A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Suffering with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention‑deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a child is difficult enough. Now, scientists tell us that those who suffer from ASD and ADHD also face higher vulnerability to common plastic pollutants.



A recent study found that their bodies detoxify <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya-bpa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bisphenol A (BPA)</a> less efficiently than neurotypical peers, increasing the time their tissues are exposed to this chemical.



<a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6148-2363" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. T. Peter Stein</a> of <a href="https://som.rowan.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rowan‑Virtua School</a> of Osteopathic Medicine led the study. Researchers measured urine glucuronidation, the liver process that adds a sugar molecule to BPA so it can be excreted.&nbsp;



Children with ASD and ADHD had reduced BPA detoxification efficiency compared to the control group. 



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28770280/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BPA glucuronidation</a> was about 11% lower in the ASD group and 17% lower in those with ADHD, while differences in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5842715/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phthalate DEHP</a> detoxification followed the same trend but were not statistically significant.



Children with ASD and ADHD often have weaker detox systems, leaving them exposed to BPA in the body longer. 



That doesn’t guarantee illness from BPA but raises concern. Stein noted that this was the “first hard biochemical evidence” linking impaired BPA clearance to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/americaschildrenenvironment/health-neurodevelopmental-disorders" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodevelopmental disorders</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-asd-and-adhd">Understanding ASD and ADHD</h2>



<a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Individuals with ASD</a> often face challenges in social communication and exhibit restricted or repetitive behaviors. 



They might have difficulty interpreting social cues, maintaining eye contact, or adjusting to changes in routine. 



Sensory sensitivities - such as heightened responses to light, sound, or textures - are also common. ASD presents across a wide spectrum, so the degree and nature of symptoms can vary greatly from person to person.



In contrast, ADHD primarily involves persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning. 



<a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People with ADHD</a> may struggle to focus, stay organized, or complete tasks, often acting without thinking or having trouble sitting still. 



While ADHD and ASD are separate diagnoses, they can co-occur, and some traits overlap - such as difficulties with executive function and emotional regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bpa-exposure-in-children">BPA exposure in children</h2>



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/glucuronidation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glucuronidation</a> converts toxins like BPA into water‑soluble compounds that exit via urine. In this study, mass spectrometry tracked both bound and unbound BPA. 



A lower percentage of detoxification indicated less efficient excretion. Stein’s team confirmed the effect held true even when accounting for urine strength using creatinine levels.



Of twelve detox pathways tested, only BPA and DEHP stood out, suggesting a specific vulnerability rather than a broad weakness. 



Comparing results with metabolomic profiles, ASD and ADHD children showed unique patterns tied to BPA metabolism that controls did not share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bpa-detox-with-adhd-and-asd">BPA detox with ADHD and ASD</h2>



BPA and DEHP act as <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endocrine disruptors</a>, interfering with hormone signals. If detoxification is compromised, these chemicals linger longer in the body during critical phases of brain development. 



Though genetic vulnerability may play a role, this adds a measurable biological mechanism to the environmental risk picture.



Sterile in lab animals, DEHP affects neurodevelopment via epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation. A recent <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.03.641339" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of prenatal exposure in 847 Australian children linked DEHP levels to later ASD and ADHD symptoms. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-role-of-methylation-in-gene-expression-1070/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methylation</a> in key genes and neural cell networks showed mediation effects between 21% and 80%. These epigenetic footprints reinforce the idea that plastics can affect neurodevelopment through non-genetic pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-environmental-links">Evidence of environmental links</h2>



This study builds on a large body of research connecting neurodevelopmental disorders to environmental pollutants. 



<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201995/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Epidemiological studies</a> have associated prenatal exposure to air pollution, flame retardants, and pesticides with elevated ASD and ADHD risk. 



The common thread in these findings is timing; exposure during pregnancy and early life seems to matter most.



Regulatory bodies have long debated what constitutes a “safe” exposure level for these chemicals. 



The <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-packaging-other-substances-come-contact-food-information-consumers/bisphenol-bpa-use-food-contact-application" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> and the <a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Food Safety Authority</a> have reviewed BPA safety multiple times, but the growing evidence suggests current thresholds may not be low enough for sensitive populations, especially children with neurodevelopmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



This study doesn’t claim BPA or DEHP cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-with-autism-benefit-from-learning-multiple-languages/">autism</a> or ADHD. But it does show that children with these conditions often metabolize these chemicals less efficiently. 



Because BPA exposure is widespread (found in everything from food can liners to thermal paper) this raises questions about safety thresholds for all kids, not just those with ASD or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-and-adhd-disorders-directly-linked-amount-of-time-kids-spend-on-screens/">ADHD</a>.



Reducing reliance on BPA and phthalates in daily life (choosing glass or stainless steel containers, fresh food over cans, and avoiding receipts) can help limit exposure. 



Policy swings already reflect this concern: several countries are phasing out DEHP and tightening BPA regulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bpa-plastics-and-the-future">BPA, plastics, and the future</h2>



Future studies could investigate whether impaired detoxification is present from birth or develops over time. Longitudinal tracking of exposure, detox pathway function, and neurodevelopment could help answer this. 



Researchers also recommend examining genetic variants in detox enzymes, which might identify individuals most at risk.



On the epigenetic side, researchers are starting to connect prenatal chemical exposure to long‑term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-your-dna-information-safe-scientists-warn-of-cyber-threats/">DNA</a> changes in specific brain regions, pointing to windows of vulnerability. 



That knowledge could eventually guide nurse‑led intervention, dietary changes, or policies to protect early brain development.



Children with ASD and ADHD are at a double vulnerability: genetic and developmental differences and a slower ability to clear everyday pollutants. 



While this study doesn’t offer advice on treatment or diagnosis, it certainly does ask parents and policymakers to seriously consider chemical exposure in early childhood and pregnancy as a significant factor in neurodevelopment.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0289841" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Scientists link a common chemical in plastics to autism and ADHD in children

Suffering with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention‑deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)...

A wheezing pump, a length of elastic tubing, and a spark of curiosity have produced a machine that challenges every textbook rule of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-e-bar-the-robot-designed-to-prevent-the-elderly-from-falling/">robotics</a>. Instead of lines of code, this soft robot contraption runs on nothing more than air pressure and the shape of its own body.



Lead author <a href="https://amolf.nl/news/this-soft-robot-thinks-with-its-legs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alberto Comoretto</a> and his colleagues at the Dutch research institute AMOLF built the two‑pound device and watched it trot across a lab bench, clamber over a book, then slip into a tank and paddle like a terrier. 



<a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/research/researchers/bas-overvelde" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Overvelde</a>, also at <a href="https://overvelde.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMOLF</a>, helped show that the simple rig adjusts its movements to ground or water without a single transistor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-control-with-airflow">Rethinking control with airflow</h2>



A conventional robot relies on a digital controller that measures, decides, and commands, yet every loop burns power and time. 



The <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr3661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMOLF machine</a> outsources all that work to the physics of its pneumatic limbs, shaving the response delay to milliseconds and the parts list to a pump and four valves.



Each limb is a hollow silicone tube bent into a soft knee; steady airflow makes a kink race down the length, relax, then reappear at the top, yielding a rhythmic kick. 



That self‑oscillation reaches 300 hertz, far faster than earlier soft robot walkers that topped out <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1116564108" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near three hertz</a>.



Because the tubes all share one air line, a pressure change in one leg tugs on the others the way a common spring links a row of metronome clocks. The result is limb synchronization that emerges for free; nothing has to calculate a gait.



On carpet, the legs stiffen against drag, so all four strike the ground in phase and the robot bounds forward. 



Drop it into water and drag vanishes, the phase slips to an alternating pattern, and the same body now swims.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-soft-robot-teaches-itself">This soft robot teaches itself</h2>



Comoretto first noticed the effect while pinching an air hose and hearing it sing. High‑speed video revealed a kink that chased its own pressure wave, a tiny version of the flapping “Fly Guy” inflatable figures invented for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics.



