humans apart from apes

Child-directed speech, also known as “baby talk,” plays a vital...

The monarch may steal the spotlight, yet an ongoing crisis is affecting nearly every butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-can-adapt-quickly-but-evolution-has-its-limits/">species</a> in the lower 48. Between 2000 and 2020, total abundance fell by 22 percent, according to the largest survey ever assembled.



That national <a href="https://naba.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Rapid-butterfly-declines-across-the-United-States-during-the-21st-century_Science_03072025.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dip</a> works out to 1.3 percent each year, a slow‑motion slide that rarely makes headlines but never takes a day off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-species-decline-and-habitat-loss">Butterfly species decline and habitat loss</h2>



Roughly a third of the 342 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/">species</a> with solid data are shrinking fast, and 107 have already slipped by more than half of their former counts. 



Habitat carved into parking lots, hotter summers driven by climate change, and heavy use of pesticides each gnaw at different life stages, yet together they form a three‑pronged squeeze.



Even the unglamorous caterpillar matters here: without the right host leaves, no egg survives, no adult emerges, and no pollination happens. 



Cheryl Schultz of <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> helped write the new recovery roadmap. She says the clock is ticking for the insects she has studied for three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-drop-in-butterfly-numbers">Long-term drop in butterfly numbers</h2>



The Science team pulled 12.6 million field observations from 76,000 surveys, then wrangled conflicting protocols into one set of trend lines.



Patterns varied by region, but the Southwest stood out as hardest hit, while the Pacific Northwest held steady only because one irruptive tortoiseshell species briefly boomed.



The authors stress that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-hovering-technique-could-revolutionize-drone-design/">butterflies</a> act as living barometers: when they vanish, so do many less‑monitored insects doing similar ecological work. 



Losing butterflies also removes food for birds and other wildlife that depend on soft‑bodied prey each spring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaning-data-to-track-real-trends">Cleaning data to track real trends</h2>



Tracking butterfly abundance across hundreds of species isn't easy. Observations often come from community science platforms like iNaturalist, where users sometimes upload misidentified species or report tropical butterflies from butterfly houses as wild sightings.



To clean the data, researchers used <a href="https://txtav.com/en/range-map" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">range maps</a> to flag out-of-place records and exclude bad data from their models. 



Eliza Grames, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a>, said this step was key to making sure the trends reflected actual changes in nature rather than errors in reporting. Professor Grames specializes in using <a href="https://libguides.uta.edu/quantitative_and_qualitative_research/quant" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantitative methods</a>, evidence synthesis, and long-term datasets to understand how climate, habitat loss, and species interactions are affecting biodiversity. 



Her work focuses on combining scattered data sources like historical surveys and citizen science to track insect declines and guide effective conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-habitats-for-butterfly-species">Restoring habitats for butterfly species</h2>



Scott Black is the director of the <a href="https://www.xerces.org/">Xerces Society</a> and a co‑author of the recovery roadmap.



"Butterflies need host plants on which to lay eggs, wildflowers on which to feed, a refuge from pesticides, and sites to overwinter. There is hope for these animals if we focus on providing habitat for butterflies across all landscapes,” said Black. 



Providing season‑long bloom is key, and <a href="https://xerces.org/pollinator-conservation/habitat-restoration/management" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xerces</a> maintains region‑specific plant lists that match native flowers with local nectar feeders.



Land managers are urged to skip blanket spraying and instead spot‑treat weeds, mow outside bloom windows, and leave leaf litter for overwintering adults or chrysalids. 



Protecting habitat also buffers butterflies against flash droughts and early frosts that are becoming more common as weather swings widen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-spaces-support-butterfly-species">Green spaces support butterfly species</h2>



The recovery roadmap emphasizes that conservation must happen everywhere, not just in protected wilderness. Even small green spaces can play a huge role when stitched together across cities, suburbs, and farms.



Pollinator corridors, like roadside flower strips or native plant buffers on farmland, let butterflies travel, feed, and lay eggs without interruption. 



When neighbors and land managers coordinate efforts, isolated patches of habitat can become a functioning network that supports entire species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-species-and-cotton-yields">Butterfly species and cotton yields</h2>



Economics add weight to conservation: research in <a href="https://cns.utexas.edu/news/research/supporting-pollinators-could-have-big-payoff-texas-cotton-farmers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas</a> shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/">butterflies</a> translate into about $100 million in annual pollination value for cotton alone.



When rows of nectar plants bordered the fields, cotton set more bolls, and farmers noticed a boost in yield without another drop of chemical inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-help-butterfly-species">How to help butterfly species</h2>



Homeowners can swap a slice of turf for milkweed, asters, and goldenrod. City planners can seed bloom strips along bike paths and medians instead of short mowed grass.



Rural roadsides double as corridors when mowing heights stay above six inches and herbicide use is limited to targeted patches, a change that costs little but scales quickly.



Even small pollinator islands in solar arrays or utility rights‑of‑way create stepping‑stones that let populations recolonize after drought or fire.



Success stories already exist. The Fender’s blue butterfly, once presumed lost, bounced back enough for the <a href="https://oregoncapitalchronicle.com/2023/10/16/pink-wildflower-in-oregon-and-southwest-washington-removed-from-federal-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> to reclassify it from endangered to threatened in 2023.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp4671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Butterfly species are declining fast across the United States

The monarch may steal the spotlight, yet an ongoing crisis...

Relocating elephants to fresh herds can boost genetics and social health - but what if the animals can’t “talk” to their new hosts? 



Field biologists have discovered that elephant groups separated by only a few hundred miles emit subtly different low-frequency rumbles. Those dialects might complicate friendships, alliances, or alarm calls when animals are translocated. 



The puzzle is part of a broader realization that many species possess local traditions - learned behaviors that function much like human culture.



To help researchers explore that idea, scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> have launched the first open-access, global catalog of animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/">cultures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-animal-cultures">Mapping animal cultures</h2>



The <a href="https://viz.datascience.arizona.edu/ACDB/">Animal Culture Database</a> brings together hundreds of peer-reviewed reports on socially learned behaviors - from whales’ evolving migration routes to chimpanzees’ stone-tool know-how.



Kiran Basava is the paper’s lead author and a postdoctoral research associate at the University of Arizona.



“There is a consensus among animal behavior researchers that cultural traditions and socially learned behaviors are important to conservation,” said Basava. "There are decades of research investigating these behaviors across different species that are scattered throughout the literature."



"We synthesized that work to facilitate creative research and discussions about how culture is defined across different species, as well as how animals respond to different environmental disturbances caused by humans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-culture-by-region">Animal culture by region</h2>



The database centers on an interactive world map dotted with pins. Click on a marker and you can read about orangutans’ nesting tricks in Borneo, humpback <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/">whales</a>’ complex songs off Tonga, or urban crows that drop nuts at traffic lights so cars will crack them open.



A search panel lets visitors filter by species, behavior type, or geographic region. For example, it reveals how rats in European forests learned to peel pinecones, or how certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/">birds</a> remodeled mating dances after wildfires changed their habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-living-archive">Building a living archive</h2>



To assemble the resource, Basava and colleagues combed through thousands of journal articles published over several decades. 



The experts screened more than 1,000 promising papers. From those, they coded 121 into the pilot version - covering 30 mammalian, 30 avian, and one insect species. The team is adding 600 more studies and will soon let other scientists upload their own findings.



