A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Space may feel weightless, but its effect on oral health can be heavy. A new animal study shows that near-weightlessness speeds up gum disease - the kind that eats away at bone and can eventually cause teeth to fall out.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sharjah</a> published these findings after using a lab setup to mimic space conditions. They placed mice in a simulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/myotonpro-device-helps-astronauts-maintain-their-muscles-microgravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> environment and compared the results with a group that remained under normal gravity on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-space-without-leaving-earth">Simulating space without leaving Earth</h2>



To create these conditions, the team used a “hind-limb unloading” model. It’s a common method for simulating microgravity in rodents. 



The researchers placed the mice in tilted positions to remove weight from their back legs. Meanwhile, gum disease was induced placing ligatures around their molars.



“Six male C57BL/6J mice (3–4 months, ~30 g) were randomly divided into two groups (n=3 each): (a) ground control with ligature-induced periodontitis and (b) hindlimb unloaded with ligature-induced periodontitis," explained the study authors.



"All procedures followed ethical approval (ACUC-02-02-2023). Mice were anesthetized (100 mg/kg ketamine/5–10 mg/kg xylazine, intraperitoneally) prior to ligature placement between the first and second left maxillary molars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gum-disease-in-space">Gum disease in space </h2>



The changes were clear. “Mice exposed to simulated microgravity showed much worse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-drink-that-helps-remove-tartar-and-whitens-teeth-helps-bad-breath/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gum inflammation</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/special-lettuce-could-protect-astronauts-from-bone-loss/">bone loss</a> compared to mice with induced periodontitis on the ground," said lead author Zahi Badran, a professor of periodontology at the University of Sharjah.



"They had higher levels of disease markers, more severe tissue damage, and more immune cells in the affected areas.” 



Additionally, the microgravity group exhibited a marked increase in CEJ-ABC distance, indicating significant bone resorption. 



They also showed elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP), a common marker of bone turnover, further suggesting heightened inflammation and accelerated bone loss linked to altered gravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-oral-health">Beyond oral health </h2>



While the experiment focused on gum disease in space, the implications stretch further. “It also opens the door to better understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/">inflamma</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/">ion</a> works in the body, both in space and on Earth,” said Dr. Badran.



The authors also note that researchers have largely overlooked oral health in space. “To the best of our knowledge, this is the first in vivo pilot study to investigate microgravity's effects on periodontitis progression using the combination of the hindlimb unloading,” they wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-the-next-space-frontier">Planning for the next space frontier</h2>



This research is especially timely as plans for longer space missions - such as journeys to Mars - move closer to reality.



Dr. Badran said the study highlights the importance of rethinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flexible-wearable-devices-could-track-astronaut-health-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronaut health</a> protocols. “This calls for the integration of dental medicine, particularly periodontology, into astronaut/future space colonies' inhabitants' health protocols," he noted.



Specialized prevention and treatment strategies, along with in-mission monitoring tools, most probably will be essential in case of prolonged space stays.



Simultaneously, the model offers terrestrial benefits, providing insights into the periodontal status of immobilized bed patients, who experience similar effects of microgravity.



This model will be extensively studied to better understand the biological pathways underlying these outcomes. Researchers will also explore how periodontitis may influence other systemic diseases under microgravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Although the study involved a small sample of six mice, the researchers believe it’s a strong start. They plan to expand the model and continue a new line of research on oral health and disease in microgravity. This work will shed more light on space medicine in general.



The experts also aim to study links between gum and systemic diseases in space by assessing more microbiological and immune factors in microgravity.



Future investigations may explore how prolonged space travel affects oral microbiomes,<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-have-unique-immune-responses-that-block-covid/"> immune response</a>, and tissue regeneration. Such insights could lead to the development of targeted countermeasures to protect astronauts on long-duration missions.



Space missions may be cutting-edge, but without proper dental care, astronauts could end up paying for it in plaque and pain. This study is a reminder that when it comes to space travel, even your gums aren’t immune to gravity - or the lack of it.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jre.70000">Journal of Periodontal Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plaque in orbit: Gum disease gets worse in space

Space may feel weightless, but its effect on oral health...

Pressure can come from all directions - authority figures, peers, or the setting we find ourselves in. Most of us believe we’re strong enough to resist it. We think we’d stand up to an unjust command. We picture ourselves pushing back, refusing to cross ethical lines, and walking away with our values intact.



But a new study suggests this confidence may be misplaced. Scientists at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a> tested how people judge their own willingness to follow an immoral order. Their work echoes the classic Milgram obedience experiments while adding a modern twist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-shock-experiment">A modern shock experiment</h2>



The team asked more than 400 adults to read a first-person account of the famous 1960s shock study. Half of the volunteers were told that 65 percent of the original participants obeyed every instruction from the authority figure.



The rest were given no extra facts. Each person then guessed when they would quit the experiment and when an “average participant” would quit.



Using a dial ranging from 1 (quitting after the first shock) to 31 (complete obedience), participants placed themselves around level 7. 



In contrast, they expected the average person to continue until about level 12. Interestingly, even those told that 65 percent of people fully obeyed still did not think their own obedience would be much higher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-pressure-overrides-values">When pressure overrides values</h2>



This gap between “me” and “most people” is a classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teens-with-overbearing-parents-lack-self-esteem-in-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-esteem</a> buffer. It helps protect how we see ourselves but it can leave us blind to real-world pressure.



“Social pressures are way more powerful and impactful than we give them credit for,” said Philip Mazzocco, the study’s lead author.



“If you fall under the sway of these pressures, you could end up engaging in behavior inconsistent with your values and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/online-avatars-sway-our-morals-through-social-influence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">morals</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-about-danger-vs-feeling-it">Reading about danger vs. feeling it</h2>



Simply imagining the situation was not enough to break the illusion. Participants still underpredicted their obedience - a finding that fits earlier research.



“Just reading about a situation is not sufficient, as doing so doesn’t really internalize the point that we're all really susceptible to these pressures,” Mazzocco explained.



The study compares this mental distance to watching a horror movie from the couch versus running for your life outside.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-traits-and-obedience">Personality traits and obedience</h2>



The researchers also looked at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personality</a> tests. Conscientious people - those who like rules and routines- were more likely to follow the authority figure all the way. Yet no single trait guaranteed resistance.



“Studies like these are relevant to society because if we all assume we’re so resistant to obedience, we are not going to immunize ourselves against authority figures who want to take advantage of us,” Mazzocco noted.



To help protect against this vulnerability, the team suggests a few practical strategies. One is to avoid high-pressure settings when possible. Another is to have an exit plan or coping strategy ready when pressure arises. 



And when leaving the situation isn’t an option, they recommend staying curious - asking questions, slowing things down, and checking whether what’s being asked truly aligns with your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peoples-moral-values-literally-change-with-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">values</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-pressures-in-the-real-world">Social pressures in the real world</h2>



Social pressure isn’t limited to dramatic lab experiments or extreme situations. It shows up in daily life - at work, in families, in classrooms, and online.



People may go along with group opinions they privately disagree with, follow workplace practices they find questionable, or stay silent during conversations that challenge their values. These choices aren’t always driven by fear or weakness but by a deep desire to belong, fit in, or avoid conflict.



Social pressure can be subtle, even invisible, but its effects are powerful. What makes it especially tricky is that it often feels normal. Most people don't realize they're being influenced until much later - if at all.



Understanding that social pressure often operates quietly in the background can help us take it more seriously. Rather than assuming we’re immune, it’s more useful to accept that everyone is vulnerable - then plan accordingly.



Awareness isn’t about being perfect; it’s about being prepared. In the end, resisting pressure doesn’t always mean grand defiance. Sometimes, it just means pausing long enough to think for ourselves.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-025-07962-1#Abs1">Current Psychology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social pressure alters how you make decisions

Pressure can come from all directions - authority figures, peers,...

There are objects in our universe so dense that not even light escapes through them. These oddities, known as supermassive black holes, can weigh billions of times more than our sun.



Scientists have long known that such behemoths lurk in galactic centers. Yet new results indicate that 35% of these giants may be obscured by heavy blankets of dust, rather than the 15% that was previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-supermassive-black-holes">Detecting supermassive black holes</h2>



<a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/people/5xd2nb/professor-poshak-gandhi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Poshak Gandhi</a> from the University of Southampton is a co-author of the analysis. Researchers believe their deeper census has broad implications for galaxy evolution.



They studied hidden black holes using data from <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/infrared-astronomical-satellite-iras/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s InfraRed Astronomy Satellite</a> and the <a href="https://www.nustar.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NuSTAR X-ray telescope</a>, operated by NASA<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">/</a>JPL. 



By comparing infrared and X-ray signals, they uncovered powerful sources that had slipped past earlier surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermassive-black-holes-the-basics">Supermassive black holes - the basics</h2>



Supermassive black holes are colossal cosmic objects found at the centers of most galaxies, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/">Sagittarius A*</a> in our Milky Way.



Unlike their stellar-mass cousins, which form from collapsing stars, supermassive black holes tip the scales at millions to billions of times the mass of our Sun. 



Despite their enormous mass, they occupy relatively compact regions in space. Scientists believe they formed in the early universe, possibly from the merging of smaller black holes and dense gas clouds. 



Over billions of years, they grew by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-hole-tde-caught-on-camera-stalking-and-eating-a-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devouring nearby matter</a> and merging with other black holes during galactic collisions.



These black holes exert an immense gravitational pull, influencing the behavior of stars, gas, and even entire galaxies around them. 



When matter spirals into a supermassive black hole, it heats up and emits powerful radiation, creating phenomena like quasars - some of the brightest objects in the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-many-black-holes-were-missed">Why many black holes were missed</h2>



“Black holes are the most mysterious objects in the universe and are present everywhere - yet we still don’t fully know how they evolve. If we didn’t have a supermassive black hole in our Milky Way galaxy, there might be many more stars in the sky,” said Prof. Gandhi.



Some black holes fuel active galaxies. Others lurk in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silence</a>. But even quiet ones leave clues, if we know where to look.



By looking at how gas and dust emit light after being heated, the researchers were able to spot many more black holes. These black holes glow brightly with infrared radiation, even if the dust hides their visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermassive-black-holes-affect-galaxies">Supermassive black holes affect galaxies</h2>



The research team showed that supermassive black holes don’t just sit there. They actively shape their galaxies.



“Black holes also influence the galaxies they live in, this happens because they are surrounded by massive clouds of gas and dust and can consume vast amounts of material,” explained <a href="https://www.pma.caltech.edu/people/peter-boorman" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Peter Boorman</a>, the study’s lead author and a researcher at <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech</a> in Pasadena, California.



When a black hole takes in more matter than it can handle, it ejects the surplus back into the galaxy. This outflow can scatter the gas clouds where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-super-earth-kepler-725c-found-in-habitable-zone-around-its-star/">new stars</a> are forming, ultimately reducing the galaxy’s star formation rate.



The gas blown outward can stop new stars from forming. So the galaxy's future depends, in part, on how the black hole behaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-they-spotted-the-hidden-ones">How they spotted the hidden ones</h2>



“Though black holes are dark, surrounding gas heats up and glows intensely, making them some of the brightest objects in the universe,” explained Prof. Gandhi. 



Most traditional telescopes can’t see through dense gas. That’s where X-rays and infrared come in.



Even when obscured, surrounding dust absorbs the light and re-emits it as infrared radiation, making these objects detectable. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/">X-rays</a> offer a complementary perspective, penetrating the veiling gas much like a medical X-ray reveals structures inside the human body.



That combination of data helped the team update their census. They now believe over a third of growing black holes may be hidden in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-now">Why this matters now</h2>



This shift changes more than just numbers. It changes how we model the life cycle of galaxies and the role that supermassive black holes play in shaping them.



Each black hole’s appetite affects the material around it. If it eats too fast, it might blast gas outward. That gas is the same stuff new stars need in order to form. 



And since the process of feeding and ejecting happens over long timescales, it could explain why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/">galaxies</a> suddenly stop making stars.



Earlier work underestimated the number of obscured black holes. This new count shows we were missing a large piece of the puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-black-hole-research">What’s next for black hole research</h2>



The team’s work fits into a growing effort to understand what’s going on behind the dust. New surveys, will take this further by combining X-ray, optical, and infrared data over large portions of the sky. 



Scientists hope to identify even more hidden black holes and understand how they affect their host galaxies.



In the meantime, researchers know one thing: black holes are even more common than we thought. And the tools we use to find them matter just as much as the theories we build around them.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad8236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Supermassive black holes are much more common in the universe than believed

There are objects in our universe so dense that not...

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects...

Alcohol addiction has long resisted easy treatment. Many people try to quit. Some succeed, but most relapse. The current medications on the market work for only a few. 



Other drugs cause side effects that are bad enough to make people quit treatment altogether. For decades, scientists have searched for something better, something more effective, something people can actually stick with.



Now, a team of researchers from Sweden might have found a new path. Not with a brand-new molecule or an expensive designer drug. Instead, they reached into the medicine cabinet and pulled out two drugs we already know well. 



Varenicline is used to help smokers quit and Bupropion is used for depression and nicotine withdrawal. Neither of these drugs were designed to treat alcohol <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/">use</a> disorder, but something remarkable happened when researchers combined them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-addiction-treatments">Alcohol addiction treatments </h2>



Alcohol use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-drinking-among-students-is-fueled-by-misperceptions/">disorder</a> kills. Not slowly, either. Severe cases can cut lifespans by more than 25 years. Treatments exist, but they’re not doing enough. 



Medications like disulfiram and naltrexone have been available for years, but their impact is limited. They help some people, but not the majority. The effects are modest, and many patients either don’t begin treatment or fail to stick with it.



Doctors and researchers have been hunting for something better. This time, they looked at the brain’s dopamine system. People with AUD may not get enough dopamine. That shortage could be what drives them to drink. So, what if we boosted dopamine instead?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-drugs-for-alcohol-addiction">Testing the drugs for alcohol addiction </h2>



That’s where varenicline and bupropion come in. Varenicline nudges nicotine receptors, releasing dopamine. Bupropion stops dopamine from fading too fast. Put them together and you get a one-two punch.



Bo Söderpalm, co-lead author of the study, is an expert in the Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>.



“We observed approximately twice the effect compared to currently available medications, which is highly promising. However, additional studies are required before the combination treatment can be approved for alcohol use disorder,” noted Söderpalm.



The researchers recruited 384 adults with moderate to severe alcohol use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-related-cancer-deaths-rise-steeply-in-the-united-states/">disorder</a>. The individuals received one of four treatments: varenicline plus bupropion, one of the two drugs, or a placebo.



The trial lasted 13 weeks. The scientists didn’t just ask people how much they drank. They tested blood for B-PEth, a marker that tracks alcohol use. They also looked at how many days people drank heavily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drug-combo-reduced-drinking">Drug combo reduced drinking</h2>



In nearly every measure, the drug duo outperformed the rest. In the group that followed treatment closely, alcohol addiction symptoms dropped the most. Blood tests showed significant improvements.



Self-reports did too. Total drinking went down, along with the number of heavy drinking days. Varenicline alone worked, but not as well. Bupropion alone did not make a meaningful difference.



Varenicline works, but it makes people nauseous. The study revealed something interesting. Bupropion seems to take the edge off. Fewer people got nauseous when they took both drugs. When they did feel sick, it didn’t last as long.



“Nausea is a well-known and troublesome side effect of treatment with varenicline. It was surprising but very encouraging to see that nausea decreased when bupropion was added," noted study co-lead author Andrea de Bejczy.



"The fact that the combination treatment is more tolerable for patients increases the chances that they will complete the full course of treatment."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drinking-less-alcohol-lowered-health-risks">Drinking less alcohol lowered health risks</h2>



The team went further. They used earlier research to estimate what the drop in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/">drinking</a> means for health. 



The analysis showed that if the average person kept drinking less, their risk of dying from alcohol-related causes could fall by as much as 70 to 76 percent.



Individuals tolerated the drug combo well, and serious side effects were rare. The most common complaints were headache, insomnia, and fatigue, and they happened about equally in all groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-old-drugs-offer-new-hope">Two old drugs offer new hope</h2>



The study didn’t include people fresh out of detox, so we don’t know how well the combo helps folks stay sober. Also, the team didn’t get to track nicotine use the way they planned. Supply issues blocked testing.



Still, the study stands out. It’s the first to use B-PEth as a main measure in a human trial for AUD. That matters. People often underreport drinking. Blood doesn’t lie.



These two drugs were never meant for alcohol addiction. But together, they just might be what many people need. The results show strong effects, fewer side effects, and better chances that people will actually finish treatment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanepe/article/PIIS2666-7762(25)00102-4/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Regional Health - Europe</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Common medications may treat alcohol addiction

Alcohol addiction has long resisted easy treatment. Many people try...

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at least 112 million years. When blue light hits their skin, these animals absorb it and re-emit it as green, yellow, orange, or red.



Fish biofluorescence is invisible to us in daylight, but under the right light it turns reefs into underwater neon signs. It is a natural light show that has evolved silently beneath the waves, largely unnoticed by human eyes until recently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-glowing-fish">Tracing the origins of glowing fish </h2>



Two new studies by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a> trace how and when this glow took hold.



The research maps biofluorescence across 459 species and shows just how varied the colors have become.



The team combed through every known case of glowing bony fish, then added 48 previously unreported species. The analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">biofluorescence</a> first showed up in ancient eels and has evolved on its own more than 100 times since.



“Researchers have known for a while that biofluorescence is quite widespread in marine animals, from sea turtles to corals, and especially among fishes,” said Emily Carr, lead author of both studies. 



“But to really get to the root of why and how these species use this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapta</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion</a> - whether for camouflage, predation, or reproduction - we need to understand the underlying evolutionary story as well as the scope of biofluorescence as it currently exists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-speed-up-the-glow">Coral reefs speed up the glow</h2>



Life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral reef</a> seems to speed up this evolutionary trick. Reef-dwelling fish acquire biofluorescence about ten times faster than species that stay in open water. 



After the mass extinction 66 million years ago, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> vanished and reefs rebounded, glowing species multiplied quickly, taking advantage of newly available habitats and ecological niches.



“This trend coincides with the rise of modern coral-dominated reefs and the rapid colonization of reefs by fishes, which occurred following a significant loss of coral diversity in the K-Pg extinction,” Carr said. 



"These correlations suggest that the emergence of modern coral reefs could have facilitated the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fishes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-spectrum-widens">The color spectrum widens</h2>



In a second set of experiments, the team photographed museum specimens under special lights. Some families flashed at least six distinct peaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/">fluorescence</a> - far more variety than scientists had documented.



“The remarkable variation we observed across a wide array of these fluorescent fishes could mean that these animals use incredibly diverse and elaborate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns,” said study co-author John Sparks.



