A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Tropical cyclones, with their associated strong winds, heavy rainfall and sea surges, cause severe destruction to property and endanger the lives of people. Over the past 50 years, these natural disasters have caused almost&nbsp;<a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/focus-areas/natural-hazards-and-disaster-risk-reduction/tropical-cyclones">780,000</a>&nbsp;human fatalities and US$ 1,408bn in economic losses.&nbsp;



New research has now shown that, in the past four decades, the inland impacts of tropical cyclones in the eastern and south-eastern regions of Asia have increased steadily.&nbsp;



The research, conducted by Dr Chi-Yung Tam at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, and colleagues, involved analyzing historical data on tropical cyclone impacts on inland areas during the past four decades (between 1979 and 2016). The researchers then projected future changes in cyclone-related impacts in these regions under the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-the-high-emissions-rcp8-5-global-warming-scenario">Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5</a>.&nbsp;



The findings, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>, show that there has been a dramatic increase in the inland impacts of western north Pacific cyclones since 1979. Cyclones are now stronger when they make landfall, they last for longer periods and penetrate further inland.&nbsp;



More specifically, the landfalling cyclones have lasted between two and nine hours longer and have gone an average of 100km further inland. The most significant increase in tropical cyclone inland impacts occurred over Hanoi in Vietnam, and the south China region.



“The extreme precipitation (&gt;150mm/hr)&nbsp;in June 2021 in Zhengzhou, China, was caused by the Typhoon In-fa and Typhoon Cempaka which transported abundant water vapor to Henan Province, China. The remnants of Hurricane Ida in September 2021 caused torrential rain in New York. Both disasters caused huge economic and human losses,” explained Dr Tam.



“Tropical storm-related hazards can definitely affect inland regions, and we should pay more attention to this, especially under the climate crisis,” continued Tam.



Current climate models suggest that the climate crisis could exacerbate tropical cyclones. Other research has also shown that heating oceans could intensify their strength. The stronger a cyclone is at landfall, the greater the distance it will travel inland, and the more destruction it will cause.&nbsp;



The researchers predict that, compared to the present-day period (between 1979 and 2003), by the end of the 21st century (2075-2099), the average landfall intensity of tropical cyclone winds will increase by two meters per second (6%), while they will last for 4,9 hours longer (56%), and go 92,4km further inland (50%). These results show that tropical cyclones will almost double in destructive power over Asian inland regions.



“The climate crisis will likely continue the increasing trend in landfalling typhoons and their impacts on inland regions, based on high-resolution climate model projections. More Asian inland regions may be exposed to more severe storm-related disasters in the future as a result of the climate crisis,” said Tam.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical cyclones are set to become twice as destructive

Tropical cyclones, with their associated strong winds, heavy rainfall and...

The improper disposal of plastic is commonly known to pose huge environmental risks, but another more overlooked issue is that of electronic waste. In an era where humans buy more electronic products than ever before, e-waste is on the rise.



The extent of electronic waste is the subject of a new collaborative study between the Sustainable Cycles (SCYCLE) Programme, the UN institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), and the UN Environment Programmer (UNEP).



The research specifically targeted electronic waste within the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), in addition to the country of Georgia. The study found that between 2010 and 2019, e-waste grew within the region by 50 percent, which is approximately the worldwide average.&nbsp;



However, only 3.2 percent of this waste was safely disposed of and recycled, significantly lower than the worldwide average of 17.4 percent.



This data represents an electronic waste contribution of around 8.7kg per citizen across the decade, with Russia being the highest contributor. The electronic waste was varied and included signs of the digital era such as smartphones, but almost 80 percent of the overall waste consisted of household appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines and kitchen equipment.&nbsp;



“E-waste constitutes one of the fastest growing waste streams in today’s global environment and poses a significant threat to both health and sustainable development,” said Ruediger Kuehr, Director of the Sustainable Cycles Programme (SCYCLE).



“However, few countries collect internationally comparable e-waste statistics, and many countries lack the capacity to collect e-waste data at both the regional and national level. We need this data to track changes over time, establish national and international policies, limit e-waste generation, prevent illegal dumping, and promote recycling.”



The debut of <a href="https://ewastemonitor.info/regional-e-waste-monitor-cisgeorgia-2021/">Regional E-waste Monitor for the CIS and Georgia</a> is the first project that focuses on understanding the digital waste management trends within the region. Ultimately, the aim of the campaign is to progress toward better electronic waste disposal, management and recycling infrastructure.



In addition to contributing to environmental protection, sufficient management of digital waste has the potential to reward the economy greatly. In 2019 alone, electronic waste within the region equated to approximately ten tons of gold, 85,000 tons of copper, and many other valuable materials that contributed to an overall valuation of $2.6 billion.



While this presents a lucrative incentive for the CIS and Georgia, the focus is still undeniably the environment. Within the same 2019 electronic waste sample, 2.4 tons of mercury and 8,100 tons of lead contributed to environmental dangers, among others.



“E-waste collection rates need to increase across countries in the region, just as they need to increase elsewhere across the world,” said Dr. Balde. “This improvement can be realised through mandatory handover of e-waste to licenced facilities. Also needed are mandatory reporting obligations for all actors collecting e-waste.”



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study highlights desperate need for electronic waste management

The improper disposal of plastic is commonly known to pose...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a> has investigated why the eight worst wildfire years on record have occurred in the last decade. The experts propose that extreme fire seasons are being driven by the combination of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-harming-bumblebee-diet/">temperatures</a> and a decrease in atmospheric humidity.



“Extreme conditions drive the world’s fire activity,” said former U of A wildfire expert Michael Flannigan. “For example, in Canada, just three per cent of fires are responsible for 97 per cent of the area burned.”



The researchers analyzed extreme fire weather trends from 1979 to 2020. They considered fire intensity and rate of fire spread, as well as changes in vapor pressure or humidity.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis indicate that rising global temperatures and lower levels of humidity have promoted (and will continue to promote) devastating wildfire years. In addition, fire activity will spread to new areas and will become more intense than what has ever been seen in recorded history.



According to the research, a decrease in relative humidity was the driving force behind more than 75 percent of the increase in fire spread and severity. Rising temperatures contributed to 40 percent of the most significant increases.&nbsp;



The researchers also identified significant increases in extreme weather, which can cause major fires, in close to half of the Earth’s burnable land mass. Regions around the world have almost universally witnessed an increase in extreme weather in the past 40 years, with marked increases in the last two decades, said Flannigan.



“It's not a big surprise, but with climate change, we expect warmer conditions to continue and this trend to continue, expand and get worse.”



Flannigan noted that in British Columbia, for example, three of the last five fire seasons are the worst in history. Record wildfire years have other consequences as well, such as the recent flooding in B.C.’s lower mainland.



“It is not all attributable to fires, but fires do play a role. When you remove the vegetation, the rain is not being intercepted by the trees, the roots aren't picking up the moisture, there is nothing to give the soil stability - you're much more likely to see land- and mudslides in burnt areas. This has been documented in California for years.”



Flannigan said that even if global warming stopped tomorrow, the wildfire threat would persist for decades, so communities need to prepare for all possible wildfire scenarios.



“We're on this path of a new reality. It's not normal because there's nothing normal about what's going on.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Record-breaking wildfire years are just getting started

A new study from the University of Alberta has investigated...

Reports of very rare episodes of myocarditis – inflammation of the heart muscle – have been reported after the use of mRNA vaccines such as those produced by Pfizer or Moderna. However, according to a new study presented on 29 November 2021 at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.rsna.org/">Radiological Society of North America</a> (RSNA), infection with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/latest-coronavirus-variant-may-be-500-more-infectious-than-delta/">SARS-CoV-2</a> poses a higher risk of developing this heart condition.



Myocarditis, a disease generally occurring after bacterial of viral infections, can affect the heart’s rhythm and ability to pump properly, often leaving behind lasting damage such as scarring of the heart muscle. Furthermore, it is linked to 20 percent of sudden deaths in young athletes. The COVID-19 pandemic raised concerns regarding an increasing incidence of this condition among young college athletes.



By collecting data from 13 participating schools on the frequency of myocarditis in young athletes recovering from COVID-19, scientists found that 37 out of 1,597 (2.3 percent) developed post-COVID-19 myocarditis. Twenty of these students had no clinical symptoms and the condition could only be identified through cardiac MRI.



“Testing patients for clinical symptoms of myocarditis only captured a small percentage of all patients who had myocardial inflammation,” said study co-author Dr. Jean Jeudy, a professor of Radiology at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a>. “Cardiac MRI for all athletes yielded a 7.4-fold increase in detection.”



Dr. Jeudy and his colleagues are gathering data regarding the incidence of post-COVID myocarditis in the Big Ten Cardiac Registry, a large database aiming to document the prevalence of this condition among young athletes.



“We still don’t know the long-term effects,” Dr. Jeudy said. “Some athletes had issues that resolved within a month, but we also have athletes with continued abnormalities on their MRI as a result of their initial injury and scarring. There are a lot of chronic issues with COVID-19 that we need to know more about, and hopefully this registry can be one of the major parts of getting that information.”



The researchers hope that further data collection will shed more light on the frequency and severity of such cardiac events, and offer a better understanding of the effects of COVID-19 as well as assist in developing new diagnostic tools and therapeutic pathways.



An initial report was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2780548">JAMA Cardiology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

COVID-19 increases heart inflammation risk in young athletes

Reports of very rare episodes of myocarditis – inflammation of...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01212-5">Nature Climate Change</a> has found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), the only ocean current that circumnavigates the entire planet, is flowing faster due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-debate-is-over-humans-caused-climate-change/">climate change</a>. By using satellite measurements of sea-surface height, and data collected by <a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/">Argo</a>, a global network of ocean floats, an international team of researchers managed to detect a previously hidden trend in Southern Ocean upper layer velocity.



The ACC surrounds Antarctica and separates cold water in the south from warmer subtropical water in the north. Recently, this warm part of the Southern Ocean is getting even warmer due to human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Since this ocean warming pattern can influence the climate all over the globe, it is highly important to understand its dynamics.



By collecting data from satellite instruments as well as from the Argo network, which consists of 3,000 free drifting profiling floats distributed all over the world’s oceans in order to measure water temperature and salinity, scientists discovered that ACC is currently accelerating due to changes in ocean temperatures.



“From both observations and models, we find that the ocean heat change is causing the significant ocean current acceleration detected during recent decades,” said study lead author Jia-Rui Shi, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>.



“This speedup of the ACC, especially its jet centered on the Subantarctic Front, facilitates property exchange, such as of heat or carbon, between ocean basins and creates the opportunity for these properties to increase in subsurface subtropical regions.”



“The ACC is mostly driven by wind, but we show that changes in its speed are surprisingly mostly due to changes in the heat gradient,” added study co-author Lynne Talley, a physical oceanographer at the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>.



According to the researchers, it is very likely that the speed of the current will increase even more as the Southern Ocean continues to warm up due to human-induced climate change. Urgent measures need to be taken in order to curb this process and thus protect a large variety of marine ecosystems.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Major ocean current is accelerating alongside global warming

A new study published in the journal Nature Climate Change...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/">University of Glasgow</a> and <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> has found that the Sun may be the initial source of the Earth’s water. The researchers discovered that solar wind, comprised of charged particles from the Sun largely made of hydrogen ions, created water on dust grains that were carried on asteroids smashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/near-earth-asteroid-may-actually-be-a-miniature-moon/">Earth</a> in the early days of our Solar system.