Study co-author Cristian Román-Palacios, an assistant professor of information science, said the tool could transform how researchers study cultural evolution.



“You can investigate the origins of culture by not just tracing it back to humans, but by seeing how much variance there is between different species and asking what drives those differences,” explained Professor Román-Palacios.



“Culture is not just a human phenomenon, and this database can help investigate what drives culture across the animal kingdom.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-loss-risks-extinction">Cultural loss risks extinction</h2>



Understanding animal culture is more than academic curiosity. Conservationists are realizing that an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-may-be-the-first-non-human-animals-to-call-each-other-by-names/">elephant dialect</a>, a whale migration route, or a songbird melody can be as crucial as genetics for a population’s survival.



Human-driven habitat loss, noise pollution, and climate change threaten to erase those traditions. If relocated elephants cannot communicate with resident herds, or if dam construction blocks a salmon run taught across generations, restoration projects may fail.



By pooling case studies in one searchable hub, the database helps practitioners identify culturally important behaviors that need protection - much like <a href="https://www.unesco.org/en">UNESCO</a>’s list of human cultural heritage.



The data can also reveal patterns: Are populations with richer cultural repertoires more resilient to disturbance? Do species that lose key traditions decline faster?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-meets-animal-tradition">Science meets animal tradition</h2>



The experts hope educators will use the site to teach evolutionary biology, while data scientists mine the entries for global trends. Basava envisions adding tools to visualize how behaviors spread over time, akin to epidemiological models for disease.



Future iterations may incorporate audio clips of vocalizations or video of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-tools-to-crack-open-prey/">tool use</a>, creating a multimedia atlas of animal ingenuity. 



The designers also plan multilingual interfaces to attract contributions from researchers worldwide, including Indigenous observers whose knowledge often predates academic studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-isn-t-just-human">Culture isn’t just human</h2>



The project resonates with a paradigm shift in biology: culture is no longer viewed as uniquely human. 



From dolphins that pass down signature whistles to capuchin monkeys that adopt local grooming fashions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-availability-influences-social-learning-among-orangutans/">social learning</a> pervades the animal kingdom. Recognizing those parallels can inform debates about animal welfare and cognitive rights, the authors note.



And it may reshape how humans see ourselves. If elephants currently need a translator, perhaps conservation must consider not just where animals live. It should also account for how they live - their languages, crafts, and customs forged over millennia.



For now, the Animal Culture Database offers anyone with an internet connection a front-row seat to those hidden worlds. The database preserves animal-taught traditions and reminds us that culture extends beyond just the human species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-025-05315-y">Nature Scientific Data</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

From rumbles to rituals: Scientists map the cultures of the animal kingdom

Relocating elephants to fresh herds can boost genetics and social...

Bird species add color, movement, and sound to our world. They pollinate plants, control pests, and spread seeds. But their future is in danger.



A new study from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a> warns that climate change and habitat destruction threaten global bird diversity. 



The loss of unique birds like the bare-necked umbrellabird, helmeted hornbill, and yellow-bellied sunbird-asity would shrink the variety of bird forms that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">ecosystems</a>.



This projection triples all recorded bird extinctions since 1500 CE. Even with protection from hunting, habitat loss, and climate change, 250 species may still disappear. Some birds are now too fragile to survive without direct help.



“Many birds are already so threatened that reducing human impacts alone won't save them. These species need special recovery programs, like breeding projects and habitat restoration, to survive,” explained Kerry Stewart, lead author of the study.



“We face a bird extinction <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">crisis</a> unprecedented in modern times. We need immediate action to reduce human threats across habitats and targeted rescue programs for the most unique and endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-bird-species-are-most-at-risk">Large bird species are most at risk</h2>



The researchers studied nearly 10,000 bird species using IUCN Red List data and advanced models. 



The results showed that large-bodied birds are especially at risk. These birds struggle more with hunting pressure and climate stress. Birds with broad wings face severe danger from habitat destruction, especially in forests.



The study went beyond just species counts. It measured the expected loss of “functional diversity,” a term describing the variety of bird shapes, diets, and behaviors. 



Under current trends, global bird functional diversity could fall by about 3.2% in the next 100 years. This drop may sound small, but it would seriously damage ecosystems. 



Large, distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/">species</a> often provide unique services. Their disappearance would leave functional gaps that smaller or similar birds cannot fill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-protection-alone">Limits of protection alone</h2>



The researchers tested three future scenarios: complete, partial, and minimal threat abatement. In the best case, where all human threats were removed across species ranges, around 250 species would still go extinct. That is nearly half of all projected losses, even with ideal conservation.



Some birds, like the Cebu flowerpecker, remain highly vulnerable despite facing few listed threats. With fewer than 70 individuals left, they may vanish without specific recovery steps like habitat restoration or captive breeding.



The study shows that reducing threats is not enough. Many species are already too close to the brink. Past damage, small populations, and isolated habitats all contribute to ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-molting-earlier-in-the-fall-as-seasons-shift/">risks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-rare-bird-species">Threats to rare bird species</h2>



The research evaluated six main threats: habitat loss, hunting, climate change, invasive species, disturbance, and pollution. 



Habitat loss contributed the most to species decline, affecting over 1,600 species. Yet when it comes to preserving unique bird traits, other threats matter more.



Driver-specific results showed that reducing hunting or accidental deaths helped conserve rare bird features more effectively, even if fewer total species were saved. That means some threats disproportionately affect birds with uncommon traits.



Birds with long tails and short beaks, for example, benefited more from reduced hunting. Birds with broad wings responded better to protection from habitat destruction. These patterns help tailor conservation actions to bird traits most at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-recovery-of-unique-species">Strategic recovery of unique species</h2>



One solution stood out: target the most unique birds for rescue. The researchers created a list of 200 functionally unique species. Protecting just the top 100 could conserve over two-thirds of global bird functional diversity.



These birds include nectar-feeders, scavengers, and seed dispersers. From the Sulu hornbill to the southern royal albatross, many are island-dwelling, wide-ranging, or limited to one location. They carry traits that help regulate temperature, shape ecosystems, and fill rare ecological roles.



Preventing the extinction of around 37 of these birds could achieve this 68% protection goal. Since past efforts have already saved 21 to 32 bird species since 1993, this new goal appears feasible with commitment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-must-be-done-now">What must be done now</h2>



Even in optimistic futures, threats cannot be erased quickly or completely. Species recovery programmes, including in-situ and ex-situ measures, are needed for the most vulnerable.



“Stopping threats is not enough,” said Professor Manuela Gonzalez-Suarez. “Prioritizing conservation programs for just 100 of the most unusual threatened birds could save 68% of the variety in bird shapes and sizes. This approach could help to keep ecosystems healthy.”



Habitat protection remains key. But to safeguard ecosystem resilience, conservationists must also think about functional diversity, not just species counts.



The coming century will test humanity’s will to preserve Earth's avian legacy. Without sharp decisions and bold action, we risk losing many birds and the ecological balance they help maintain.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02746-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hundreds of bird species could vanish in the next century

Bird species add color, movement, and sound to our world....

Anyone who has watched a cat sleep knows they do so with remarkable consistency. From curled tails to neatly tucked paws, their resting positions often seem almost ritual-like. But new research suggests the sleeping positions of cats are not just habits.