“As these studies show, biofluorescence is both pervasive and incredibly phenotypically variable among marine fishes. What we would really like to understand better is how fluorescence functions in these highly variable marine lineages, as well as its role in diversification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-fish-could-help-medicine">How glowing fish could help medicine</h2>



Fluorescent proteins borrowed from jellyfish transformed molecular biology. The many new hues found in fish could lead to the next generation of imaging tools, helping doctors spot tumors or guide surgery with light.



For now, the ocean keeps many of its secrets hidden in plain sight. But every flash of color brings us closer to understanding how fish communicate, hide, hunt, and find mates - turning a midnight reef into a silent conversation of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-fish-biofluorescence">Future research on fish biofluorescence </h2>



While these findings shed light on the deep history and diversity of glowing fish, there is still a lot more to uncover.



Scientists are now working to understand how different species actually see and use these colors in their everyday lives. Do they glow to blend in, to attract mates, or to send messages we can’t decode yet? 



The answers could not only explain how these fish thrive in their underwater environments but also help us develop new tools in optics, communication, and even biotechnology.



Each discovery adds a small piece to a much bigger puzzle - one where light doesn’t just brighten the ocean, but also points the way to future innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316789">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How fish started glowing over 100 million years ago

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at...

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This morning ritual, known as the dawn chorus, can drown out every other sound. A new study from India reveals that some species dominate that pre‑sunrise concert, while others stay quiet.



The researchers recorded 69 species in the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a>, a mountain chain recognized for exceptional biodiversity. They <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> that 20 of the species sing far more at dawn than dusk, while only one shows the opposite pattern, pointing to social traits as the primary drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-dawn-chorus">Decoding the dawn chorus</h2>



Vijay Ramesh, a postdoctoral biologist at Cornell University’s <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>, led the microphone‑array campaign that captured months of continuous audio in the Ghats.



Past theories claimed that cool, still air at sunrise lets high‑pitched songs travel farther, giving early risers an acoustic advantage.



 A 2019 <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-019-0328-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> showed that song timing is remarkably consistent within individuals, suggesting a behavioral cause rather than improved sound transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-birds-sing-first">Predicting which birds sing first</h2>



Sound scientists once assumed that humid morning air slows high frequencies less than dry mid‑day air, effectively lengthening a whistle’s reach. 



Field <a href="https://malagr.de/hutch/hutchpub/anbe3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> with playback speakers, however, show that vegetation scatter and competing insects erase most of the theoretical gain by breakfast time. 



The new Indian dataset supports the behavioral view by showing no correlation between dawn singing and light level, wind speed, or transmission quality. Instead, two traits (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/territoriality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">territoriality</a> and broad diets) predict which birds sing first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-territories-matter-at-sunrise">Why territories matter at sunrise</h2>



Territorial birds declare their claims at sunrise when rivals and potential mates are alert but still hidden by shadow. Acoustic contests at that hour reduce the risk of physical fights, a pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337589/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in banded wrens and other songbirds.&nbsp;



The idea fits evolutionary logic: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> that joins the dawn chorus before foraging advertises overnight survival, discourages trespass, frees daylight hours for feeding young, and reduces exposure to midday heat that hampers long songs. 



In the Ghats study, species ranked as highly territorial were 1.2 times more likely to sing in the dawn chorus than their less combative relatives - a statistically robust edge.



“We found that highly territorial birds and omnivorous species were much more likely to be active singers during dawn hours,” said Ramesh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-tells-another-story">Diet tells another story</h2>



Diet adds another clue because omnivores that split meals between fruit and insects also dominated the early soundscape. Ramesh suggests that their flexible menu keeps them in mixed‑species foraging flocks that rely on constant chatter to coordinate movement. 



Omnivory also widens the calendar window for feeding because fruit crops peak at different times than insect hatches, giving versatile foragers an incentive to keep group members updated on shifting resources across seasons or plantations.



“Omnivores might sing more at dawn because these species are often members of mixed‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> foraging flocks where vocal communication is essential,” explained Ramesh. 



<a href="https://www.macaulaylibrary.org/2019/01/09/mixed-species-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of such mobile flocks show that vocal leaders broadcast frequent contact and alarm calls, letting dozens of companions share information about food and predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dawn-chorus-was-recorded">How dawn chorus was recorded</h2>



All those insights rest on <a href="https://bou.org.uk/blog-metcalf-pass-acou-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passive acoustic monitoring</a>, a technique that stations weather‑proof recorders in the canopy and lets algorithms sort every chirp. The Ghats project collected simultaneous tracks from 43 forest sites, multiplying human survey capacity.



Each recorder about the size of a paperback ran on rechargeable batteries and captured 20‑kHz audio files that later fed into machine‑learning software trained to identify species from their calls, trimming weeks of manual listening into automated minutes, an advance highlighted by open‑source projects like <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.17.613451v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdNET</a>.



“Passive acoustic monitoring allowed us to collect simultaneous acoustic data for 43 locations, over several months. We could not have done this study without it because we needed a lot of data to answer our questions,” said Ramesh.



Other researchers echo that enthusiasm. “Passive acoustic monitoring allows us to continuously take the pulse of bird populations without having to be physically present in the field,” explained Jorge Velásquez, Director of Science for Audubon Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-voices-and-ecosystem-health">Bird voices and ecosystem health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/western-ghats-and-sri-lanka/species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a> stretch nearly 1,000 miles along India’s west coast and rank among the planet’s eight biodiversity hotspots, hosting hundreds of globally threatened animals and plants. Mountaintop forests there funnel monsoon rains and sustain thousands of endemic species.



Acoustic surveys give conservationists a low‑cost way to track those communities in real time. A dawn chorus rich in specialist voices flags healthy habitat, while a shift toward generalists may warn of logging or climate stress.



The Ghats data will now feed into regional monitoring dashboards that guide reserve boundaries and restoration priorities. Managers can rerun the same code next year and instantly see whether bird territories are shrinking or expanding.



Climate <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2019/01/changing-monsoonal-rainfall-patterns-in-the-western-ghats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> predict that monsoon timing in the Ghats could shift by several weeks this century, and long acoustic time series will let ecologists see whether dawn song calendars move in lockstep or resist the change across altitudinal gradients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-bird-breaks-the-dawn-chorus-rule">One bird breaks the dawn chorus rule</h2>



One puzzle remains: the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/dafbab1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark‑fronted Babbler</a> sang more at dusk than dawn, bucking every social rule observed. Future studies that pair microphones with visual tracking may reveal whether its roosting ecology or predator pressure flips the timetable.



Answering that question would help determine whether birds tailor song schedules to evade particular predators, mirror daily light cycles, or coordinate with insect emergence.



Ramesh hopes to repeat the approach on other continents to see whether territoriality and diet steer the chorus in temperate woodlots as strongly as they do in tropical forests. The answer could turn dawn song into a global barometer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">ecosystem</a> change.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Territorial birds rule the dawn chorus in tropical forests

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This...

Cannabis is everywhere now. It’s in pharmacies, parties, pain clinics, and political speeches. Many use it to sleep better, relax, or deal with pain. Some cannabis users even see it as a natural alternative to pills.



However, while the world embraced cannabis, heart doctors started noticing something else. A new study published in the journal Heart, based on data from over 432 million people, has revealed a clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-extract-cbd-proven-highly-effective-at-killing-mosquitoes/">connection</a>. 



People who use cannabis have a much higher risk of heart attacks, strokes, and even dying from heart disease. That’s not fear-mongering - it’s data from .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-are-using-stronger-cannabis">More people are using stronger cannabis </h2>



In over half of the states in the U.S., and in some countries in Europe, like France, doctors can give cannabis to patients as medicine, but using it just for fun is still illegal. 



Even though it's not allowed for fun, many young people in France still use it a lot. Germany recently changed its laws and now lets people use cannabis recreationally, starting in April 2024.



Now more people use cannabis, and the products they’re using are stronger than before. Today’s cannabis has more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-most-complete-cannabis-genome-yet/">THC</a>. That means stronger effects on the brain and body - especially the heart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-linked-to-heart-problems">Cannabis linked to heart problems</h2>



The researchers looked at 3,012 studies. Among them, 24 studies were focused on the link between cannabis and major heart problems.



An analysis of the research showed that people who use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/">cannabis</a> have a 29 percent higher risk of heart attack, a 20 percent higher risk of stroke, and more than double the risk of dying from heart disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regular-use-raises-stroke-risk">Regular use raises stroke risk</h2>



Stroke risk didn’t look the same in every study. A few didn’t find strong links, especially in people who used cannabis once or twice. But when the researchers zoomed in on heavy users or younger adults, the risk became clearer.



In Australia, one study found that people who used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-in-any-form-directly-linked-to-significant-risk-of-heart-damage/">cannabis</a> weekly were nearly five times more likely to suffer a stroke or mini-stroke. A U.S. hospital database also found increased risk, especially in people aged 25 to 34.



These results suggest that occasional cannabis use may not be a red flag. But regular use, especially while young, is when things start looking risky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-linked-to-more-heart-attacks">Cannabis linked to more heart attacks</h2>



One study showed that cannabis users aged 15 to 22 were 36 percent more likely to have a heart attack. Another found that people using cannabis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-directly-linked-to-head-and-neck-cancer/">more than once a week</a> had more than double the odds.



That’s after adjusting for tobacco, cocaine, and other drugs. Cannabis came out as the strongest predictor in a French hospital study - even stronger than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/">cocaine</a>.



That’s not the story we usually hear about cannabis. But these numbers speak louder than opinions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-higher-death-risk-from-heart-disease">Higher death risk from heart disease</h2>



The risk of fatal cardiovascular events was also investigated. In one study, young patients who had heart attacks and also used cannabis were far more likely to die. The link remained consistent even after controlling for smoking and other conditions.



Another study conducted in the United States confirmed that cannabis users had a much higher chance of dying from heart-related causes. 



In the UK, a 2024 study revealed an unexpected twist. Women, not men, faced higher risks of heart-related death from heavy cannabis use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-the-benefits-of-cannabis">What about the benefits of cannabis?</h2>



Cannabis has shown several proven medical benefits, especially when used under a doctor’s guidance. One of its most recognized uses is for managing chronic pain. 



People with conditions like arthritis, multiple sclerosis, or nerve-related injuries often find relief through cannabis-based treatments. 



The plant's compounds - mainly THC and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-extract-cbd-proven-highly-effective-at-killing-mosquitoes/">CBD</a> - can interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system to reduce pain signals and inflammation. 



Medical cannabis also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-may-ease-cancer-symptoms-like-pain-and-nausea/">helps cancer patients</a> by easing nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, and in some cases, it can stimulate appetite for those struggling with weight loss due to illness.



Doctors have also used cannabis to help patients with neurological disorders. In certain forms of epilepsy, especially in children, CBD-based medications have reduced the number and severity of seizures.



These examples reflect how cannabis, when used appropriately, can provide real and sometimes life-changing benefits for patients, making it easier for some to ignore the overall health implications attached to cannabis use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experts-urge-tobacco-style-warnings">Experts urge tobacco-style warnings</h2>



“Cannabis needs to be incorporated into the framework for prevention of clinical cardiovascular disease. So too must cardiovascular disease prevention be incorporated into the regulation of cannabis markets,” noted Professor Stanton Glantz and Dr. Lynn Silver.



The experts emphasized that today's cannabis is not what it used to be. It now includes potent concentrates, synthetic versions, and a growing variety of edible and inhalable forms. These may carry risks beyond the cannabinoids themselves.



“How these changes affect cardiovascular risk requires clarification, as does the proportion of risk attributable to cannabinoids themselves versus particulate matter, terpenes or other components of the exposure,” the authors noted.



“Specifically, cannabis should be treated like tobacco: not criminalized, but discouraged, with protection of bystanders from secondhand exposure.”



Doctors should ask about cannabis use, particularly when it comes to patients with heart problems. For people using cannabis regularly, it’s time to rethink the idea that it is harmless.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2025/06/10/heartjnl-2024-325429" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heart</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cannabis is worse for the heart than cocaine, according to a shocking new study

Cannabis is everywhere now. It’s in pharmacies, parties, pain clinics,...

Coastal communities can’t catch a break. Waves pound the shores, storms grow fiercer with the changing climate, and rising seas nibble away at the sand supporting coastal properties around the world.



Standard defenses - sea walls, trucked-in sand, and injections of cement - buy time but rarely offer a lasting fix. Something simpler and sturdier is needed before more beaches <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/accelerating-coastal-retreat-in-alaska-the-triple-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slip beneath the surf</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jolting-coastal-sand-with-electricity">Jolting coastal sand with electricity</h2>



Now, engineers have found that a trickle of electricity - just a couple of volts, about what a toy flashlight uses - can lock loose coastal sand into a rock-like mass. 



The current coaxes dissolved minerals already floating in seawater to crystallize between grains of sand, gluing them together almost instantly. 



In lab tests, the sand stayed put after only a few days of stimulation and showed strength on par with quarried stone.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oregon-coast-shuts-down-mussel-harvest-shellfish-poison-outbreak/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clams and mussels</a> turn seawater’s calcium into sturdy shells without breaking a sweat. Researchers copied that natural chemistry, but replaced metabolic energy with an external battery. 



At 2-3 volts, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a> forms; nudge the voltage to 4 volts and magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite join the mix. 



These minerals are tougher than standard concrete and can withstand repeated wetting, drying, and salt spray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spark-of-creativity">Spark of creativity</h2>



“Over 40% of the world’s population lives in coastal areas,” explained Alessandro Rotta Loria of <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>, who led the study. “Because of climate change and sea-level rise, erosion is an enormous threat to these communities.”



He explained that erosion of coastal sand already causes “billions of dollars in damage per year worldwide” through the loss of land and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/">disintegration of infrastructure</a>. 



Current approaches to mitigate erosion involve building protection structures or injecting external binders into the subsurface.



“My aim was to develop an approach capable of changing the status quo in coastal protection - one that didn’t require the construction of protection structures and could cement marine substrates without using actual cement,” Rotta Loria continued. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/coastal-erosion_natural-cement_microscopy-image_credit_NorthwesternU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/coastal-erosion_natural-cement_microscopy-image_credit_NorthwesternU_1s.webp" alt="Microscopy image of natural cement. Credit: Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1974256"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Microscopy image of natural cement. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“By applying a mild electric stimulation to marine soils, we systematically and mechanistically proved that it is possible to cement them by turning naturally dissolved minerals in seawater into solid mineral binders - a natural cement.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shortcomings-of-familiar-fixes">Shortcomings of familiar fixes</h2>



“Sea walls, too, suffer from erosion,” Rotta Loria noted. “Over time, the sand beneath these walls erodes, and the walls can eventually collapse.”



He explained that many protection structures are built from large stones that cost millions of dollars per mile. 



“However, the sand beneath them can liquefy because of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-living-will-cost-five-times-more-by-2050/">environmental stressors</a>,” he said. “These big rocks are swallowed by the ground beneath them.”



Injecting cement and other binders into the ground has a number of irreversible environmental drawbacks. According to Rotta Loria, it also typically requires high pressures and significant amounts of energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-numbers-that-matter">Numbers that matter</h2>



A 2020 analysis by the European Commission’s <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/about/departments-and-executive-agencies/joint-research-centre_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint Research Centre</a> warned that nearly 26 percent of Earth’s beaches could disappear by 2100 if nothing changes. 



Traditional chemical grouting can cost as much as $70 per cubic yard, yet it still cracks under relentless waves. Electrically cemented sand costs roughly $4 to $8 per cubic yard, slashing expenses while promising decades of stability.



“After being treated, the sand looks like a rock,” Rotta Loria said. “It is rigid and solid, instead of granular and incohesive. The minerals themselves are much stronger than concrete, so the resulting sand could become as strong and solid as a sea wall.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/coastal-erosion_electricity-strengthened-sand_credit-NorthwesternU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/coastal-erosion_electricity-strengthened-sand_credit-NorthwesternU_1s.webp" alt="Sample of strengthened sand, treated with mild electricity, from the Rotta Loria lab. Credit: Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1974254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sample of strengthened coastal sand, treated with mild electricity, from the Rotta Loria lab. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



Researchers tested everything from common quartz beach sand to iron-rich grains collected near volcanoes. 



Each type bonded firmly once the current flowed. Longer stimulation periods thickened the mineral bridge, but the first gains arrived quickly.



“We have noticed remarkable outcomes from just a few days of stimulation,” Rotta Loria enthused. “Then, the treated sand should stay in place, without needing further interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-life-friendly-coastal-sand">Sea-life-friendly coastal sand</h2>



Sea creatures won’t notice the gentle buzz coursing through the seabed. And if planners change their minds, flipping the battery’s poles dissolves the mineral glue. 



The minerals form because we are locally raising the pH of the seawater around cathodic interfaces. If you switch the anode with the cathode, then localized reductions in pH dissolve the previously precipitated minerals.



This technique offers a wide range of practical uses. It can be applied to reinforce the seabed beneath sea walls, stabilise sand dunes, and secure areas with loose or shifting soil. 



Beyond that, it can strengthen breakwaters, marine foundations, and a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hawaii-is-sinking-faster-than-expected/">other coastal structures</a>. Overall, the method provides numerous opportunities to enhance coastal protection.



Field trials on real beaches are up next. If the results match the lab’s promise, future coastline projects might swap hulking barriers for a low-voltage power supply and a few well-placed electrodes. 



With millions of people living a stone’s throw from high tide, a solution that turns shifting sand into steadfast rock - using the ocean’s own minerals - couldn’t come at a better time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01604-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fighting coastal erosion with a 'shockingly' simple solution, and it actually works

Coastal communities can’t catch a break. Waves pound the shores,...

A ten-year, nearly 2,000-station ocean survey has uncovered a diffuse veil of plastics drifting through every sampled layer of the North Atlantic ocean and adjoining basins. The findings suggest that plastic pollution penetrates far deeper than earlier studies implied.



The work, led by a team of <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/">Northeastern University</a> marine scientists, characterizes a suspended “light smog” of synthetic fragments and fibers - many thinner than a human hair. These particles ride currents, mix vertically, and settle slowly toward the deep sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-3d-ocean-plastic-problems">A 3D ocean plastic problems</h2>



For years, marine plastic researchers investigated the surface garbage patches concentrated by slow-moving gyres. Those rotating currents still host prodigious amounts of floating waste, but the new analysis shows that gyre dynamics do not stop at the surface.



“You’ve got these accumulations on the surface, and the same processes concentrating and leading to accumulations below the gyres into a sort of lens,” said senior author Aron Stubbins, a marine scientist at Northeastern.



The team combined plankton-net tows, in-line filtration, pump casts, and sediment traps collected between 2014 and 2024.