Those roadside mascots seem chaotic, yet their thrashing follows the same feedback loop of pressure, bend, and release. 



By constraining the tubing length, wall thickness, and bend angle, the team turned that loop from a dance into a motor.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-robots-can-step-right-off-the-3d-printer-powered-by-air/">engineers printed</a> a rigid backbone that fixes the tubes at just the right tilt so gravity pushes each foot down as the kink passes. They tuned flow rate, not software, to swap between a walk, a rapid bound, and an in‑place shuffle.



“We were super excited because we saw this self‑sustaining, periodic, asymmetric motion,” said Comoretto, recalling the moment he realized the hose was alive with possibility. His excitement grew when the limbs copied one another without his help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robot-walks-then-swims">Robot walks, then swims</h2>



A tangle of hoses limited the first tests, so the group trimmed the design to two legs and mounted the pump onboard. 



Flow dropped from fifteen standard liters per minute to under one, and the power draw plunged to just 0.12 watts for the pair.



That thrift let the robot carry a cellphone‑size lithium battery and operate for half an hour on a charge. Two photodiodes wired to a relay gave it a crude sense of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5526330/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phototaxis</a>, letting it scuttle toward a flashlight beam the way a moth seeks a porch lamp.



“Now when it hits a wall, it starts to turn left. If it lands in water, it starts to swim backwards. We didn’t come up with that - it just happens,” Overvelde said.



When an acrylic wall blocked its path, the oscillations skewed, the body veered left, and the machine sidestepped the obstacle without ever “knowing” the wall existed.&nbsp;



In a fish‑tank trial the legs flipped phase to mimic a dog paddle, propelling the chassis three body lengths in ten seconds. 



That speed rivals centimeter‑scale amphibious bots that need magnets, heaters, or onboard microcontrollers to achieve similar feats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-power-more-motion">Less power, more motion</h2>



Pumps still dominate the weight budget, so the researchers are experimenting with thin membranes that act as passive valves, squeezing each tube rhythmically with the exhaust of its neighbor. 



If successful, the pump could shrink to a thumbnail and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-created-carbon-14-battery-that-lasts-5700-years-without-a-recharge/">battery</a> to a coin cell.



A second project fits the same limbs around a silicone sac to form a soft artificial heart that pulses in sync with blood pressure. Overvelde argues that a medical implant should “just work” and never wait for a firmware patch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-toys-and-demos">Beyond toys and demos</h2>



The study hints at a new class of devices that swap silicon intelligence for embodied intelligence, the control wisdom stored in shape and material. 



That principle echoes through biology, where spinal reflexes and tendon elasticity free the brain to plan instead of micromanage.



Industrial pick‑and‑place arms built of rigid links may soon share floors with soft grippers that tune their own squeeze by airflow alone. 



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/oyKnCRqNj84?si=dr_KJSPBcB70kl3B
</div></figure>



Search‑and‑rescue robots could crawl through rubble without risking an electrical short, then swim across a flooded basement with the same actuators.



The approach also answers a thorny sustainability question. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/">Electronic waste</a> from motors and circuit boards grows yearly, yet a pump, a hose, and recyclable elastomer leave a smaller footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soft-robots-built-for-space">Soft robots built for space</h2>



Critics note that air systems struggle at high altitudes and in vacuum, but the authors see hybrid designs that mix compressed gas with chemical gas generators for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squishy-robot-designed-for-space-now-assists-emergency-workers-on-earth/">space exploration</a>.



Further studies will map the equations that govern phase shifts and resonance, letting engineers dial up climbing or burrowing gaits on demand.



Soft robotics has progressed from floppy toys to lab curiosities to practical tools in less than fifteen years. 



By proving that simple physics can orchestrate complex motion at hundreds of beats per second, the Dutch team has nudged the field toward everyday utility.



The next milestone is reliability, measured not in hours but in years, because nobody wants to babysit a rescue robot or swap out a heart pump every season. 



As Comoretto’s accidentally singing tube showed, sometimes the path to long life begins with a sound, not a spreadsheet.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr3661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Brainless robot created that runs and swims is powered solely by air

A wheezing pump, a length of elastic tubing, and a...

Gender dynamics among primates have long fascinated both scientists and the public. Many people assume that male dominance over females is natural across primates, a belief that also shapes how we think about human gender roles. However, a new study challenges this view. 



Conducted by researchers from the University of Montpellier, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and the <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=German+Primate+Center&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Primate Center</a>, the work sheds light on the surprising flexibility of power relations among primates.



The findings reveal that neither male nor female dominance is universal. Instead, power shifts depend on factors such as ecology, reproductive strategies, and social structures. The study spans 253 populations from 121 primate species, making it the largest of its kind.



The results call for a reconsideration of our assumptions - not only about other primates but also about ourselves. The study highlights how gendered power dynamics emerge through complex, evolving interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-power-matters-in-primates">Why power matters in primates</h2>



The researchers examined patterns of aggression between males and females in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">primates</a>. They discovered that nearly half of all aggressive encounters occur between opposite sexes.



This finding contrasts with previous studies that focused mostly on same-sex competition. These older views assumed that males and females compete for different resources, leading to separate social hierarchies.



“The observation that, in most populations, any given individual is more likely to be involved in a fight against another individual of the opposite rather than the same sex highlights that the battle of the sexes is common in other animals,” said Dieter Lukas from the Max Planck Institute.



The researchers then studied the outcomes of these conflicts to identify whether males or females tend to dominate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-dominance-is-rare-in-primates">Male dominance is rare in primates</h2>



Traditionally, many assumed that male dominance is the default in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughter-lifts-bonobo-moods-offering-clues-to-human-emotion/">primate</a> societies. Iconic cases like female-dominant bonobos or lemurs were seen as rare exceptions.



Yet this study revealed a more complex picture. Among the 151 primate populations with quantitative data, only 17 percent showed strict male dominance. In comparison, 13 percent showed strict female dominance.



The remaining 70 percent of populations displayed moderate or no clear dominance by either sex. 



“Recent research started to challenge the traditional views of male dominance being the default status, and our study now provides a more comprehensive exploration of variation in intersexual dominance relationships," noted Peter Kappeler from the German Primate Center.



The research marks a major shift from old assumptions, showing that rigid male dominance is far less common than once believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-female-primates-take-charge">When female primates take charge</h2>



To explain these varied outcomes, the researchers tested five hypotheses. The strongest support emerged for the reproductive control hypothesis.



In species where females gain more control over reproduction, they are more likely to dominate socially as well. This pattern appears in species that are monogamous, arboreal, or where males and females are similar in size.



In such species, females can often reject male advances. They also tend to live in environments that allow them to avoid physical coercion.



Female dominance also flourishes in societies with high female-female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">competition</a>. This includes pair-living or solitary species where females are territorial and fiercely guard resources.



Interestingly, female dominance often coincides with low sexual dimorphism, short periods of sexual receptivity, and balanced sex ratios within groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-male-primates-keep-power">Where male primates keep power</h2>



Conversely, male-biased dominance typically appears in terrestrial, polygynous species with high sexual dimorphism. In these societies, males dominate through sheer physical power.



“Critically, while primate males gain power via physical force and coercion, female empowerment relies on alternative pathways, such as reproductive strategies to gain control over matings,” noted Elise Huchard from the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>.



This pattern often involves larger male body size, specialized weapons like large canines, and polygynous mating systems. Terrestrial species are especially prone to this male-dominated structure, as females have fewer opportunities to escape or resist male control.



The findings reveal that the ecological context - whether arboreal or terrestrial - shapes the way power is exercised.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-power-shifts-within-primates">Female power shifts within primates</h2>



One striking discovery is that dominance patterns often vary within a species. The study revealed wide-ranging variation in female dominance across different populations of the same species.



For example, in bonobos, females win between 48 percent and 79 percent of contests with males, depending on the group. Other species show similar variation, proving that social dynamics can shift based on local conditions.



Some species even display all three dominance types - female-biased, male-biased, and neutral - across different groups.