A global research team has found that most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-people-apart-by-sniffing-them/">cats</a> prefer to sleep on their left side. By analyzing 408 YouTube videos, the researchers confirmed a significant bias toward this sleeping position. 



About 65% of the cats were seen resting with their left shoulder down, while only 35% chose the right side. "Sleeping on the left side can therefore be a survival strategy,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-sleep-left-to-react-faster">Cats sleep left to react faster</h2>



When a cat sleeps on its left, it wakes up using its left visual field. This field is processed in the brain’s right hemisphere, which handles spatial awareness, fear response, and fast movement coordination. 



“Asymmetries in behavior can have advantages because both hemispheres of the brain specialize in different tasks,” explained study co-author Onur Güntürkün.



Left-side sleeping allows cats to respond faster to threats from below or from the left. This sleep posture aligns with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/">cats</a>’ tendency to rest in high places. 



Elevated locations limit predator access and provide better visibility. Combined with leftward sleeping, this may give cats a stronger edge when suddenly waking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-strong-left-side-bias">A strong left-side bias</h2>



The team examined only clear, unaltered videos showing single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-cats-purr-scientists-finally-found-the-answers-genetic-dna/">cats</a> lying fully visible on one side for at least 10 seconds. Videos that were mirrored, low-resolution, or cropped were excluded. 



The results were statistically significant (χ² = 37.7, df = 1, p &lt; 0.001), showing a clear left-side preference.



This bias may not be random. It fits well with patterns seen in many species, where the right brain hemisphere plays a major role in detecting danger. 



Animals generally react faster to threats coming from their left side, suggesting an adaptive benefit to this positioning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-right-brain-helps-detect-danger">The right brain helps detect danger</h2>



“By specializing on one limb or one side of its sensory system, the contralateral hemisphere goes through life-long cycles of motor and perceptual learning,” wrote the study authors.



This helps speed up brain processing, cut down reaction times, and enhance accuracy. Sleeping with the left shoulder down lets the brain’s stronger threat-response side engage instantly when the cat awakens.



The right amygdala, which helps process fear, is more active in the right side of the brain. Since the right side also handles things like noticing space and spotting danger, this supports the idea that sleeping on one side may be linked to fear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-causes-for-cat-sleep-bias">Other causes for cat sleep bias</h2>



Could other factors influence sleep position? Maybe, but they are unlikely to change the overall pattern. For instance, pregnant cows lie on their left with moderate frequency. However, pregnancy rates alone cannot explain the strong leftward bias in this cat sample.



Another possible explanation is “pawedness,” preference for using one paw over the other. Around 78% of cats show some degree of paw preference. But left- and right-pawed cats occur in equal numbers. So paw dominance does not match the 65% left-sleeping pattern seen here.



Still, researchers caution that more studies are needed. The team had no access to sex or pregnancy data for the cats in the videos. But the strong population-level trend remains clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-sleep-habits-reveal-brain-evolution">Cats sleep habits reveal brain evolution</h2>



This finding adds to the growing evidence that cats, like many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/">animals</a>, use subtle behavioral traits to stay safe. It also supports broader patterns of brain lateralization seen across mammals and birds.



The researchers believe these insights can help researchers understand how such asymmetries emerge. 



“Although this finding is subject to debate, it could provide an excellent opportunity to study the emergence of asymmetries at the population level,” they wrote.



For pet owners and scientists alike, this sleepy behavior may offer surprising clues about how brains and bodies work together to enhance survival and adaptation.



The study was led by researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uniba.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bari Aldo Moro</a>,&nbsp;<a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruhr University Bochum</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.medicalschool-hamburg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical School Hamburg</a>, and other international partners.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00507-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cats clearly prefer sleeping on their left side, here's why

Anyone who has watched a cat sleep knows they do...

For over a century, scientists have debated how mammals shifted from sprawling like reptiles to walking upright. This transition marked one of the most significant events in vertebrate evolution. It shaped how mammals, from bats to humans, move through their world.



While earlier views suggested a simple step-by-step progression, new research suggests a very different path. 



A study led by Dr. Robert Brocklehurst of the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a> shows that upright posture evolved through a complex branching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/">process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-upright-posture-in-mammals">Evolution of upright posture in mammals </h2>



“The evolution of mammals has previously been characterized as a series of steps from sprawling, to semi-sprawling, to upright,” said Dr. Brocklehurst. “However, what we discovered was a more nonlinear evolutionary progression throughout mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-nose-shapes-could-help-explain-human-birth-defects/">history</a>.”



The researchers analyzed over 200 species of tetrapods. They compared humerus bones across fossilized synapsids and modern animals like salamanders, reptiles, monotremes, and upright mammals. 



The team examined traits such as bone length, torsion, bending strength, and muscle leverage.



Rather than showing a clear ladder of progress, the data revealed bursts of change. Different mammalian ancestors experimented with varying forelimb functions. These experiments shaped the eventual rise of upright walking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-mechanics-of-movement">Mapping the mechanics of movement</h2>



The researchers used a computational model to connect bone shape with function and posture. They created adaptive landscapes that linked bone mechanics to different walking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-recognize-familiar-human-voices-even-in-recordings/">styles</a> - sprawled or upright.



“By correlating bone shape and limb biomechanics with posture, we could test how well the fossil bones were optimized for specific functional tasks, like upright walking versus sprawled walking,” said Dr. Brocklehurst.



“We expected to see a neat progression - from sprawling pelycosaurs to a bit more upright therapsids, then cynodonts, then fully upright mammals. Instead, we found bursts of innovation.”



The team discovered that while early synapsids did have sprawling limbs, they didn’t function like modern reptiles. 



“They’re not just copies of reptiles, but distinctive animals in their own right that are a little different from anything that’s alive today," said said Dr. Kenneth Angielczyk of the University of Chicago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-tried-many-movement-styles">Mammals tried many movement styles</h2>



This research challenges the idea of direct, staged transitions. Instead of rigid postural categories, the ancestors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-cats-outlive-dogs-clues-found-in-their-genes/">mammals</a> explored many forms of limb use.



“Previous hypotheses posit the synapsid ‘sprawling-parasagittal’ transition as a series of discrete postural shifts; our study supports the view of synapsid evolution as a series of successive radiations, with major clades exhibiting considerable functional (and postural) variation,” the researchers wrote.



“While the ancestors of mammals did generally get more upright as time went on, there was a lot of variation in each major group of mammalian ancestors.”



Professor Stephanie Pierce of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> noted that the path to upright posture wasn’t a straight line. "The ancestors of mammals weren’t steps on a ladder with modern mammals at the top."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscles-behind-mammalian-motion">Muscles behind mammalian motion</h2>



The upright posture of modern mammals required deep musculoskeletal changes. This included shifts in bone shape and how muscles interacted with the skeleton. 



The study showed that parasagittal posture - the fully upright limb arrangement - appeared relatively late in mammal history.



“Our work challenges the idea that posture changed gradually and early on,” said Professor Pierce. “Instead, it shows that upright posture and locomotion were a late evolutionary innovation, not an early defining trait of the mammalian lineage.”



“Understanding how mammals came to walk upright isn’t just about bones. It’s about uncovering the dynamic history of life on Earth," said Dr. Brocklehurst.