Most sites lay in the Northern Hemisphere’s busy shipping lanes and coastal margins - regions with dense coastal populations and well-documented mismanaged waste.



Even so, researchers were surprised by the reach of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/">plastic pollution</a>. “Plastics are more or less everywhere,” Stubbins said. “We’re finding them deposited in the Antarctic, in the Himalayas, carried by the wind, but to find them well-distributed throughout the ocean is surprising.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-plastics-don-t-always-sink">Heavy plastics don’t always sink</h2>



Buoyant polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene naturally ride the waves. Denser resins, including polyethylene terephthalate (PET) from water bottles, should in theory fall quickly to the seabed. Yet PET showed up at multiple mid-water depths.



“One rationale is that when something is small enough, its density becomes less important than its drag,” Stubbins noted. 



In other words, once abrasion, UV exposure, and microbial attack whittle a bottle fragment into a sub-100-micron shard, turbulent eddies can keep it aloft for months or years.



The survey found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-spread-deep-into-the-ocean-far-below-the-surface/">microplastics</a> in all studied size classes, but concentrations peaked below 20 microns. Particles in this range behave almost like mineral dust in air: they scatter sunlight, adsorb chemicals efficiently, and are easily inhaled - by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/">plankton</a> in this case, rather than people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripples-through-the-food-web">Ripples through the food web</h2>



Tiny plankton form the base of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chains</a>, fueling everything from larval fish to baleen whales.



Laboratory studies show that copepods and krill readily ingest micro- and nanoplastics, mistaking them for nutritious algae. Field data remain sparse, but the scientists warn that real-world exposure may be higher than previously estimated.



“In terms of the food chain, there could be interaction,” Stubbins said. “Organisms could be feeding in these zones and ingesting these plastics and also the toxic passenger molecules they carry, which could distribute into fish tissue, and we end up consuming them.”



Plastic particles act as rafts for organic pollutants, trace metals, and pathogenic microbes, meaning that a single 10-micron bead can deliver a chemical cocktail to any predator that swallows it. 



The long-distance drift documented in the new study therefore multiplies the potential contact between pollutants and wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-may-trap-carbon">Plastics may trap carbon</h2>



Beyond contamination concerns, the authors highlight a subtler risk. Each year, the ocean pumps roughly a quarter of humanity’s carbon-dioxide emissions from the surface into the abyss. This happens chiefly via plankton that fix CO₂ and sink as aggregates or fecal pellets.



Plastic fragments of similar size and density could change how easily that biological “snow” sinks - or provide ballast that speeds some material downward while trapping carbon shallower than usual.



“Plastics may reduce the ocean’s ability to offset <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-climate-fixes-could-worsen-the-oxygen-crisis/">carbon dioxide</a>,” Stubbins said. A new $1.3-million <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> project will probe that possibility by pairing vertical plastic profiles with carbon-flux measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-tools-for-deep-ocean-plastic">Better tools for deep ocean plastic</h2>



Documenting surface litter is straightforward: satellites, drones, and ships can skim the top meter with nets. Deep-water plastic work, by contrast, relies on expensive equipment and painstaking lab protocols.



The Northeastern team calls for an international push to harmonize depth-integrated sampling - particle size cuts, filtration volumes, and contamination controls. Standardizing these methods would allow global maps to be stitched together without relying on statistical guesswork.



“Plastics is an emergent field and there are concerns about how the changing physical environment of the deep ocean may have impacts on how the ocean functions as part of the Earth’s system,” Stubbins explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-long-life-of-ocean-plastic">The long life of ocean plastic</h2>



Some countries are drafting binding treaties to curb plastic production and improve waste management. Yet even if global discharge stopped tomorrow, trillions of microplastics already in circulation would continue to drift, fragment, and sink to the bottom of the ocean for decades.



The new study provides a benchmark against which future surveys can measure progress - or lack thereof.



Policy, meanwhile, will need to target both ends of the life cycle: cutting single-use plastics at the source and investing in technologies to capture or biodegrade microplastics before they reach open water.



Until then, the ocean’s newly revealed plastic smog will remain a silent passenger in planetary processes that sustain climate stability and human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/">food security</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08818-1">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ocean plastic crisis goes way deeper than we thought

A ten-year, nearly 2,000-station ocean survey has uncovered a diffuse...

Illustration,Concept,Of,A,Fleet,Of,Internet,Starlink,Satellites,In

Space is usually quiet at the frequencies that radio telescopes prize most. Over the last two years, however, scientists listening for whispers from the infant universe keep hearing radio signals from a loud new neighbor: SpaceX’s Starlink fleet.



<a href="https://staffportal.curtin.edu.au/staff/profile/view/steven-tingay-167822b3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steven Tingay</a> of Curtin University and the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (<a href="https://www.icrar.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICAR</a>) led the team that traced the interference back to nearly 2,000 satellites using a prototype station of the Square Kilometre Array‑Low (<a href="https://www.skao.int/en/explore/telescopes/ska-low" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SKA‑Low</a>) in Western Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starlink-radio-noise-blocks-cosmic-signals">Starlink radio noise blocks cosmic signals</h2>



Radio telescopes hunt for the faint glow of <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.07250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutral hydrogen</a>, a gas that filled space before the first stars switched on. Those signals arrive on Earth at strengths a thousand times weaker than a modern phone tower.



Even unplanned emissions from orbit can wipe them out. The survey found that unintended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-map-of-the-universe-reveals-800000-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite</a> leakage can match the brightest natural radio sources seen from Earth, which is enough to bury data at key hydrogen frequencies.



“It’s like taking the strongest sources in the sky and putting a bunch more artificial ones in, then making them move around a lot,” described Tingay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desert-telescope-tracks-starlink-leaks">Desert telescope tracks Starlink leaks</h2>



The team pointed 256 dipole antennas across a 35‑meter (115-foot) patch of desert known for its radio silence. 



Across 29 days they recorded 2,446,692 full‑sky images spanning 24 frequencies between 73 and 235 megahertz.



Sophisticated software compared each snapshot with real‑time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite</a> orbits. Every time a passing craft lined up with an unexpected spike in brightness, the program logged a hit.



By the end, 1,806 individual Starlink satellites, about 28 percent of the active constellation at the time, had betrayed a signal. 



Some appeared in nearly a third of all images captured at 170 megahertz, a band earmarked for early‑universe studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-noise-outshines-natural-space-signals">Satellite noise outshines natural space signals</h2>



Two kinds of emissions dominated the log. 



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-cosmic-particle-cloud-ever-found-has-stunned-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellites</a> leaked a broadband hum across the entire 0.9‑megahertz window being measured. In addition, a smaller subset blasted a narrow, 13‑kilohertz tone every 100 seconds at 137.05 megahertz. 



Those pulses hit seven million janskys at the dish, outshining the Milky Way by orders of magnitude.



<a href="https://research.curtin.edu.au/cira/about-cira/our-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dylan Grigg</a>, a Curtin University data specialist, noted that “the best way to stop this unintended emission is for the satellites to either reduce it or to stop it,” at the end of a long overnight observation run.



The International Telecommunication Union (<a href="https://www.itu.int/pub/R-HDB-22-2013" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ITU</a>) reserves three slices of the spectrum, 73‑74.6, 150.05‑153, and 322‑328.6 megahertz, for <a href="https://public.nrao.edu/radio-astronomy/the-science-of-radio-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio astronomy</a>. 



Starlink leakage turned up in two of them, with 703 satellites detected in the lower protected band alone.



Because the rules govern only deliberate transmissions, no regulations are technically being broken. Yet the power difference between the leaks and the cosmic signals that astronomers seek can reach a factor of ten thousand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-starlink-radio-noise">Reducing Starlink radio noise</h2>



Starlink already dims its spacecraft in visible light by tipping solar panels away from Sun reflections. A similar hardware tweak, better shielding around onboard avionics, could muffle stray radio waves before they leave the bus.



Software filters on Earth offer a backup plan. Still, Tingay warns that erasing satellite noise in post‑processing may demand more computing power than the science analysis itself.



If hardware fixes prove impractical, operators could at least switch off problem components when passing above observatories. 



SpaceX already blanks its internet beams over major facilities; extending that courtesy to background electronics would help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mega-constellations-and-future-astronomy">Mega‑constellations and future astronomy</h2>



Starlink is only the largest of several planned networks. Amazon’s Kuiper, <a href="https://oneweb.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OneWeb‑Eutelsat</a>, and <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/satellite-internet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China’s G60 project</a> each aim for thousands of craft in similar orbits.



Without new standards, the combined leakage could turn Earth’s low‑frequency sky into broadband static. 



That would cripple missions such as SKA‑Low’s quest to map the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcares-first-year-surprising-climate-clues-unveiled-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> dawn,” when the first galaxies ignited about 13 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-astronomy-and-leaky-starlink">Radio astronomy and leaky Starlink</h2>



Astronomers have begun lobbying the ITU to extend protections to unintentionally radiated energy. Defining leakage limits, as already exists for consumer electronics on the ground, would give satellite makers a clear design target.



National spectrum agencies could then certify satellites before launch. Failing that, operators might face strict observing‑zone blackouts enforced by orbital debris tracking systems.



“The emissions are not regulated right now, but discussion has started,” Tingay said during the team’s briefing to Australian policymakers. He hopes the new data “provides the evidence base needed to move that process along.”



Time is tight. Starlink launches continue roughly once a week, with each <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/falcon-9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Falcon 9</a> delivering up to 23 new units. Every fresh craft adds to the background haze, and older models show no sign of going quiet on their own. If action waits for the full 30,000‑satellite network, recovering a clean sky could be impossible.



Astronomy survived shortwave radio and television because engineers and regulators learned to share the dial. Whether low‑Earth orbit broadband joins that success story now rests on choices made in the next few years.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.02831" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

SpaceX’s Starlink satellites leak radio signals that threaten to ruin astronomy

Space is usually quiet at the frequencies that radio telescopes...

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly as textbooks predict. Gallium refuses to play along. Nearly 150 years after French chemist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran</a> added the element to the periodic table, researchers are still sorting out why this silvery liquid shifts its personality when the heat is on. 



A spoon made of gallium will liquefy in a cup of tea, yet the same element anchors semiconductors, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floating-solar-panels-could-power-every-home-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar panels</a>, and laser diodes that withstand scorching factory conditions.



For more than 30 years, physicists have wrestled with gallium’s structure in the liquid state. Competing studies have offered clashing explanations, especially around the role of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/covalent-bond" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonding</a> - a type of electron-sharing connection that metals rarely show. 



Fresh simulations have now stitched the puzzle pieces together and point to what scientists believe to be the decisive proof they've been searching for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-gallium-melts-early">Why gallium melts early</h2>



Gallium melts at 85 °F, far below the temperature of a warm summer day. That quirky transition happens because solid gallium forms tiny two-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chemistry-of-wine-what-actually-shapes-its-texture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atom pairs</a> called dimers, and those pairs pack less densely than the liquid. The moment the dimers break apart, density rises and the metal flows. 



The story becomes stranger at higher heat. At temperatures well above the phase change, the dimers re-form, but not in ways scientists expected.



“Thirty years of literature on the structure of liquid gallium has rested on a fundamental assumption that is evidently not true,” says Professor Nicola Gaston of Waipapa Taumata Rau, <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a>, and the <a href="https://www.macdiarmid.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MacDiarmid Institute</a> for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology. 



Her team combined ab initio molecular-dynamics data with decades of experimental records to see how individual atoms mingle at several checkpoints on the thermometer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-gallium-myths-overturned">Liquid gallium myths overturned</h2>



Conventional wisdom held that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonds</a> fade out once gallium liquefies and play only a minor role afterward. 



The fresh computational work shows the opposite: covalency matters more as the temperature climbs. In other words, the tighter electron sharing that disappears at 85 °F re-emerges and strengthens when the metal is pushed hundreds of degrees hotter.



The insight explains a long-standing electrical oddity. Gallium’s resistivity dips as it first passes the melting line - counter to most metals - then creeps upward in a nonlinear fashion. 



If covalent bonds regroup at elevated heat, they create a conduction bottleneck that raises resistivity, squaring experimental curves with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic-level theory</a>.



Textbook melting points depend on the tug-of-war between internal order and random motion. When the dimers dissolve, entropy shoots up, giving atoms the freedom to shift. 



That entropy spike accounts for gallium’s unusually low melt point without invoking mysterious bonding tricks at 85 °F. 



Once the liquid sits comfortably above the transition, the atomic sea settles just enough for bonds to snap back together - only this time within a looser, more disordered framework.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zinc-crystals-from-liquid-gallium">Zinc crystals from liquid gallium</h2>



Gallium’s renewed covalency at high temperatures also clarifies why the liquid can pull other metals into solution with minimal energy input. 



The shared-electron environment encourages elements such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zinc-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-ocean-processes/">zinc</a>, copper, and tin to mix, forming room-temperature liquid alloys that engineers mold into stretchable circuits, heat-free solders, and microfluidic pumps.



A few years ago, researchers crystallized zinc inside a bath of molten gallium and watched delicate six-sided plates snowball outward. That project hinted at liquid gallium’s knack for directing complex shapes without external templates. 



The new structural roadmap shows that covalent rebonding supplies the subtle forces that align dissolved atoms as they solidify, making it easier to predict - and exploit - growth patterns.



Gallium-based liquids already act as catalysts that shuffle reactants into greener chemical pathways. The updated model will help chemists tune alloy recipes for faster charge transfer or sharper selectivity. 



In battery prototypes, thin films of gallium alloys spread across electrodes, filling microscopic cracks that normally kill capacity. Knowing when the liquid switches bonding modes could lengthen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-created-carbon-14-battery-that-lasts-5700-years-without-a-recharge/">battery lifetimes</a> and lower manufacturing temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quirks-in-fabrication">Quirks in fabrication</h2>



Gallium’s solid compounds, including gallium arsenide and gallium nitride, drive radio-frequency amplifiers, high-brightness LEDs, and fast chargers. 



Fabricating those compounds sometimes involves droplets of pure gallium that remove heat or transport precursor atoms. 



Process engineers need precise viscosity, density, and conductivity data at every stage, and the re-emergence of covalent links at high heat feeds directly into those parameters.



Understanding gallium’s behavior also safeguards supply chains. The metal is mined as a by-product of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposing-the-hidden-climate-costs-of-everyday-materials/">aluminum production</a>, mainly from bauxite ore. 



Global output hovers around 460 tons per year, and demand surges whenever display or photovoltaic markets expand. Tailoring alloys that use less gallium, yet keep its liquid perks, will ease strain on future inventories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond Earth, gallium could help planetary scientists sniff out ancient microbes. Because the element forms stable bonds with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-volcanoes-left-sparkling-clues-behind-in-form-of-tiny-glass-beads/">oxygen and sulfur</a>, it may lock biosignatures into Martian rock layers. 



Some geochemists argue that gallium traces could outlast fragile carbon compounds, providing a longer-lived clue to life. The revamped structural picture supplies the chemical logic behind that durability.



As liquid metals step into flexible electronics, soft robotics, and low-carbon chemistry, knowing exactly how gallium’s atoms dance under heat will pay dividends.



Gallium still bends spoons for party tricks, but its greater trick lies in how a simple temperature dial rewrites atomic rules. 



By showing where covalent bonds vanish and return, the research clears fog from a field that fuels countless technologies, from phone screens to satellite links. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/mh/d4mh00244j/unauth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Materials Horizons</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists uncover previously unknown properties in a metal crucial to modern life

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly...

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most are killed for supper, not for overseas trade in their scales. A new field survey shows that nearly every pangolin taken from the wild ends up in a cooking pot.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> spent three years talking with more than 800 hunters and traders across 33 villages. 



The team estimates that about 21,000 pangolins die each year in the region. Hunters rarely set out to look for them. They pick the animals up by hand while checking snares or working in farm plots. 



Almost three-quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-meat-paradox-people-care-about-animals-but-still-eat-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a> is eaten by the hunters’ own families, and the rest is sold locally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-is-the-motive-for-killing-pangolins">Meat is the motive for killing pangolins </h2>



Study lead author Dr. Charles Emogor conducted the research while pursuing his PhD in the Department of Zoology at Cambridge.



“Thousands of kilos of pangolin scales are seized at Nigeria’s ports, creating the impression that the international demand for scales is behind pangolin exploitation in West Africa,” said Dr. Emogor.



"When we spoke to hunters and traders on the ground around the Cross River forest, the largest stronghold for Nigeria’s pangolins, it was obvious that meat was the motivation for almost all of the pangolin killings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangolin-scales-often-hit-the-bin">Pangolin scales often hit the bin</h2>



Less than a third of the scales from those animals ever reach a trader. Most are tossed aside. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hunters</a> said meat earns three to four times more money per animal than scales do in local markets.



“We found that dedicated pangolin hunts are virtually non-existent. Most pangolins are killed by hunters out for any type of game,” said Dr. Emogor. 



"Around a third of pangolins are caught opportunistically, often while people are working in the fields. Pangolins curl into a ball when threatened, which sadly makes them easy to catch.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prized-taste-and-old-beliefs">A prized taste and old beliefs</h2>



Pangolin meat is considered more flavorful than beef, chicken, or even antelope in many villages. It’s sometimes prepared for pregnant women, based on the belief that it promotes strong, healthy babies. 



This cultural value, combined with the species’ slow reproductive rate, puts intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-mammals-show-how-humans-influence-animal-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> on the animal's survival.



“Pangolins face a lethal combination of threats,” said Dr. Emogor. “Pangolins are easy to hunt, breed slowly, taste good to humans, and are falsely believed to have curative properties in traditional medicines. In addition, their forest habitat is being destroyed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-solutions-to-save-pangolins">Local solutions to save pangolins </h2>



Because food is the real pull, the researchers argue that local solutions - better patrols, new bylaws, and help with food security - may cost less and work faster than trying to police international trafficking alone.



“Clearly in designing any intervention we need good information on what’s motivating the hunters,” said study co-author Professor Andrew Balmford. “That’s why studies such as this are vital for effective conservation of endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-80-million-years-of-evolution">Losing 80 million years of evolution</h2>



Dr. Emogor now runs Pangolino, a volunteer network that helps villages write and enforce pangolin-friendly rules. His motivation is personal as well as scientific.



"If we lose the pangolin, we lose 80 million years of evolution,” said Emogor. “Pangolins are the only mammals with scales, and their ancestors existed when dinosaurs still roamed the planet."



Cameroon, Gabon, and other nations show similar habits: people value pangolins mainly for food. Until diets change or enforcement improves, Africa’s only scaly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> will keep slipping toward extinction - one meal at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-pangolins-and-forest-life">Protecting pangolins and forest life</h2>



Efforts to save pangolins must go beyond curbing international trade. Protecting these animals - and the ecosystems they live in - means addressing the local drivers of hunting. 