The emergence of water on Earth remained a scientific mystery for decades. “An existing theory is that water was carried to Earth in the final stages of its formation on C-type <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/metal-rich-asteroids-could-be-mined-for-precious-resources/">asteroids</a>, however previous testing of the isotopic ‘fingerprint’ of these asteroids found they, on average, didn’t match with the water found on Earth, meaning there was at least one other unaccounted for source,” explained study co-author Phil Bland, the director of University of Curtin’s <a href="https://sstc.curtin.edu.au/">Space Science and Technology Center</a> (SSTC).



Through a meticulous atom-by-atom analysis of tiny fragments of an S-type asteroid called Itokawa, samples of which were collected by the Japanese space probe Hayabusa and brought to Earth in 2010, Professor Bland and his colleagues discovered that solar wind created water on the surface of the minuscule dust grains collected on this asteroid.&nbsp;



“Our world-class atom probe tomography system here at Curtin University allowed us to take an incredibly detailed look inside the first 50 nanometers or so of the surface of Itokawa dust grains, which we found contained enough water that, if scaled up, would amount to about 20 liters for every cubic meter of rock,” explained Professor Bland.



Thus, millions of years ago, similar asteroids could have carried water when they collided with the surface of the Earth, initiating the development of seas and oceans.



According to the scientists, this study not only gives scientists new insights into the past sources of Earth’s waters, but could also help future space missions.



“How astronauts would get sufficient water, without carrying supplies, is one of the barriers of future space exploration,” explained study co-author Dr. Luke Daly, a lecturer in Geography and Earth Sciences at the University of Glasgow.



“Our research shows that the same space weathering process which created water on Itokawa likely occurred on other airless planets, meaning astronauts may be able to process fresh supplies of water straight from the dust on a planet’s surface, such as the Moon.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/935922">Nature Astronomy</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Sun may be the original source of Earth’s water

New research led by the University of Glasgow and Curtin...

Frequent social media use among teens has been linked to a range of mental and physical health risks, including depression, sleep deprivation, and self-deprecation. Yet for many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-helps-teenagers-adhd/">teenagers</a>, social media has become a major part of everyday life. 



But social media is a big part of life for many adults as well, and the potential health risks in this age group have not been very well established. In a new study from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>, experts report that middle-aged adults using highly visual social media apps such as Instagram or TikTok have a high risk of depression.&nbsp;



The study was focused on data from surveys conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, involving more than 5,000 adults with an average age of 56.&nbsp;



The surveys collected information for 13 months from May 2020 to May 2021. In the first survey, all of the individuals reported minimal depressive symptoms.&nbsp;



"Among survey respondents who did not report depressive symptoms initially, social media use was associated with greater likelihood of subsequent increase in depressive symptoms after adjustment for sociodemographic features and news sources," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, some social media platforms - particularly Snapchat, Facebook, and YouTube - were associated with greater levels of self-reported depressive symptoms on a subsequent survey. 



"Notably, with the exception of Snapchat, this association was not explained in regression models by use of other news sources, suggesting it is not accounted for by differential media consumption more broadly. Likewise, the association was not meaningfully changed by number of social supports or face-to-face social interactions at baseline, suggesting it is not mediated by reduction in social interactions more broadly," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"While we cannot test causation, as in a prior study of Facebook discontinuation, our design allowed us to look at incident self-reported depression following social media use."&nbsp;



"Our results extend prior observations of elevated depressive symptoms in adolescents or young adults associated with social media use in cross-sectional studies. They are also consistent with prior short-term longitudinal studies. Beyond the ability to look longitudinally, this study also extends prior studies by examining a broader age range, with a mean age of 56 years." 



"Our results suggest that the associations previously observed with depressive symptoms are not limited to young adults; indeed, while effect sizes for Facebook are greater among younger adults, effect sizes for TikTok and Snapchat are greater among those age 35 years or older."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2786464">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social media causes depression in adults, too

Frequent social media use among teens has been linked to...

Man,Eating,Grilled,Meats

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>, healthier diets are linked to lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The scientists discovered that men’s diets, which usually consist of a larger amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-meat-paradox-people-care-about-animals-but-still-eat-meat/">meat</a>, are linked to 41 percent higher greenhouse gas emissions than women’s, and that non-vegetarian diets in general produce 59 percent more emissions than vegetarian ones.



Food production is a major source of greenhouse gases, accounting for over 30 percent of the total emissions. Less environmentally sustainable diets are usually more processed, energy-dense, and nutrient-poor. After identifying the amounts of emissions caused by 3,233 types of foods, the researchers evaluated the nutritional benefits and emission footprints of the diets of 212 UK adults over three days.



The scientists found that healthier diets were correlated with lesser amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. Non-vegetarian diets were associated with a 59 percent increase in emissions compared to vegetarian ones, and diets with greater amounts of meat, which were predominantly consumed by men, were linked to a 41 percent increase in emissions. 



Moreover, the scientists discovered that diets containing more carbohydrates, saturated fats, and sodium tended to produce higher greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;



“There are broad-brush concepts like reducing our meat intake, particularly red meat,” the study authors wrote. “But our work also shows that big gains can be made from small changes, like cutting out sweets, or potentially just by switching brands.”&nbsp;



“Our work is not showing you need to give up meat entirely, but that diets with less meat are more sustainable,” explained study co-author Darren Greenwood, a biostatistician at the University of Leeds. 



“Eat less meat. When you do eat meat, eat better quality meat. That's the message. Cutting down on sweets, cakes and biscuits can also help reduce our impact on the environment, as well as being healthier.”



“Healthier diets had lower greenhouse gas emissions, demonstrating consistency between planetary and personal health,” the scientists concluded.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to take into consideration more factors, such as food brands, countries of origin, and other environmental impacts besides those related to greenhouse gas emissions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0259418">PLoS One</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Non-vegetarian diets produce 59 percent more emissions

According to a new study led by the University of...

An endangered population of Ethiopian elephants is under serious threat from tens of thousands of illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-drove-woolly-mammoths-to-extinction/">human</a> settlements, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>.



The Babile Elephant Sanctuary is one of the largest protected areas in Ethiopia. It is home to the northeastern-most population of African Savannah Elephants, which is one of only six populations recognized in Ethiopia.



The sanctuary was established to protect the resident elephant population from poaching and habitat loss. The new research suggests that human-elephant conflict is a bigger threat to Ethiopian elephants than previously realized.&nbsp;



In collaboration with the Born Free Foundation, the experts analyzed satellite data and found that the number of illegal houses in the sanctuary soared from 18,000 to more than 50,000 over the decade leading up to 2017. Furthermore,&nbsp; 32,000 of these houses are within elephants' range.



According to the researchers, unless the integrity of the Babile Elephant Sanctuary can be restored, and security and poverty issues resolved, this population of elephants will be lost within a short matter of time.&nbsp;



The experts noted that the human population in Ethiopia has now reached more than 110 million people. As a result, there is an extremely high demand for limited natural resources, along with a severe shortage of land, which intensifies the conflict between humans and elephants. 



‘The situation in the Babile Elephant Sanctuary is critical. There are now only around 250 elephants left," said Emily Neil, a postgraduate researcher with Oxford’s School of Geography and the Environment.



"Without the rapid resolution of the many human issues putting pressure on the elephants it is difficult to foresee a future in which this population of elephants survives."



The study is published in the latest edition of <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0030-6053&amp;lang=fr">Oryx -The International Journal of Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans threaten the survival of Ethiopian elephants

An endangered population of Ethiopian elephants is under serious threat...

In the largest study of its kind, an international team of researchers has investigated the range of brain complications associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/masks-protect-better-against-covid-19-than-social-distancing/">COVID-19</a> infection. The experts determined that about one in 100 patients who required hospitalization for COVID-19 have developed potentially fatal complications of the central nervous system, such as stroke. 



Study lead author Dr. Scott H. Faro is the director of the Division of Neuroradiology/Head &amp; Neck Imaging at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia.&nbsp;



“Much has been written about the overall pulmonary problems related to COVID-19, but we do not often talk about the other organs that can be affected,” said Dr. Faro. “Our study shows that central nervous system complications represent a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in this devastating pandemic.”



Dr. Faro initiated the research upon finding that existing literature on brain complications in hospitalized COVID-19 patients was very limited, and based on a small number of cases.&nbsp;



The study was focused on data from nearly 40,000 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in seven U.S. and four western European university hospitals. The patients, who had an average age of 66, had been admitted between September 2019 and June 2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to the data analysis, the most common cause of admission was confusion and altered mental state, followed by fever.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Neuroimaging findings (which likely resulted from COVID-19 infection) affected 442 patents. This means the overall incidence of central nervous system or brain complications was 1.2 percent.



“Of all the inpatients who had imaging such as MRI or a CT scan of brain, the exam was positive approximately 10% of the time,” said Dr. Faro. “The incidence of 1.2% means that a little more than one in 100 patients admitted to the hospital with COVID-19 are going to have a brain problem of some sort.”



The experts report that the most common complication was ischemic stroke, followed by intracranial hemorrhage and inflammation of the brain.



“It is important to know an accurate incidence of all the major central nervous system complications,” said Dr. Faro. “There should probably be a low threshold to order brain imaging for patients with COVID-19.”



The research will be presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.rsna.org/">Radiological Society of North America</a> (RSNA).



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain complications affect one in 100 COVID patients

In the largest study of its kind, an international team...

A recent study by the University of Sydney <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/charles-perkins-centre/">Charles Perkins Centre</a> compared the impact of diets and drugs on the functioning of human cells and aging. The researchers found that nutrition has a significantly higher influence on our metabolic health.&nbsp;



The study reports that the composition of our diet may be more effective than medications in preventing diabetes, stroke, and heart disease.



The study builds on the team's groundbreaking work in mice and humans, which demonstrated how food and certain combinations of proteins, lipids, and carbs can protect against aging, obesity, heart disease, immunological dysfunction, and the risk of metabolic illnesses like type 2 diabetes.



The researchers set out to investigate whether medications or diet were more effective at rewiring nutrient-sensing and other metabolic systems, and if medications and diet interacted in any way that made them more or less effective.



“Diet is a powerful medicine. However, presently drugs are administered without consideration of whether and how they might interact with our diet composition – even when these drugs are designed to act in the same way, and on the same nutrient-signalling pathways as diet,”&nbsp; said senior author and Academic Director of the Charles Perkins Centre, Professor Stephen Simpson.&nbsp;



The complex research included 40 different treatments on the mouse, each designed with differing levels of protein, fat and carbohydrate balance, calories and drug content.The goal of the study was to understand how three anti-aging medicines affected the liver, which is a vital organ in the metabolism.&nbsp;



The geometric framework for nutrition developed by Professors Stephen Simpson and David Raubenheimer was used in the study. This framework allowed the team to evaluate how combinations and interactions of different nutrients influence health and disease, instead of focusing on any one nutrient in isolation, which is a drawback in past nutrition studies.&nbsp;



Lead author Professor David Le Couteur of the Charles Perkins Centre and Faculty of Medicine and Health emphasized the complexity and importance of the study, noting that it looks at several different diets simultaneously, rather than just comparing a few different diets.