The researchers also noted a clear link between evolutionary history and dominance patterns. Great apes and African and Asian monkeys tend to show male-biased dominance, while lemurs and lorises frequently show female dominance. New World monkeys often fall somewhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-and-female-dominance">Competition and female dominance </h2>



Another major finding comes from testing the female competition hypothesis. The study found that species with intense female-female competition often show female-biased dominance.



Such competition appears frequently in pair-living or solitary species where females exclude rivals from resources. Female dominance also tends to emerge in stable social groups where female conflicts over food are common.



Interestingly, ecological harshness and environmental unpredictability were not strong predictors of female dominance, despite past claims to the contrary.



Instead, social structure and mating systems - such as group stability and reproductive strategies - emerged as stronger influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-parenting-and-primate-power">Female parenting and primate power</h2>



The study also explored the offspring safety hypothesis, which links dominance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/">parenting</a> strategies. It found that female-biased dominance is more common in species where mothers park their young rather than carrying them constantly.



Species with shorter lactation periods and lower risks of male-inflicted infanticide also tend to show greater female dominance. These traits reduce the cost of engaging in risky conflicts with males.



Interestingly, allomaternal care, where other group members help care for infants, also plays a role in shaping power dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-and-female-dominance">Social bonds and female dominance </h2>



Researchers also tested whether female social bonds, such as coalition formation, explain female dominance. Their findings showed only limited support for this idea.



While female philopatry - where females remain in their birth group - was linked to greater female dominance, this pattern was not strongly tied to coalition formation.



This challenges theories that female alliances drive dominance in species like bonobos. The authors suggest that in many cases, sex-biased dispersal may be a result of dominance structures rather than their cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-view-of-power-and-evolution">New view of power and evolution</h2>



The findings offer a profound shift in how we think about male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">primates</a> - and humans - by revealing that dominance is not fixed by nature but shaped by many intertwined factors.



Female power often emerges through reproductive strategies, social competition, and ecological flexibility. Male dominance, on the other hand, typically relies on brute force, physical coercion, and ecological constraints.



By showing that female dominance is neither rare nor accidental, this research opens the door to new ways of thinking about gender roles. 



Ultimately, the study highlights that both male and female dominance can emerge through different routes, depending on specific ecological and social pressures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500405122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Female dominance in primates is more common than we thought

Gender dynamics among primates have long fascinated both scientists and...

Family ties span generations in ways that often go unnoticed. Beyond the immediate household, the quiet bond between grandparents and grandchildren can play a powerful role in shaping lives.



A recent study by Olivia Healy and Rachel Dunifon at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu">Cornell University</a> sheds light on these overlooked ties.



Grandparents have long played an important role in families. They offer guidance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">care</a>, and sometimes even financial support. Prior to this study, however, little was known about how close most children live to their grandparents. 



The researchers explored this connection using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), a major long-term survey that collects detailed information about American households. 



The study revealed that many children live surprisingly near their grandparents. This closeness affects how families share time, care, and resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-kids-live-near-grandparents">Many kids live near grandparents</h2>



Earlier studies measured proximity using broad ranges, such as within 25 or 30 miles. That approach left out crucial details about families living extremely close together.



Healy and Dunifon used precise geographic data from the PSID. They measured distances down to census blocks - the smallest geographic units available in census data. This allowed them to see exactly how many children lived within walking distance of their grandparents.



The analysis showed that nearly half of American grandchildren live within 10 miles of a grandparent. About 13 percent of grandchildren live within just one mile. Surprisingly, this group is just as large as the group living 500 miles or more away.



The numbers suggest that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/losing-loved-ones-can-speed-up-biological-aging/">families</a> have daily opportunities for interaction and mutual support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-families-living-nearby-often-face-struggles">Families living nearby often face struggles</h2>



Living near grandparents is not evenly spread across all families. The researchers found clear differences based on education, income, and family structure.



Families living closer to grandparents tend to face more economic challenges. Many have lower levels of education, and unmarried parents are more common in these households. 



For example, 39 percent of mothers living within one mile of a grandparent have a high school degree or less. This compares to just 20 percent for families living at least 500 miles away.



These nearby families also tend to have lower household incomes and more single-parent households. Incomes for these close-knit families are often far below those of families living farther away.



Additionally, maternal grandparents are more likely to live near their grandchildren. The study found that 63 percent of close-living families were near the maternal side, compared to only 51 percent for those at greater distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nearby-families-share-more-time">Nearby families share more time</h2>



Proximity has a powerful effect on how much time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-family-members-and-guardians-dogs-are-more-than-just-pets/">families</a> spend helping each other. Healy and Dunifon found that the closer families live, the more time they exchange.



Among families living within one mile of a grandparent, 61 percent reported receiving help from grandparents. Nearly the same share, 62 percent, reported providing help in return. 



These families often devote many hours to helping one another. Those living within one mile received a median of 208 hours of help per year and provided 128 hours in return.



The numbers drop sharply as distance increases. Families living 500 miles or more away reported far fewer hours of shared help. The researchers confirmed that these differences were meaningful through statistical testing.



“Substantial numbers of grandchildren live very close to a grandparent,” said Dunifon. “Additionally, our results reveal that the characteristics of families living very close to grandparents differ from the characteristics of those living just a little farther away.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-monetary-support">Limits of monetary support</h2>



Interestingly, financial exchanges do not follow the same pattern as time-based support. The study found little difference in the likelihood of receiving money from grandparents based on distance.



Roughly one-fourth of families across most distance categories received money from grandparents. One exception stood out: families living more than 500 miles away reported higher median financial support, about $2,000 annually. 



However, this spike did not suggest a consistent pattern of greater financial help among distant families.



When it came to giving money back to grandparents, proximity mattered slightly. Families living within 1 mile were somewhat more likely to provide financial assistance to grandparents than those living farther away.



Still, the key finding remained clear. Time-based exchanges dominate family interactions at close distances. Money plays a smaller, less predictable role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childcare-support-from-grandparents">Childcare support from grandparents </h2>



The study’s findings carry important lessons for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-couples-consider-their-pets-as-children-redefining-concepts-of-family-and-parenting/">modern family</a> life. Families living near grandparents often build daily habits around mutual support.



“This suggests that family members living in very close proximity are highly embedded in each other’s lives," noted Dunifon.



Many of these time transfers likely involve childcare. This has wide-reaching effects. Grandparents can ease the burdens of working parents by caring for young children. Parents benefit from added help, while grandparents may gain emotional rewards from spending time with grandchildren.



Studies suggest that grandparents feel greater well-being when involved with their grandchildren. This highlights the potential benefits of these close living arrangements for all generations involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-near-grandparents-strengthens-bonds">Living near grandparents strengthens bonds </h2>



This research stands out for focusing specifically on families with children. Previous studies largely focused on parents and adult children, often ignoring the presence of grandchildren.



By including grandchildren, Healy and Dunifon offer a more complete picture of family support networks. They also examined how distance shapes both time and money transfers, showing that proximity creates stronger daily connections.



“We highlight the significant numbers of grandchildren living in very close proximity to their grandparents and demonstrate that geographic distance, at a very fine scale, is linked to important time investments to and from households,” Dunifon said.



These findings also challenge assumptions that distant grandparents send more money to compensate for less face-to-face interaction. The study suggests that wealthier, distant families may not need as much financial help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distance-deserves-closer-study">Distance deserves closer study</h2>



The researchers acknowledge some limits in their study. Their sample only includes grandparents who appear in the PSID dataset. This means their findings may not capture all families.



The team noted that some families may move closer in anticipation of major life events, like the birth of a grandchild. This possibility raises questions about how much of the observed proximity results from deliberate choices.



Still, the findings reveal strong evidence that geographic closeness shapes family life in America today. Future research may explore how these patterns affect the well-being of all three generations involved.



In the end, the study leaves readers with a clear message: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-u-s-just-expanded-its-territory-by-a-million-square-kilometers/">geography</a> plays a crucial role in American family life, and many children live closer to their grandparents than we might expect.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.demographic-research.org/articles/volume/52/34" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Demographic Research</a>.