The researchers acknowledge some limitations in their study. These include uncertainties in evolutionary timelines and divergence dates. However, the large dataset and mechanical modeling provide a strong framework for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-upright-posture-in-mammals">Tracing upright posture in mammals</h2>



To compare hundreds of bones from vastly different animals, the team had to innovate. Traditional shape analysis tools failed. So, they retooled an R software package into a “slice-based” landmarking system.



This approach allowed for precise measurement of traits even across species separated by millions of years. Former undergraduate Magdalen Mercado helped assemble the dataset, contributing to the massive scope of the project.



Professor Pierce reflected on the legacy of Harvard researchers who tackled similar questions decades ago. “Now, with new tools and data, we can revisit those ideas and see the story more clearly.”



“This delayed acquisition [of upright posture] ultimately laid the foundation for the extraordinary ecological success of mammals,” said Pierce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-mammalian-evolution">New chapter in mammalian evolution</h2>



This study is the first of its kind to use large-scale biomechanics to trace mammalian posture. It reveals that upright walking didn’t come early, but evolved after numerous experiments in movement.



As the team continues modeling limb function in fossil species, they aim to unlock more details about how ancient creatures lived and moved.



“The origin of upright mammalian posture is a key part of their evolutionary story,” said Dr. Brocklehurst. 



“People have been working on this problem for over 100 years. We knew we needed to see as many fossils as possible, and really get to grips with bone function and mechanics, not just shape.”



With this broader view, scientists now see evolution not as a tidy path, but as a dynamic landscape full of surprises.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mammals tried different ways to move before walking upright

For over a century, scientists have debated how mammals shifted...

Tiny clusters of drifting debris called "marine snow" shower through the ocean every day, ferrying food and carbon from the bright surface to the dark seafloor.



New <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505085122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> now show that the smallest flakes plunge more quickly than their larger cousins, overturning a century of textbook fluid dynamics and hinting at fresh twists in the planet’s carbon budget.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-marine-snow-the-basics">Understanding "marine snow" - the basics</h2>



This “snow” consists of dead and decaying animals, plankton, fecal matter, mucus, and other tiny detritus that clump together into slow-sinking flakes. 



Despite the whimsical name, marine snow plays a serious role in the ocean's ecosystem - it serves as a crucial source of food for many deep-sea organisms that live far below sunlight’s reach. 



Without this steady rain of carbon-rich material, life in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-trash-debris-now-found-in-deepest-parts-of-earths-seas-and-oceans-mediterranean/">ocean’s abyss</a> would be severely limited.



Beyond its ecological function, marine snow also influences Earth’s climate system. As it sinks, it transports carbon from the surface to the ocean floor, effectively removing it from the atmosphere for centuries or even longer. 



This process, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-robots-are-exploring-the-oceans-role-in-climate-control/">biological carbon pump</a>, helps regulate global carbon dioxide levels and mitigate climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-marine-snow-sinks-faster">Smallest marine snow sinks faster</h2>



“It basically means that smaller particles can sink faster than bigger ones,” said Robert Hunt and colleagues at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> and the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> at Chapel Hill, who led the study. 



That counterintuitive sprint happens only in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/stratified-fluid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratified fluids</a> such as the ocean, where density increases with depth.



When a porous flake soaks up salt from the layers it crosses, the added mass beats the drag that normally slows tiny objects. 



Because surface‐to‐depth density changes are gentle yet persistent, salt diffusion keeps boosting the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flake’s weight</a> all the way down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-important">Why is this important?</h2>



Speed matters. The ocean’s <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GB007083" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon biological pump</a> moves about 10.2  billion tons of carbon a year from sunlit waters toward long‑term storage below the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/thermocline.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermocline</a>. 



Faster‑than‑expected settling of small fragments may revise estimates of how much carbon actually reaches the deep, especially during spring plankton blooms when the ocean teems with fine detritus.



The same physics could alter the journey of <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/microplastics.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>. A recent global <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08818-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> found that smaller plastic bits, under 0.004 inch, linger longer at mid‑depths than bigger shards. 



If porosity or biofilm growth changes their salt uptake, these particles might fall sooner than models predict and redistribute pollution hotspots on the seafloor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-snow-sinks-through-layers">How marine snow sinks through layers</h2>



Hunt’s team built a four‑foot‑long tank whose density changed smoothly from fresh water at the top to salty water below, mimicking the open ocean’s gradient. Carefully controlled pumps dripped the two end‑member waters to create a stable linear stratification.



The researchers then 3D‑printed molds and cast agar shapes (spheres, disks, and rods) with diameters from 0.04 to 0.4 inch. 



Like gelatin desserts, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/agar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agar particles</a> were riddled with pores that quickly exchanged water and salt with their surroundings.



High‑speed cameras tracked each particle’s plunge through the tank. “We ended up with a pretty simple formula where you can plug in estimates for different parameters and get reasonable estimates of the sinking speed,” said <a href="https://engineering.brown.edu/people/daniel-m-harris" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Harris</a>, an associate professor of engineering at Brown who oversaw the work.



The observations matched the new equation: among spheres, a one‑millimeter bead beat a four‑millimeter bead to the bottom. 



For flat or rod‑shaped bodies, the thinnest dimension set the pace, allowing needle‑like fragments to blitz past bulkier shapes of the same mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-makes-porous-marine-snow-fall-faster">Salt makes porous marine snow fall faster</h2>



Classical drag calculations assume an object’s density stays fixed as it falls. Porous bodies break that rule because water flows through them, letting dissolved salt accumulate inside.



The model hinges on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/porosity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">porosity</a>, solute <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/diffusivity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diffusivity</a>, and the <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/lom3.10316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vertical density gradient</a>. If salt absorption boosts density faster than drag slows descent, size becomes a liability and small wins the race.



This diffusion‑limited regime likely dominates for fluffier aggregates made of <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/phyto.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> remains, fecal pellets, or dust‑laden snow. Less porous grains of sand or shell should still follow the familiar bigger‑falls‑faster script.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-sinking-marine-snow-changes-estimates">Fast-sinking marine snow changes estimates</h2>



Biogeochemical models track how quickly carbon sinks, gets eaten, or dissolves on the way down. Underestimating the speed of fine aggregates could inflate estimates of mid‑water remineralization and shortchange deep‑sea sequestration.



<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a> notes that the ocean absorbs about 30 percent of the carbon dioxide humans emit each year, buffering climate change. Tweaking particle speeds could shift where, and how long, that captured carbon stays locked away.



Some climate engineers are exploring methods that encourage fast‑sinking flakes, from adding minerals that ballast algae to growing kelp for deep burial. 



Knowing exactly which sizes and shapes drop quickest will sharpen those interventions and gauge possible ecological side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-plastic-pollution">Lessons for plastic pollution</h2>



Plastic fragments often pick up biofilms, turning them into tiny sponges that absorb salts and organic goo, much like marine snow. 



If that boosts density, millimeter‑scale fibers might leave surface waters sooner than remote sensing suggests.



A plastic snowfall could ferry toxins to bottom feeders and alter food webs once thought safe from floating litter. Policy aimed at surface cleanup alone may miss this hidden pathway.