“This approach is the only way we can get an overview of the interaction between diet, our health and physiology, We all know what we eat influences our health, but this study showed how food can dramatically influence many of the processes operating in our cells. This gives us insights into how diet impacts on health and aging.” said Professor Le Couteur.



According to the results, diet had a stronger influence on metabolism than three medicines routinely used to treat diabetes and slow down aging.



“We discovered dietary composition had a far more powerful effect than drugs, which largely dampened responses to diet rather than reshaped them,Given humans share essentially the same nutrient-signalling pathways as mice, the research suggests people would get better value from changing their diet to improve metabolic health rather than taking the drugs we studied.” said Professor Simpson.



The results indicated that the total calories consumed and the balance of macronutrients (protein, lipids, and carbs) in the diet had a significant impact on the liver and metabolic pathways. Proteins and calorie intake also influence the basic processes that determine how our cells function.&nbsp;



For example, the amount of protein consumed had an effect on mitochondrial activity, which is the component of the cell that generates energy. This has a downstream effect because the quantity of protein and dietary energy consumed has an impact on how well cells convert their genes into the different proteins required to let cells operate effectively and reproduce new cells.



The findings indicate that the medications mostly dampened the metabolic response of the cell to nutrition rather than radically altering it.



The researchers discovered interactions between the biochemical effects of the drugs and diet composition of a more specific nature that can help further studies.A cancer drug and another diabetic drug both reduced the effects of food protein on the energy-producing mitochondria, but one anti-aging drug had a greater effect on changes in the cells produced by dietary fat and carbohydrates.



The research was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/home">Cell Metabolism</a><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2021.10.016">.</a>



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nutrition protects against aging better than drugs

A recent study by the University of Sydney Charles Perkins...

The use of air conditioning systems to counteract the effects of rising temperatures is increasing. This has created new obstacles to the already arduous work of decarbonizing the economy and lowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-outbreaks-drive-co2-emissions/">emissions</a>. As temperatures rise, a large proportion of people in emerging economies will be unable to afford air conditioning to keep themselves cool, even despite an increase in their income.



A recent investigation into air conditioning demands across India, Brazil, Mexico and Indonesia found that between 64 and 100 million families may be unable to meet their cooling needs by 2040, exposing them to uncomfortable and potentially dangerous living conditions. This will be most noticeable in regions with high levels of urbanization, hot and humid climates, and low economic conditions.



The study, funded by the European Research Council, was led by Professor Enrica De Cian at <a href="https://www.unive.it/english">Ca’ Foscari University of Venice</a>. It is the first multi-country, comparative analysis of how climate and household characteristics drive the adoption of air conditioning in emerging countries.&nbsp;



According to the research, the next 20 years will witness an exponential increase in AC usage. By 2040, the experts estimate that 85 percent of Brazil, 61 percent of Indonesia, and 69 percent of India will have adopted air conditioning. This will result in a threefold increase in electricity consumption in India and Indonesia, and a nearly twofold increase in Mexico and Brazil.



The countries with the hottest and most humid days are Indonesia and India. The use of air conditioning matches climate trends, while urbanization and availability of electricity have a mediating effect.



The study analyzed multiple socioeconomic and climate scenarios, and showed that state adoption of air conditioning increased in all cases. This will create a massive demand for energy required to power all of this new equipment and will result in more CO2 emissions. The potential environmental repercussions of this vicious cycle will require more research in the future.



Previous studies of what drives AC adoption have vastly overestimated the impact of income and climate in the forecasts due to the failure to consider household characteristics. The study noted the decision to purchase AC units in response to warmer weather conditions is dependent on socioeconomic and demographic characteristics.&nbsp;



Other factors such as housing circumstances, education, occupation, gender, the age of the head of household, and whether they live in urban or rural areas all tend to impact decisions to acquire an air conditioner.



“It is not just a story of a changing climate or affluence levels, which are improving. Our results suggest that AC adoption patterns are determined by multiple drivers, with different importance across countries,” said Professor De Cian.&nbsp;



In India, the states of West Bengal, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, and Orissa, have the highest number of hot and humid days, although these states are not known for having the most prevalent use of air conditioning.



Air conditioning is a luxury item for Indonesians, used mainly in the wealthiest districts of Jakarta and the Riau Islands, even though Indonesia has the highest number of hot and humid days.



In Brazil, relatively high adoption rates for AC units were observed in Rio de Janeiro, although the number of yearly hot and humid days are lower in comparison to the northern states, where urbanization is low.&nbsp;



Average AC user levels are already high in the warmer states of Mexico, with 73 percent in Sonora and 77 percent in Sinaloa.



The present and projected demand for air conditioning should be viewed as a quantitative indicator for the need for better thermal comfort in a broader sense. The concept of a cooling gap was applied in the study.



Rio de Janeiro, for example, is currently experiencing high exposure to extreme heat and higher-than-average AC adoption. This is predicted to shift to a condition of greater thermal discomfort in the future, with increased exposure to hot days, but lower-than-average AC adoption.



“Increasing the use of electricity for residential space cooling is a form of adaptation that helps relieve people from heat stress but it is no panacea, as electricity expenditure will limit opportunities among the lowest income households," said Roberto Schaeffer from the Energy Planning Program at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.



"Even those with air conditioning will be exposed to a new condition of vulnerability related to supply shortage in the power sector, such as the recent Canadian experience, or degraded power stability. The implication is that, it is imperative to manage the growing appetite for residential space cooling by using a mix of efficiency measures, policies, and technologies."



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air conditioning is not a sustainable solution to rising temperatures

The use of air conditioning systems to counteract the effects...

Teen,Wild,Orangutan,Climbing,Down,The,Tree,In,The,Forest

An international team of researchers from 16 different institutions published a paper in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">e-life</a> on a two million year old primate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-linking-snakes-and-lizards-was-wrongly-identified/">fossil</a>. The research combined the discovery of a vertebrae from a human relative, Australopithecus sediba, along with previously discovered vertebrae fossils. The study revealed that not only could A. sediba walk upright like a human, she could also climb like an ape.



The fossils were discovered in 2015 during a mining excavation in South Africa next to the “cradle of humanity” near the site of the first A. sediba fossil that was found in 2008. The fossil vertebrae were discovered in a hard matrix, nearly perfectly articulated. Rather than removing the fossils in dangerous and laborious preparation, they were analyzed with a Micro-CT scanner. 



Once the fossils were imaged, it was clear that these vertebrae articulated well with type specimens of the same fossil - a female nicknamed “Issa” which means “protector” in Swahili. The ancient fossils of human relatives showed that A. sebida had, like modern humans, only five lumbar vertebrae.



“The lumbar region is critical to understanding the nature of bipedalism in our earliest ancestors, and to understanding how well adapted they were to walking on two legs," said study lead author Professor Scott Williams of New York University and <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">Wits University</a>.



"Associated series of lumbar vertebrae are extraordinarily rare in the hominin fossil record, with really only three comparable lower spines being known from the whole of the early African record.”



The discovery of Issa makes her one of only two hominin fossils with well preserved backs, especially lower backs. 



“While Issa was already one of the most complete skeletons of an ancient hominin ever discovered, these vertebrae practically complete the lower back and make Issa’s lumbar region a contender for not only the best-preserved hominin lower back ever discovered, but also probably the best preserved," said Professor Lee Berger, original discoverer of A. sebida and leader of the Malapa project.



This relatively complete lower back allowed the scientists to see that Issa had a curved spine similar to modern humans, something seen as an adaptation for bipedalism.&nbsp;



Other adaptations suggest that Issa had strong trunk muscles, an adaptation for climbing. All together this shows Issa to be a transitional fossil, somewhere between an animal that spent all her time walking and one that spent all her time climbing. “Issa walked somewhat like a human but could climb like an ape,” said Berger.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient relative climbed like an ape, walked like a human

An international team of researchers from 16 different institutions published...

Over 90 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-plays-a-central-role-in-songbird-mating/">bird</a> species are monogamous, often mating for life, and albatrosses are some of the most loyal. Albatrosses have a rather awkward growing-up phase. They try out relationships with several partners, but they generally stick together for life.&nbsp;



However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.2112">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> has found that, due to climate change, albatrosses start “divorcing” more. “In many socially monogamous species, divorce is a strategy used to correct for sub-optimal partnerships and is informed by measures of previous breeding performance,” wrote the study authors.



“The environment affects the productivity and survival of populations, thus indirectly affecting divorce via changes in demographic rates. However, whether environmental fluctuations directly modulate the prevalence of divorce in a population remains poorly understood.”



By using a longitudinal dataset on the long-lived black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophris), a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en">University of Lisbon</a> investigated how environmental variability affected divorce rates among albatrosses. They found that in recent years, in which water temperatures gradually rose, up to eight percent of albatross couples split up.



Normally, albatross divorce is triggered by a failure to breed. However, the new findings showed that albatross pairs were even divorcing after a successful breeding season. According to the researchers, this might be caused by the problems long-distance relationships entail. Since warming waters force the birds to hunt for longer and fly further away, often failing to return for the next breeding season, their partners may move on with another bird.



Furthermore, albatross stress hormones increase in harsher environments, such as when sea waters are warmer. With tougher breeding conditions and food scarcity, albatrosses can start “blaming” each other for their difficulties in proper sustenance and breeding, ultimately leading to divorce.



“For the first time, to our knowledge, we document the disruptive effects of challenging environmental conditions on the breeding processes of a monogamous population, potentially mediated by higher reproductive costs, changes in phenology and physiological stress. Environmentally driven divorce may therefore represent an overlooked consequence of global change,” concluded the researchers.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Albatrosses are divorcing more due to climate change

Over 90 percent of bird species are monogamous, often mating...

An international team of researchers from <a href="https://english.jiangnan.edu.cn/">Jiangnan University</a>, China, <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a>, and the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en">University of Oulu</a>, Finland, have recently discovered that a specific type of gut bacteria (Lactobacillus apis) is linked to enhanced memory in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-are-attracted-to-the-humidity-of-flowers/">bumblebees</a>. This study adds to the growing scientific evidence that the gut microbiome, consisting of trillions of microbes living in our intestines, can affect animal cognition and behavior.



Since bees have a relatively small community of gut microbes compared to mammals, they are ideal models to explore the role of specific gut bacteria on differences in cognition and behavior between individuals.



In order to test bees’ memory and learning abilities, the researchers created different colored artificial flowers, some of them associated with a sweet sucrose solution, and others with a bitter tasting solution containing quinine, which is a repellent for bees. Afterwards, they assessed how quickly the bees managed to learn which colors are associated with a sugar reward, and whether they were able to remember this information three days later.



By sequencing gut samples from the bees, the scientists compared individual differences in learning and memory abilities with the levels of different gut microorganisms. They found that bumblebees with more Lactobacillus apis in their microbiome had a better memory and stronger learning abilities than those with fewer bacteria.&nbsp;



Furthermore, to confirm that the numbers of Lactobacillus apis were directly responsible for the differences in learning and memory, the researchers added these bacteria to the bumblebees’ diet and measured their responses to the same task.&nbsp;



“Our results suggest not only that the natural variation in the amount of a specific gut bacterium effects memory, but also show a causal link – that by adding the same bacterial species to a bee’s diet can enhance their memories,” said study lead author Dr. Li Li, a postdoctoral fellow at Jiangnan University.