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When grandparents live nearby, family support grows stronger

Family ties span generations in ways that often go unnoticed....

Insects are being harmed by a fungicide sprayed on fruits and vegetables - even at levels that are considered safe. 



A new study from <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University</a> reveals that the chemical chlorothalonil, which is used globally to prevent fungal disease, is damaging insect fertility and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-fungicide-on-fruit-flies">Testing the fungicide on fruit flies</h2>



Researchers at Macquarie’s School of Natural Sciences tested the effects of chlorothalonil on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/">fruit flies</a>, a common insect model used in labs. Fruit flies are representative of a large number of similar insect species in the wild.



The team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-scientists-have-genetically-engineered-virgin-births/">Drosophila melanogaster</a>, known as the common fruit fly or vinegar fly. Unlike pests that target crops, these flies feed on rotting fruit. They play an important role in breaking down waste and recycling nutrients on farms and in orchards.



“D. melanogaster is also at the bottom of the food chain, becoming food for a whole lot of other species,” said Ph.D. candidate Darshika Dissawa, lead author of the research paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-decline-in-insect-fertility">A surprising decline in insect fertility</h2>



The experiment exposed fruit fly larvae to chlorothalonil at levels that match what’s found on real agricultural produce, such as cranberries and wine grapes. What they found shocked the team.



“Even the very lowest concentration has a huge impact on the reproduction of the flies that we tested,” said Dissawa. “This can have a big knock-on population impact over time because it affects both male and female fertility.”



Flies exposed to the chemical showed a 37% drop in egg production at maturity, compared to those that were not exposed.



“We expected the effect to increase far more gradually with higher amounts. But we found that even a very small amount can have a strong negative effect,” noted Professor Fleur Ponton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungicide-still-in-use-despite-risks">Fungicide still in use, despite risks</h2>



Chlorothalonil is <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-9-2024-000263_EN.html">banned</a> in the European Union. But in Australia, it’s still sprayed widely to stop fungal diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disease-attacking-blueberry-plants-is-spreading-around-the-world/">mildew</a> and leaf blight.



Residue from this fungicide has been found in soils and water near farms. On food, the levels can range from almost zero to 460 milligrams per kilogram.



“Chlorothalonil is particularly common in orchards and vineyards, and is often used preventatively when no disease is present,” explained Professor Ponton. 



“People assume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-birds-are-significantly-threatened-by-vineyard-fungicides/">fungicides</a> like chlorothalonil only impact fungal diseases, but they can have devastating, unintended consequences for other species,” she stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungicide-fuels-insect-decline">Fungicide fuels insect decline </h2>



The study revealed that chlorothalonil exposure during the larval stage caused major reproductive issues in the adult flies.



Female flies were smaller, had fewer egg-producing structures, and laid far fewer eggs. Male flies had lower iron levels, which can interfere with sperm production and other metabolic functions.



The researchers also checked whether the flies were avoiding the contaminated food. They weren’t.



“We didn’t find a significant aversion for food contaminated with chlorothalonil, except when there was a very high concentration of the chemical,” explained Professor Ponton. “This means the impacts are due to chlorothalonil ingestion.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-on-insect-pollinators">Effects on insect pollinators</h2>



In agricultural settings where whole crops are treated with fungicides, insects like flies and bees have no way to avoid the chemicals. This creates a larger problem for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plant-has-some-unlikely-allies-for-pollination-and-seed-dispersal/">pollination</a>, ecosystem stability, and food production.



“We need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bees-value-quality-over-quantity-in-flower-selection/">bees</a> and flies and other beneficial insects for pollination, and we think this is an important problem for pollinator populations,” said Professor Ponton. “There is a strong commercial incentive to understand the impact in the field and address the use of this chemical.”



Despite the widespread use of <a href="https://www.publiceye.ch/en/topics/pesticides/chlorothalonil-a-banned-pesticide-exported-from-europe">chlorothalonil</a>, there's a surprising lack of research into how it affects insects. Fewer than 25 scientific studies have examined this - far too few, considering the global decline in insect numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-smarter-farming">A call for smarter farming</h2>



The team behind the study says it’s time to rethink how fungicides are used in agriculture. Reducing the frequency of spraying could give insect populations a chance to recover. But that requires more research.



“We need field trials to explore options and develop evidence-based guidelines to consider the knock-on effects of fungicides on beneficial insects,” said Professor Ponton.



Next, the researchers will study whether these reproductive problems are passed on to future generations. 



The team also plans to investigate what happens when insects are exposed to combinations of chemicals - something that’s far more common in real-world farming.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.250136" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How crop protection is fueling the global decline of insects

Insects are being harmed by a fungicide sprayed on fruits...

In 2022, the underwater Hunga volcano exploded, blasting ash 37 miles into the sky - the largest volcanic plume ever captured by satellites. What followed offered researchers a rare chance to see how the ocean floor responds to sudden, massive disruption.



Months later, scientists from the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>, along with teams from the University of Rhode Island and Western Washington University, headed out on a research cruise. 



Onboard, undergraduate student Marcus Chaknova discovered something unexpected: thick layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic ash</a> coating the seafloor. The ash had suffocated deep-sea ecosystems that rely on fragile chemical exchanges to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-eruptions-usually-go-unseen">Underwater eruptions usually go unseen</h2>



“This was an extremely rare opportunity,” Chaknova said. “Observing the mass movement of underwater sediment is something that hasn't been studied much.”



Now a graduate student in Earth Sciences at the University of Oregon, Chaknova led a research project analyzing what the underwater eruption left behind.



Working with Professor Thomas Giachetti and 16 other experts from around the world, he became the lead author on a study that looked at how volcanic ash travels - and what it does to life underwater.



“We had scientists from every single time zone you could think of,” Chaknova said. His project needed expertise from the fields of marine biology, geochemistry, and micropaleontology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-ash-from-the-volcano">Tracking ash from the volcano </h2>



The first step was to confirm that the underwater ash had indeed come from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-hunga-tonga-hunga-haapai-eruption/">Hunga</a>, located about 40 miles from <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16197014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tonga's</a> main island in the South Pacific. 



After an eruption, it can take weeks or even months for ash to fall through the water and settle on the ocean floor. As it drifts, wind and currents push it farther from the eruption site.



"One grain of sediment will take weeks or months to reach the bottom of the ocean. It's like a leaf falling from a tree. Because of the wind, it might end up somewhere completely different," Giachetti explained.



Back in the lab, Chaknova matched the ash samples to those found near the volcano. The grains were varied - some jagged and sharp, others rounded and smooth. 



In some places, the sediment was more than a meter thick. Most of it was made up of very fine particles, around the width of a human hair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-eruption-left-behind">What the eruption left behind</h2>



Chaknova discovered that much of the ash came from the volcano’s caldera walls and was carried away by fast-moving underwater flows - something like underwater avalanches.



Those flows were so powerful they <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/article/2024/aug/09/what-lies-beneath-the-growing-threat-to-the-hidden-network-of-cables-that-power-the-internet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">damaged submarine cables</a> and carved small canyons into the seafloor. The researchers even used the timing of power loss from those broken cables to calculate how fast the ash surged.



Using computer models, Chaknova plans to simulate how the ash moved and where it went. Giachetti said this research could change how scientists think about sediment movement in the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-life-suffocated">Deep-sea life suffocated</h2>



The underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonga-volcanic-eruption-had-a-much-more-devastating-impact-than-we-knew/">eruption</a> didn’t just leave a geological footprint. It disrupted entire ecosystems.



In the deep sea, where sunlight doesn’t reach, life depends on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/">chemosynthesis</a> - organisms use chemicals like methane or ammonia from hydrothermal vents, instead of sunlight, to produce energy.



Roughly 90% of marine life lives on the seafloor, according to the World Wide Fund for Nature. After the eruption, much of that life was buried in thick sediment. 



Some creatures like worms and anemones can survive brief burials, but this sudden wave of ash was too much. Many deep-sea species are suspension feeders. They grab tiny particles of food from the water and filter them through their gills.