That includes improving food security, offering economic alternatives to bushmeat, and increasing public awareness about the role pangolins play in forest health.



Education and outreach are key. Many hunters don’t realize pangolins are at risk. Some may not know the animals help control insect populations and support ecological balance. 



Wildlife conservation groups are working to spread this knowledge, while local governments and partners explore ways to boost law enforcement in remote areas.



Ultimately, protecting pangolins also helps safeguard other species that share their shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-mammals-are-seeking-refuge-in-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>. When forests are preserved and hunting is managed sustainably, entire ecosystems stand a better chance of survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02734-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Disturbing study finds the true reason this amazing creature is on the verge of extinction

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most...

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have emerged as a crucial conservation strategy. These regions are set aside to limit human interference and provide wildlife with a safe space. 



Conservationists often focus on species counts when measuring success. But are these protected zones doing enough to preserve the entire structure of ecosystems?



This question is at the heart of a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. Instead of focusing only on species richness, the researchers examined how protected areas affect the complex interactions between species. 



These species interactions - especially predator-prey relationships - build the food webs that make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-by-design-should-we-genetically-erase-harmful-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> stable and functional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-count-is-not-enough-nbsp">Species count is not enough&nbsp;</h2>



Species richness is important. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are more than a list of species. The relationships between organisms play a key role in ecological balance. A hawk hunting smaller birds or a songbird feeding on insects reflects interactions that keep ecosystems working.



The Swansea team wanted to understand if protected areas help maintain this ecological balance. They examined the structure of food webs rather than just counting how many species lived in each location. 



A food web includes all the feeding relationships between animals in a region. It shows who eats whom and how energy flows through the environment.



To conduct this study, the researchers turned to citizen science. They used data from platforms like eBird, where volunteers record bird sightings. This allowed the experts to track 509 bird species across 45 ecological networks from Spain to Finland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-inside-and-outside-reserves">Food webs inside and outside reserves</h2>



Using this large database, the team combined observational bird records with known predator-prey links. For example, if a particular raptor feeds on smaller birds, that relationship was mapped. Each network captured the structure of a local bird community and its food web.



The team compared food webs inside protected areas to those in surrounding, non-protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscapes</a>. These comparisons were not simple. 



The researchers controlled for many variables. They looked at habitat diversity, the percentage of forest and agricultural land, and levels of human pressure.



The experts also considered the designation status of the protected areas. Some zones were part of the European Bird Directives, which provide stronger conservation measures. Others had more general protections. 



These different conservation levels allowed the team to ask whether clearer goals led to better ecological outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-help-in-some-places">Protected areas help in some places</h2>



So, what did the researchers find? In some cases, protected areas improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of food webs. The networks inside protected zones tended to have more species overall. Intermediate-level species - those neither top predators nor at the bottom - were more common. 



Also, predators inside protected areas tended to be larger in body size, both at the top and middle levels of the food web.



However, not all of the results were encouraging. The length of food chains and the connectivity of species within the web did not show consistent improvement. In other words, simply having more species did not guarantee a healthier or more connected ecosystem.



The effects varied across Europe. Food webs in Spain responded differently from those in Finland or central Europe. This suggests that local conditions still matter greatly. Protection alone cannot guarantee the same results everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-food-web-differences">Factors behind food web differences</h2>



What caused the variation in results? Several environmental factors played a role. Areas that were more remote generally had healthier food webs. Places with higher habitat diversity also performed better. Human pressure and the amount of nearby farmland had a strong influence too.



Interestingly, areas under the European Bird Directives showed stronger positive trends. This suggests that clearer conservation planning makes a real difference. Just designating a region as "protected" is not enough. What matters is how that protection is implemented.



Study co-author Dr. Miguel Lurgi, who leads the Computational Ecology Lab, emphasized the significance of the research. 



“Studies like ours highlight the complexity of conservation action and the importance of considering key aspects of biodiversity beyond species richness, such as ecological interactions and the tangled networks that they form, into biodiversity assessments,” noted Dr. Lurgi.



“These networks not only structure communities and enable their persistence, but they also play important roles in the functions that ecosystems fulfil in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-protect-species-and-their-roles-nbsp">We must protect species and their roles&nbsp;</h2>



This study challenges a common assumption in conservation planning. Many projects measure success by the number of species saved. The research shows that relationships between species are equally vital. 



Protecting one bird species is good. Ensuring that it still plays its ecological role - as predator, prey, or pollinator - is better.



Protected areas clearly help in some ways. They offer space for species to live and grow. But without active planning, their impact on food webs may fall short. Conservation needs to think about networks, not just numbers.



By looking at predator-prey relationships, this research opens a path to more holistic conservation strategies. It also highlights the value of citizen science. 



Platforms like eBird make this kind of large-scale ecological work possible. Every birdwatcher’s observation helps build a clearer picture of how our ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-need-better-plans">Protected areas need better plans</h2>



Europe's protected areas are not failing, but they are not universally succeeding either. They need tailored strategies, grounded in ecological data. Simple protection does not always support complex ecosystems.



This study gives policymakers a reason to refine their approaches. If the goal is to protect ecosystems, not just individual species, then conservation must shift. It must include ecological interactions, food web structures, and the subtle forces that hold nature together.



As this research shows, conservation cannot afford to stay simple. Nature is complex. Our strategies must match that complexity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Protected areas don't always protect food webs

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have...

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement: they succeeded in raising a mouse that came from two male parents, and it grew into a healthy adult. Their work unveils a set of genetic changes that overcomes the imprinting barriers that typically block such development.



Scientists in various fields have tried for years to figure out how paternal-only DNA could sustain a mammal through all stages of life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-gene-imprinting">Understanding gene imprinting</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Imprinting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological imprinting</a> is an inherited pattern of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene-Expression" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene expression</a>. It involves certain genes getting turned on or off depending on whether they come from the father or the mother. 



Researchers found that if you adjust a selection of these imprinting genes, you can open the door for unique reproductive feats, such as an embryo that starts with only paternal cells.



“This work will help to address a number of limitations in stem cell and regenerative medicine research,” explains <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. 



In this case, the scientists homed in on key sections of DNA that are known to control fetal growth and viability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-biology">What this means for biology</h2>



When a mouse embryo is formed in the usual way, paternal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maternal DNA</a> come together. That combination produces a precise balance of imprinted genes. 



In paternal-only embryos, certain growth-related genes can become overstimulated, but the team was able to selectively modify them so these embryos could mature.



“These findings provide strong evidence that imprinting abnormalities are the main barrier to mammalian unisexual reproduction,” said Qi Zhou, co-lead of this study. 



By re-engineering the problematic gene regions, the researchers made it possible for two sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male chromosomes</a> to support a developing mouse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapeutic-ideas">Therapeutic ideas</h2>



A number of genetic and metabolic disorders in humans stem from errors in imprinting. Scientists have asked whether strategies used here might be adapted to correct imprinting problems that cause diseases in people.



One potential target is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425128/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KCNK9</a>, which has been linked to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18678320/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birk-Barel syndrome</a>. Precise gene editing of such imprinting sites could help in the design of improved treatments for these rare disorders.



In practice, these ideas may take time to progress. Mouse models are often a first step in studying how imprinting influences development. 



The more scientists understand about restoring the right imprinting patterns, the closer they might come to tackling certain medical conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-imprinting-implications">Gene imprinting implications</h2>



The modified imprinting genes not only allowed bi-paternal mice to survive to adulthood, they also improved the efficiency of stem cells used in the process. 



The researchers reported that these <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1181832/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered embryonic stem cells</a> were about twice as likely to develop into full-term pups compared to unmodified cells.



This improved developmental stability could change how scientists approach cloning. Currently, cloned animals often suffer from low survival rates and severe abnormalities, in part due to faulty imprinting. 



Fixing imprinting errors ahead of time might make future cloning methods more reliable, especially in complex mammals like primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations">Ethical considerations</h2>



Questions often arise about how these approaches could extend to humans. 



According to guidelines from the International Society for Stem Cell Research (<a href="https://www.isscr.org/guidelines" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISSCR</a>), heritable genome editing is not currently allowed for human reproductive purposes because it is considered unsafe.



Researchers continue to examine these practices in animal models before even considering steps that approach human application. Investigators involved in this work remain cautious.&nbsp;



While a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-inject-40000-year-old-neanderthal-dna-gli3-gene-into-mice-with-incredible-results/">mouse</a> with two fathers has captured headlines, translating similar methods to people is a bigger leap. 



The focus remains on unraveling how imprinted genes function, and how targeted interventions might fix imprinting-related diseases down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-questions">Next questions</h2>



There is still room to explore how best to refine these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-have-a-surprising-influence-on-their-babys-birth-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic strategies</a> to improve survival rates and lessen the chance of complications. 



Specialists are also looking at future animal models to see if placental differences, organ development, or immune responses undergo subtle changes when imprinting is modified. 



Some foresee that data gleaned from these methods will shape the next generation of gene-editing research.



Ongoing studies point to a need for caution. Issues like longevity, fertility, and normal physiology require much deeper evaluation. 



Still, scientists see value in applying these insights to refine cloning and enhance studies of embryonic stem cells. Even partial solutions could inform safer protocols for regenerating cells and tissues in healthcare settings.



-----



This <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(25)00005-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1934590925000050%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">breakthrough</a> was led by <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing</a> and Qi Zhou of the same institution, with further input from collaborators at <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1934590925000050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Stem Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists raised a mouse born from two male parents to adulthood for the first time

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement:...

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not outlive German shepherds, yet many bats routinely do. Some even clock nearly thirty-five years in the wild, a lifespan that maps to about 180 human years and comes with an astonishing lack of tumors.



A <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> team set out to uncover why, zeroing in on four bat species spanning both major bat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Their findings point to a finely tuned partnership between an overachieving tumor suppressor gene, self-renewing chromosomes, and an immune system that fights hard but rarely overreacts.



The work was led by Vera Gorbunova and Andrei Seluanov of the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/cancer-institute">Wilmot Cancer Institute and Department of Biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-defy-aging-and-cancer-patterns">Bats defy aging and cancer patterns</h2>



Cancer risk usually rises with age because every round of cell division adds another chance for DNA damage, a pattern known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto's paradox</a>. 



Across most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> the equation holds, but bats are clear outliers, with at least four separate bat lineages independently evolving extreme <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30966896/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>.



The new study shows that the “little brown” bat (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/little-brown-bat-myotis-lucifugus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis lucifugus</a>) carries two working copies of the key tumor suppressor gene <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22268/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">p53</a>, while humans carry only one. 



“High levels of p53 in the body can kill cancer cells before they become harmful in a process known as <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/apoptosis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apoptosis</a>,” said Gorbunova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-myotis-lucifugus-the-basics">Understanding Myotis lucifugus - the basics</h2>



Better known as the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus is one of the most widespread and familiar bat species in North America. You’ll often find them roosting in attics, barns, caves, and trees - basically anywhere cozy and dark. 



These bats are tiny, weighing less than half an ounce, but they pack a punch when it comes to eating insects. In a single night, one little brown bat can devour hundreds of mosquitoes and other bugs, making them natural pest controllers.



They usually hibernate during the winter, often gathering in large colonies where the temperature stays just right. Sadly, their populations have taken a major hit due to white-nose syndrome, a fungal disease that’s devastated colonies across the continent. 



Scientists and conservationists are working hard to figure out how to protect them, since losing these bats would ripple through entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-use-extra-p53-to-stop-cancer">Bats use extra p53 to stop cancer</h2>



Duplicating p53 is not unique to bats; <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/11994" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> stockpile roughly twenty versions of the same gene and show remarkably low cancer rates. 



Bats, however, balance extra p53 with regulatory tweaks so it prunes precancerous cells without wiping out healthy ones.



“Our animals can tolerate faster cell growth because their p53 is ready to pull the plug when things look suspicious,” said Seluanov. 



The Rochester team found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-rush-hour-without-crashing-into-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> cells need only two genetic “hits” to turn cancerous in a dish, far fewer than human cells, but the boosted p53 swiftly orders those rogue cells to self-destruct. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endless-telomeres-controlled-chaos">Endless telomeres, controlled chaos</h2>



Bats also keep their chromosome tips long thanks to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12034875/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constitutive telomerase</a>, an enzyme most adult human tissues silence. 



Earlier work in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29441358/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis</a> bats revealed that telomeres hardly shorten with age, helping tissues regenerate without sliding toward crisis.



Unfettered telomerase can fuel tumors in other species, yet bats avoid that pitfall. When telomere-powered cell divisions pick up speed, the same hyper-alert p53 system steps in, neutralizing any cell that crosses the line. 



“If cells divide uncontrollably, the higher p53 activity in bats compensates and can remove cancerous cells,” noted Seluanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-fight-disease">How bats fight disease</h2>



A third line of defense comes from a bat immune network that spots danger quickly but stays unusually calm. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03128-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> mute the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-019-0165-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NLRP3 inflammasome</a> and tone down <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri3787" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type I interferon</a> storms, preventing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic inflammation</a> that often seeds cancer in aging tissues.



This balanced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosurveillance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune surveillance</a> means viruses are cleared efficiently and damaged cells are flagged for destruction, yet surrounding tissue is spared collateral damage. 



Researchers also report expanded natural killer cell receptor families in several bat genomes, hinting at a surveillance squad that never sleeps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bats-can-teach-us-about-treating-cancer">What bats can teach us about treating cancer</h2>



Several experimental drugs already seek to boost human p53 activity in stubborn tumors, and the bat data give that strategy an evolutionary vote of confidence. 



Others aim to reactivate telomerase in aged tissues; the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> blueprint suggests that pairing such therapies with stronger p53 safeguards could keep runaway cell growth in check.



<a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The National Institute on Aging</a> funded the study because it touches on two grand challenges: healthy longevity and cancer prevention. 



If scientists can replicate the bat trio of robust p53, restrained inflammation, and prudent telomerase, future therapies might tackle both aging and malignancy in one stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-other-animals-can-teach-us">What other animals can teach us</h2>



Scientists have long looked to other long-lived animals for answers. 



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10492090/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naked mole rats</a>, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11580846/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bowhead whales</a>, and elephants each have their own anti-cancer tricks, ranging from extra copies of tumor suppressor genes to unique cell death responses. 



Bats now join this elite group, and their diverse adaptations offer a different evolutionary path toward disease resistance.



These findings also support the case for cross-species genetic studies in humans. 



If p53 enhancements or telomerase tuning can be translated safely, it could lead to preventive therapies for high-risk populations or those with inherited cancer mutations. 



What bats seem to offer is not a miracle gene, but a blueprint for managing cellular risk while still allowing the body to repair, grow, and age slowly.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59403-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bats don't get cancer, now scientists think they know the reason

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not...

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes detect ultraviolet, blue, and green light. Bees often visit red flowers, but not for their color. They are drawn to ultraviolet reflections, not the red hue itself.



But two Mediterranean beetles break that pattern.&nbsp;Pygopleurus chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pygopleurus syriacus&nbsp;can truly perceive red. They seek out red flowers, especially poppies, anemones, and buttercups, for pollen. Their eyes are uniquely tuned to do this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-with-a-four-color-vision-system">Beetles with a four-color vision system</h2>



‘To our knowledge, we are the first to have experimentally demonstrated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> can actually perceive the color red,’ said Dr Johannes Spaethe.



The researchers confirmed this by recording electrical activity from photoreceptors in beetle eyes. They discovered four photoreceptor types. These respond to ultraviolet, blue, green, and red wavelengths.



This tetrachromatic system is rare among beetles. Most have just two or three receptor types. Blue sensitivity, previously missing in some beetle lineages, reappears here. It likely evolved through a gene duplication event and a spectral shift from ultraviolet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-choose-red-over-grey">Beetles choose red over grey</h2>



Photoreceptors are light-sensitive cells in the eye. Just having them doesn't prove an animal can&nbsp;see&nbsp;colors. To show true color vision, an animal must tell colors apart even when they have the same brightness.



To test this, scientists used a trick from bee research by Von Frisch. They gave beetles a choice between red circles and grey ones that varied in brightness. If beetles picked red over all shades of grey, it meant they could see red as a distinct color - not just as a lighter or darker patch.



That’s exactly what happened. In every test, beetles chose red first. The researchers also ran a second test in the wild using traps in five colors. Almost all P. chrysonotus beetles ended up in red traps. This showed their natural color preference matched the lab findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opponency-and-complex-visual-processing">Opponency and complex visual processing</h2>



Recordings also revealed opponency signals. These occur when one receptor type’s signal suppresses another. It is a marker of complex color processing. 



For example, red receptors showed suppressed responses in green wavelengths. This confirmed interaction between channels.



This kind of opponency, previously seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, suggests advanced neural processing. It likely helps the beetles make sharp color distinctions in complex natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-beetles-and-red-flowers">Evolution of beetles and red flowers </h2>



Why do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> care so much about red? It may reflect a mutual evolutionary pathway. Red flowers in the Mediterranean are mostly pollinated by Glaphyridae beetles. These flowers form the “poppy guild.”



‘The prevailing opinion in science is that flower colours have adapted to the visual systems of pollinators over the course of evolution,’ says Spaethe.



Yet this case flips that assumption. Glaphyrid beetles may have evolved their vision to match flower color diversity. 



Within their family, different genera prefer different flower colors such as yellow, white, violet, and red. This suggests their visual systems may be flexible and evolving alongside flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-vision-helps-beetles-access-flowers">Red vision helps beetles access flowers</h2>



Specializing in red gives beetles an advantage. Most insects cannot see red. That means red flowers are invisible or less noticeable to them.



But&nbsp;P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;can see red clearly. This gives them special access to food - like pollen - from red flowers that others ignore.



Because fewer insects compete for red flowers, the beetles face less crowding. They also become more reliable pollinators for those flowers.



Over time, flowers may evolve to become red on purpose. This helps attract only beetles and avoid unwanted visitors like bees that may steal pollen without pollinating. This is what scientists call a "private niche in color space."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-window-into-insect-vision">Rare window into insect vision</h2>



P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;are now among the few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> with confirmed red color vision. Their unique tetrachromatic eyes, behavioral responses, and flower preferences paint a new picture of insect-flower interaction.



This research does more than reveal a rare trait. It creates a valuable model for studying pollination, vision, and co-evolution, all through the eyes of beetles.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/doi/10.1242/jeb.250181/368218/Remarkable-red-colour-vision-in-two-Mediterranean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Johannes Spaethe / University of Würzburg



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Beetles that see red break the rules of insect vision

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes...

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and perpetual smiles. However, their true superpower lies in their ability to regrow lost limbs - even hands, arms, and parts of organs - without leaving a single scar.