“This is a fascinating finding that could apply to humans as well as to bees. Our findings add to growing evidence of the importance of gut-brain interactions in animals and provide insights into the cause of cognitive differences in natural bumblebee populations,” added study co-author Lars Chittka, a professor of Zoology at Queen Mary University.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26833-4">Nature Communications</a>, shows that we can improve our cognitive abilities by regulating gut microbiota.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut bacteria enhances memory in bees

An international team of researchers from Jiangnan University, China, Queen...

Although bees are related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/">wasps</a>, they gave up being predatory long ago. While most species of wasps catch and kill prey, largely other insects, bees have evolved to depend on pollen and nectar from flowers. Some people view bees as vegetarian wasps. However, a group of stingless bee species in the tropics has developed an interest in eating meat in the form of carrion, and some of these "vulture bees" have even become entirely dependent on this source of protein. 



“These are the only bees in the world that have evolved to use food sources not produced by plants, which is a pretty remarkable change in dietary habits,” said <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> entomologist Doug Yanega.



Given this rather extreme dietary shift, a team of scientists from UC Riverside wondered what the gut microbiome of the carrion-eating bees might look like. They traveled to Costa Rica to study closely related species of stingless bees living in the same area, that fed on different diets. Some had a traditional diet of nectar and pollen, some ate exclusively carrion from carcasses, and a third group foraged on both flower products and carrion. The experts compared the microbiomes of bees from the three groups.



Honeybees, bumblebees, and stingless bees have guts that are colonized by the same five core microbes. “Unlike humans, whose guts change with every meal, most bee species have retained these same bacteria over roughly 80 million years of evolution,” said Jessica Maccaro, a UCR entomology doctoral student.



The researchers hypothesized that either the core microbes would persist in the carrion-eating bees and would have evolved to digest meat protein instead of pollen, or that the diet shift would have resulted in the extinction of core microbes and their replacement by different microbe species that can break down carrion.&nbsp;



To test this theory, the researchers set up baits composed of pieces of raw chicken suspended from branches in the tropical forest trees. These attracted carrion-eating species, that they refer to appropriately as vulture bees, as well as related bee species that feed opportunistically but not exclusively on carrion for their protein. For comparison, the team also collected bees from species that feed only on pollen and nectar.



Normally, stingless bees have baskets on their hind legs for collecting pollen. However, the team observed carrion-feeding bees using those same structures to collect the bait. “They had little chicken baskets,” said Quinn McFrederick, a UCR entomologist.



On analyzing the microbiomes of all three bee types, they found the most extreme changes among exclusive meat-eaters.&nbsp;These vulture bees had lost some of the ancestral core microbes, retained others, and made use of new, acid-loving microbes that are usually found in the environment and on carrion. The abundance of acid-loving bacteria suggests that an acidic gut is important for vulture bee nutrition and health, as has been found in other carrion-feeding animals.&nbsp;



“The vulture bee microbiome is enriched in acid-loving bacteria, which are novel bacteria that their relatives don’t have,” McFrederick said. “These bacteria are similar to ones found in actual vultures, as well as hyenas and other carrion-feeders, presumably to help protect them from pathogens that show up on carrion.”



For example, Lactobacillus bacteria were found in vulture bee guts; this is the bacterium used by humans to culture milk into yogurt and make sourdough bread. The researchers also found Carnobacterium present as part of the gut biome; this bacterium is associated with the digestion of flesh. &nbsp;



“It’s crazy to me that a bee can eat dead bodies. We could get sick from that because of all the microbes on meat competing with each other and releasing toxins that are very bad for us,” Maccaro said.&nbsp;



The researchers noted that these bees are unusual in a number of ways. “Even though they can’t sting, they’re not all defenseless, and many species are thoroughly unpleasant,” Yanega said. “They range from species that are genuinely innocuous to many that bite, to a few that produce blister-causing secretions in their jaws, causing the skin to erupt in painful sores.”



In addition, the carrion-eating bees still produce honey that is sweet and edible. “They store the meat in special chambers that are sealed off for two weeks before they access it, and these chambers are separate from where the honey is stored,” Maccaro said.



The research team is now planning to investigate vulture bee microbiomes further, hoping to learn about the genomes of all the bacteria as well as the fungi and viruses in their bodies.&nbsp;They hope to learn more about the larger role that microbes play in overall bee health.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/journal/mbio">mBio</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vulture bees have acquired a taste for dead bodies

Although bees are related to wasps, they gave up being...

Knowledge of the origin of the coronavirus that caused the ongoing COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-one-third-of-americans-had-covid-19-by-the-end-of-2020/">pandemic</a> is still fragmentary. Recently, a team of scientists discovered coronaviruses that are closely related to SARS-CoV-2 from two bats sampled in Cambodia over a decade ago.&nbsp;



These findings, together with the recent finding of the closest ancestors of SARS-CoV-2 in cave-dwelling bats in Laos, indicate that coronaviruses have a wider geographical distribution than previously thought, and supports the theory that the pandemic originated through spillover from bats.



By using metagenomic sequencing, the researchers identified viruses nearly identical to SARS-CoV-2 in two Shamel’s horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus shameli) that were originally sampled in 2010. These findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses likely circulate via a diversity of Rhinolophus species.



According to the study authors, the current knowledge of the geographical distribution of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 lineages probably reflect a lack of sampling in countries from Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, as well as several Chinese provinces, such as Yunnan and Guanxi.



Besides bats, pangolins and several species of cats, civets, and weasels found in these areas are highly susceptible to coronavirus infections, and might represent intermediary hosts for transmission to humans. During anti-smuggling operations from China in 2020, SARS-CoV-2-related viruses were discovered in distinct groups of pangolins, further strengthening this hypothesis.



“These findings underscore the importance of increased region-wide investment in bridging capacity for sustainable surveillance of pathogens in wildlife, through initiatives such as&nbsp;<a href="https://oneworldonehealth.wcs.org/Initiatives/WildHealthNet.aspx">WildHealthNet</a>,” said study co-author Lucy Keatts, a health advisor at the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Southeast Asia hosts a high diversity of wildlife and an extensive wildlife trade that puts humans in direct contact with wild hosts of SARS-like coronaviruses. The region is undergoing dramatic land-use changes such as infrastructure development, urban development, and agricultural expansion that can increase contacts between bats, other wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Continued and expanded surveillance of bats and other key wild animals in Southeast Asia is a crucial component of future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/investing-in-nature-is-needed-to-avoid-the-next-pandemic/">pandemic preparedness</a> and prevention.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-26809-4">Nature Communications</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cambodian bats have coronaviruses related to SARS-COV-2

Knowledge of the origin of the coronavirus that caused the...

Dopamine is used by the human nervous system to send messages between nerve cells. It plays a role in how we perceive pleasure. Dopamine has also been linked to learning and memory.&nbsp;



In a recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, experts have found that dopamine may also play a key role in shaping what songs bring the most pleasure to female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-and-humans-use-similar-speech-patterns/">songbirds</a>. This means that dopamine may ultimately have a big influence on which males the females choose to be their mates. 



Zebra finches form lasting bonds with their mates. They remain faithful and monogamous throughout their lives. The male performs a song and dance that can lead to sex, depending on the reaction of the female that is being pursued.&nbsp;



“But female songbirds are very selective about which songs they like,” explained lead researcher Professor Sarah Woolley. “And, while different birds prefer different songs, each female remains consistent in her preferences over time.”



According to the study, multiple parts of the brain that produce dopamine connect to the auditory cortex. Furthermore, cells in some of these regions showed more activity when female songbirds listened to the songs they preferred.&nbsp;



Through a series of experiments, the researchers discovered that by giving female songbirds dopamine, they could manipulate their song preferences.



“I find it fascinating that the way that each of us perceive communication signals, like speech, or other sounds, like music, is not static,” said Woolley. 



“Rather, our perceptions of these sounds depend on experiences that we have throughout our lives. Studying how experiences can gain access to and shape the neural circuits for perception can not only expand our general understanding of how we process and perceive sounds, it can also help us to understand why we like or enjoy particular sounds.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dopamine plays a central role in songbird mating

Dopamine is used by the human nervous system to send...

Ants are well known for their communal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-modify-their-behavior-to-avoid-each-other/">behaviors</a>, such as building complex nest tunnels and gathering food for their colony. A surprising new study from the University of Fribourg has discovered yet another way that ants work together – passing fluids from mouth to mouth to create a colony-wide metabolism.



While passing fluids from mouth to mouth was already recognized as common behavior among ants, the purpose of it was unclear. The results of the new study suggest that ants are behaving similarly to how organisms thrive on communal metabolisms.



“Individual ants have two stomachs – one for digesting their own food and another one that comes first, a ‘social stomach’ for storing fluids that they share with other ants in their colony. These fluid exchanges allow ants to share food and other important proteins that the ants themselves produce,” explained senior author Adria LeBoeuf.



“To help us understand why ants share these fluids, we explored whether the proteins they exchange are linked to an individual’s role in the colony or the colony’s life-cycle," added study lead author Sanja Hakala.



The researchers analyzed the proteins found within the ‘social stomachs’ of individual ants, comparing the contents between forager ants and nurse ants that care for the youth of the colony. The age of each colony was also investigated.



Nurse ants were discovered to have more anti-aging proteins in their social stomachs, suggesting that these proteins are passed on through mouth-to-mouth transfer to ensure the survival of offspring.&nbsp;



“These findings show that some colony members can do metabolic labour for the benefit of others,” said Hakala.



Furthermore, it was also discovered that ants found in mature colonies had the most sufficient nutrient storage proteins for survival and growth, as opposed to the insufficiencies of newly founded colonies. 



However, more studies will be necessary if scientists are going to understand the purpose of each shared protein within a colony.&nbsp;



“It is hard to measure how metabolic work is shared between cells," explained LeBoeuf. "Here, the ants pass things around in a way that we can easily access what they are sharing. Having a better understanding of how ants share metabolic labor may help us learn more about the ways that other creatures, like humans, distribute metabolic tasks between different tissues or different cells in their bodies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Ants swap spit to share food and special fluids

Ants are well known for their communal behaviors, such as...

Two,Monarch,Butterflies,With,Wings,Spread,On,A,Pink,Cone

Monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-butterflies-are-set-to-become-widespread-across-canada/">butterflies</a> and some of their close relatives thrive on poisonous milkweed, due to genetic mutations that block the effects of the toxins on their organisms while allowing them to accumulate in the caterpillar or adult insects as deterrents to some of their predators. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> and <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> has found that some of these predators have evolved similar mutations in order to be able to feast on the butterflies.



The research team discovered monarch-like mutations in the genomes of four organisms that are known to feed upon monarchs: the black-headed grosbeak, a migratory bird that eats monarch butterflies while spending the winter season in Mexico; the eastern deer mouse, which feeds on butterflies that fall on the ground; a tiny wasp that parasitizes monarch eggs; and a nematode which parasitizes larvae that eat poisonous milkweed.



According to the scientists, these predators evolved mutations in one or several copies of a gene for the sodium-potassium pump, which has a role in regulating heartbeats and nerve firings. These seem to be the same mutations that make monarch butterflies capable of eating milkweed without succumbing to its cardiac glycosides - toxins that interfere with the sodium-potassium pump and can provoke cardiac arrest in organisms that are not adapted to tolerate them.