Researchers also found that elongated pieces settle according to their thinnest axis. That means synthetic fibers shed from clothing, typically long and narrow, may descend even faster than spheres of equal volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-in-real-ocean-and-improving-models">Testing in real ocean and improving models</h2>



Hunt and Harris plan to partner with oceanographers to drop custom particles over deep moorings and compare lab predictions with real‑world drifts. They also aim to explore how temperature gradients, common near polar ice and hydrothermal vents, tweak the balance between drag and diffusion.



Back on land, modelers are already folding the new equation into regional carbon budgets and microplastic fate simulations. Small marine snow flakes, once dismissed as slow movers, are entering the spotlight, reminding scientists that size is only skin deep when salt can seep inside.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505085122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny "marine snow" particles in the oceans defy the laws of physics

Tiny clusters of drifting debris called "marine snow" shower through...

Back,View,Of,Dog,Talking,To,Dog,Friends,In,Video

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them virtually help too? A new study says yes. The researchers found that a five-minute video of a therapy dog can ease stress almost as much as an in-person visit.



Led by Dr. John-Tyler Binfet from&nbsp;<a href="https://ok.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC Okanagan</a>&nbsp;and Dr. Christine Tardif-Williams from&nbsp;<a class="" href="https://brocku.ca/">Brock University</a>, the study tested the impact of virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-on-campus-help-students-manage-stress-and-anxiety/">dog</a> videos on both students and non-students. Over 1,000 people took part, showing clear stress relief across groups.



“Our findings demonstrate that even with a virtual session, there was a significant reduction in stress among both the student population and the general public, regardless of age,” said Dr. Binfet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-therapy-dog-videos-created-calm">How therapy dog videos created calm</h2>



The virtual canine comfort modules were brief, calming, and thoughtfully made. They featured therapy dogs and handlers from the B.A.R.K. program, a known student well-being initiative.



Each video included a welcome message, land acknowledgment, gentle narration, and sensory prompts. Participants were asked to imagine petting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-reduce-emotional-exhaustion-and-work-burnout/">dog</a> and were guided to reflect on their emotions.



This method mimicked real therapy dog sessions without needing in-person attendance. It also gave viewers flexibility to watch from anywhere and at any time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-dog-videos-lowered-stress">Therapy dog videos lowered stress</h2>



This study included two phases: student participants (N = 963) and community members (N = 122). Both groups reported lower stress levels after the session. 



For students, average stress dropped from 3.33 to 2.53 on a five-point scale. For community members, the reduction was from 3.07 to 2.43.



Interestingly, women in the student group experienced more stress relief than men. Before watching, women reported higher stress. After viewing, their stress dropped to levels similar to male participants. Age, however, had no major influence on results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-pandemic-context">Beyond the pandemic context</h2>



This isn’t the first time virtual therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/">dog</a> sessions were studied. But this research took place after COVID-19 restrictions ended. That makes it more relevant today, as it reflects everyday conditions.



The findings confirm that people continue to benefit from virtual canine modules even when in-person options are available. 



The simplicity and low commitment of the videos help reduce stress without needing a formal setting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-benefits-most-from-virtual-sessions">Who benefits most from virtual sessions?</h2>



This method works for students, busy adults, or anyone avoiding therapy due to stigma. 



For example, one participant said: “I have thought about attending an in-person session on campus before since I love dogs but the interacting with humans made me anxious."



"No offense to anyone but this virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/">dog</a> session removes the unknown human interaction that may make people nervous."



The videos can serve as an easy first step toward mental health care. Researchers believe this “foot in the door” model could help people eventually seek further support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-and-effective-videos">Short and effective videos</h2>



The virtual modules were just five minutes long. Despite the short length, they led to measurable improvements in stress. 



Participants viewed videos on YouTube without scheduling anything. That made it very convenient and widely accessible.



This short duration also helped protect the welfare of therapy dogs. In virtual settings, dogs avoid the stress of busy live events. It’s better for them and still works for humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inclusive-and-accessible-therapy-sessions">Inclusive and accessible therapy sessions </h2>



The sessions were inclusive in design. People from different age groups, ethnicities, and life situations took part. 



Virtual delivery helps reach rural residents, people with social anxiety, or those who simply prefer solitude.



Modules could be tailored further to suit marginalized or neurodiverse audiences. Researchers recommend more collaboration between mental health professionals and human-animal interaction experts to design targeted content.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-therapy-dog-research">Future of therapy dog research</h2>



The study had some limitations. It lacked a control group watching non-dog videos, so other calming factors weren’t ruled out. 



Also, long-term effects weren’t measured. Researchers want future work to track how long the stress relief lasts.



The gender imbalance in the sample also raises questions. Most participants were women, which matches past studies. Still, future research should explore how different genders experience virtual dog sessions.



Another future step could be combining these modules with mindfulness techniques. That might boost their calming impact even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-better-with-little-effort">Feeling better with little effort</h2>



Virtual canine comfort videos offer a short, calming break with meaningful benefits. They help reduce stress, particularly for women and those who avoid traditional therapy settings. 



The videos are easy to access, require no special tools, and can reach people from all backgrounds.



In a time when stress and mental health challenges are rising, a simple dog video may be more powerful than we thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/hai.2025.0015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interactions</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists prove that simply watching dogs on video can reduce stress and anxiety, no contact required

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them...

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything. Success depends on catching food efficiently, whether it's darting prey or algae stuck to rocks. 



A recent study published in the journal PLOS Biology&nbsp;shows that fish face a basic anatomical choice: grow big teeth or evolve mobile jaws - they can’t do both.



Nick Peoples and colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> used high-speed videography and evolutionary models to investigate this trade-off across 161 ray-finned fish species.



Ray-finned fishes dominate the aquatic world, forming about half of all vertebrate species. Their feeding success hinges on two traits: long teeth that help damage or grip prey, and extendable jaws that produce suction for capturing elusive prey. Yet both features rarely appear in the same species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-teeth-less-mobile-jaws">Bigger teeth, less mobile jaws</h2>



The researchers analyzed videos to track how fish approached prey using three techniques: swimming forward (body ram), extending the jaws (jaw ram), or sucking prey in (suction). Most species (76%) relied on body ram, while suction rarely played a primary role.



The team found that tooth size closely matched feeding strategy. Fish with big teeth nearly always relied on body ram. Those with small teeth used jaw protrusion more effectively. 



There was no strong link between tooth size and suction use. The results support a simple pattern: the bigger the teeth, the less mobile the jaws.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-size-limits-feeding-flexibility">Tooth size limits feeding flexibility</h2>



To explore the evolutionary basis of this mismatch, the team ran statistical models comparing species with different feeding behaviors. 



The results confirmed a tight trade-off: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">species</a> that use jaw ram evolved to have teeth four times smaller than species that rely on swimming strikes.



The study also showed that as teeth get larger, the diversity of feeding strategies drops sharply. Species with smaller teeth had more flexibility, combining jaw movement and suction in various ways. This flexibility was lost in fish with bigger teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-structure-shapes-fish-evolution">Jaw structure shapes fish evolution</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">ray-finned fish</a> grow replacement teeth inside the jawbone. This requires extra space, especially if the teeth are big. But extendable jaws are slim and fast-moving, with little room for large internal replacements.



The result? Fish with mobile jaws can’t support very large teeth. “This presents a dilemma for species with high jaw protrusion," noted the researchers.