This rare ability sets axolotls apart from almost all other vertebrates. Scientists have long looked to them as a living model for unlocking the secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axolotls-regeneration-powers-critically-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-axolotl-healing">Secrets of axolotl healing</h2>



In a study led by <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a> biologist James Monaghan, researchers asked a question that has puzzled scientists for almost two centuries: How does an axolotl know which body part to rebuild and how much of it to replace?



“It could help with scar-free wound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> but also something even more ambitious, like growing back an entire finger,” said Monaghan. “It’s not out of the realm of possibility to think that something larger could grow back like a hand.”



Monaghan traced the animal’s “positional memory” to a common signaling molecule called retinoic acid. Inside the axolotl’s arm, retinoic acid forms a gradient - high near the shoulder, low near the fingertips. Fibroblast cells read that gradient like a map and decide what to build.



“The cells can interpret this cue to say, ‘I’m at the elbow, and then I’m going to grow back the hand’ or ‘I’m at the shoulder. I have high levels of retinoic acid, so I’m going to then enable those cells to grow back the entire limb,’” noted Monaghan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-regeneration-plan">Rewriting the regeneration plan</h2>



To test the system, the team boosted retinoic-acid levels in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamander</a>’s hand. The result was startling: instead of one new hand, the axolotl sprouted a duplicate limb.



Monaghan said the experiment was "pretty Frankensteiny." Still, it showed that tweaking the signal can rewrite the regeneration plan.



People make retinoic acid too, and our fibroblasts help mend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wounds</a>. The problem is that human cells ignore the signals that axolotls obey. They lay down collagen and form scars instead of new tissue.



“If we can find ways of making our fibroblasts listen to these regenerative cues, then they’ll do the rest,” said Monaghan. “They know how to make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limb-development-genes-connected-to-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limb</a> already because, just like the salamander, they made it during development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetics-of-axolotl-healing">The genetics of axolotl healing</h2>



Digging deeper, the researchers linked retinoic-acid signaling to the short homeobox gene (shox). 



When they removed shox with CRISPR-Cas9, the salamanders grew stubby arms capped by normal-size hands - the same limb pattern seen in people who carry a SHOX mutation.



“In order for regenerative biology or regenerative medicine to move forward, we need to understand where positional memory lies and how to manipulate it and engineer it,” explained Monaghan. 



“How do you make a cell move where you want? Changing its positional memory is critical for this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-healing-control-switch">Searching for the healing control switch </h2>



Monaghan’s lab is now probing the inner workings of fibroblasts to find out exactly how retinoic acid flips genetic switches like shox. 



Cracking that code could bring medicine a step closer to scar-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-could-be-key-to-treating-non-healing-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> - and, one day, the chance to replace more than a fingertip.



For now, the smiling axolotl keeps teaching us that the blueprints for regeneration are already inside our own cells. The challenge is learning how to read them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



While limb regrowth in humans may still sound like science fiction, scientists see realistic opportunities for smaller steps in the near future. 



Advances in regenerative cues and gene targeting could lead to new ways to treat severe injuries, reduce scarring after surgery, or even regrow damaged cartilage.



Rather than trying to grow an entire arm right away, researchers envision using the axolotl’s secrets to guide healing in stages - like rebuilding bone, restoring tissue layers, or regenerating nerves. 



Understanding how fibroblasts respond to positional signals may also open new paths for treating birth defects or degenerative diseases.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59497-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Alyssa Stone/Northeastern University



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Secrets of axolotl healing could teach us how to regrow limbs

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and...

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about the forests, soils, and climates that supported early apes long before the first hominin walked upright. 



Though great apes diverged from other primates around 25 million years ago, our own lineage did not appear until roughly 5 million years ago. In that immense stretch of time, forests rose and fell, volcanoes erupted, and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> adapted to the world around them.



One place where this deep story unfolds is western Kenya’s Koru 16. This fossil site captures a snapshot of life during the early Miocene, around 20 million years ago. Preserved by ash from the long extinct Tinderet Volcano, Koru 16 is a rich and complex time capsule. 



New research led by Venanzio Munyaka reveals that the story of ape evolution cannot be told without understanding the ecosystems they called home. The study adds fresh insight to a region already steeped in fossil history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-fossils-reveal-evolutionary-activity">Ape fossils reveal evolutionary activity</h2>



Koru 16 has drawn scientific interest for nearly a hundred years. The site’s first primate fossils were discovered in 1927, and legendary anthropologist Louis Leakey led several excavations in the decades that followed. 



While those early efforts laid important groundwork, the last decade brought new urgency and better tools for understanding its full ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">context</a>.



Between 2013 and 2023, Munyaka and colleagues carried out a detailed investigation at two subsites. They recovered nearly 1,000 fossil leaves and a wealth of vertebrate remains. 



The bones came from 25 different species, including pythons, rodents, and three types of apes. These included Proconsul africanus, Proconsul major, and a newly identified large bodied nyanzapithecine.



These discoveries make Koru 16 the most ape rich site within the wider Tinderet group. The presence of multiple ape species in a single forested environment suggests the region played a key role in early ape evolution. But it was not just the bones that told a story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forests-shaped-how-early-apes-lived">Changing forests shaped how early apes lived</h2>



The team used a combination of paleosol chemistry, leaf structure, and tree stump fossils to reconstruct what Koru 16 looked like millions of years ago. Their results point to a warm, wet tropical forest, interrupted frequently by natural disturbances. 



Volcanic eruptions from the Tinderet complex blanketed the land with ash. Wildfires and seasonal floods added further stress.



Yet through all this, life thrived. Soil analyses indicate the region received about 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, with temperatures likely above 25°C. These conditions are similar to modern tropical forests in Africa, though the vegetation was slightly different. Koru 16’s forest likely had more deciduous trees, with plants that dropped their leaves seasonally.



“By studying the soil, fossils, and tree stumps, we could recreate the forest's climate,” said Munyaka. The climate was not stable. Instead, it was a shifting mosaic of dense forest, open patches, and recently disturbed areas. This landscape would challenge and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> living there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaves-light-and-forest-layers">Leaves, light, and forest layers</h2>



Plant fossils offered a vivid picture of this forest. From the two subsites, researchers cataloged 18 distinct leaf morphotypes. These belonged to plants that likely had short lifespans and fast growth cycles. 



Such traits suggest a forest marked by high turnover, where plants quickly colonized open areas after fires or ashfalls.



Most of the fossilized leaves came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapted to both shaded understories and sunlit clearings. This indicates a mixed canopy, with parts of the forest densely shaded and others exposed. The forest structure would have influenced how apes moved, fed, and nested. 



Some leaves had characteristics similar to those found in modern forests in Uganda and Madagascar, places where rainfall is seasonal and disturbance is common.



The researchers also found casts of fossilized tree stumps. In one subsite, stumps stood close together, suggesting a mature, shaded forest. In the other, stumps were widely spaced, hinting at a more open, disturbed area. 



These contrasts imply that even within a small region, early Miocene forests were ecologically diverse and constantly in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-among-the-ash">Apes among the ash</h2>



The fauna found alongside the plants reinforce this view. Apes were not alone. The site also yielded fossils of large pythons and several rodent species. The dominance of rodents reflects a rich, layered ecosystem. 



Most importantly, the three ape species discovered show that such forests supported a range of primate forms, including some of our most ancient relatives.



“The forest was not a quiet, uniform place,” said one researcher. “It was full of challenges that spurred change.” These challenges likely encouraged the development of new behaviors. Apes may have moved more on the ground, adapted their diets to seasonal food, or evolved new social habits to cope with ecological instability.



This type of environment, warm, seasonal, and disturbed, would have offered opportunities and obstacles. Forest fragmentation and frequent change may have nudged primates toward flexibility in how they lived, moved, and survived. In that sense, the forest itself became an evolutionary partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roots-of-evolution">Ecological roots of evolution</h2>



Koru 16 forces a shift in how we think about ape origins. Rather than emerging in calm, unchanging rainforests, early apes lived in dynamic, fractured landscapes. 



These habitats were shaped by fire, flood, and ash. The soil, climate, and plants constantly shifted, creating a stage that demanded adaptability.



The presence of multiple ape species in this kind of forest suggests that environmental variability did not limit primate evolution. It may have energized it. The ability to navigate change, rather than thrive in stability, might have been a key evolutionary trait.



Through its ancient layers of ash and soil, Koru 16 gives us something rare. It offers a full picture of the world early apes inhabited. It tells a story not just of bones, but of climate, ecology, and survival. 



The research reminds us that the journey to becoming human began not just in upright steps but in leafy canopies, open glades, and the fertile ash beds of a forest always on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025PA005152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early apes lived in a constantly changing world of fire and ash

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago, were initially considered to be early domesticated dogs. New findings now confirm that these so-called "puppies" were actually wolf cubs. Their final nap, curled up in their den, turned them into scientific time capsules.



Their frozen remains - discovered in northern Siberia - were so well preserved that researchers could study what they ate, how they lived, and how they died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-wolf-cubs-were-found">Where the wolf cubs were found</h2>



The cubs were found about 40 kilometers (25 miles) from the village of Tumat in Siberia. One was unearthed in 2011 and the other in 2015, at what is now known as the Syalakh site.



Both were buried deep within frozen soil layers, preserved by permafrost alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woolly-mammoth-fossil-freeze-dried-skin-active-dna-chromosomes-52000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoth</a> bones that showed signs of having been burned and butchered.



This unusual combination of human activity and frozen remains sparked early speculation. Some believed the cubs might have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dogs</a>, living among humans or scavenging near human settlements. 



The fact that their fur was black - a trait once thought to be unique to domesticated dogs - added fuel to the theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-university-of-york-sheds-new-light">University of York sheds new light</h2>



But new research from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> tells a different story. Scientists studied genetic material from the cubs’ stomachs, along with chemical signals in their bones, teeth, and tissue. 



The data pointed not to early dogs, but to wolves - wolves that had lived wild and free during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a>.



The cubs were about two months old and still nursing. But they were also eating solid food, including meat from a wooly rhinoceros and, in one case, a small bird called a wagtail. 



The presence of undigested rhino skin in one cub’s stomach points to how recently they had eaten, and how abruptly their lives had ended.



“It was incredible to find two sisters from this era so well preserved, but even more incredible that we can now tell so much of their story, down to the last meal that they ate,” said Anne Kathrine Runge from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sister-wolf-cubs-lost-in-a-collapse">Sister wolf cubs lost in a collapse</h2>



The cubs showed no signs of injury or attack. Researchers believe they were resting in their den, possibly after feeding, when a landslide or collapse trapped them. 



“Whilst many will be disappointed that these animals are almost certainly wolves and not early domesticated dogs, they have helped us get closer to understanding the environment at the time, how these animals lived, and how remarkably similar wolves from more than 14,000 years ago are to modern day wolves," explained Runge.



"It also means that the mystery of how dogs evolved into the domestic pet we know today deepens, as one of our clues - the black fur color - may have been a red herring given its presence in wolf cubs from a population that is not related to domestic dogs,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-a-rich-landscape">Life in a rich landscape</h2>



Inside the wolf cubs’ stomachs were fossilized remains of plants such as prairie grasses, willow twigs, and leaves from Dryas shrubs. This suggests they lived in a varied and rich ecosystem, full of edible plants and animals.



Despite their proximity to mammoth bones, there was no sign that the cubs ate mammoth meat. Instead, researchers found clear evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wooly rhinoceros</a> in their diet.



Although a fully grown rhino would be far too large for a cub - or even a single adult wolf - to bring down, scientists think the prey was likely a young calf taken down by the pack and shared with the cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-wolves-bigger-prey">Bigger wolves, bigger prey?</h2>



The idea of wolves hunting wooly rhinos, even young ones, has raised questions. Could these ancient wolves have been larger and more powerful than today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-survived-the-ice-age-by-changing-their-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray wolves</a>?



Dr. Nathan Wales, also from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology, explained further. 



“We know grey wolves have been around as a species for hundreds of thousands of years, based on skeletal remains from palaeontological sites, and researchers have done DNA testing of some of those remains to understand how the population changed over time," he shared. 



He added that the soft tissues preserved in the Tumat cubs gives another, fascinating way of investigating the wolf evolutionary line. 



“We can see that their diets were varied, consisting of both animal meat and plant life, much like that of modern wolves," he said, "and we have an insight into their breeding behaviors too. The pair were sisters and likely being reared in a den and cared for by their pack – all common characteristics of breeding and raising of offspring in wolves today."



It is common for modern wolves to have larger litters than two, and it is possible that the Tumat cubs had siblings that escaped the fate of the unfortunate sisters. Or perhaps there will be more of the litter hidden in the permafrost nearby. 



Dr. Wales also commented on the fact that wooly rhinoceros remains were found in the cubs' stomachs. 



“The hunting of an animal as large as a wooly rhinoceros, even a baby one, suggests that these wolves are perhaps bigger than the wolves we see today, but still consistent in many ways, because wolves still tend to hunt easy prey while some of the pack is engaged in cub rearing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dog-puzzle-remains">The dog puzzle remains</h2>



This study does more than shed light on two ancient cubs. It also leaves an open question: When and where did dogs emerge from their wolf ancestors?



So, while the Tumat "puppies" are not the key to unlocking the origin of domestic dogs, they are a vital piece of the puzzle. And somewhere, buried in the frost or hidden in ancient sediments, the first true dog still waits to be found.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/abs/multifaceted-analysis-reveals-diet-and-kinship-of-late-pleistocene-tumat-puppies/B4DC077D8A6C18FD96F7E8E0D3428A46" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Famous 'ice-age puppies' are not actually dogs, according to new study

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago,...

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an age of experimentation. Life in the seas was trying out every possible body plan, searching for combinations that worked. 



One line of creatures, the euarthropods, hit on a winner: segmented bodies, paired jointed limbs, and a knack for tweaking those limbs into claws, feelers, and walking legs. That design still powers today’s insects, spiders, and crabs.



Until now, most clues to the early stages of that success came from flattened impressions squeezed by eons of mud and rock. They showed outlines but kept their secrets sealed. 



A newly described fossil larva named Youti yuanshi no bigger than a poppy seed and preserved in three dimensions, has flung those doors open.



This research was led by Dr. Martin Smith from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a>. His expertise and intuition led to this exceptional discovery, which is considerably reshaping our understanding of insect evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-youti-yuanshi-and-insect-evolution">Youti yuanshi and insect evolution</h2>



The fossil in focus, Youti yuanshi, takes us on a thrilling journey back to the Cambrian period, a time when the major animal groups we know today were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first evolving</a>.



This fossil falls under the group of arthropods, which includes modern insects, spiders and crabs. 



What sets this fossil apart is its exceptional preservation of internal organs, offering a close-up view of life forms from a time unimaginable to us.



Using the cutting-edge synchrotron X-ray tomography at <a href="https://www.diamond.ac.uk/Home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diamond Light Source</a>, the UK's national synchrotron science facility, the research team was able to generate 3D images of this miniature marvel.



They unveiled brain regions, digestive glands, a rudimentary circulatory system and even traces of nerves supplying the larva’s simple legs and eyes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-view-of-youti-yuanshi-guts">3D view of Youti yuanshi guts</h2>



This research allows us to see inside one of the earliest arthropod ancestors. It's a revelation of sort: these early arthropod-relatives had an unexpectedly advanced anatomy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8/figures/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/euarthropod-larva_youti-yuanshi_fossil_guts-preserved_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1973987"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Click image for more details. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



"When I used to daydream about the one fossil I’d most like to discover, I’d always be thinking of an arthropod larva, because developmental data are just so central to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding their evolution</a>. But larvae are so tiny and fragile, the chances of finding one fossilized are practically zero - or so I thought!" Dr. Smith enthused.



"I already knew that this simple worm-like fossil was something special, but when I saw the amazing structures preserved under its skin, my jaw just dropped - how could these intricate features have avoided decay and still be here to see half a billion years later?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overview-of-insect-evolution">Overview of insect evolution</h2>



Dr. Katherine Dobson from the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Strathclyde</a>, another key contributor to this study, shared her amazement at the near-perfect preservation of the ancient larva.



"It’s always interesting to see what’s inside a sample using 3D imaging, but in this incredible tiny larva, natural fossilization has achieved almost perfect preservation," she states.



This ancient larva holds the key to solving a myriad of questions on the evolution of multi-limbed creatures. 



For instance, the fossil reveals an ancestral ‘protocerebrum’ brain region that was pivotal in our journey towards complex, segment-headed creatures.



The observations from this fossil help trace the path that led modern arthropods to gain their remarkable anatomical complexity and diversity. 



Moreover, these findings fill a crucial gap in our understanding of how the arthropod body plan originated during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-exist-today-ediacaran-period-earth-weak-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The discovery of Youti yuanshi not only sheds light on the evolution of early arthropods but also prompts broader reflections on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nighttime-buzz-insect-activity-increases-by-31-4-at-night/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> itself.



Understanding the anatomical features and adaptations of extinct species provides context for the diverse forms of life we observe today. 



This fossil acts as a reminder of the intricate web of evolutionary relationships that has shaped the myriad species inhabiting our planet.



As we explore these connections, we deepen our appreciation for the resilience and adaptability of life throughout the ages, underscoring the importance of preserving our current ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-insect-evolution">Future research on insect evolution</h2>



The insights from Youti yuanshi are opening up exciting new paths for research, especially in fields like evolutionary biology, paleontology, and developmental biology.



Researchers are eager to dig deeper into Cambrian period fossils, hoping to find more specimens that shed light on the complex details of early life forms. 



Plus, the techniques used in this study, like synchrotron X-ray tomography, could be applied to other fossils, helping us discover even more about the milestones in the tree of life. 



This poppy-seed fossil proves that even the tiniest finds can overturn years of assumption. 



Future digs, armed with ever-sharper imaging tools, will no doubt uncover more diminutive ambassadors from deep time, each ready to whisper another chapter of our planet’s earliest animal saga.



The fossil is now housed at <a href="https://english.ynu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yunnan University</a> in China, its original discovery site. This eye-opening research emphasizes the crucial role of fossils in understanding our roots and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of life on Earth</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

520-million-year-old fossil discovered with brains and guts still intact, stunning the lead scientist

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an...

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies hide a front-to-back plan that mirrors the layout seen in animals with heads and tails. 



A new study shows that the cells of these soft-bodied creatures read chemical hints to decide which side becomes “back” and which becomes “belly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-sea-anemones-and-humans">Link between sea anemones and humans </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> found that sea anemones rely on a process called BMP shuttling to organize their developing bodies. 



This same biological mechanism is responsible for shaping the body axes in many familiar animals from insects to vertebrates, including humans.