"The toxins move up the food chain from plants - what biologists call the first trophic level - to insect herbivores, the second, and then to predators and parasitoids - a third trophic level," said study lead author Noah Whiteman, a professor of Integrative Biology and Molecular and Cell Biology at UC Berkeley.&nbsp;



"In response, the predators and parasitoids have evolved resistance to the toxins at the same sites that we discovered were changing in the monarch, and sometimes to the same amino acids. This might be the first time that the same resistance mutations have been found in the third and second trophic levels that evolved in response to the latter feeding on toxic plants."



"It’s remarkable that convergent evolution occurred at the molecular level in all these animals,” added study co-author Simon “Niels” Groen, an assistant professor of Evolutionary Systems Biology at UC Riverside. “Plant toxins caused evolutionary changes across at least three levels of the food chain.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How predators have outsmarted monarch butterflies

Monarch butterflies and some of their close relatives thrive on...

A team of experts at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> set out to investigate whether the boldness of city bats is a trait that is genetically inherited or if it is a behavior that is learned. During a project in which urban fruit bats were adopted by rural mothers and vice versa, the researchers found that the pups behave like their adoptive mothers rather than their biological moms.&nbsp;



The experiment revealed that pups born in the country and adopted by urban mothers were bolder, taking more risks than those adopted by rural mothers.



"We wanted to find out whether boldness is transferred genetically or learned somehow from the mother," said study co-author Professor Yossi Yovel. "Our findings suggest that this trait is passed on to pups by the mothers that nurse and raise them, even when they are not their biological mothers."



Study lead author Dr. Lee Harten explained that while most animals do not live in an urban environment, some species thrive in it. "We are trying to understand how they do this."



"Fruit bats are an excellent example of a species that has adapted well to the human environment of the city. Bat colonies thrive in Tel Aviv and other cities, while other colonies still live in rural areas."



"Research has shown that city-adapted fruit-bats tend to be bolder and take more risks than those living in the wild. We wanted to examine, under laboratory conditions, whether this trait is genetic or acquired."



The research involved 86 mother-pup pairs of fruit bats: 61 pairs from four urban colonies and three rural colonies. The experts conducted experiments that were designed to investigate the behavioral differences between the two groups, with a central focus on their boldness, or willingness to take risks.&nbsp;



Prior to the experiments, the team demonstrated that urban bats could immediately complete a task that involved entering an unknown box to find food. The urban bats, on the other hand, were much more intimidated by the scenario and took several hours to enter the box. 



"Similar results were observed in past experiments with birds: birds living in the city take more risks than birds of the same species residing in rural areas. Our study was the first to test this issue in bats," said Professor Yovel.



Next, the researchers wanted to determine whether pups inherit or learn to take risks. They presented the same box experiment to the young pups who had never searched for food on their own. The study revealed that the urban pups, just like their parents, were bolder and learn faster than rural pups.



"These findings first led us to think that boldness is hereditary - passed on genetically from the urban parents to their pups. However, we know that young pups are still exposed to their mothers after birth. We decided to check whether pups learn from their mothers or are influenced by them in some other way."



The researchers introduced a cross-adoption method where pups born to urban mothers were raised by rural mothers, and vice versa. The team noted that this is the first "nature vs. nurture" study for boldness in urban animals.



"We found that the pups behaved like their adoptive mothers, not like their biological mothers. This means that boldness is an acquired rather than hereditary trait, passed on in some way from mother to young pup. We hypothesize that the agent may be some substance in the mother's milk," explained Dr. Harten.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-021-01131-z">BMC Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fruit bat pups take after their adoptive mothers

A team of experts at Tel Aviv University set out...

It is usually challenging to identify the exact proportions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">fossil</a> animals that are excavated out of the rock. Seldom is a fossilized skeleton discovered in its entirety. Instead, the component bones tend to be disarticulated, jumbled up, and commonly dispersed by factors such as weather, water movement and scavenger activity.



This was the case when the first specimen of a Supersaurus&nbsp;was uncovered in 1972 in a bonebed at Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry in Colorado. Brian Curtice, currently a paleontologist at the Arizona Museum of Natural History, describes the accumulation of tightly-packed fossils originally found in the bonebed as a "bone salad" that made it very difficult to know which bones to allocate to the newly discovered Supersaurus.&nbsp;



Field worker Jim Jensen, who collected and prepared fossils for Brigham Young University in Utah, excavated that bone salad and published his findings some years later. Among the bones that he discovered was an 8-foot-long scapulocoracoid – two fused bones that make up the shoulder girdle in adult dinosaurs and other reptiles. The size of this bone identified Supersaurus as being potentially one of the longest dinosaurs ever discovered. The public was intrigued at the time that a dinosaur larger than&nbsp;<a href="https://www.livescience.com/25024-brachiosaurus.html">Brachiosaurus</a>, then considered the longest dinosaur, could have existed.



Jensen also excavated other large bones that he thought belonged to two other species of sauropod dinosaurs. When he published his findings, in 1985, &nbsp;in the journal <a href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/gbn/vol45/iss4/7/">Great Basin Naturalist</a>, he announced the discovery of three new sauropod dinosaurs from the quarry – apart from Supersaurus (that had been named by a journalist in the initial post-discovery media frenzy), he named Ultrasaurus and Dystylosaurus from the bone evidence found in the bonebed.&nbsp;



However, Jensen wasn't a trained paleontologist, and he made some mistakes with his analysis. This has led to much debate between paleontologists over the years, who have questioned the validity of the two other new genera. Some, such as Curtice, believe that the bones were misidentified and actually all belong to a single Supersaurus skeleton.&nbsp;



Curtice said Jensen's theory that the bones belonged to three different dinosaurs never checked out. "He was caught up in the moment," Curtice said. "He wasn't classically trained."&nbsp;



Now, some 50 years after the initial discovery, Curtice has re-evaluated some of the original bones, as well as looking at bones that have been excavated subsequently from the large blocks of rocks and fossils that were transferred at the time from the quarry to the laboratory. He has also compared all the bones with those of two other fossilized skeletons of Supersaurus (nicknamed Jimbo and Goliath) that have subsequently been discovered in Wyoming.



He feels there is a good case for reclassifying Jensen’s three species as a single one, namely Supersaurus.



Among the as yet unstudied bones from the rock blocks, Curtice identified five new neck vertebrae, one new back vertebra, two new tail vertebrae and a left pubis bone. This gave him a more complete picture of the skeleton of Supersaurus and helped him estimate the overall length of the beast more accurately.&nbsp;



However, many of the bones have still not been excavated, or are missing from the deposit, so determining the overall length is still a challenge.&nbsp;



"It should have 15 or 16 neck bones and we have six of them," Curtice said. "So the big challenge is 'Wait, which six do we have?' They don't come with numbers on them."



Curtice found that the vertebrae became smaller by a certain percentage the further they were from the body, and this allowed him to estimate the lengths of the missing bones.&nbsp;He calculated that, depending on the placement of one nearly 4.5-foot-long (1.3 m) neck vertebra,&nbsp;Supersaurus&nbsp;measured either 128 feet or 137 feet in overall length.&nbsp;



"That is a crazy length – longer than three yellow school buses, nose to tail," Curtice said. "And considering we never find the largest individual in the fossil record, how much longer could these animals have gotten?"



The other, more recent fossil Supersaurus discoveries, Jimbo and Goliath, supported Curtice’s estimates of length. "What's shocking to me is how close in length Goliath and Jimbo are," said Curtice. "If you get three animals that are within a few feet of one another, now we know, 'OK, that's the average.'"



Unfortunately, researchers have yet to formally identify Goliath as a&nbsp;Supersaurus&nbsp;in a peer-reviewed journal and, until that time, including its measurements for comparison can only be tentative.&nbsp;



The conclusions drawn from the new research "seem reasonable," said Matt Lamanna, a vertebrate paleontologist at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, who was not involved with the research. "I can't really weigh in on the exact length estimate, but it's clear that there is a very, very large diplodocid sauropod in that quarry."



The research would be strengthened if the dinosaur nicknamed Goliath were to be formally identified as a&nbsp;Supersaurus, especially because Curtice is using it to inform his analysis, Lamanna said. "I think the final verdict will come when this Goliath specimen is published, when this additional material from Dry Mesa is published. I want to see it go through formal peer review."



"I think it will be pretty exciting when he does [publish]," Lamanna added. "I think he's very probably correct."



While he awaits the publication of the identity of Goliath, and the peer review of his own research, Curtice presented his findings at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/">Society of Vertebrate Paleontology</a> earlier this month. Even the "shorter" size estimate of Supersaurus is record-breaking; at 128 feet (39 m), the dinosaur would have been longer&nbsp;than other contenders for this record. And with a neck of at least 50 feet long (15 m), Supersaurus already holds the record for the dinosaur with the longest neck. One thing is for sure though, when Supersaurus wandered the plains of Colorado and Wyoming, some 150 million years ago, it was an exceptionally large animal.



In conclusion, Curtice states that Supersaurus&nbsp;may be the longest dinosaur on record, but it's not the heaviest. That honor likely goes to the superheavy titanosaur&nbsp;Argentinosaurus, which weighed upward of 90 tons (82 metric tons) and came close to being twice as heavy as&nbsp;Supersaurus&nbsp;was.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Supersaurus may be the longest dinosaur ever discovered

It is usually challenging to identify the exact proportions of...

Guinea,Pig,Friends

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0451-21.2021">eNeuro</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-process-speech-in-the-same-way-as-humans/">speech</a> sounds elicit similar neural responses and stimulate the same brain areas in humans, macaques, and guinea pigs. These findings may help better understand and diagnose auditory processing deficits.



The brain’s responses to sounds (“frequency following responses,” or FFRs) can be recorded by small electrodes placed on the scalp, and are generally used by clinicians to quickly asses infants’ hearing capacities in order to find out whether they may develop disorders such as dyslexia or autism.&nbsp;



If the infants’ brains produce electrical responses to sounds played through tiny headphones, their neural pathways connecting the ears to the high-level information processing areas of the brain are functional. However, until recently, this method lacked specificity.



“These tests can only tell us that something is off – but we don’t know what that ‘off’ is,” said study co-author Bharath Chandrasekaran, a professor of Auditory Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburg’s <a href="https://www.shrs.pitt.edu/">School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“Understanding the source and mechanism of FFR generation would allow for the development of specific markers of speech impairments, which would be instrumental in improving clinical diagnostics of auditory processing deficits.”



Until recently, scientists thought that FFRs arise deep inside the brain stem. However, by combining electroencephalographic recordings from the scalp with recordings from electrodes placed inside the skull, the researchers found that FFRs are generated also in the auditory cortex of the brain, only a few centimeters away from the skull surface. Moreover, they appeared to be similar across mammals such as humans, monkeys, and guinea pigs.



“Recognizing the similarities between animal and human FFRs will allow us to study neural circuitry of sound processing in much greater detail,” said study lead author Nike Gnanateja Gurindapalli, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pittsburgh. “These explorations will further pave the way for new models of auditory processing in both typical and impaired auditory systems, which can eventually be used to infer auditory deficits using simple and effective non-invasive tools in the clinic.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Since FFRs were traditionally thought to be passively generated outside the cortex, scientists did not typically account for a person’s attention and alertness during FFR recordings. This new discovery will change the way FFRs are collected and interpreted and will open pathways for the development of better biomarkers of auditory processing deficits, leading to faster, more accurate, and non-invasive diagnostics.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speech sounds elicit similar brain responses in humans and guinea pigs

A new study published in the journal eNeuro has found...