"With all the displaced sediment, these organisms are only grabbing sediment," Chaknova said. "That's going to clog their gills, it's going to clog their intestines, and that's going to have a dramatic effect on their ability to create energy."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fallout-from-the-underwater-eruption">Fallout from the underwater eruption </h2>



Chaknova’s early findings also show that ash made it all the way to Tonga’s coral reefs. At first, it caused a short-lived plankton bloom at the surface. 



But as the ash settled, it threatened coral ecosystems that support larger marine life. When coral suffers, everything above it in the food chain is affected.



For Tonga, the eruption of this underwater volcano had more than environmental consequences. It also affected livelihoods.



Fishing is a way of life in Tonga. According to the World Bank, about 82% of households rely on reef fishing in some way for income. Marine tourism accounts for more than 7% of Tonga’s GDP.



“Although this eruption occurred on the seafloor, there is a chain of both positive and negative effects,” Chaknova said. 



“The negative effects go farther than just losing power or Wi-Fi from submarine cables. This is some people’s livelihood. They need fish for food. Fishing is incredibly important for the economic and food security of Tonga.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-for-deep-sea-mining">A warning for deep-sea mining</h2>



The study also has bigger implications. As the world turns toward clean energy, demand is growing for metals like copper and cobalt - many of which sit in potato-sized nodules beneath the ocean floor.



Private companies have approached small Pacific nations, including Tonga, with offers to mine these resources.



"The area where we collected the sediment is within the Kingdom of Tonga, and we found that they are very rich in minerals," Chaknova said. "A lot of companies are interested in collecting these minerals, and so this area that belongs to the Kingdom of Tonga will be up for bid, in coming years, for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-impacts-marine-life-for-decades/">deep-sea mining</a>."



While commercial mining hasn’t started yet, researchers are urging caution. The plumes of sediment created by mining could be just as harmful as those created by volcanic eruptions - clogging gills, burying habitats, and destroying fragile ecosystems.



Chaknova’s work provides some of the only real-world data we have on what that kind of disturbance could look like. 



The research gives scientists and policymakers a better understanding of what’s at stake - and what might be lost if we move forward without enough knowledge.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GC011629">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



Image Credit: NOAA



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Massive underwater eruption suffocated marine life

In 2022, the underwater Hunga volcano exploded, blasting ash 37...

Walking is the easiest exercise to start and the hardest to overdo, yet many of us still wonder how far we should go each day to stay fit and healthy. 



Fitness trackers flash numbers, apps buzz reminders, and friends swap step counts, but the advice often feels like guesswork.



New evidence by a team of researchers from <a href="https://en.csu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Central South University</a> alongside colleagues at the <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/about/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University School of Medicine</a>, offers very clear guidance on this debate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-walks-healthy-life">Daily walks, healthy life</h2>



Walking raises heart rate just enough to train the cardiovascular system <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-each-day-at-any-speed-lowers-the-risk-of-cancer/">without punishing joints</a>. In people with <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypertension</a>, adding 1,000 daily steps lowered overall death risk by 9% and heart‑related death risk by 8% in a twelve‑year U.S. cohort study.



Scientists call those outcomes reductions in <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/all-cause-mortality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">all‑cause mortality</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10809869/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular mortality</a>. 



The study found little extra benefit above 8,250 steps for overall survival and 9,700 for heart health, a range well under the folklore goal of 10,000.



Those numbers echo a <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2734709" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2019 trial</a> of older women in which 7,500 steps delivered the same survival edge as 10,000. Led by <a href="https://hsph.harvard.edu/profile/i-min-lee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. I‑Min Lee</a> of Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, this research supported the idea that most people can stop chasing ever‑higher counts once they reach a moderate plateau.



“The simple message could perhaps be refined to, ‘Some stepping is good. More is better, up to a certain point,’” said Lee, explaining that health gains plateau after that range.



The idea dates back to 1965, when a Japanese pedometer maker coined “<a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/Mythbusting-The-10000-Steps-Per-Day-Trend.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manpo‑kei</a>,” or 10,000‑step meter, as a catchy slogan rather than a physiologic milestone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-sweet-spot">Finding the sweet spot</h2>



Hitting 8,000 to 9,700 steps translates to about 3.8 to 4.8 miles for an average adult stride. At that distance, energy expenditure lands near 300 to 400 calories, a figure the research team noted can help shave roughly one pound a week when paired with mindful eating.



People with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.22171" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher body weight</a> tend to burn more calories per step, while lighter individuals may need more distance to match that burn. Either way, reaching the same calorie goals depends on stride length, walking pace, and overall effort.



The same twelve‑year U.S. cohort study that pinpointed 8,250 steps showed risk curves flattening beyond that mark. 



Researchers think the body’s major adaptations, better blood‑pressure control, improved insulin sensitivity, stronger leg muscles, occur early, then taper.



Rather than pushing for 15,000 steps, time‑pressed adults can focus on hitting the middle ground consistently. 



Accumulating steps on two or three separate days each week still cut ten‑year <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2802810" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">death risk</a> by about fifteen percent in National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey <a href="https://www.health.com/how-many-steps-a-day-health-benefits-7375335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-healthy-steps-into-timelines">Turning healthy steps into timelines</h2>



A simple rule converts steps to distance: two thousand steps equal one mile for most people. Using that, 8,000 steps equal about four miles, which most folks cover in eighty minutes of leisurely walking or forty‑five minutes at a brisk clip.



In pace terms, keeping conversation but not singing comfortably marks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-interval-walking-training-technique-iwt-improves-health-prevents-disease/">moderate intensity</a>. Heart‑rate monitors read roughly fifty to seventy percent of maximum during these walks, the sweet zone for cardiovascular conditioning.



Those who prefer time targets can aim for 150 minutes of moderate walking per week, the level in federal activity guidelines. 



Spread across seven days, that’s just over twenty minutes daily, slightly less than the time needed for 4,000 steps but far short of 10,000.



Beginner? Start slow. Build consistency first, then distance, per the implications of the findings. Once consistency feels easy, adding an extra block or two extends the workout without scheduling gymnastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-health-and-walking-distance">Age, health, and walking distance</h2>



Age, baseline fitness, and chronic conditions shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-can-counteract-the-health-risks-of-sitting/">ideal daily distance</a>. People over sixty often see benefits plateau near 6,000 to 8,000 steps, according to the study mentioned earlier. 



Meanwhile, younger adults can climb to 10,000 before gains level off, according to Lee’s pooled analyses.



Weight‑loss seekers may stretch walks beyond the plateau because calorie balance, not mortality curves, dictates fat loss. 



“Bigger goals = longer walks,” an idea that underscores that cutting calories works best alongside extra movement.



Those living with joint pain can still gain overall health benefits by combining short walks with cycling or water exercise to protect knees while keeping step counts modest. Smartwatches capture equivalent “active minutes,” ensuring effort registers even without heel strikes.



Medical limits aside, the most reliable predictor of long‑term success is enjoyment. If neighborhood strolls bore you, shifting to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/">park trails</a>, mall loops, or treadmill podcasts can supply variety without complicating the plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-walking-yourself-better-health">Walking yourself better health</h2>



Time scarcity derails many routines, but short bouts add up. The research <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/">offers a template</a>: “Morning reset,” “Lunchtime stroll,” and “Evening unwind” sessions lasting ten to fifteen minutes each.



Skipping elevators for stairs, parking farther from the store, or pacing during phone calls collects hidden steps. A mile‑and‑a‑half grocery run with reusable bags in hand turns errands into strength training and step boosting at once.



Tracking helps: pedometer apps reward mini‑wins and reveal idle stretches begging for micro‑walks. Celebrating streaks reinforces habit loops, a psychological trick as potent as any shoe technology. 



Finally, pairing walks with friends or pets injects accountability and pleasure. Social walkers often over‑shoot goals without noticing, a happy accident that health research fully supports.



The study is published in <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-024-21216-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Public Health</a>.