The discovery pushes the origin of this cellular traffic system back more than 600 million years, suggesting it was already present in a common ancestor of nearly all modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-share-hidden-behavior-patterns-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



This finding not only highlights the deep evolutionary connection between simple and complex organisms but also opens up new ways of thinking about how body plans are genetically encoded and inherited across generations. 



The research suggests that what we see in modern animals may be built upon a remarkably ancient and shared developmental toolkit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-that-guide-developing-cells">Signals that guide developing cells</h2>



Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are signals that guide developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>. A partner molecule, Chordin, can both block these signals and move them to new spots.



The moving act - shuttling - creates precise highs and lows of BMP activity. Early cells read these highs and lows like a map, turning into skin, nerve tissue, or other organs.



The researchers worked with Nematostella vectensis, a small sea anemone commonly used in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-development-in-sea-anemones">Body development in sea anemones </h2>



To understand how Chordin functions, they first blocked its production in developing sea anemone embryos. As a result, BMP activity came to a halt, and the second body axis failed to form.



To test Chordin’s role further, the team introduced two different forms of the molecule: one that was fixed in place and could not move, and another that was free to drift through the embryo. 



Only the free-moving version was able to restore BMP signaling on the opposite side of the embryo. This result showed that Chordin does more than just block BMPs - it actively shuttles them across the developing body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-evolution">Why this matters for evolution</h2>



David Mörsdorf is the first author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology at the University of Vienna.



"Not all Bilateria use Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling, for example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> do, but fish don't, however, shuttling seems to pop up over and over again in very distantly related animals making it a good candidate for an ancestral patterning mechanism," said Mörsdorf.



"The fact that not only bilaterians but also sea anemones use shuttling to shape their body axes, tells us that this mechanism is incredibly ancient. It opens up exciting possibilities for rethinking how body plans evolved in early animals."



Grigory Genikhovich, senior author of the study, added that experts might never be able to exclude the possibility that bilaterians and bilaterally symmetric cnidarians evolved their bilateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body plans</a> independently.



"However, if the last common ancestor of Cnidaria and Bilateria was a bilaterally symmetric animal, chances are that it used Chordin to shuttle BMPs to make its back-to-belly axis. Our new study showed that," said Genikhovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-clues-in-simpler-creatures">Future clues in simpler creatures</h2>



The work suggests that a single, ancient blueprint guided the rise of complex body shapes across many animal lineages. Future studies may search for BMP shuttling in even older or simpler groups, testing just how deep this shared strategy runs in the history of life.



Understanding BMP shuttling in sea anemones doesn’t just tell us about the past - it could also shape the future. 



Because BMP signals are important in how all kinds of animals develop their bodies, including humans, this research could help scientists better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-nose-shapes-could-help-explain-human-birth-defects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth defects</a>, tissue growth, and even how to guide stem cells into becoming the right types of tissue.



By studying these simple creatures, researchers may unlock clues about how to repair or regrow parts of the human body. And by tracing the history of how body plans evolved, scientists can more confidently predict which genes or molecules are truly essential across all animal life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Er</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">c Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea anemones share a biological trick with humans

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Two prehistoric sea monsters found after 325 million years in the world’s largest cave

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high above the Earth - is behind a dramatic drop in primary production in the northwestern Mediterranean.



According to a recent study, the drop in productivity is linked to a gradual northward shift in this high-altitude wind belt, which regulates weather and drives the upwelling of nutrient-rich water.



The research was conducted by experts at the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a> and the Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC). 



The team paired satellite data on ocean color with atmospheric observations. The analysis revealed that a subtle change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-westerly-winds-are-changing-and-the-consequences-are-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind patterns</a> can ripple through the water column and reshape an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-jet-stream-on-the-move">A jet stream on the move</h2>



The surface atmospheric circulation and associated marine dynamics are the processes most affected by the northward displacement of the jet stream, noted study co-author Professor Miquel Canals. 



"Northerly winds drive the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters, so the alteration of their behavior has considerably weakened the intensity of this upwelling and, therefore, has reduced the supply of nutrients to the sea surface," explained Professor Canals. 



“Deep water reaching the ocean surface is essential to nourish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-phytoplankton-that-feed-ocean-life-are-rapidly-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, which is the basis of the marine food web. Consequently, the weakening of upwelling at the regional level has directly impacted marine primary production, causing a decline of up to 40% in just over two decades."



When those winds weaken, the supply of nutrients from the deep slows down - a change that hits phytoplankton hardest. The entire food web, from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> to commercially valuable fish, feels the squeeze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jet-stream-changes-and-marine-life">Jet stream changes and marine life</h2>



Earlier studies hinted at falling productivity in parts of the Spanish Mediterranean. Julia Crespín, first author of the current study, noted that the previous research confirmed similar losses - but not related to the phenomenon of jet currents. She added that the broader literature is mixed. 



“Apart from that, several studies deal with the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and marine primary production with contradictory results: while some point to a decrease in primary production, others indicate an increase,” said Crespin.



The new work links the dots by focusing on the jet stream’s drift - a trend also seen in other climate records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wind-water-and-life">Tracking wind, water, and life</h2>



To tease out the link between a drifting jet stream and marine life, the researchers tracked four key variables. According to study co-author Jordi Solé, these variables included the position of the jet stream in the study area and the Ekman transport - a wind-induced movement of water mass towards the surface.



The team also tracked northerly wind stress on the sea surface, which is a determining factor for the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-winds-support-the-worlds-most-productive-ocean-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upwelling</a> in the study area, and the depth-integrated chlorophyll concentration.



Chlorophyll levels in the water serve as an indicator of phytoplankton abundance, and therefore reflect marine primary production.



"With these variables, we have established relationships between changes in the atmosphere and the biological response of the surface ocean, which has helped us to better understand how the jet stream ultimately affects marine primary production," said Solé.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-a-moving-jet-stream">The cost of a moving jet stream</h2>



Less phytoplankton means the ocean absorbs less carbon dioxide, so the atmospheric budget worsens. Fisheries may also struggle as lower rations at the base of the web work their way up the chain.



“Our study provides a new perspective by showing that, at least in the northwestern Mediterranean, the northward shift of the jet stream is weakening the mechanisms and interactions that drive upwelling, which has contributed to a significant decline in marine primary production," explained the researchers.



“We consider that the change in the wind pattern is the factor that conditions the behavior of the ecosystem, beyond dichotomies about its intensification or the effect of temperature." 



"Thus, we point to a totally new factor that focuses especially on the dynamic behavior of both the atmosphere and the ocean (and their interaction) as the key to understanding its future evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-mediterranean">Looking beyond the Mediterranean</h2>



The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed basin with unique winds and currents, so the team cautions against a one-size-fits-all conclusion. Still, the jet stream is drifting in many regions, and similar studies may reveal comparable effects on marine life elsewhere.



The researchers emphasized that today’s tools - from satellites to high-resolution climate models - are finally catching up with the complexity of ocean-atmosphere systems.



“Never before has there been as much data as there is today, or as powerful tools to manage, analyze and interpret it as there are today." 



"In this context, it is crucial to continue research in this line of work, combining data from in situ observation, from remote sensors such as those installed on satellites, and from high-resolution climate models to better understand the physical and biological mechanisms involved, the interactions created, the interannual variability and the potential effects they generate."



The experts also noted that these interactions may not be constant year-to-year, and their global relevance is still unfolding.



“It will also be necessary to further study interannual variability and the mechanisms that explain why this connection is stronger in some years than in others, as well as to explore how such changes may affect other marine regions around the world," the researchers concluded. 



"We understand this is a line of work that promises major advances in the coming years."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661125000825?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Progress In Oceanography</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How a wandering jet stream is draining marine life in the Mediterranean Sea

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high...

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright eyes, and a quilt of scales that protect the skull. Look closer and a mystery appears, because the polygons across the crown don’t line up with the neat rows along the cheeks.



A team at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> reports that the crown and the cheeks form in totally different ways. The study combines <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/dna-profiling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic profiling</a>, 3D microscopy, and computer models to show that turtles first lay down chemical cues, then let physics crease the remaining skin.



According to researchers, the split strategy provides a window into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> ancestry and perhaps even the faces of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-cheeks-follow-a-genetic-pattern">Turtle cheeks follow a genetic pattern</h2>



In most vertebrates, appendages such as feathers, hair, and ordinary body scales begin in tiny thickened patches called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3607644/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placodes</a>. These patches appear when a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60853-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reaction-diffusion system</a> nudges neighboring cells to switch certain genes on and off, spacing the primordia like points on graph paper.



Because each placode runs its own mini-program, the final pattern is orderly, and the resulting scales, follicles, or feathers sit in tidy ranks. That tidy plan applies to the edges of a turtle’s head, too. 



The Geneva team found clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> activity: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3578394/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">β-catenin and sonic hedgehog</a> in those peripheral zones match the classic placode signature.



Once a placode finishes its job, chemistry rests, keratin hardens, and the skin in that area stops changing shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-crown-scales-form-by-folding">Turtle crown scales form by folding</h2>



Crocodiles break the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39663449/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placode rule</a>. Their head scales arise when faster-growing surface skin buckles against slower bone, a purely mechanical fold that needs no gene switch. 



The same kind of buckling sculpts the folds of the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1406015111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian brain</a>, where expanding gray matter crumples against the white-matter core.



“Patterns that rely on physics can vary from side to side in the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a>,” explained Rory Cooper, a postdoctoral researcher at Geneva and lead author of the study. 



Mechanical folding follows rules of thickness, stiffness, and relative growth, so tiny shifts in any layer produce new polygons, rivulets, or wrinkles.&nbsp;That variability makes a crocodile’s faceprint unique enough for field biologists to use like a fingerprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-use-two-methods-for-head-scales">Turtles use two methods for head scales</h2>



Turtles, it turns out, run chemistry along the cheeks and jaws, then hand the baton to mechanics on the crown. Gene markers vanish from the top of the head just as the skull bone stiffens underneath, and the skin above starts to thicken.



“This mechanical folding explains the asymmetrical shapes of the scales on the top of the head,” said Cooper. 



Study co-author Ebrahim Jahanbakhsh noted that even the left and right sides of a single turtle rarely match, a hallmark of spontaneous folding.



Finite-element simulations that tweak skin stiffness, growth speed, and bone anchoring replay the exact ridges seen in sulcata, Greek, and marginated tortoises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-scale-patterns-fail">Where scale patterns fail</h2>



Most reptiles rely on consistent scale formations for protection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> identification. But when patterning becomes unpredictable, as it does on the top of a tortoise’s head, it raises questions about function versus aesthetics.



In these regions, the irregular folds likely don’t impact survival but instead represent a byproduct of how the skin and skull grow. 



These unpredictable folds might offer minor benefits like increased flexibility or abrasion resistance, but researchers say there's no evidence they serve a specialized purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-species-and-scale-styles">Comparing species and scale styles</h2>



Not all tortoises use mechanical folding to the same extent. The sulcata tortoise shows deeply creased central scales, while the marginated tortoise has smoother, simpler head patterns.



These variations suggest that species-specific differences in skin stiffness, skull growth rate, or layer thickness shape the final outcome. 



This diversity means researchers can use head scale patterns not only to explore mechanics but also to better understand how evolution tweaks physical properties without rewriting genetic code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-head-scales-linked-to-dinosaurs">Turtle head scales linked to dinosaurs</h2>



Crocodiles and turtles sit on neighboring branches of the reptile tree, with birds perched a step away. Finding the same mechanical folding in both turtles and crocodiles implies that their common ancestor, likely a <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/learn/triassic-reptiles.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic reptile</a>, already used this trick.



“Mechanical patterning is an ancient trait that birds later lost,” noted study co-author Michel Milinkovitch. 



If so, dinosaurs may have carried random polygonal head scales that formed without placodes - a detail never preserved in fossils but now hinted at in living cousins.



That insight reshapes how paleontologists imagine soft-tissue textures on extinct archosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



The study also feeds the growing field of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10204470/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomimetics</a>. Nature often solves mechanical problems with minimal materials, and engineers copy those solutions into flexible electronics, shock-absorbing panels, and adaptive building skins.



A scale network that emerges from simple growth stresses, without a genetic template, offers a blueprint for surfaces that morph on their own when conditions change. 



Architects already explore folding façades that open like pinecones or wrinkle like leaves; turtle crowns add a new motif where randomness is a feature, not a flaw.



Regenerative-medicine researchers see a parallel in wound healing, where guiding skin to buckle or relax could help close irregular gaps. Even 3D-printing specialists may adapt the Geneva algorithms to program self-folding films for soft robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589004225009459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Turtle heads reveal an ancient reptilian secret

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright...

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species? Advances in genome editing make that possibility concrete, and a recent study asks when, if ever, such power is justified.



The researchers weighed the suffering caused by pests against the intrinsic worth of <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, setting a high bar for intentional wipeouts. Their conclusion is that genetically erasing a species might be acceptable, but only under exceptional, tightly bounded circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-erasing-a-species-feels-necessary">When erasing a species feels necessary</h2>



“This question keeps conservationists up at night,” said Dr. Clare Palmer of <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> after helping draft the report. She and colleagues argue that an animal’s capacity to cause widespread agony can, in rare cases, outweigh its right to persist.



Ethicists usually treat biodiversity as a moral good, yet real-world conflicts force tough trade-offs. When an insect’s life hinges on a calf’s ability to survive, abstract principles meet muddy pens and medical bills.



Most philosophies rank individual suffering above abstract species value once pain passes a certain threshold. Even ecologists concede that leaving sentient creatures to suffer avoidable harm strains any theory of non-intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-cases-in-focus">Three cases in focus</h2>



The parasitic screwworm (<a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cattle/ticks/screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cochliomyia hominivorax</a>) burrows into the flesh of livestock and wildlife, killing thousands of animals every year before treatment can begin. The United States eliminated native populations in 1966 using the Sterile Insect Technique (<a href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIT</a>).



Mosquitoes of the species <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/anopheles-gambiae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anopheles gambiae</a> spread <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a>, a disease that took an estimated 597,000 lives in 2023 alone - most of them children under five.



Those numbers eclipse fatalities from many better-publicized illnesses and keep public-health agencies searching for stronger tools.



On South Africa’s Marion Island, the humble house mouse (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=info&amp;id=10090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mus musculus</a>) has started gnawing seabird chicks alive, pushing several albatross species toward local collapse. Conventional traps fail on rugged slopes, and poison risks collateral damage to native invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-scientists-can-erase-species">How scientists can erase species</h2>



The Sterile Insect Technique remains the standard for humane pest control. Irradiated males mate but produce no viable young, gradually crashing the target population without pesticides.



A newer option, the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.1606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene drive</a>, moves lethal or sex-skewing genes through wild populations so quickly that normal inheritance rules break down. 



Researchers working with rodents have already demonstrated systems that turn almost every embryo male, guaranteeing eventual collapse.



For mosquitoes, scientists can now couple a drive to a gene that blocks parasite replication, reducing disease transmission rather than eliminating the insect outright. Palmer’s team notes that such restraint might satisfy the same moral aims with less ecological upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killing-pests-sometimes-gains-approval">Killing pests sometimes gains approval</h2>



“Together, we argue, these cases suggest that deliberate full extinction might occasionally be acceptable, but only extremely rarely,” the authors wrote. Where pests impose unrelenting misery on humans or endangered wildlife, even cautious ethicists lean toward eradication.&nbsp;



In farm economies, screwworm outbreaks once cost ranchers hundreds of millions of dollars each year. 



The <a href="https://www.ncba.org/news-media/news/details/43094/ncba-pushes-for-domestic-sterile-fly-facility-to-eradicate-new-world-screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sterile-fly program</a> reduced those losses while sparing cattle surgeries and antibiotic use, making SIT a textbook case of net welfare gain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-and-safeguards">Risks and safeguards</h2>



No <a href="https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-021-00588-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drive</a> can be recalled once released. If a sex-skewing construct escaped from an island to a mainland, the entire species could vanish before regulators reacted. That possibility drives calls for redundant containment layers and staged testing.



Wild genomes hold surprises such as mating behavior, migration corridors, or hidden ecological roles. 



Removing a dominant mosquito might allow a harder-to-control sibling species to fill the gap, canceling health gains while shackling communities to continuous editing cycles.



Governance frameworks must also weigh cultural values. Some communities view rats as food, while others see them as vermin. A one-size rule will not work in global treaties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-should-decide-to-erase-a-species">Who should decide to erase a species?</h2>



Palmer and colleagues insist that village councils, livestock owners, conservation NGOs, and public health officials should share equal seats at the table. Only broad consent can legitimize an action that removes a lineage that is millions of years old.



The study suggests that formal benefit-harm ledgers need to be updated as new data emerge. There is also a need for sunset clauses that halt projects if early milestones falter. Robust monitoring budgets must be in place before the first transgenic egg hatches.



Funding streams pose another dilemma. Genome projects often depend on philanthropic donors from far away. Affected regions need guaranteed control over long-term stewardship, including the power to veto deployment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fast-pace-of-technology">The fast pace of technology </h2>



Current international regulations lag behind the pace of synthetic biology. While conventions like the <a href="https://bch.cbd.int/protocol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cartagena Protocol</a> aim to manage genetically modified organisms, they do not directly address deliberate extinction by gene drive.



This leaves a grey area where cross-border impacts, like species drifting across national boundaries, may not fall under clear legal control. Coordinated policy development is needed to prevent gaps that bad actors or accidents could exploit.



The World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme have both called for more robust oversight. However, the tools available for enforcement are often limited to guidance rather than mandates, leaving implementation up to individual nations.



The researchers say it’s critical to close these gaps before large-scale extinction drives become common, especially given how rapidly the technology is evolving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-gene-drives">The future of gene drives</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> keeps shrinking the cost and time required to build custom drives, so ethical debates must stay a step ahead of lab capacity. 



Palmer hopes that clear rules will prevent both reckless releases and sweeping bans that deny relief to suffering animals. She sees the conversation itself as a sign of progress. 



Past generations used lead arsenate or DDT with little scrutiny. Today, genetic strategies face hard questions before a single insect leaves quarantine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv4045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Extinction by design: Should we genetically erase harmful species?

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species?...

Biodiversity is declining across Japan’s countryside, even as villages empty and young people move to the cities. Many would expect birds, insects, and native plants to return when humans leave. A new study shows that’s not happening.



The research team examined land-use change, temperature records, and nearly two decades of citizen-science observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-loss-doesn-t-equal-biodiversity-gain">Population loss doesn’t equal biodiversity gain</h2>



The researchers mapped population change across rural Japan and overlaid 1.5 million sightings of 464 animal species and 2,922 plant species collected between 2004 and 2021. 