Prior to the massive 2019-20 wildfires in Australia, a species of assassin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-can-track-the-scent-of-killer-ants-to-avoid-them/">spider</a> known as the “pelican spider” was found only in the Western River Wilderness Protection Area on Kangaroo Island (KI). Unfortunately the area burned severely, leaving scientists to suspect that pelican spiders had been completely wiped out by the fires.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Recently, two pelican spiders were discovered alive in northern Kangaroo Island. The discovery of the surviving spiders was the result of research carried out under a grant acquired by the <a href="https://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/">Southern Australia Museum</a> (SAM) to survey the bushfire damage.&nbsp;



“This is the first time the species has been found since high severity fires burnt their only known collecting locality. We have been surveying for the spiders since the fires, so it was an amazing feeling to finally find one,” said Dr. Jessica Marsh, an honorary research associate at SAM.



Pelican spiders are especially vulnerable to fire as they inhabit highly flammable environments.



“The spider lives in leaf litter that is suspended at around knee height in low lying vegetation – a habitat which is highly flammable, even in low severity fire. It is found near creeklines in open eucalypt vegetation communities,” explained Dr. Marsh.



Assassin spider populations were previously impacted by prescribed burns on Kangaroo Island, which highlights the vulnerability of the spiders to fire. The pelican spider was always rare and limited in range, so any threat is likely to be severe.



“A section of the Western River Wilderness Protection Area was burnt in a prescribed burn in 2015 and was not impacted by the 2019/20 bushfires. Post-fire surveys of the area have revealed that the elevated litter layer has still not yet formed in the vegetation and no habitat for assassin spiders was found, illustrating how even lower severity and planned burns can be a threat to this species. This also highlights its vulnerability, due to the length of time taken for suitable habitat to re-establish post-fire," said Dr. Marsh.



“Like other species of assassin spiders, the Kangaroo Island species has a very small distributional range and restricted dispersal abilities making it particularly susceptible to major threats, such as prescribed and wild bushfires, feral pigs and increased fragmentation of native vegetation.”



As of now though, there’s still some hope that pelican spiders will survive for a while longer.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Spiders found on Kangaroo Island were thought to be extinct

Prior to the massive 2019-20 wildfires in Australia, a species...

A new study of the small but charismatic White Crowned Manakin indicates that it may actually be more than one species of tropical bird. The research also suggests this unexpected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-loss-of-crop-diversity-found-in-recent-decades/">diversity</a> is inherent in the landscape of South America itself.&nbsp;



Study lead author Dr. Jacob Berv conducted the research while a Ph.D. student in the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>, and is currently a Life Sciences Fellow at the University of Michigan.



“We found that the White-crowned Manakin probably originated in the highland forests of the Andes Mountains in northern Peru," explained Dr. Berv.



"Today, this bird is also found across the Amazon Basin, in the lowland rainforests of Brazil, Peru, and many other countries, including parts of Central America.”



The wide and varied landscape of South and Central America, ranging from mountains to lowland forest, is the driver behind speciation.&nbsp;



"This study shows that there is a lot of evolutionary history embedded in what is commonly referred to as a 'single widespread' species in Amazonia," said study co-author Camila Ribas of Brazil’s National Institute of Amazonian Research.



"The White-crowned Manakin is an example of a phenomenon that is probably more the rule than the exception in Amazonia—diversity is vastly underestimated by the current taxonomy."



At roughly 2.5 million years, manakins spread into the Andes, where many remain today. The remaining populations became isolated from the other tropical birds in insulated pockets of habitat created by mountains and rivers.&nbsp;



Over time, these separate populations drifted apart from each other in terms of evolution, becoming different species with different mating rituals, songs and plumage. The differences in mating behavior are especially important for their definitions as different species.&nbsp;



"In order to understand evolutionary processes in Amazonia we need many more studies like this one, with dense geographical sampling," said Ribas. "For this we need to support biological collections that are able to accumulate samples through time."



Dr. Bev echoed this sentiment and emphasized the need for more research. "We’ve basically just scratched the surface."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>. 



Image Credit: White-crowned Manakin by Phillip Edwards, Macaulay Library at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Isolated tropical birds may represent new species

A new study of the small but charismatic White Crowned...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258712">PLoS ONE</a> has found an innovative, animal-friendly manner to study venom genes. This technique makes it possible to determine the specific venom production of a variety of animals that have scarcely been studied before.



&nbsp;“Every venom contains tens to more than hundreds of different venomous substances, also called toxins, which are produced by the venom gland,” explained study co-author Freek Vonk, a professor of Biology at the <a href="https://vu.nl/en">Free University of Amsterdam</a> (VU) and researcher at the <a href="https://www.naturalis.nl/">Naturalis Biodiversity Center</a>. “After a bite or sting, these can have a toxic effect on various systems, such as the nerve endings or blood circulation.”&nbsp;



The scientists used a method called transcriptomics, through which patterns of gene expression can be examined. This method is easier, purer, and more specific than previously used techniques, allowing researchers to study the actual venom instead of venom gland tissue. Due to this, animals no longer need to be sacrificed in order to investigate the gene expression of their venom glands.



“Thanks to this technique, we can very precisely see which genes are active at various moments during the venom production,” said Vonk. “This snapshot offers the very first possibility to study how various influences, such as nutrition, season, and age, influence the venom production in a single individual.”



Venom is produced by animals in different ways. While some animals such as snakes or centipedes have venom-producing cells that issue the venom to the storage space in the venom gland in small vesicles, producing a relatively clean venom, other animals, like scorpions, allow their venom gland cells to be cut in small pieces, thus producing a venom that contains many cell remains.



“Those cell remains contain the substances on which we can perform transcriptomics: mapping which genes are activated to produce which proteins,” said study co-author Mátyás Bittenbinder, a doctoral student at Naturalis and the VU.



“The manner of venom production probably explains why the new technique does not work on snakes,” added Arie van der Meijden, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.up.pt/">University of Porto</a> and inventor of this innovative technique. “Conversely, the technique now makes it possible to study the venom variations in a large number of venomous animals that have scarcely ever, if at all, been studied, such as scorpions, fish, and even the platypus.”



Since the toxins in the venom are important sources for manufacturing new drugs, this study can have a significant impact in medicine.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists find a new way to study venom production

A new study published in the journal PLoS ONE has...

New research suggests that what appeared to be a four-legged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-had-an-evolutionary-explosion-after-dinosaur-extinction/">snake</a>, a missing evolutionary link connecting lizards and snakes, is nothing of the sort. The study has revealed that the specimen is simply a long-bodied marine lizard.



The study, which is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tjsp20/current">Journal of Systematic Paleontology</a>, was led by Michael Caldwell of the University of Alberta.&nbsp;



“It has long been understood that snakes are members of a lineage of four-legged vertebrates that, as a result of evolutionary specializations, lost their limbs," said Caldwell.&nbsp;



"Somewhere in the fossil record of ancient snakes is an ancestral form that still had four legs. It has thus long been predicted that a snake with four legs would be found as a fossil.”



An earlier study published in the journal Science in 2015, suggested that paleontologists had found the first of these snakes with legs, naming it Tetrapodophis amplectus.&nbsp;



“If correctly interpreted based on the preserved anatomy, this would be a very important discovery,” said Caldwell. However, he disputes the veracity of the study, claiming that T. amplectus was mischaracterized as a snake.&nbsp;



“There are many evolutionary questions that could be answered by finding a four-legged snake fossil, but only if it is the real deal. The major conclusion of our team is that Tetrapodophis amplectus is not in fact a snake and was misclassified."



"Rather, all aspects of its anatomy are consistent with the anatomy observed in a group of extinct marine lizards from the Cretaceous period known as dolichosaurs.”



Caldwell explained how evidence from the surrounding rock matrix was overlooked in the description of the fossil.



“When the rock containing the specimen was split and it was discovered, the skeleton and skull ended up on opposite sides of the slab, with a natural mould preserving the shape of each on the opposite side."



"The original study only described the skull and overlooked the natural mould, which preserved several features that make it clear that Tetrapodophis did not have the skull of a snake - not even of a primitive one.”



Despite T. amplectus not being a “missing link” between lizards and snakes, it’s still an interesting fossil to scientists.



“One of the greatest challenges of studying Tetrapodophis is that it is one of the smallest fossil squamates ever found," said study co-author and Brazilian paleontologist Dr. Tiago Simões. "It is comparable to the smallest squamates alive today that also have reduced limbs.”



Dr. Simões pointed out that the fossil was removed from Brazil without appropriate permits and has since been housed in a private collection, limiting access by researchers. He asks that international treaties be honored and the fossil repatriated to Brazil.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil linking snakes and lizards was falsely identified

New research suggests that what appeared to be a four-legged...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-sounds-trigger-anxiety-in-dogs/">dogs</a> communicate with humans in ways that are dependent upon their particular life experiences. Thus, dogs living inside homes tend to exchange more gazes with their caregivers than dogs living outside or in shelters.



“Dogs are particularly skillful in communicating with humans, and growing evidence points towards the importance of both species intertwined evolutionary history and intense daily partnership,” wrote the study authors.



One of the communication behaviors used by dogs is gaze alternation, which can be defined as first staring at humans to get their attention, then flicking the eyes to where an unattainable and desired object is located, and then gazing back at the humans.



The scientists compared 60 pet dogs of various ages and breeds and found that 95.7 percent of those living inside homes used gaze alternation at least once, while only 80 percent of those living outside homes used it. In the case of shelter dogs, only 58.8 percent used this communication strategy.



“The findings point to strong influence of life experience on development and use of communicative behavior. Dogs that spent longer time near people were more disposed to use communication as a strategy to obtain a desired objective,” said study lead author&nbsp;Juliana Wallner Werneck Mendes, who conducted the experiment at the Canine Laboratory at USP during her master’s research.&nbsp;



“Another important aspect we observed was that all groups communicated,” she added. “Shelter dogs used to be considered unable to communicate with humans. In fact, they do, but less so. This shows that the experiences of a lifetime result in different kinds of behavior.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to Mendes and her colleagues, the low level of interaction characterizing shelter dogs should not be interpreted as incapacity. On the contrary, they seem quite capable of communicating, even with little exposure to humans, but they don’t need to do it for much of their lives.



These findings shed more light on the relationship between nature and nurture in canine development and behavior. “Canine behavior is largely inherited, of course, and they were domesticated a very long time ago, but this aspect should never be abstracted from the context in which they live. Nurture and the environment are also very important,” Mendes concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635721001716?via%3Dihub">Behavioural Processes</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Life experience shapes the way dogs communicate with humans

A new study led by the University of São Paulo...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15231739">Conservation Biology</a> suggests that conservation efforts in Central Africa might be more successful with a focus on smaller land areas.



The research counted populations of several species in seven savana national parks in central Africa. The study showed that broader geographic boundaries often end with smaller wildlife populations. This is possibly because larger lands are harder to manage effectively.&nbsp;



“In a lot of Africa, there has been a lot of space set aside for wildlife," said study co-author Professor Mark Mortiz of Ohio State University. "And what we’ve found is setting aside so much land is not sufficient in and of itself, and a lot of these protected areas are protected on paper only.”