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To get fit and stay healthy, scientists recommend walking this exact distance every day

Walking is the easiest exercise to start and the hardest...

Every year, humanity tallies its carbon emissions, but it rarely considers how the planet itself bears that burden. A new study flips the script by treating Earth as a stressed material rather than a passive scoreboard.



A team led by Matthias Jonas of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (<a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIASA</a>) converted gigatons of emissions into units engineers use to test bridges. 



The researchers borrowed tools from rheology, the science of how substances deform. Their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725015633?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numbers</a> suggest the carbon‑climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-societies-used-mixed-strategies-to-survive-climate-change/">system</a> is already flexing beyond its natural range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-feels-stress-from-carbon-pollution">Earth feels stress from carbon pollution</h2>



Instead of tonnes, the team measured atmospheric pressure in <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmosphere/air-pressure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pascals</a>, the metric engineers apply to describe a push on a square meter of surface. They model Earth as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0019103567900061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maxwell body</a>, a simple combination of elastic and viscous parts that stretch and flow when forced.



In that picture, accumulated emissions create stress while expansion of the air column and slower absorption of carbon by land and sea show up as strain. The ratio of the two reveals how quickly the global fabric is wearing thin.



“We wanted to see how the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-face-unprecedented-climate-shifts-across-their-ranges/">Earth</a> system stretches and strains under that burden,” explained Jonas. 



By calculating the change from 1850 to 2021, the team uncovered hidden thresholds invisible in the usual mass‑balance charts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-low-stress-reshapes-earth">Even low stress reshapes Earth</h2>



The calculations show that by 2021 humanity was injecting between 12.8 and 15.5 pascals per year of extra energy per unit volume, a value Jonas calls <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725015633" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress power</a>. 



Spread over every cubic yard of air, water, and soil, that push compares to the force of a light breeze yet persists nonstop.



Such steady pressure, tiny at any single point, becomes enormous once multiplied across the oceans and atmosphere. Earth’s natural buffers can accommodate only so much before their response time slows.



Jonas compares the phenomenon to leaving a garden hose on low all night; the gentle trickle still floods the yard by morning. In the same way, low but unrelenting stress alters <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">atmospheric</a> volume and ocean chemistry alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weakening-of-earth-s-natural-systems">Weakening of Earth’s natural systems </h2>



The study charts delay time, the lag between a pulse of emissions and the planet’s structural response. That metric peaked in the early 1900s, revealing that land and ocean sinks began to lose agility far sooner than expected.



For their mid‑range <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/21/3903/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a>, the tipping year is 1932 - almost two decades after the Model T rolled off assembly lines. 



After that point, the land‑ocean system no longer recovered in step with stress, it merely absorbed the hit and carried scars forward.



“Even if we hit our emissions targets, the weakening of Earth’s natural systems could still leave us facing major disruptions sooner than expected,” noted Jonas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-strain-makes-climate-action-urgent">Growing strain makes climate action urgent</h2>



Carbon dioxide output topped 40.9 billion tons in <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/22/files/GCP_CarbonBudget_2022.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2022</a>, a record that nudged stress power up another notch. As emissions grow roughly 0.5 percent per year, the energy injected into the planet’s framework rises even if temperature targets appear on paper.



Delay also magnifies costs, because infrastructure built for a cooler baseline may degrade faster under compounded thermal and mechanical strain. Counting only temperature ignores those hidden maintenance bills.



The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> warns that to keep global warming close to 2.7 °F, greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 and decline by 43 percent by 2030.



Jonas’ numbers imply that every year of delay increases baseline stress, meaning future cuts must be steeper just to arrest further strain on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-sinks-are-losing-their-strength">Natural sinks are losing their strength</h2>



Natural <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/feed/landmark-study-indicates-weakening-ocean-carbon-sink" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sinks</a> still sponge up about half of human CO₂, but their efficiency is waning, especially in the Southern Ocean and tropical forests. In 2023, extreme heat left land vegetation absorbing almost no net carbon according to global monitoring.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-3500-animal-species-are-directly-threatened-by-climate-change/">Ocean</a> uptake has slowed by as much as four percent in the past decade, while land sink efficiency has swung in and out of negative territory during major droughts. 



The strain analysis corroborates those field observations by showing the ocean side of the equation weakening faster than the terrestrial side.



In the model, the damping constant linked to ocean uptake falls 30 percent between 1850 and today, a sign that heat and acidity may already be reshaping marine chemistry. The land constant declines, too, but at a gentler pace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-stress-and-future-climate-risks">Past stress and future climate risks</h2>



Because stress power grows with cumulative emissions, simply hitting net‑zero late in the century will not reset the clock. The strain frozen into the system can persist for decades, lengthening the time before sinks regain strength.



Carbon‑removal schemes therefore act less like an optional extra and more like a structural repair kit, needed to relieve pressure already baked in. Yet large‑scale removal is not ready at the speed or cost required.



If nations wait for the alarm of higher temperatures alone, they may overlook mechanical fatigue building under the surface. Jonas likens the risk to pushing a steel beam until microscopic cracks race ahead of visible bending.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-stress-and-hidden-damage">Earth stress and hidden damage</h2>



The authors hope to weave their rheology framework into coupled climate models so that fatigue dynamics appear alongside temperature and precipitation outputs. 



The goal is to identify regions where local shocks, from dieback to ice‑shelf loss, propagate globally.



The researchers also plan to refine sink parameters with satellite and autonomous buoy data, reducing uncertainty in the damping constants. 



Better bounds will reveal whether the 1930s shift was a global threshold or the first of several steps.



Ultimately, the approach offers another yardstick for progress: a direct readout of how quickly Earth relaxes once stress is reduced. Watching that number fall may prove as motivating as any temperature curve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725015633?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



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Earth faces hidden mechanical stress from carbon emissions

Every year, humanity tallies its carbon emissions, but it rarely...

Climate change is rapidly melting glaciers. While rising seas and disappearing ice dominate the headlines, something more ominous may be stirring beneath the surface. 



Dormant volcanoes - sealed under ice for millennia - could soon awaken. And when they do, the eruptions may be anything but ordinary: they could strike suddenly and with explosive force.



This isn’t just a theory. Scientists studied volcanoes in Chile’s Andes mountains. The research showed that melting glaciers can spark volcanic activity. 



Antarctica hides hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-orbit-may-trigger-massive-volcanic-eruptions/">volcanoes</a> under its ice. If this pattern holds, those volcanoes may start to stir too. The warning is clear. As glaciers vanish, the ground may soon roar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanoes-responding-to-melting-glaciers">Volcanoes responding to melting glaciers </h2>



Scientists in Iceland began investigating the connection between melting glaciers and increased volcanic activity as early as the 1970s.



This latest study shows that volcanoes in large continental regions may respond in the same way. The findings could reshape how we predict volcanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mantle-plume-created-a-60-million-year-volcanic-trail-from-iceland-to-ireland/">eruptions</a>.



Beyond Chile, volcanoes in North America, New Zealand, and Russia may also face this hidden threat.



Many volcanoes once thought harmless may no longer stay quiet. As glaciers melt, the risk rises. Scientists are beginning to ask what else could be lying in wait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ice-suppressed-volcanoes">How ice suppressed volcanoes</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> led this work. They joined forces with scientists from other U.S. universities. The team focused on six volcanoes in southern Chile.



Among these volcanoes was the now quiet Mocho-Choshuenco. Long ago, it sat beneath the thick Patagonian Ice Sheet.



The scientists collected rocks and studied them closely. They used argon dating to find the exact age of past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fresh-lava-from-deep-earth-mantle-pulses-burst-onto-land-where-new-ocean-is-forming/">eruptions</a>. 



The researchers also examined crystals in the rocks to see what had happened beneath the surface.



The story was clear: when glaciers were thick, they pressed down hard on the volcanoes. That pressure locked magma underground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-unlock-eruptions">Melting glaciers unlock eruptions</h2>



During the last ice age, from about 26,000 to 18,000 years ago, glaciers covered the land. They acted like a giant lid, holding back eruptions.