Slim jaws that allow fast strikes limit space for growing new, large teeth. To make things harder, large teeth could slow a suction strike by creating drag or interfering with water flow. Fish that use suction likely keep their teeth small on purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-adapt-to-keep-big-teeth">Fish adapt to keep big teeth</h2>



Some species sidestep this problem using special modifications. These include fused teeth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">parrotfish</a>, which form a beak, and stacked tooth structures in pufferfish that become dense cutting tools. 



Triggerfish attach teeth using soft tissue for more support, while butterflyfish evolved flexible tooth shafts.



These adaptations allow large-toothed species to exploit unique diets - like coral scraping, detritus collection, or even wood eating.



“When we looked into which species had exceptionally large teeth, we were surprised to find that they also have interesting modifications to the dental system, like the beak of parrotfish," said Peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-success-has-limits">Feeding success has limits</h2>



Fish evolution illustrates a simple but powerful rule: you can't always have it all. Both big teeth and mobile jaws help fish survive, but trying to evolve both seems to backfire.



“Many feeding innovations have evolved in fishes, and our results show that it is important to consider the interactions between these traits as some may actually be incompatible with each other," noted Peoples.



“High-speed videography really provides a unique view into fish feeding. IIt often reveals subtle movements and behaviors that you would not notice if only observing the fish in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-environmental-impacts-of-tropical-fish-aquariums/">aquarium</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bite-hard-or-strike-fast">Bite hard or strike fast</h2>



Fish species that evolved big teeth gave up jaw mobility but gained new dietary options. Species that evolved flexible jaws gained versatility but lost the power to grip or damage prey.



This study highlights how physical constraints can shape evolution. Even in a group as diverse as ray-finned fishes, nature imposes limits. 



Those limits may explain why fish face a fork in their evolutionary path: bite hard or strike fast - but never both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003225" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why fish can’t evolve both powerful jaws and big teeth

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything....

Rodents don’t usually evolve overnight. Like most species, they change slowly through tiny shifts passed down over thousands or millions of years. But when the world changes fast, like it has in cities over the past century, some animals keep up. 



In fact, some animals even adapt to urbanization in real time. A team of researchers recently spotted signs of that kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-are-driving-rapid-evolution/">rapid evolution</a>. The clues were found in hundreds of skills sitting quietly in drawers at the Field Museum in Chicago.



The skulls weren’t newly collected specimens - they spanned more than a century. And hidden in their measurements were subtle changes that told a bigger story.



By comparing the skulls of eastern chipmunks and eastern meadow voles collected over the past 125 years, scientists at the Field Museum uncovered signs of these animals adjusting to an increasingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-can-effectively-adapt-to-urban-environments/">urban environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-time-machine-in-a-museum">A time machine in a museum</h2>



“Museum collections allow you to time travel,” said Stephanie Smith, a mammalogist and XCT laboratory manager at the Field Museum. 



"Instead of being limited to studying specimens collected over the course of one project, or one person’s lifetime, natural history collections allow you to look at things over a more evolutionarily relevant time scale.”



The Field Museum’s mammal collection includes over 245,000 specimens from around the world, but its home city is especially well represented. These Chicago-area animals offer a rare chance to study changes across both time and space - right in the scientists’ backyard.



“We’ve got things that are over 100 years old, and they're in just as good of shape as things that were collected literally this year,” said Smith. “We thought, this is a great resource to exploit.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-rodents-in-the-city-of-chicago">Comparing rodents in the city of Chicago</h2>



The team focused on two rodent species that still call Chicago home. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/">Chipmunks</a>, which live above ground and eat a wide range of food, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-of-voles-linked-to-oxytocin-levels/">voles</a>, which live underground and mostly stick to plants. The contrast between them was part of the point.



“We chose these two species because they have different biology, and we thought they might be responding differently to the stresses of urbanization,” said Anderson Feijó, assistant curator of mammals at the Field Museum.



Two interns with the Field Museum Women in Science program - Alyssa Stringer and Luna Bian - played a central role in the work. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-skulls-and-city-adaptations">Rodent skulls and city adaptations</h2>



The researchers measured the skulls of 132 chipmunks and 193 voles. The skulls hold clues about diet, body size, and even sensory abilities.



“From the skulls, we can tell a little bit about how animals are changing in a lot of different, evolutionary relevant ways - how they're dealing with their environment and how they're taking in information,” said Smith.



Stringer and Bian measured basic features of each rodent skull, like overall length and the length of the tooth rows. 



The researchers also used 3D scanning to digitally map 82 chipmunk and 54 vole skulls. This allowed them to compare tiny differences in shape across specimens using a method called geometric morphometrics.



The results revealed small but telling shifts. Chipmunks showed an increase in skull size, but their tooth rows got shorter. 



Voles developed smaller bony structures in their skulls that are tied to hearing. The changes weren’t random - but they also weren’t clearly linked to temperature or climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodents-respond-to-a-louder-bigger-city">Rodents respond to a louder, bigger city</h2>



To dig deeper, the team used satellite data to track how the city grew over time. They looked at building coverage starting in the 1940s and matched those trends to the locations where specimens were collected. 



Older specimens came from areas known to be wild back then - or from downtown areas that were already developed.



“We tried very hard to come up with a way to quantify the spread of urbanization,” said Feijó. “We took advantage of satellite images showing the amount of area covered by buildings, dating back to 1940.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-driven-by-urbanization">Changes driven by urbanization </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/">Urbanization</a>, not climate, seemed to drive the rodent skull changes. And the way each species adapted may reflect how it lives.



“Over the last century, chipmunks in Chicago have been getting bigger, but their teeth are getting smaller,” said Feijó. “We believe this is probably associated with the kind of food they're eating."



"They're probably eating more human-related food, which makes them bigger, but not necessarily healthier. Meanwhile, their teeth are smaller - we think it's because they're eating less hard food, like the nuts and seeds they would normally eat.”



As for the voles? The parts of their skulls that hold the inner ear - the auditory bullae - have shrunk. “We think this may relate to the city being loud - having these bones be smaller might help dampen excess environmental noise,” said Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-not-a-win">A warning, not a win</h2>



It might be tempting to see this as a success story - rodents adjusting to city life. But the scientists see it differently. 



The adaptations may help, but they’re not necessarily positive. Smaller teeth and smaller ear bones are symptoms of change, not signs of health.



“These findings clearly show that interfering with the environment has a detectable effect on wildlife,” said Feijó.



“Change is probably happening under your nose, and you don't see it happening unless you use resources like museum collections,” said Smith.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/icb/icaf081/8158706?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Integrative and Comparative Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chicago’s rodents are evolving with the city

Rodents don’t usually evolve overnight. Like most species, they change...

A single fertilized egg somehow manages to build skin, brain, and blood cells within a matter of days. But how do those first cells know which body parts to build? How do some cells know to create kidneys while other cells immediately start creating skin? 



Solving that puzzle has kept developmental biologists busy for more than a century, yet many lineage maps still look like unfinished sketches. 



Now an Australian team reports a tracking tool called LoxCode that labels every cell in a mouse embryo with a unique DNA tag and follows its descendants as tissues form. 