The research shows that, in order to sufficiently protect wildlife, much more funding is necessary. The study was carried out across four countries in Central Africa, where 25 percent of the land was set aside for conservation.&nbsp;



Study lead author Paul Scholte is a visiting professor at ERAIFT-UNESCO in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.



“The governments in these countries are overstretched, trying to do more than they are able to do," said Professor Scholte. "And the reality is that increasing the areas under conservation, in central Africa, is pushing countries to take on more than they can take on, when the international community has not given them the resources necessary to align with the realities on the ground.”



Tourism has traditionally brought in a lot of renewable funding for land conservation in Africa but with the COVID-19 pandemic, this funding has largely dried up. Unfortunately, the international community hasn’t stepped up to supplement this loss.&nbsp;



The research showed that in six of the seven national parks surveyed, elephants, giraffes, buffalo and ten species of antelope have declined in population. Even as large amounts of land were set for conservation, cattle numbers increased as herders used the land for grazing. Unfortunately, remedying the situation would be extremely costly.&nbsp;



“We are not talking twice or triple the funding to be effective; it would require 10, 15 or even 20 times more funding annually to these parks’ budgets," said Professor Scholte.



"It’s enormous, and we all know it’s not realistic. So, we are saying that we should realize that, acknowledge it, and concentrate these scarce resources on areas that are viable and could have a greater effect.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation efforts are not protecting Central Africa’s wildlife

A new study published in the journal Conservation Biology suggests...

Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-in-the-mediterranean-are-moving-to-deeper-water-to-survive/">animals</a>, such as red deer, can fake their calls in order to seem bigger than they actually are. Thus, the calls are usually lower than what would be expected based on body size. According to biologists, such a strategy may be used to impress the other sex. Moreover, previous <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0081">studies</a> argued that animals that can fake their body size by changing their calls also tend to be good vocal learners. 



However, new research led by the <a href="https://www.mpi.nl/">Max Plank Institute for Psycholinguistics</a> (MPI) and the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> has found that, contrary to expectations, vocal production learning in species such as dolphins, whales, or seals is correlated with the ability of producing higher sounds than those expected based on the animals’ body size. Thus, it appears that the good vocal learners are the animals capable of hitting high notes, and thus of "pretending" that they are smaller than they actually are.



“There might be an&nbsp;alternative&nbsp;evolutionary&nbsp;scenario in vocal learners, where selective pressures favor&nbsp;individuals&nbsp;that&nbsp;can&nbsp;change their tone of voice from low to&nbsp;high,” said study first author Andrea Ravignani, the leader of the <a href="https://www.mpi.nl/department/comparative-bioacoustics/20">Comparative Bioacoustics</a> research group at MPI.



“Of course there are exceptions, and we do not claim that all vocal learner species sound higher than expected for their body size.&nbsp;But there is a general trend, and this may help us to better characterize vocal communication in mammals,” explained study co-author Maxime Garcia, an expert in animal behavior at the University of Zurich.



According to Ravignani and Garcia, these findings could help predict which animal species are vocal learners. For example, the manatee, or sea cow, is an animal that has not yet shown capacities for vocal learning. However, since its calls are usually higher than expected from an animal of its size, researchers think that it may hide as yet undiscovered vocal talents.&nbsp;



On the other hand, non-vocal animals who sound lower than expected, such as the Juan Fernandez fur seal, could have evolved special anatomical adaptations that need further scientific explanation.



“Our results may help better understand the cross-species diversity, variability, and aetiology of VPL [vocal production learning], which among other things is a key underpinning of speech in our species,” concluded the study authors.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2020.0394#d1e1054">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals good at vocal learning can fake their size

Some animals, such as red deer, can fake their calls...

It may be easy to assume that we already know all there is to know about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-engaged-in-herd-living-much-earlier-than-expected/">dinosaurs</a> – after all, they existed hundreds of millions of years ago. However, this is not the case, with new research regularly coming out about new dinosaur discoveries,&nbsp; including a recent example from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a>.



In collaboration with the Natural History Museum, the university’s research team have discovered a new species and genus of dinosaur originating on the Isle of Wight. The team has named it the Brighstoneus simmondsi, after the nearby town of Brighstone and the original specimen discoverer Mr. Keith Simmonds.



The Isle of Wight has long since been associated with the discovery of dinosaurs, even yielding important specimens that resulted in Sir Richard Owen coining the term Dinosauria.



The newly named dinosaur falls into the group of iguanodontian, a group that includes the famous Iguanodon and Manellisaurus. Until recently, dinosaur material found on the Isle of Wight has been assumed to originate from one of these two dinosaurs. But, upon examining the specimen, researcher Jeremy Lockwood found features that distinguished it from existing discoveries.



"For me, the number of teeth was a sign," Dr. Lockwood explained. "Mantellisaurus has 23 or 24, but this has 28. It also had a bulbous nose, whereas the other species have very straight noses. Altogether, these and other small differences made it very obviously a new species."



The dinosaur was discovered to be a herbivore, weighing around 900kg and sizing up to eight meters in length. Its discovery suggests that there were significantly more iguanodontian dinosaurs in the UK throughout the Early Cretaceous period than were initially estimated and that other specimen discovered in the area must be reassessed.



"We're looking at six, maybe seven million years of deposits, and I think the genus lengths have been overestimated in the past," states Dr. Lockwood. "If that's the case on the island, we could be seeing many more new species. It seems so unlikely to just have two animals being exactly the same for millions of years without change."



Dr. Susannah Maidment, a scientist from the Natural History Museum and co-author of the paper, added to Lockwood’s thoughts:&nbsp;



"The describing of this new species shows that there is clearly a greater diversity of iguanodontian dinosaurs in the Early Cretaceous of the UK than previously realized. It’s also showing that the century-old paradigm that gracile iguanodontian bones found on the island belong to Mantellisaurus and large elements belong to Iguanodon can no longer be substantiated."



The research has been published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tjsp20/current">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New dinosaur species identified on the Isle of Wight

It may be easy to assume that we already know...

The excavation of the massive cranium of an early elephant species that roamed the grasslands on the northeastern side of Lake Turkana, Kenya, has helped scientists to understand why this species became the dominant elephant in eastern Africa. Loxodonta adaurora existed around the late Miocene to mid-Pliocene Epochs, and this particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-got-their-diverse-skulls-in-the-time-of-dinosaurs/">skull</a> is dated to around 4.5 million years ago. 



Known by its reference number, KNM-ER 63642, the specimen is from a large, adult male individual and is the most complete elephant cranium ever found from that time period. &nbsp;It is&nbsp;about 85 percent intact and reveals a wealth of previously unknown anatomical detail, according to <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> paleontologist William Sanders, who is also the study's first author.



Loxodonta adaurora was one of seven or eight species of early elephants known from East Africa at that time and, although it was not a direct ancestor of modern African elephants, it was a closely related "cousin."



At the time that L. adaurora roamed the landscape, the climate was cooler and drier; these conditions favored the spread of grasslands in this region. Many different animals, including horses, antelope, rhinos, pigs and hippos, were evolving simultaneously to graze grasses and were competing for the available forage. Loxodonta adaurora was among these grazers, and its impressive cranium shows several adaptations that would have made it successful at utilizing the grasses available at that time.&nbsp;



Its cranium is unusual in being compressed from front to back, making the alignment of its chewing muscles well-suited for the efficient shearing of grasses. In addition, the elephant’s molars were higher-crowned and had thicker coatings of enamel and cementum than those of other early elephants. This would have made the teeth more resistant to the wear inherent in feeding on grasses close to the ground.



The study authors explained that the cranial morphology of KNM-ER 63642 is unexpectedly advanced for an elephant of its antiquity, and indicates that this species had already evolved craniodental adaptations to feeding on grasses by the early Pliocene Epoch. They hypothesize that these early adaptations helped make L. adaurora the dominant elephant species in the greater Turkana Basin at that time.&nbsp;



"The adaptations of L. adaurora put it at a great advantage over more primitive elephants, in that it could probably use less energy to chew more food and live longer to have more offspring," said Sanders, associate research scientist at the U-M Museum of Paleontology and in the Department of Anthropology.



The specimen was discovered in 2013 by a member of the Koobi Fora Research Project from a single molar that was visible at the surface. When it was excavated, it was found that the tooth was attached to an almost complete cranium lying upside-down under the surface of the substratum. It is estimated, from a previous excavation of another L. adaurora skeleton, that this individual was around 30 years old when it died, weighed about nine tons and probably stood about 12 feet at the shoulder, which is taller than average male elephants today.



"In my opinion, this elephant skull is by far the most impressive specimen that we have in the Kenyan paleontological collection from Lake Turkana, both in its completeness and in its size," said paleontologist and study co-author Louise Leakey of the Koobi Fora Research Project. "When the teeth were seen on the surface, we had no idea that a complete cranium would be uncovered, and the excavation and recovery operation were both challenging and exciting."&nbsp;



Once the excavation was complete, the fossilized cranium, together with the plaster envelope that protected it on its journey, weighed about 2 tons.&nbsp;KNM-ER 63642 is now permanently housed at the Turkana Basin Institute's facility in Ileret, Kenya. It is the only well-preserved elephant cranium from the interval beginning with the origin of elephants 8 million years ago and ending 3.5 million years ago, according to Sanders.



Elephants of this species most certainly coexisted with early hominins on the eastern African grasslands. In particular, fossil evidence of two australopithecine species has also been found from the region: Australopithecus&nbsp;anamensis fossils were recovered by Meave Leakey in and nearby the Lake Turkana Basin, Kenya, and fossil remains of A. afarensis were found at sites in Hadar, Ethiopia, and Laetoli, Tanzania.



Australopithecines would have benefitted from the presence of elephants in the early grassy woodlands and grasslands. Grazing by elephants would have helped keep the vegetation low and enabled our bipedal ancestors to look out for danger around them. Elephants also open access in the woodlands by knocking down trees and wearing pathways through the vegetation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"The origins and early successes of our own biological family are tied to elephants," Sanders said. "Their presence on the landscape created more open conditions that favored the activities and adaptations of our first bipedal hominin ancestors.



"From this perspective, it is ironically tragic that current human activities of encroaching land use, poaching and human-driven climate change are now threatening the extinction of the mammal lineage that helped us to begin our own evolutionary journey," he said.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://palaeovertebrata.com/">Palaeovertebrata</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephants thrived on early African grasslands

The excavation of the massive cranium of an early elephant...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> has found that feeding a dog only once a day reduces the risk of nine types of age-related canine health problems, including cancer, dental issues, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-sleep-reduces-the-risk-of-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> decline, and gastrointestinal, liver, kidney, or urinary disorders.



Researchers analyzed data on 24,238 dogs collected in the context of the <a href="https://dogagingproject.org/">Dog Aging Project</a> in order to find links between feeding frequency and health outcomes. After controlling for factors such as age, breed, or sex, the scientists found that dogs that were given only a single meal per day appeared to have lower odds of developing dental, gastrointestinal, orthopedic, kidney/urinary, and liver/pancreatic disorders.



“For nearly a century, caloric restriction has been known to extend lifespan and delay age-associated pathology in laboratory animals,” the study authors wrote. “Companion dogs provide a potentially powerful animal model in which to better understand the relationship between diet and age-related health outcomes.”&nbsp;



“Once-daily feeding in dogs serves as a natural model for the intermittent fasting/time-restricted feeding protocols currently being studied both in preclinical rodent models and in human trials.”