But no glacier lasts forever. As the ice melted quickly near the end of the ice age, everything changed.



The crust beneath the volcanoes began to relax. Magma, once trapped, found space to expand. Gases inside the magma bubbled and grew. Soon, pressure built up too much. The volcanoes erupted in dramatic fashion.



These eruptions shaped the land and left scars that remain today. The cause was simple. The melting glaciers had removed the pressure that kept the magma in check.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-melt-raises-volcano-risks">Glacier melt raises volcano risks</h2>



Pablo Moreno-Yaeger from the University of Wisconsin-Madison presented this study. His warning was sharp and direct.



“Glaciers tend to suppress the volume of eruptions from the volcanoes beneath them. But as glaciers retreat due to climate change, our findings suggest these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-why-stealthy-volcanoes-erupt-without-warning/">volcanoes</a> go on to erupt more frequently and more explosively," said Moreno-Yaeger.



"The key requirement for increased explosivity is initially having a very thick glacial coverage over a magma chamber, and the trigger point is when these glaciers start to retreat, releasing pressure - which is currently happening in places like Antarctica.”



Moreno-Yaeger pointed out that this risk is not limited to Iceland. Volcanoes under thick ice in Antarctica and other parts of the world could behave the same way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magma-shifts-slowly-but-danger-grows">Magma shifts slowly but danger grows</h2>



Volcanoes do not react overnight. Even as ice melts fast, magma builds pressure slowly. These changes often take centuries.



However, in geological terms, this is still fast. Scientists have enough time to watch carefully. They can look for signs like moving magma or shifting gases. With close monitoring, future eruptions might be predicted before disaster strikes.



But the clock has already started ticking. Glaciers are melting now, and some volcanoes are likely already changing deep below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eruptions-also-change-earth-s-climate">Eruptions also change Earth’s climate</h2>



Volcanic eruptions do more than shake the ground. They can also change the planet’s temperature.



When volcanoes erupt, they send aerosols into the atmosphere. These tiny particles block sunlight and cool Earth for a short time. After Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, the planet cooled by about 0.5 degrees Celsius.



Cooling the planet might sound like a good thing, but it does not last. If several volcanoes erupt within a short time, the story flips again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-volcanoes-may-fuel-a-loop">Glaciers and volcanoes may fuel a loop</h2>



“Over time the cumulative effect of multiple eruptions can contribute to long-term global warming because of a buildup of greenhouse gases,” said Moreno-Yaeger. 



“This creates a positive feedback loop, where melting glaciers trigger eruptions, and the eruptions in turn could contribute to further warming and melting.”



This loop works like a trap. Melting glaciers cause eruptions, which release greenhouse gases. Those gases warm the planet more, causing more glaciers to melt.



This cycle could spiral out of control if left unchecked. This is no longer just about melting ice. It is about a whole chain of disasters feeding each other.



The study received funding from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>. 



The team presented their research at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a> in Prague on July 8, 2025.



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Melting glaciers may awaken sleeping volcanoes

Climate change is rapidly melting glaciers. While rising seas and...

Pollinators are vital for the natural world. They help plants reproduce, support food webs, and sustain ecosystems. Among them, honey bees hold a special place. 



Honey bees are widely celebrated for their role in agriculture and are often seen as environmental heroes. However, their growing presence in places where they are not native raises new concerns.



Southern California is a well-known biodiversity hotspot. It is home to hundreds of native pollinator species. But this unique region now faces a quiet threat. 



Feral honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">bees</a>, thriving outside human control, have begun to dominate pollination networks here. Their influence extends far beyond what most people realize.



A new study from <a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> sheds light on this issue. The research uncovers how honey bees, despite their benefits, may unintentionally harm native pollinators. The findings challenge common perceptions and bring attention to a growing ecological conflict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-outcompete-native-pollinators">Honey bees outcompete native pollinators </h2>



Honey bees are highly effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bumble-bees-are-sabotaging-their-own-health/">pollinators</a>. They have been introduced worldwide to support crop production. In the U.S., they are responsible for pollinating crops that contribute billions of dollars to the economy each year.



Their ability to communicate allows them to locate and exploit floral resources efficiently. They share information about flower locations with their colony mates, which makes them powerful foragers. Unlike most native bees, honey bees live in large colonies that work together to gather resources.



Because of their efficiency, honey bees outcompete many native bees. They can strip flowers of pollen and nectar quickly. 



Studies show that in Southern California, honey bees now represent nearly 90% of all bees visiting flowers. This leaves little for the region’s diverse native bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">species</a>, which rely on the same resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scale-of-the-honey-bee-invasion">Scale of the honey bee invasion</h2>



The study found that honey bees now make up 98% of total bee biomass in Southern California’s scrublands. This is not just about numbers. Honey bees are much larger than most native bees in this region. Their dominance extends both in terms of individuals and body size.



One reason for this imbalance is the honey bees' remarkable ability to remove pollen. The research showed that honey bees can remove up to 80% of pollen from flowers within just one day. 



In experiments, just two visits by honey bees stripped over 60% of pollen from flowers of native plants like black sage, white sage, and distant phacelia.



Such high pollen removal rates mean that other bees have far fewer resources left. Native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-bee-species-face-extinction-due-to-honey-bee-competition/">bees</a>, many of which are solitary and less efficient foragers, simply cannot compete at this scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-and-pollen-resources">Honey bees and pollen resources </h2>



Pollen is critical for bee reproduction. Bees collect pollen to feed their larvae. When honey bees take most of the pollen, native bees struggle to raise their young.



The study estimated the daily impact of honey bees on pollen resources. In one hectare of habitat, honey bees removed enough pollen each day to potentially raise hundreds to thousands of native bees. 



Over an entire bloom season, this could result in the loss of tens of thousands of potential native bee offspring.



This finding is alarming. It highlights how honey bees, though often viewed positively, may reduce native bee populations by monopolizing food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-larger-bees-face-greater-risks">Larger bees face greater risks</h2>



Interestingly, larger native bees appear to be most affected. The study found that only a tiny fraction of native bees were larger than honey bees. Bumble bees, for instance, made up just 0.1% of all bees observed.



Larger bees generally require more pollen to raise their offspring. When honey bees deplete resources, these species may be pushed out first.



“Although honey bees are rightly considered an indispensable asset to humans, they can also pose a serious ecological threat to natural ecosystems where they are not native,” said Hung.



The loss of large bees could also reduce the effectiveness of pollination. These bees tend to carry more pollen per visit, which benefits many plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-vs-native-pollinators">Honey bees vs. native pollinators</h2>



The damage does not stop with bees. The study also highlights that honey bee pollination leads to poorer plant offspring quality compared to native bee pollination.



This happens because honey bees often visit many flowers on the same plant before moving to another. This behavior increases the chances of self-pollination, which can lead to inbreeding depression in plants.



Such effects could ripple through ecosystems. Plants that rely on native bees for effective pollination may see lower reproduction rates. This could further degrade habitats that native bees and other wildlife depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spread-of-feral-honey-bees">The spread of feral honey bees </h2>



Feral honey bee colonies are not just an issue in Southern California. These bees have spread worldwide and often outnumber managed colonies.



They thrive in many ecosystems and are difficult to remove once established. Unlike managed bees, feral colonies are self-sustaining and active year-round.



The study points out that feral honey bees have even replaced native bees in other regions. In the southwestern United States, they are increasingly common on both abundant and rare plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-conservation-priorities">Rethinking conservation priorities</h2>



Many people remain unaware of the negative effects of honey bees on native wildlife. Public concern tends to focus on protecting honey bees from disease and habitat loss.



Yet, the study’s authors warn that in North America, honey bees often act as competitors, not conservation targets.



“The plight of the honey bee is an issue of animal husbandry and livestock management, whereas when it comes to conservation issues here in North America, honey bees are likelier to be part of the problem, not a solution or a target for conservation,” said Hung.