“This creates a trackable barcode, allowing us to peer inside this fundamental process with unprecedented detail,” said <a href="https://findaresearcher.wehi.edu.au/weber.ts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Tom Weber</a> of the <a href="https://www.wehi.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Walter and Eliza Hall Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loxcode-tracks-each-cell-from-the-start">LoxCode tracks each cell from the start</h2>



LoxCode relies on the Cre recombinase enzyme to shuffle short DNA cassettes, generating more than 30 billion possible <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41576-023-00624-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">barcodes</a> in a single step. 



Each label is copied faithfully as the embryo grows, so scientists can reconstruct family trees later by simple sequencing.



In pilot tests, the team injected the barcode cassette on day 5.5 of pregnancy, when the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/epiblast" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiblast</a> is still arranging its first germ layers. A week later they recovered fetuses and read the tags in bulk tissue and at single‑cell resolution.



“That tells us fate bias appears far earlier than textbooks suggest,” explained <a href="https://www.wehi.edu.au/researcher/shalin-naik/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Shalin Naik</a>, a laboratory head at WEHI. Some clones reached every corner of the embryo, while others stuck to ectoderm, blood, or limb buds.&nbsp;



By feeding the barcode data into an agent‑based model, the researchers predicted hidden asymmetries, like left‑versus‑right kidney precursors, and then confirmed them experimentally. 



Such computational cross‑checks strengthen confidence that the tags truly record biology, not sequencing noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-loxcode-writes-billions-of-labels">How LoxCode writes billions of labels</h2>



Earlier <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf7907" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage tracing</a> systems depended on viruses or CRISPR cuts, which can damage cells or miss subtle branches. One <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04994-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> recorder captured only a few hundred unique edits across a whole zebrafish, limiting resolution.



LoxCode gets around previous limitations by using 13 short pieces of DNA, arranged so that an enzyme called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/cre-recombinase" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cre recombinase</a> can shuffle them in many different ways. Once the pieces reach a smaller, stable size, the shuffling stops, locking the DNA tag in place for each cell.



Since each DNA piece is very short, these tags are easy to read using standard genetic sequencing tools. That makes the method affordable, even for labs without large budgets.



The team also created a special breed of mouse, called strain 037677, which is available from <a href="https://www.jax.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Jackson Laboratory</a>. Researchers can use it by pairing it with another mouse that activates the barcoding process in specific tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-hidden-bias-in-the-embryo">Revealing hidden bias in the embryo</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4699068/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluripotent cells</a> were long assumed to wait for external signals before picking a destiny. Yet the new data show many clones already lean toward one germ layer while the fetus is still the size of a poppy seed.



For instance, epiblast cells sitting near the forming early streak produced mostly blood and mesenchyme cells, matching earlier dye‑label <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt.4103" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> but adding single‑cell resolution.



Conversely, anterior clones favored neural tissues, hinting that position cues translate into lineage bias before gastrulation starts.



Unexpected asymmetries emerged too. The left limb bud often traced back to different founders than the right, suggesting randomness, not mirror symmetry, seeds the first skeletal blueprint.



Such insights could clarify why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cellular-cleanup-helps-preserve-eggs-and-fertility/">congenital disorders</a> strike only one side of the body. LoxCode also gives stem‑cell engineers reference maps for guiding organoids toward balanced growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-brain-growth-to-stroke-repair">From brain growth to stroke repair</h2>



Because barcoding works in live mice, investigators are already adapting it to study immune development, gut regeneration, and tumor relapse. 



A neuroscientist at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> is tracing how newborn neurons integrate into adult circuits after a stroke, using LoxCode to mark progenitors at the injury edge.



Cancer biologists plan to follow how therapy‑resistant clones emerge over months of drug exposure. By back‑tracking each surviving cell to its earliest barcode, they hope to spot vulnerabilities before relapse.



Drug developers could one day screen compounds that push harmful lineages back toward healthy fates. That approach pairs naturally with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-breakthrough-sheds-light-on-the-beginning-of-life/">single‑cell RNA</a> profiles, revealing not just where a clone goes but how its gene programs shift along the journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-medicine">What this means for medicine</h2>



Developmental disorders often arise from mis‑timed cell decisions that happen weeks before clinical symptoms. 



With a cellular ancestry chart in hand, researchers can pinpoint the first wrong turn and design precise interventions.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-c-promotes-skin-renewal-and-anti-aging-at-the-genetic-level-dna-demethylation/">Gene therapies</a> that swap faulty DNA in founder cells might correct an entire lineage instead of treating tissues piecemeal. 



Similarly, transplant doctors could verify that lab‑grown grafts contain the right mixture of cell types before surgery.



Ethical questions will follow, especially if human embryos are ever tagged at comparable depth. For now, the focus stays on mice, where LoxCode already promises to rewrite textbooks on early embryonic patterning.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425004611" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How do your cells know which parts of your body to build? Brilliant new tech is helping us find out

A single fertilized egg somehow manages to build skin, brain,...

Bird feeding is a cherished pastime across many cultures. Whether it’s scattering breadcrumbs near a city pond or hanging feeders outside suburban windows, millions of people engage in acts of casual care for wild birds. 



Recent research from the <a href="https://www.uark.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas</a> reveals that what we feed birds can deeply affect how they handle disease.



The study revealed that canaries on high-protein diets developed stronger immune profiles and milder symptoms when infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), a pathogen common in wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-could-vanish-in-the-next-century/">songbirds</a>.



“Our results are exciting because of the importance of human supplemented food in wildlife disease systems, especially wild birds, which are commonly provided with supplemental food via bird feeders,” said Erin Sauer, lead author of the study.



This research is the first to link diet with molecular-level immune differences in wildlife. It focuses on how food type - not just quantity - shapes disease outcomes in birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-fed-birds-recover-faster">Protein-fed birds recover faster</h2>



The researchers divided canaries into two groups. One group received a high-protein diet made mostly of egg whites, while the other received a high-fat diet with more yolk and oil. Birds were then exposed to the MG pathogen or given a harmless placebo.



Before infection, protein-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/">birds</a> already showed increased expression of immune-related genes. After infection, lipid-fed birds had to ramp up their immune systems, while protein-fed birds maintained steady, high-level expression. This shows their immune systems were already ready.



Protein-fed birds recovered faster. Their eye inflammation - a symptom of MG - was lower and cleared quicker. Lipid-fed birds took longer to recover, with more prolonged symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-gene-activity-before-infection">Immune gene activity before infection</h2>



The team used RNA sequencing to analyze gene activity. Before infection, protein-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a> had 267 genes upregulated related to immune defense. 



Lipid-fed birds had 248 different genes upregulated, many tied to basic cellular functions like ribosome activity, not immunity.



After infection, the contrast grew. Lipid-fed birds showed over 1,000 genes with significant changes. Protein-fed birds had only 66 such genes. 



This means lipid-fed birds had to drastically adjust their systems during infection. Protein-fed birds needed little change - they were already prepared.



Surprisingly, immune genes like JCHAIN (linked to antibody production) were seven times more active in protein-fed birds before infection. Lipid-fed birds only caught up after infection, suggesting delayed immune readiness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolic-clues-and-broader-implications">Metabolic clues and broader implications</h2>



Diet also influenced energy-related genes. Lipid-fed birds showed signs of stress in genes tied to mitochondrial function and insulin regulation. 



One gene, LEPR (leptin receptor), responded in opposite ways between the two groups. This points to broader metabolic differences that could influence disease tolerance.