According to the researchers, dogs may benefit from less frequent feeding due to evolutionary reasons. Since their wolf ancestors were often going for days without food, such eating frequencies may still be ingrained in modern dogs’ genomes.



“The strength of the study is that numbers are large and the statistical methods are sound,” said Alex German, a researcher in Veterinary Sciences at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a>. However, as study co-author and biologist at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> Matt Kaeberlein admits, it also has many weaknesses. For instance, the study did not establish a clear causal link between feeding frequency and health outcomes, and other factors, such as the amount that dogs eat during a day, may also be important.&nbsp;



Thus, until further research is done in order to assess the impact of how much (in addition to how often) dogs eat per day, as well as the role that obesity plays in the development of age-related canine health conditions, people should not yet change the way they feed their pets.



A pre-print version of the study is published in the <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.11.08.467616v1">bioRxiv repository</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Feeding your dog once a day may improve its health

New research led by the University of Arizona has found...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a> and Liverpool John Moores University, it is possible that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-cats-test-positive-for-alpha-variant-of-sars-cov-2/">cats</a> may possess at least some psychopathic tendencies. However, just as in humans, psychopathy in animals comes in varying degrees. 



In order to build a tool to assess the degree of feline psychopathy, the scientists studied the relationship between 2,042 cat owners and their pets. They constructed a questionnaire called CAT-Tri+, with 46 statements that require cat owners to rate how well each of them describes their pet.



“In our study, we developed a questionnaire measure of psychopathy in domestic cats,” said study lead author Rebecca Evans, a doctoral student at the University of Liverpool. “The questionnaire was developed using owner-provided examples of their cat’s behavior in the context of the triarchic model of psychopathy (boldness, meanness, and disinhibition).”



“The final questionnaire measures five factors of feline psychopathy: boldness, meanness, disinhibition, pet-unfriendliness and human-unfriendliness."



Some of the statements the owners had to rate included: “my cat torments their prey rather than killing it straight away,” “my cat vocalizes loudly for no apparent reason,” or “my cat is very excitable.” These ratings helped researchers score the cat’s level of meanness (traits such as lack of empathy and callous aggression), boldness (a measure of social dominance and lack of fear), disinhibition (lack of behavioral restraint), and unfriendliness towards humans and other pets.



“it is likely that all cats have an element of psychopathy as it would have once been helpful for their ancestors in terms of acquiring resources, for example food, territory and mating opportunities," explained Evans. 



The scientists hope that this tool could help improve cat-owner relationship and thus reduce the number of cats that end up in shelters or that are put down. The questionnaire can be used to identify undesirable behaviors and make improvements in the cats’ environments in order to better suit their character.



“A cat that has a high score on the boldness scale may benefit from large cat trees and tall scratching posts, as the Cat-Tri+ items suggest that a bold cat enjoys exploring and climbing,” said Evans. “Providing environmental enrichment for bold cats may reduce agonistic behaviors towards people, other pets, and possessions.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656621000982#!">Journal of Research in Personality</a>.&nbsp;



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to tell whether your cat is a psychopath

Every year, hundreds of thousands of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-in-the-mediterranean-are-moving-to-deeper-water-to-survive/">animals</a> are taken into captivity, to be cared for while they recover from injury or illness, or mature to the point that they can be released back into their natural habitats. Rehabilitation represents an increasingly important aspect of conservation efforts as animal numbers decline around the world. While in captivity, however, these animals are often fed soft food diets that differ substantially from what they would eat in the wild.



Although nutritionally balanced, captive diets often consist of soft or processed foods that lack the structural and textural diversity of the natural diet. For example, carnivores may be fed minced meat, and herbivores may receive pellets. These types of diets do not require the biting or chewing involved in a natural diet and may have a negative impact on an animal’s skull morphology and strength.



An international team of researchers led by Dr Rex Mitchell at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>&nbsp; has now shed light on the potentially harmful effects that soft food diets can have on the skulls of captive animals, particularly young animals that are still growing.&nbsp;



“Some scientists have suggested that captive diets may have unintended, negative effects on skull development that could impact the successful reintroduction of animals into the wild,” said Dr. Mitchell. “We wanted to know how much growing up on a diet that doesn’t need much biting can impact the ability of an animal to bite effectively in adulthood.”



The scientists used a 40 captive laboratory rats and fed them different diets from weaning until adulthood. Four different diet regimens were used, with ten rats in each group. One group was fed hard pellets throughout the study, and another was fed the same pellets but ground up in the form of meal. The third group received pellets initially, but then switched diet and were fed meal, while the fourth group received meal to begin with but subsequently switched diet to hard pellets.



Dr Mitchell and colleagues then used computed-tomography (CT) scans of the skulls of the rats that were fed different diets. CT scans were taken at different ages, from when the rats finished suckling right up until adulthood. The scans were used to create three-dimensional digital models of each rat skull and then the models were used in computer-based 3D bite simulations to test the levels of stress at the muzzle, palate and zygomatic arch.



Bone is a dynamic, living tissue that responds to the demands placed on it. Each time a bone is used, it bends a bit and the bone cells in that area lay down more layers of bone for additional strength. The researchers hypothesized that rats with softer diets would have less work for their skulls to do and so the skull bones would become thinner and weaker at the points tested.&nbsp;



“The simulations showed that the rats fed the softest diet indeed grew up to have the weakest skulls, but our research also found something unexpected,” explained study co-author Professor Stephen Wroe from the University of New England in Armidale, Australia.



Although rats fed soft food diets had the weakest muzzles and palates, their skulls were not the weakest in the region of the zygomatic arch. Instead, the group that was switched from hard to soft food as juveniles had the weakest skulls in this region.



“This certainly surprised us. So, we had to do some digging in the literature to explain it,” said Mitchell.



In previous research, rats that were sent to space and experienced a sudden and prolonged disuse of bone responded by producing fewer bone cells, the cells that are responsible for depositing new layers of bone. The researchers in the current study attribute the weakening of the zygomatic arch in rats that switched diet to a similar loss of bone cells.



“We often think of bones as simple, hard objects,” said study co-author Dr. Rachel Menegaz. “But bone is actually a complex living tissue that is constantly adapting.”



The findings suggest that if an animal suddenly stops needing to bite its food during development, it might then lose many of the cells needed for depositing bone while it is still growing, which could impact on normal bone growth and result in a weaker adult skull. Skull weaknesses such as these may result in injury to animals reintroduced into the wild, or may limit the kinds of natural foods they can utilize.



The authors suggest that captive diet plans consider not just nutritional requirements but also the mechanical properties of food, when rearing wildlife to adulthood for reintroduction. Thus, food offered to animals in captivity should not be overly processed, deboned, cut, peeled or portioned but should simulate, as far as possible, the mechanical and structural properties of their wild diets.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/iob">Integrative Organismal Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Soft food diet weakens skull strength in captive animals

Every year, hundreds of thousands of wild animals are taken...

When planning the conservation and management of threatened species, it is important to know how the individuals are distributed in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-habitat-influences-their-flight-behavior/">habitat</a> and how they make use of it spatially. This can be challenging when the species of interest is a far-ranging seabird.&nbsp;



Northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) are related to albatrosses, and are an endangered species in European waters. In pursuit of a meal, they can travel hundreds of kilometers in a matter of days before returning home.&nbsp;



Sampling the behavior and population numbers of fulmars is generally impossible because of the expanse, remoteness and variability of their habitat, not to mention the fact that they are extremely mobile. Instead, conservation biologists have to resort to other methods to assess the management needs of this pelagic species.



An international team, led by scientists at the Marine and Renewable Energy Ireland (MaREI) research center at <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/">University College Cork</a>, has now found that following the routes taken by fishing vessels in the waters off Ireland, can give information about where the birds go to feed. The researchers equipped fulmars with the latest tracking technology and recorded their movements while, at the same time, monitoring the positions of fishing boats in the area.&nbsp;



The experts found that over half of the individual birds associated with fishing vessels while out foraging, and that the favored vessels were mostly trawlers. Fulmars are known to feed on fishing waste that is thrown overboard by vessels after they process fish from their nets. The researchers found that the areas of the sea where fishing vessels spent most of their time were also the areas that fulmars visited in order to forage.&nbsp;



The authors of the study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/meps/">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>, state that this new understanding of the fulmar feeding grounds is vitally important for protecting them from the hazards they may face at sea at a time when most of the world’s seabird populations are threatened. Fulmars are often accidentally caught by vessels and, because the birds can live to 50 years of age, even occasional bycatch in fishing gear can have big implications for their population.&nbsp;



The study highlights the need for best practice when fishing, including the use of bird scaring lines when setting nets or trailing longlines.



“Information about where seabirds go at sea is vital for making sure that new offshore developments, including windfarms, can be designed to do the least amount of harm. That’s why studies such as this one are so important," said study lead author Jamie Darby.



“Humans have given seabirds a lot to contend with. They are sensitive to oil and plastic pollution; we accidentally catch them in commercial fishing gears; we’ve brought rats and other invasive species onto many of their breeding colonies over the last few centuries.”



Ireland has a huge expanse of marine territory and attracts fishing vessels from overseas because these fishing grounds are so productive. Ireland’s commitment to renewable energy means that windfarms will soon be a common fixture along the coasts. However, given that the islands and cliffs of Ireland are home to 24 species of seabirds, proper planning for these energy generators is essential if these birds are to be protected.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When hunting for food, fulmars follow the fishing vessels

When planning the conservation and management of threatened species, it...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.sorbonne-universite.fr/">University of Sorbonne</a> has found that natural selection imposed by different microhabitats across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">forest</a> strata can drive adaptive codivergence in wing shapes, flight behaviors, and aerodynamic efficiency among closely related species of Morpho butterflies. These are brightly colored and iconic butterflies that live in tropical Amazon forests. 



“The diversity of flying animals suggests that countless combinations of flight morphologies and behaviors have evolved with specific lifestyles, thereby exploiting diverse aerodynamic mechanisms,” wrote the study authors. “How morphology, flight behavior, and aerodynamic properties together diversify with contrasting ecology remains to be elucidated.”



Although insect flight has been studied in great detail in a variety of species, the evolution of flight among closely related species adapted to different habitats is not yet well understood.&nbsp;



Using high-speed videography to observe freely flying butterflies, combined with morphometric analyses and aerodynamic modelling, an international team of scientists investigated codivergences in wing shape, flight behavior, and aerodynamic efficiency among 12 Morpho species living in different forest strata.



The researchers discovered that these species have evolved a diverse set of morphological and behavioral characteristics which differ depending on whether they live in the forests’ understories or canopies. While butterflies occupying cluttered understory habitats displayed more powerful wing-flapping phases that resulted in agile and fast flight, those adapted to open canopy habitats evolved improved and more efficient gliding capacities.



“By comparing canopy and understory species, we show that adaptation to an open canopy environment resulted in increased glide efficiency,” the study authors explained. “Moreover, this enhanced glide efficiency was achieved by different canopy species through distinct combinations of flight behavior, wing shape, and aerodynamic mechanisms, highlighting the multiple pathways of adaptive evolution.”



These findings underline the crucial importance of the habitats that different animal species occupy in shaping their morphology, behavior, and lifestyles.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abh2620">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Butterflies’ habitat influences their flight behavior

A new study led by the University of Sorbonne has...

species in Ctenomyidae