Shrinking towns did not rebound ecologically. Instead, abandoned rice fields turned into either housing estates or weed-choked lots. Both outcomes hurt wildlife.



Study co-author Dr Peter Matanle is a senior lecturer in Japanese Ssudies at the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a>.



“Japan is one of many countries whose demographic trends point to long-term population loss. We call it a 'Depopulation Vanguard Country' because it presages losses in similar neighboring countries such as South Korea and China," said Dr. Matanle.



“We find that expected biodiversity gains from fewer people may not be occurring, and that losses are continuing. This indicates possible similar effects in other world regions such as Southern Europe, with Italy as its DVC, and Eastern Europe, with Bulgaria and Latvia as its DVCs. 



Dr. Matanle noted that his team would like to study other regions in the future such as Europe and Latin America to find out if similar effects are being felt there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-scientists-fill-the-data-gap">Citizen scientists fill the data gap</h2>



Volunteers across Japan recorded birds, butterflies, fireflies, frog spawn, and local flora. Their notebooks and apps supplied one of the richest ecological datasets on Earth. 



The study shows how community monitoring can spot silent declines that official surveys might miss.



The study suggests that modest, steady farming often supports more life than sudden abandonment. When fields are left untended, invasive weeds can outcompete native plants. Without people to manage canals and paddies, wetlands dry out and the species they harbor disappear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-practices-support-biodiversity">Traditional practices support biodiversity </h2>



“Japan’s biodiversity has long been sustained by traditional rural livelihood practices such as wet rice agriculture, forest and soil management, and the maintenance of rural landscapes. These human activities have shaped and supported ecological richness for centuries," said Kei Uchida, an associate professor at Tokyo City University.



“Even as populations decline, human interventions continue in some areas, while others are left to ecological succession. This uneven pattern of change produces a mosaic landscape which is accelerating the degradation of rural environments and undermining the biodiversity they support."



According to Professor Uchida, the research has implications for maintaining biodiversity in other depopulating countries in East Asia, and contributes to knowledge about the outcomes of human depopulation worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-loss-is-a-global-issue">Population loss is a global issue</h2>



The United Nations expects 85 countries to decline in population by 2050, including much of Eastern and Southern Europe. The researchers urge governments to blend rewilding with rural job programs so that landscapes do not slide into neglect.



Shorter workweeks for farmers, subsidies for low-impact cultivation, and support for local wildlife groups are among the proposed ideas.



The lesson is clear: people leaving an area can harm nature as easily as they can help it. Careful planning is needed to tip the balance toward recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-and-biodiversity-loss">Population and biodiversity loss</h2>



Biodiversity loss is not just a local issue - it’s a global concern that affects ecosystems, economies, and everyday life. The decline of species, whether plants, insects, or animals, disrupts food chains, weakens soil health, and reduces the resilience of natural systems. 



When biodiversity shrinks, the services ecosystems provide - like pollination, water purification, and climate regulation - begin to break down.



In Japan, the study highlights how biodiversity continues to decline even as people leave rural areas. But similar trends are being seen worldwide, in both developed and developing regions. 



Land-use change, habitat fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change all contribute to the problem. Even regions experiencing depopulation are not immune - sometimes, they’re more vulnerable if the land is mismanaged or neglected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-strategies-to-protect-wildlife">New strategies to protect wildlife</h2>



This research adds to the growing body of evidence that simply removing human pressure isn’t always enough. 



Without intentional support, many landscapes fail to recover. Rewilding, conservation, and traditional ecological practices all have a role to play in reversing the loss. 



As countries face changing demographics and population loss, preserving biodiversity will require new strategies that account for both ecological and social realities.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01578-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Population loss in Japan's countryside linked to declining biodiversity

Biodiversity is declining across Japan’s countryside, even as villages empty...

Dogs aren’t just companions who brighten our daily routines. They may also be key players in monitoring how Valley fever moves through certain regions in the United States.



This disease, also called coccidioidomycosis, involves inhaling fungal spores found in dry soil conditions. 



<a href="http://vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/jane-sykes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Sykes</a>, lead author of a recent <a href="https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> study, worked with her team to see how information from dog infections could apply to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-valley-fever">Understanding Valley fever</h2>



When disturbed by wind, construction, or agricultural activity, the spores of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/coccidioides-immitis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides immitis</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/coccidioides-posadasii" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides posadasii</a> can ride on dust particles and travel into the lungs.



Some pets like to dig into dirt, creating an ideal chance to breathe in fungal particles. These Valley fever spores thrive in the Western parts of the country, often in places with specific soil moisture levels.



Though many people who are exposed may not experience symptoms, those who do often report flu-like illness, including fatigue, cough, fever, chest pain, and muscle aches.



In some cases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, Valley fever can become severe, spreading from the lungs to other parts of the body such as the skin, bones, joints, or even the brain, where it may cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-microbes-persist-on-hospital-surfaces-after-disinfection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meningitis</a>. 



Diagnosis is typically confirmed through blood tests or imaging, and while mild cases often resolve without treatment, antifungal medications like fluconazole are prescribed for moderate to severe infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-canine-clues">Unusual canine clues</h2>



The researchers discovered patterns by checking large collections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/">dog</a> blood tests. 



They found that most positive results are linked to certain states with known contamination zones, but they also noticed smaller clusters appearing in locations not typically flagged for this infection.



“Dogs are sentinels for human infections,” said Jane Sykes. 



Her team collected blood test data in different areas to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/valley-fever/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identify rising trends</a> and potential health concerns for people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-puts-dogs-at-risk">What puts dogs at risk</h2>



Some vets <a href="https://vfce.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that certain breeds may be more prone to lung ailments, but any fungus exposure can be an issue. 



This might involve dusty backyards, fields, or construction sites, where spores in the soil can become airborne.



In regions with droughts or strong winds, soil dryness allows fungal particles to swirl into the air. Intense rainfall can also boost <a href="https://today.ucsd.edu/story/dangerous-airborne-fungus-boosted-by-california-droughts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungal growth</a>, which further contributes to sporadic spikes in infection.



Researchers see these canine cases as indicators for possible spread in the broader population. Common symptoms in people include fatigue, cough, and sometimes sore joints.



Health agencies note that valley fever can become serious for those with weakened immune systems. Because dogs are tested more readily in certain regions, their results may warn us before human cases spike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-valley-fever-in-new-zones">Mapping valley fever in new zones</h2>



Scientists have spotted positive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-truth-the-reality-behind-canine-dna-testing/">canine</a> cases outside historically recognized areas. Jane Sykes explained that pockets of infection can appear in nearby states that might be overlooked.



“We should be closely watching those states because there could be under-recognition,” she said. This under-recognition means some doctors in these regions may not be aware of the disease and could miss early signs in humans.



Decades of shifting <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/climate/climate-change-impacts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a> have altered soil conditions. Over 130 places in the United States have recorded heavier bursts of rain in recent years, raising concerns about potential fungal growth when storms finally soak the land.



As new weather extremes develop, the fungus might have more opportunities to spread. Researchers keep emphasizing how environmental changes can shift the boundaries of diseases, leading to surprises in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-virus-can-remain-in-sperm-months-after-infection/">infection</a> data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-yourself-and-your-pet">Protecting yourself and your pet</h2>



Many dog owners wonder if this infection is preventable. Avoiding areas with visible dust clouds is one measure, though it can be tough when your pet loves running outdoors.



Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30690600/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vets</a> provide guidance on ways to limit exposure if your area is known for this fungus. 



Though these spores are hard to avoid entirely, regular checkups and early tests may help pets and owners stay aware of new health risks.



Veterinarians who live in spots with many valley fever cases watch for respiratory problems in dogs. A sudden cough or limp can signal hidden issues, prompting tests that reveal infection.



If caught early, there are antifungal treatments that can relieve symptoms. The goal is to manage lung damage and reduce further spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-valley-fever-and-the-future">Dogs, valley fever, and the future</h2>



Researchers who track these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/">infections</a> see a bigger picture beyond local hotspots. They hope more states will gather accurate data so public health teams can warn residents who may be at risk.



Better knowledge about where the spores hide allows for timely alerts. Clear communication between veterinarians and medical professionals could help limit the toll on both animals and people.



Trends linked to heavy rain, population growth, and soil changes highlight the complexity of valley fever. Officials suggest that improved teaching for doctors could keep illness from going unnoticed.



Dogs may help identify emerging dangers because their health data can fill the gaps where human data are patchy. Scientists remain hopeful that continued studies will keep the public informed about this evolving fungal risk.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/231/5/e986/8108831?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Infectious Diseases</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover that dogs can alert humans to this quickly-spreading disease

Dogs aren’t just companions who brighten our daily routines. They...

Among tens of thousands of ant species, many show complex behaviors like agriculture and tool use. Longhorn crazy ants add a new twist to that story. Their brains are minuscule, but they manage coordinated, goal-oriented actions. 



A recent study shows that these ants can clear obstacles from a path before a food load even arrives. This action seems to require planning, yet it emerges without any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> holding a clear mental map.



Dr. Ehud Fonio, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>, is the lead author of the study.



“Here we show for the first time that workers of the longhorn crazy ant can clear obstacles from a path before they become a problem - anticipating where a large food item will need to go and preparing the way in advance," said Dr. Fonio.



"This is the first documented case of ants showing such forward-looking behavior during cooperative transport."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-plan-ahead-for-obstacles">Ants plan ahead for obstacles </h2>



The team made their discovery during fieldwork at the Weizmann Institute. Ants were seen removing pebbles before a food-carrying group arrived. This suggested some form of anticipation.



“When we first saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> clearing small obstacles ahead of the moving load we were in awe. It appeared as if these tiny creatures understand the difficulties that lie ahead and try to help their friends in advance,” said Dr. Ofer Feinerman, co-author of the study.



This chance observation led to a large-scale experiment involving 83 trials. The team replaced pebbles with plastic beads and placed cat food as bait. 



Ants cleared beads that blocked the path between food and nest, but only when the food was intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crazy-ants-clear-the-way-for-big-food">Crazy ants clear the way for big food</h2>



The ants cleared beads mainly when a single large pellet was present. With crumbs, they rarely cleared anything. This shows context sensitivity. Bead clearing happened only when it helped the group.



Ants transported the beads short distances, around 50 millimeters. They placed them away from the nest-food corridor. This effort reduced the food transport time by up to 15 times.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_carrying-bead_credit-Alessandro-Crespi_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_carrying-bead_credit-Alessandro-Crespi_1s.webp" alt="Worker of longhorn crazy ant clearing a bead. Credit: Alessandro Crespi" class="wp-image-1973861"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Worker of longhorn crazy ant clearing a bead. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Alessandro Crespi</figcaption></figure>



When large pellets were pinned down and could not be moved, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-ants-have-found-a-new-way-to-spread-across-the-globe-on-cars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> still cleared obstacles. But they ignored beads completely when no food or only crumbs were present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-respond-to-scent-not-sight">Ants respond to scent, not sight</h2>



The study’s most surprising finding was that ants began clearing without even seeing or touching the food. The trigger? Fresh pheromone markings left by recruiters.



Even without food, these chemical signals caused some ants to start clearing beads. Of 155 observed ant-bead interactions, 97.2 percent were preceded by a nearby scent mark.



Direct contact with food was not necessary. Just encountering a pheromone trail within a 20 mm radius of a bead triggered clearing. This suggests that the behavior is socially driven, not based on internal plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collective-intelligence-of-ant-colonies">Collective intelligence of ant colonies</h2>



The experts discovered that crazy ants use a decentralized form of cognition. Instead of individual planning, their colony acts like a brain. 



Each ant is a unit responding to chemical cues. Together, they clear obstacles as if they understand the goal.



“Taken together, these results imply that our initial impression was wrong: in reality, individual workers don’t understand the situation at all. This intelligent behavior happens at the level of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a>, not the individual," explained study co-author Dr. Danielle Mersch.



"Each ant follows simple cues - like fresh scent marks left by others - without needing to understand the bigger picture, yet together they create a smart, goal-directed outcome."



“We find this to be even more awe-inspiring than our initial guess,” said Feinerman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-rules-for-complex-behavior">Simple rules for complex behavior </h2>



Interestingly, some ants cleared multiple beads in sequence. One ant removed 64 beads. These "serial clearers" often focused on the same sector around the food, repeatedly working in the same direction.



Some switched sectors but returned to old ones. This pattern hints at possible short-term memory or chemical trail-following. Researchers suggest these ants could be following pheromone gradients repeatedly.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_intelligence_swarm_credit-E-Fonio_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_intelligence_swarm_credit-E-Fonio_1s.webp" alt="Examples of experimental set-up and close-up of collective transport of prey and of obstacle-clearing behavior. Credit: E Fonio, D Mersch, O Feinerman" class="wp-image-1973864"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of experimental set-up and close-up of collective transport of prey and of obstacle-clearing behavior. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E Fonio, D Mersch, O Feinerman</figcaption></figure>



The research shows how complex behavior emerges from simple rules. It also highlights the power of external memory. Pheromone trails serve as shared information banks etched into the environment.



In this system, memory and action are collective. No single ant plans ahead. Yet their joint behavior gives the illusion of foresight. This mirrors how neurons form intelligent thought in the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-ant-intelligence">Significance of ant intelligence </h2>



This work changes how we think about planning in nature. It shows that meaningful coordination does not require conscious intent. 



In ants, intelligent-seeming food-related outcomes arise from distributed actions and shared cues. These findings deepen our understanding of swarm behavior. 



The study also suggests new directions for robotics, where machines could collaborate without central control by using simple signals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1533372/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Swarm intelligence: Ants can anticipate obstacles and plan ahead

Among tens of thousands of ant species, many show complex...

When scientists on a <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world">research vessel</a> off the northwestern coast of Africa hauled in their catch, they were surprised to find an unusual eel that did not match any known species. The 2-foot (0.6 meter) curiosity had fang-like teeth and a pointed head that set it apart.



It has now been identified it as a spoon-nose eel from the genus Mystriophis, and it has been named Mystriophis caboverdensis. It remains the only documented example of its kind.



According to <a href="https://www-iuem.univ-brest.fr/paddle/project/team/da-luz-alciany" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Alciany Nascimento da Luz</a>, who was part of an international team collaborating with marine research institutes in Cabo Verde, this eel marks a special moment for local biodiversity efforts. 



The discovery also highlights how careful observation can reveal new life forms in waters that scientists survey for resource management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cataloging-eel-species">Cataloging eel species</h2>



The expedition team aboard the research vessel called <a href="https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/Norway-and-FAO-launch-unique-state-of-the-art-oceanic-research-ship/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Fridtjof Nansen</a> focused on studying fishing resources and ocean life around the <a href="https://nha.org/research/nantucket-history/history-topics/cape-verde-archipelago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cabo Verde Archipelago</a>. 



Researchers took samples at varying depths to map habitats and document marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/serpent-like-eel-named-after-hades-god-of-the-underworld/">diversity</a>.



Their work included cataloging eels and other underexplored species in the Eastern Central Atlantic. During these trawls, the spoon-nose eel surfaced and initially passed as an already known specimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-features-of-new-eel-species">Unique features of new eel species</h2>



Closer analysis showed a short, blunt snout, large eyes, and a body length of about 28 inches (0.7 meters). The dorsal fin sits in a slightly advanced position compared to its closest relatives.



“It co-occurs in the tropical eastern Atlantic with two similar looking species,” wrote Dr. Nascimento da Luz. Another trait setting it apart is the arrangement of teeth, which appear fang-like near its pointed head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-eel-diversity">A peek into eel diversity</h2>



These tooth structures place the eel in the family <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/sftep/en/thefishes/taxon/356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ophichthidae</a>, which is known for species sometimes referred to as worm or snake eels. The family has an array of body shapes, snout types, and feeding strategies.



Scientists found that differences in fin placement and specific head ratios made it clear that this fish deserved its own name. “We have no doubt as to its uniqueness,” stated Dr. Nascimento da Luz, the lead researcher on this project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-a-single-specimen">Clues from a single specimen</h2>



Though only one individual has been found, the data collected was surprisingly rich. 



Scientists used detailed morphometrics, measuring things like fin position, head-to-body ratio, and tooth shape, to distinguish it from known relatives.



DNA analysis added another layer of certainty. Researchers found a 3.6% genetic difference from its closest cousin, Mystriophis crosnieri, enough to classify it as a separate species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-spoon-nose-eel-species-matter">Why spoon-nose eel species matter</h2>



Spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sushi-of-the-future-the-first-ever-lab-grown-eel-is-a-success/">eels</a> help researchers understand how fish evolve in deep-sea environments where visibility is low and prey is scarce. Their body shape, hunting tools, and fin placement all offer clues to how species adapt over time.



Because they tend to live in deeper waters, they are rarely seen. Each new find adds to the scientific puzzle of how life functions in low-light, high-pressure ecosystems that are still largely unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-impact-in-cabo-verde">Local impact in Cabo Verde </h2>



Discoveries like this bring global attention to regions like Cabo Verde, encouraging investment in local marine research and training. 



They can also strengthen partnerships between local scientists and international teams working on conservation.



Increased biodiversity awareness can lead to better protection of vulnerable ecosystems. 



As more species are found in these waters, there’s growing incentive to preserve Carbo Verde habitats before they’re impacted by overfishing or climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-quest-for-new-species">Global quest for new species</h2>



Experts estimate that thousands of organisms are described every year, yet many more wait to be documented. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/">eel</a> underscores how ocean surveys can uncover unexpected finds that broaden our knowledge of marine life.



Researchers named the new species after Cabo Verde to honor the location where it was discovered. Such tributes often highlight the importance of local ecosystems and their protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



The exact habits, diet, and reproduction of the new eel species remain mysteries. The single specimen was enough for analysis of morphology, DNA sequencing, and comparisons with related species.



This discovery prompts a deeper look at the region’s underwater habitats. Further expeditions may reveal whether more spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eels-have-a-secret-weapon-to-generate-electricity/">eels</a> inhabit neighboring waters or if this new find is actually incredibly rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-deep-sea-discovery">Challenges of deep-sea discovery</h2>



Finding new species like Mystriophis caboverdensis isn’t easy. Deep-sea trawling requires expensive equipment, <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long expeditions</a>, and cooperation between countries and institutions.



Even when a sample is collected, identification can take years. Subtle features must be compared across museum records, and genetic testing depends on funding and lab availability.



The fact that Mystriophis caboverdensis remained unnoticed until now raises questions about how many other species slip through the cracks. Even with decades of ocean exploration, large parts of the sea remain poorly studied.



Scientists say continued investment in <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-au/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/marine-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a> research could uncover even more undocumented species. Each new find helps paint a clearer picture of how ecosystems work and how they’re changing.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5632.2.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover a new eel species with fang-like teeth

When scientists on a research vessel off the northwestern coast...