These molecular effects mirror patterns seen in wild house finches that have evolved tolerance to MG. This suggests that simple dietary changes can mimic the effects of natural selection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-backyard-bird-lovers-can-do">What backyard bird lovers can do</h2>



So what can people feeding backyard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">birds</a> take from this study?



Sauer suggests giving birds high-protein and nutrient-dense options. These include suet with seeds, mealworms, peanuts, and sunflower seeds. These foods support birds’ immune systems and overall condition.



Avoid feeding mostly cracked corn, millet, or bread. These offer limited nutritional value. Still, birds may need more fat during winter or migration, so balance matters. Birds will often choose what they need most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-can-boost-birds-survival">Protein can boost birds' survival</h2>



This study shows that everyday actions, like feeding birds, can directly impact their survival and overall health. While feeding may seem harmless or routine, the type of food offered plays a critical role. 



Poor-quality food can weaken birds' immune systems, making them less able to fight infections and recover from illness.



As human activity continues to reshape natural landscapes and spread disease more widely, our role in supporting wildlife becomes even more important. 



The research reminds us that meaningful change often begins with small, consistent habits. Offering nutrient-rich, protein-balanced food helps birds stay strong, boost immunity, and recover faster when sick or stressed.



Even simple choices at backyard feeders, such as selecting better ingredients, can strengthen birds’ natural defenses. These actions become a powerful way to support bird populations. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.17793" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Protein helps birds prepare to fight off infection

Bird feeding is a cherished pastime across many cultures. Whether...

Giant,Male,Cuttlefish,With,Stripe,Tentacles

When we imagine the ancient oceans, we often picture massive reptiles and shelled ammonites dominating the waters. For decades, paleontologists believed these creatures ruled the Mesozoic Era without much competition. 



However, a new study from Hokkaido University&nbsp;challenges that idea by revealing the unexpected dominance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">ancient</a> squids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-squids-the-basics">Understanding squids - the basics</h2>



Squids are remarkable marine invertebrates belonging to the class <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">Cephalopoda</a>, which they share with octopuses and cuttlefish. Their biology showcases some of nature’s most fascinating adaptations. 



Squids possess a mantle cavity for jet propulsion, using rapid water expulsion to move with precision and speed. Their large, complex eyes rival those of vertebrates, providing excellent vision crucial for detecting predators and prey in the dimly lit depths. 



Internally, they have a beak-like jaw and a radula for processing food, typically fish and crustaceans. One of their most iconic features is their ability to release ink, a defense mechanism that creates a smokescreen, enabling a quick escape.



Behaviorally, squids exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-unlock-the-light-bending-secrets-of-squid-skin/">sophisticated camouflage</a> through chromatophores - pigment-filled cells controlled by the nervous system - that allow them to change color almost instantly. Some species also display bioluminescence via symbiotic bacteria or light-producing organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-squids-with-fossil-rocks">Studying squids with fossil rocks</h2>



The research shows that squids were already dominant ocean predators 100 million years ago. This changes what scientists believed about life in ancient seas.



The team used a new technique to scan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-baby-colossal-squid-captured-on-video-for-the-first-time-ever/">fossil</a> rocks. They fully digitized the rocks in 3D without breaking them open. This helped them find over 1,000 fossilized beaks of ancient cephalopods. 



Out of these, 263 were from squids. About 40 of those belonged to species that scientists had never seen before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squids-rarely-leave-fossils">Squids rarely leave fossils</h2>



Squids have soft bodies that decay quickly after death. Unlike animals with bones or shells, they leave behind very little for scientists to find. 



This makes it hard to trace their history through fossils. However, squids have tough beaks, which they use like jaws to catch and eat prey. These beaks are strong enough to survive over millions of years in rock.



Cephalopods, the group that includes squids, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">octopuses</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-have-passed-marshmallow-test-designed-for-kids-proving-cephalopods-intelligence/">cuttlefish</a>, have existed for about 500 million years. But it’s been difficult for scientists to figure out exactly when squids first appeared and how they changed over time.



Because full squid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/">fossils</a> are rare, researchers have had limited evidence to work with. This study changes that. 



By finding hundreds of ancient squid beaks in 100-million-year-old rocks, scientists now have solid proof that squids were already present and had formed many different species. It fills in a major gap in our understanding of their ancient history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-squids-dominated-the-ocean">Ancient squids dominated the ocean</h2>



The researchers found more squid fossils than those of ammonites and bony fish. That came as a surprise. Ammonites had shells and were thought to be the most successful swimmers of the Mesozoic era.



“In both number and size, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squid-mating-tactics-are-determined-by-birth-date/">ancient</a> squids clearly prevailed the seas,” said Dr. Shin Ikegami of the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Hokkaido University, the study’s first author. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squids_dominated-oceans_100-million-years-ago_grinding-tomography_Ikegami_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squids_dominated-oceans_100-million-years-ago_grinding-tomography_Ikegami_1s.webp" alt="The digital fossil-mining method utilizes grinding tomography to create digitized rocks and reveal hidden fossils within them. Credit: Ikegami et al., Science" class="wp-image-1975747"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The digital fossil-mining method utilizes grinding tomography to create digitized rocks and reveal hidden fossils within them. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ikegami et al., Science</figcaption></figure>



“Their body sizes were as large as fish and even bigger than the ammonites we found alongside them. This shows us that squids were thriving as the most abundant swimmers in the ancient ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-squids-in-ancient-oceans">Modern squids in ancient oceans</h2>



The study found that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopsida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myopsida</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oegopsida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oegopsida</a> squids existed 100 million years ago. These two groups are still present today. Myopsida live near the shore. Oegopsida live in the open ocean.



Earlier theories suggested ancient squids evolved rapidly after the extinction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. That extinction happened 65 million years ago. But this study shows squids had already diversified long before that event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-apex-hunters">Early apex hunters</h2>



Associate Professor Yasuhiro Iba of the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at <a href="https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a> led the study.



“These findings change everything we thought we knew about marine ecosystems in the past,” said Iba. “Squids were probably the pioneers of fast and intelligent swimmers that dominate the modern ocean.”



The new fossil data shows that squids had already taken important roles in the ocean. They were not just survivors. 



They were already key predators in their ecosystems. Their numbers, size, and early diversity support that conclusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-ocean-evolution">Rethinking ocean evolution</h2>



Squids are among the most active, adaptable, and intelligent invertebrates living in today’s oceans. They use complex behaviors, advanced movement, and sharp sensory skills to survive in both coastal and deep-sea environments. 



Because of their importance in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-removes-key-nutrients-from-marine-ecosystems/">marine ecosystems</a>, understanding their origins can help scientists piece together the long history of ocean life.



By studying when ancient squids first appeared and how they spread into different habitats, researchers can trace the development of major evolutionary traits. These include fast swimming, hunting techniques, and even early signs of intelligence. 



Such insights also offer a clearer picture of how ancient marine ecosystems functioned and how they changed over time.



This new study provides strong evidence that many squid species were already established and thriving 100 million years ago - long before the mass extinction that ended the age of dinosaurs. 



Their presence was not small or recent. Instead, they played a major role in shaping ocean life far earlier than we previously believed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu6248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Squids dominated ancient oceans 100 million years ago

When we imagine the ancient oceans, we often picture massive...

species in Champsodontidae

News coming your way