In the waters of Lake Malawi, a single group of fish has evolved into over 800 different species in just a few million years. This rapid and concentrated evolutionary explosion has long puzzled scientists.



Now, researchers have uncovered a powerful genetic mechanism that may explain how such extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-mitigation-strategies-may-be-endangering-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> can arise so quickly.



A recent study led by scientists from the Universities of <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antwerp</a> reveals that large chunks of reversed, or “flipped,” DNA in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-of-cichlid-fish-boosts-biodiversity-in-lake-tanganyika/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cichlid fish</a> act like evolutionary accelerators.



These chromosomal inversions preserve key genetic traits across generations and help fish adapt swiftly to new habitats - fueling the formation of new species at remarkable speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shortcut-in-our-genes">The shortcut in our genes</h2>



“Why are there so many different kinds of animals and plants on Earth?” is a question that has guided evolutionary biology for centuries.



In the case of Malawi’s cichlids, all 800-plus species share a common ancestor. Yet they’ve diversified into everything from algae-grazers to sand-sifters to open-water predators - all within the confines of one lake.



To understand this phenomenon, the researchers examined the genomes of over 1,300 individual cichlids. Some species had flipped DNA sections across five chromosomes - a genetic anomaly called a chromosomal inversion.



“We discovered that, in some species, large chunks of DNA on five chromosomes are flipped - a type of mutation called a chromosomal inversion,” said senior author Hennes Svardal from the University of Antwerp.



Ordinarily, recombination reshuffles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-human-dna-ever-found-tells-story-of-lost-branch-on-human-neanderthal-family-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> each generation by mixing genetic material from both parents.



But inside these chromosomal inversions, the structure blocks recombination. As a result, organisms inherit linked gene sets together, preserving adaptations that function effectively as a group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-supergenes-lock-in-traits">Fish supergenes lock in traits</h2>



“It’s sort of like a toolbox where all the most useful tools are stuck together, preserving winning genetic combinations that help fish adapt to different environments,” said Moritz Blumer from Cambridge’s Department of Genetics.



These preserved gene clusters, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergenes-drove-the-rapid-spread-of-common-ragweed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supergenes</a>, help explain how diverse cichlid fish evolve while sharing the same lake. In sandy lake beds, inversions limit gene mixing, helping preserve each species’ unique adaptations despite a lack of barriers.



The supergenes govern traits essential to survival: vision, hearing, feeding behavior, and more. For instance, fish that live in the lake’s deep waters - some as far down as 655 feet (200 meters) - require specialized vision to navigate dim light.



They also need unique diets to survive in the nutrient-poor depths and physiology to withstand high pressure. Their supergenes lock in those abilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supergenes-in-fish-interbreeding">Supergenes in fish interbreeding</h2>



Another advantage of these DNA inversions is that they can transfer wholesale between species when different cichlids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/28000-year-old-hybrid-child-confirms-interbreeding-between-humans-and-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interbreed</a>. This spreads entire suites of beneficial traits in one stroke.



“When different cichlid species interbred, entire inversions can be passed between them - bringing along key survival traits, like adaptations to specific environments, speeding up the process of evolution,” Blumer said.



This genetic mechanism lets adaptations transfer between species, speeding evolution without needing to evolve traits independently each time.



Researchers found these inversions often act as sex chromosomes, determining whether a fish develops as male or female. Because sex chromosomes drive speciation, this finding adds complexity to how cichlids diversify so rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-going-beyond-fish">Going beyond fish</h2>



“While our study focused on cichlids, chromosomal inversions aren’t unique to them,” said co-senior author Richard Durbin, a professor at Cambridge’s Department of Genetics.



“They’re also found in many other animals - including humans - and are increasingly seen as a key factor in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> and biodiversity.”



These findings reveal new ways to study the genetics of speciation. This applies not just to fish, but across all branches of the tree of life. Supergenes and inversions may be more than just quirks of DNA - they could be among evolution’s most powerful tools for generating new forms and functions.



“We have been studying the process of speciation for a long time,” Svardal said. “By understanding how these supergenes evolve and spread, we’re getting closer to answering one of science’s big questions: how life on Earth becomes so rich and varied.”



The study shows how a DNA twist can speed evolution, offering a key clue to the mystery of biodiversity. It also reveals that sometimes, nature hides its most elegant solutions in its smallest structures.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Genetic ‘supergenes’ power explosive evolution in some fish

In the waters of Lake Malawi, a single group of...

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups tend to follow the majority. But biologists and social scientists have found that a vocal minority - sometimes just 5 to 10 percent - can sway the final decision if they’re persuasive, energized, or well-connected. This effect is known as “minority influence.”



A new study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-ants-can-teach-us-how-to-create-stronger-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire ants</a> offer a dramatic, gene-driven version of the same principle. A handful of workers carrying a particular stretch of&nbsp;“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selfish DNA</a>” can push their nest-mates to welcome extra queens, transforming the colony’s entire social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-and-ant-colony-structure">Selfish DNA and ant colony structure</h2>



The invasive red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, dominates swaths of the southeastern United States and is spreading on multiple continents. 



Ecologically and economically, it is one of the most impactful insects on Earth. It also comes in two distinct social forms.



Single-queen colonies (monogyne) recognize and defend one egg-laying monarch. Workers in these nests are intensely territorial, killing any foreign queen that dares enter.



Multiple-queen colonies (polygyne) tolerate several unrelated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">queens</a> and spread by budding - new queens and escorts walk a short distance and start satellite nests.



The social form matters: monogyne nests are aggressive but slower to spread; polygyne nests can carpet landscapes with interconnected supercolonies.



A single gene complex, dubbed Gp-9, largely decides whether a colony embraces one queen or many. The variant known as Gp-9 B promotes single-queen structure; the variant Gp-9 b pushes toward multiple queens.



Only workers with the b allele accept extra royalty - and that gene acts in strikingly “selfish” fashion, ensuring its own propagation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-roots-of-ant-behavior">Genetic roots of ant behavior</h2>



Takao Sasaki, now an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.sas.rochester.edu/bcs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a>, teamed with postdoctoral researcher Haolin Zeng and Professor Kenneth Ross at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>. Together, they tested how small a minority of b-bearing workers could tip an entire colony.



Most previous work had examined stable nests already committed to one form or the other. The new experiments created mixed groups from scratch, mirroring the early stages of an invasion when different ant lineages collide.



“Our research may help us understand how other animals make consensus decisions,” Sasaki said.



Using DNA markers, the team first verified each ant’s social-genotype - B B for single-queen preference or B b for multiple-queen preference. They then built experimental colonies of 3,000 workers and a single B-type queen.



Into these colonies they introduced B b workers in varying proportions, from zero to 30 percent, along with test queens carrying either genotype. Continuous video monitored how workers treated potential newcomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-can-shift-the-ant-colony">DNA can shift the ant colony </h2>



With no B b workers present, resident ants killed any stranger queen in the colony within hours, matching monogyne behavior in the wild. But once the minority of B b workers reached roughly 10 percent, the colony’s stance softened.



Those few workers began grooming and feeding extra queens that carried the same b allele, escorting them safely into the brood chambers. 



Over the following days, B B workers joined the caretaking - even though the shift ultimately lowers their own inclusive fitness. The single-queen colony had morphed into a multi-queen society, simply because a genetic minority rewrote the ground rules.



“By looking at their genes, we know their preferences for having one queen versus multiple queens,” Sasaki said. “By manipulating the proportion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">workers</a> with certain genes, we can test if and how a minority can convince the rest of the group members.”



Chemical communication is the likely mechanism. Fire ants rely on pheromones to tell friend from foe and to decide which queens belong.



Additional tests showed b-bearing workers alter queen pheromones or change how nest-mates respond to those chemical signals. Whichever the pathway, the outcome favors any queen - and thus any gene - matching the minority’s genotype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-shapes-behavior">Selfish DNA shapes behavior</h2>



The study highlights an evolutionary twist known as an indirect genetic effect: one individual’s traits are molded not just by its own DNA and environment, but by the genes carried by its social partners.



Here, the selfish DNA in roughly a tenth of the ants drives an outcome (polygyne structure) that benefits copies of that same element, even though it may not help the colony at large.



“This knowledge is important not only for understanding the biology of social insects like fire ants but also for broader insights into the evolution of cooperation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sociality</a> in animals, including humans,” Zeng said.



Because multi-queen colonies bud readily and thus expand invasion fronts, the ability of a genetic minority to flip nest behavior could accelerate the spread of fire ants worldwide. Evolutionary models will need to account for such feedback between genes and group dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-think-like-neurons">Ants think like neurons</h2>



Sasaki frames the findings in terms of “collective cognition,” his broader research focus. Just as neurons exchange signals to create unified thoughts, social insects exchange chemical and tactile cues to make group decisions.



If a small cluster of neurons can trigger a mental state, why not a small cluster of genetically distinct ants triggering a social state?



“The brain is a good example,” Sasaki explained. “Each neuron talks to other neurons. A brain is a cognitive unit. Ants as colonies make collective decisions like brains do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-help-outvote-majority-rule">Genes help outvote majority rule</h2>



The fire-ant case suggests that minority influence may have a deeper biological foundation than previously realized. In some cases, it’s encoded in selfish stretches of DNA that manipulate social systems like ant colonies from within.



Whether similar elements lurk in other species, subtly guiding flock movements, pack hierarchies, or even aspects of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-social-lives-pandas-have-their-own-version-of-facebook/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a>, remains an open question.



What is clear is that in complex societies, majority rule is never absolute: under the right genetic and social conditions, the few can still lead the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Selfish DNA' can result in minority influence in social animal groups, including humans

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups...

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent.



A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction.



An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline.



Using microscopic wear patterns, chemical fingerprints locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth</a> enamel, and residues trapped in dental calculus, they pieced together the animal’s menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-fruit-diet">Fossil traces reveal fruit diet</h2>



Florent Rivals is a researcher at the Catalan Institute for Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://cerca.cat/en/centres-cerca/iphes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES-CERCA</a>).



“We found starch residues and plant tissues typical of fleshy fruits, such as those of the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” he said.



Those tiny traces, preserved since the Pleistocene, provide the first direct evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/student-discovers-a-34000-year-old-mastodon-fossil-by-accident-while-walking-around-a-farm/">mastodon</a> routinely swallowed whole fruit - and by extension the seeds buried inside.



Stable-isotope signatures reinforced the picture. “Through stable isotope analysis, we were able to reconstruct the animals’ environment and diet with great precision,” said Iván Ramírez-Pedraza, a researcher at IPHES-CERCA who helped chart the chemical trail.



The pattern points to a mixed woodland rich in fruit resources, the kind of landscape where a multi-ton mammal could feast while roaming long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-a-forty-year-old-idea"><a></a>Testing a forty-year-old idea</h2>



Back in 1982, biologist Daniel Janzen and paleontologist Paul Martin suggested that many tropical trees evolved oversized, sugary fruits specifically to lure now-extinct megafauna.



These included mastodons, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-of-giant-sloths-why-did-they-shrink-and-when-did-it-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and native horses - animals capable of gulping down the bounty and depositing viable seeds far from the parent plant.



Their “neotropical anachronism” hypothesis was ingenious but largely speculative. The new study supplies the hard proof those pioneers lacked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974219"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



Lead author Erwin González-Guarda of the <a href="https://www.uoh.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of O’Higgins</a> argued that the multi-proxy approach was crucial.



Conventional wear studies alone cannot distinguish leaves from soft fruit, while isotopes reveal diet breadth but not specific ingredients. Residual microfibers in dental plaque filled that gap, confirming that fruit made up a regular part of the mastodon’s meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-spread-forest-seeds">Mastodons spread forest seeds</h2>



“Dental chemistry gives us a direct window into the past,” said co-author Carlos Tornero, an isotope specialist at IPHES-CERCA.



The team concludes Notiomastodon was a key long-distance seed disperser in late Pleistocene South America.



When the animals died out - probably under combined pressure from rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a> and expanding human hunting - no substitute of equal size and wanderlust remained.



Tapirs, peccaries, and monkeys still disperse some fruit in tropical zones, but across central Chile, the ecological courier service is effectively bankrupt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-feel-the-absence">Forests feel the absence</h2>



The researchers ran a machine-learning analysis to gauge present-day risk for plants once dependent on megafaunal dispersers.



In central Chile, forty percent of those trees now sit on threatened or endangered lists - four times the proportion in regions where alternative animal carriers survive.



“Where that ecological relationship between plants and animals has been entirely severed, the consequences remain visible even thousands of years later,” said co-author Andrea P. Loayza, paleontologist at the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://ieb-chile.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEB</a>) in Chile.



Today the Chilean palm endures in a few fragmented groves. The monkey-puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana, iconic yet genetically impoverished, clings to high Andean ridges.



The gomortega, Gomortega keule, known locally as queule, hangs on in scattered coastal valleys. Its plum-sized fruit now mostly drops beneath the parent canopy, rather than being hauled kilometers away inside a mastodon’s gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-seeds-and-mastodons">Forests, seeds, and mastodons</h2>



Beyond its detective work, the paper carries a cautionary message. Ecosystems retain the impact of lost species for millennia, and restoring their roles will be a major challenge.



Rewilding with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> has been floated as one possibility, and the fresh Chilean data offer a benchmark for choosing modern analogues based on diet and ranging behavior, not just body mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974221"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



“By combining different lines of evidence, we’ve been able to robustly confirm their frugivory and the key role they played in these ecosystems,” Tornero emphasized.



Conservation managers might use such findings to prioritize corridors that allow surviving mammals to move seeds. They could also experiment with human-mediated dispersal for tree species marooned by the mastodon’s absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-bones-new-purpose">Old bones, new purpose</h2>



“Paleontology isn’t just about telling old stories,” Rivals concluded. “It helps us recognize what we’ve lost - and what we still have a chance to save.”



With climate change and habitat fragmentation tightening their grip, lessons from deep time may guide present-day action.



Protecting and, where possible, mimicking the ancient partnership between fruit-bearing trees and their gigantic gardeners could give endangered South American forests a second shot at resilience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02713-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mastodon extinction is still causing problems with South American ecosystems

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago...

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals, and penguins - sit at the heart of the Southern Ocean food web. Yet these tiny animals are also the target of a fast-growing commercial fishery.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> (AWI) and the <a href="https://www.hi.no/hi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Marine Research</a> used more than 30,000 hours of sonar recordings from krill-trawling vessels. 



The analysis pinpointed when and where fishing fleets overlap with natural krill predators. The results highlight seasonal hotspots of competition that managers can no longer afford to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sonar-for-krill-clues">Using sonar for krill clues</h2>



Fishing vessels routinely run powerful echo sounders to locate krill swarms. By repurposing those same acoustic logs, scientists gained an unprecedented view of the submarine “traffic” beneath the ships.



The team analyzed over 30,000 hours of sonar data from three krill fishing vessels, gathered over six years in the Southern Ocean. Machine learning algorithms filtered the files for the distinctive signatures produced when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, penguins, or seals dive under a vessel.



“During such encounters, ships and krill predators pursue the same krill swarms," said lead author Dominik Bahlburg, a scientist at AWI. 



"This allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of this competition in order to identify locations and time periods where the interaction between the two groups is particularly intensive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-penguins-seals-and-trawlers-converge"><a></a>Where penguins, seals, and trawlers converge</h2>



Patterns emerged once the detections were mapped. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penguins</a> and fur seals appeared alongside fishing gear in both summer and winter, especially around the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia. 



Whales appeared most near the Antarctic Peninsula in autumn, when they fatten for their long migration north.



“The South Orkney Islands seem to be a real hotspot for encounters with penguins,” Bahlburg said. “Compared to the Antarctic Peninsula, they have received far less attention in the debate on the impact of krill fishing and many of the colonies affected there are currently not regularly monitored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-competition-with-penguins">Direct competition with penguins</h2>



The overlap is worrisome as trawlers fish near breeding colonies when adult birds must feed their chicks. Voluntary buffer zones aimed to ease this conflict, but sonar evidence reveals an unintended side effect.



This also suggests that fishing vessels continue to encounter penguins despite the voluntary restriction zones around the Antarctic Peninsula. 



The vessels also continue to compete directly with penguins for krill during the breeding season. Instead, the pressure appears to have shifted to the South Orkney Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-overlaps-persist-in-winter">Fishing overlaps persist in winter</h2>



One assumption had been that moving effort into winter - when breeding pressures ease - would spare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-noise-is-disrupting-wildlife-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. The new data challenge that view.



“We were able to show that fisheries and penguins as well as fur seals encounter each other just as frequently in the winter as in the summer season,” Bahlburg said.



Since animals roam farther from colonies in winter, the persistence of close encounters surprised the authors and may require a reassessment.



While penguins and seals were encountered less often near the Peninsula, autumn fishing there overlapped heavily with whales. These whales depend on krill to build blubber reserves before migrating to equatorial calving grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-fleet-data-goes-public">Krill fleet data goes public</h2>



The team found little year-to-year fluctuation in their maps. “Remarkably, these patterns were quite stable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, penguins and whales over a six-year period,” noted study co-author Sebastian Menze, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute.



Such consistency implies the method can deliver rapid, reliable diagnostics as fishing tactics or quotas change.



“Consequently, our results show that acoustic data from fishing vessels and machine learning can act as a reliable foundation for rapid and convenient assessments of fisheries' interaction with the ecosystem,” Menze added.



Collecting those data costs almost nothing extra; crews already archive echo-sounder files as part of normal operations. The largest krill harvester, <a href="https://www.akerbiomarine.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aker Biomarine</a>, even makes its records public through the <a href="https://www.hubocean.earth/platform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUBOcean platform</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-krill-management">Positive changes in krill management </h2>



Until now, scientists mainly used fishery sonar to estimate krill biomass. The study’s broader ecological application opens fresh possibilities.



Bettina Meyer of AWI represents Germany on the <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/home-page" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> (CCAMLR).



“We are expanding the potential uses for ecological questions and demonstrating new, cost-effective ways in which fishing vessels can contribute to krill fishery management,” said Meyer, who's also a senior author of the study. 



“Acoustic data make it possible to quickly draw an initial picture of how changes in fishery management or fleet behavior impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.”



Supported by Germany’s <a href="https://www.bmel.de/EN/Home/home_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture</a>, the project feeds directly into CCAMLR deliberations on updated catch limits and dynamic closure zones.



By revealing when and where krill fishing most conflicts with wildlife, the acoustic approach offers a blueprint for fine-tuned regulations. This could help ensure that the Southern Ocean’s keystone crustacean can sustain both its natural predators and the fishery that now depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417203122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sonar reveals how krill fishing is hurting Antarctic wildlife

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals,...

species in Anomiidae

News coming your way