This statement challenges common assumptions. It suggests a need for more balanced conservation strategies that consider native pollinators too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-toward-potential-solutions">Steps toward potential solutions</h2>



Managing honey bee populations in sensitive areas may help. The researchers suggest limiting commercial beekeeping on public lands after crop blooms end.



“In areas with threatened bee species, natural preserve managers may also want to consider systematic removals or relocations of non-native honey bee colonies to provide wild bees a fighting chance,” said Hung.



Though such measures may seem extreme, they are not unprecedented. Many conservation programs already target invasive species to protect native wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-harming-native-life">Honey bees harming native life</h2>



The study reveals a hidden layer of the pollination crisis. Honey bees, often seen as ecological heroes, can create serious problems in certain ecosystems.



As more people become aware of this issue, discussions around pollinator conservation may shift. Future efforts must balance the needs of agriculture with the importance of protecting native species.



The story of honey bees in Southern California serves as a reminder. Even well-known species can become a threat when removed from their native contexts.



Protecting biodiversity requires seeing the full picture, even when it challenges popular beliefs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/icad.12858" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect Conservation and Diversity</a>.



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Honey bee invasion: A growing threat to native pollinators

Pollinators are vital for the natural world. They help plants...

Skipping breakfast does more than trim calories. It sets off a metabolic switch that floods the bloodstream with ketone bodies, small fat‑derived molecules that the brain eagerly soaks up.



The latest evidence traces how the primary ketone <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-46776-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">β‑hydroxybutyrate</a> clings to misfolded proteins and steers them toward the cell’s waste‑recycling system. 



The work comes from <a href="https://www.buckinstitute.org/lab/newman-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. John Newman</a> of the <a href="https://www.buckinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Buck Institute</a> for Research on Aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ketone-bodies-and-the-brain">Ketone bodies and the brain</h2>



When glucose runs low the liver converts stored fat into β‑hydroxybutyrate and its cousins. Within hours blood levels can climb past 3 millimoles per liter, a range the mice in Newman’s lab hit during a week of ketone‑ester dosing. 



At that concentration the ketone slips across the blood‑brain barrier and begins attaching to proteins that have lost their shape.



Misfolded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-high-protein-fruit-prunes-strengthens-muscles-and-bones-in-people-over-45/">proteins</a> are sticky; they jam up cellular machinery like lint in a dryer. By binding to them early β‑hydroxybutyrate lowers their solubility, flagging them for removal through <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33233502/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autophagy</a>.



“<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10634967/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ketone bodies</a> interact with damaged and misfolded proteins directly, making them insoluble so they can be pulled from the cell and recycled,” noted Dr. Newman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ketone-behind-the-brain-cleanup">The ketone behind the brain cleanup</h2>



Chemically, β‑hydroxybutyrate is a four‑carbon molecule with a lone <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/hydroxyl-group" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydroxyl group</a> sitting two atoms away from its acid tail. 



That subtle tweak lets it wedge into protein folds without forming permanent bonds, a trick confirmed when a non‑reactive alcohol analog failed to trigger the same protein drop‑out.



In mass‑spectrometry screens the team catalogued almost 300 proteins that shifted from soluble to insoluble, many bearing tubulin‑like domains that give neurons their internal scaffolding. 



Those struts often falter first in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s disease</a>, so forcing the damaged pieces out early could head off later trouble.



The cell handled the overload well. Within two days of sustained ketosis the dirtiest aggregates were gone, suggesting that the janitorial burst is brief but powerful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiments-in-mice-that-remember">Experiments in mice that remember</h2>



To test real‑world impact the researchers fed a ketone‑ester drink to 20‑month‑old mice, roughly the rodent equivalent of a 65‑year‑old human. 



Treated animals cut their brain amyloid load and showed sharper performance in maze tasks compared with oil‑fed controls, echoing earlier work in transgenic Alzheimer rodents.



Blood β‑hydroxybutyrate peaked near 4 millimoles per liter and drifted down within four hours, yet the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/">protein</a>‑cleanup signature persisted, hinting at a lasting reset.



“Once they were treated with ketone bodies the animals recovered their ability to swim,” said doctoral researcher <a href="https://sebastopolrotary.com/speakers/4e1baab0-9bd3-4f6d-80c5-d7a645b35738" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sidharth Madhavan</a>. 



Separately, nematode worms <a href="https://currentprotocols.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpet.35" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(Caenorhabditis elegans)</a> engineered to produce human <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amyloid‑β</a> regained their wiggling strength after swimming in ketone‑spiked media. 



These cross‑species results point to a mechanic that works on core cell chemistry, not on quirks of one model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-hints-in-human-studies">Early hints in human studies</h2>



Humans do not need engineered worms or maze trials to reach ketosis; an overnight fast or a <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/alz.12206" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ketogenic breakfast shake</a> can raise blood ketones above 1 millimole per liter. 



In a six‑month randomized trial a medium‑chain triglyceride drink that generated similar ketone levels improved episodic memory in people with mild cognitive impairment.



Brain imaging from a companion <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8596139/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that ketones bypassed sluggish glucose uptake and restored white‑matter energy use. While small, these findings back the idea that alternative fuel can do more than fill a calorie gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-everyday-eaters">What this means for everyday eaters</h2>



Nobody is prescribing full‑time ketogenic diets yet, but brief fasts, time‑restricted eating, or exogenous ketone drinks are being tested as practical ways to spark the same cleanup pathway. 



Clinicians caution that ketosis is not for everyone, especially people managing insulin‑dependent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-diabetes-type-5-is-now-officially-recognized-linked-to-nutritional-deficiencies/">diabetes</a>, yet most healthy adults can safely visit mild ketosis for a few hours.



Even endurance athletes, who traditionally favor carbohydrate loading, now experiment with ketone esters between sessions to speed brain recovery. 



If future trials confirm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">protein</a> clearance in humans, weekend fasting or a morning ketone shot could become part of standard brain hygiene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safer-brain-aging-with-ketone-bodies">Safer brain aging with ketone bodies</h2>



The Buck team is already screening related metabolites to see whether some outperform β‑hydroxybutyrate without the metallic taste or digestive side effects.



They are also mapping which brain cells benefit most, because clearing toxic proteins in astrocytes may relieve different symptoms than doing so in neurons.



For now, the discovery widens the lens on how metabolism shapes brain destiny. As life spans lengthen, a simple molecule that exercises the cell’s garbage disposal on command might help minds stay clear.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-chemical-biology/fulltext/S2451-9456(24)00459-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Chemical Biology</a>.



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Molecules produced by the body during fasting improve brain health

Skipping breakfast does more than trim calories. It sets off...

Ships have long connected the world’s economies. They bring goods and people across seas and rivers. But their impact on the environment goes beyond the fuel they burn. 



A new study from <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chalmers University of Technology</a> has uncovered a surprising threat linked to ship movement itself. 



This research reveals how ships stir up methane emissions, a potent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-super-pollutants-could-quickly-cool-the-planet/">greenhouse gas</a>, simply by traveling through shallow waters.



The findings are both alarming and unexpected. They show that methane emissions in busy shipping lanes are twenty times higher than in undisturbed waters nearby. This means that global methane estimates may have been far too low for many years.



Methane has always been a cause for concern among climate scientists. It traps heat far more effectively than carbon dioxide. Despite its powerful effects, methane emissions from ship movements have been mostly ignored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-escapes-as-ships-pass">Methane escapes as ships pass</h2>



Amanda Nylund, a researcher at <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chalmers University of Technology</a> and the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (<a href="https://www.smhi.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMHI</a>), explains how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dairy-farms-can-join-the-climate-fight-by-trapping-methane/">emissions</a> occur.



"Our measurements show that ship passages trigger clear pulses of high methane fluxes from the water to the atmosphere," she said. 



"This is caused by pressure changes and mixing of the water mass. Even if the pulses are short, the total amount during a day is significant."



This new finding changes how we think about emissions from ships. Previously, the main concern involved ships that run on liquefied natural gas, or LNG.



In this case, however, the methane has no connection to the fuel used by ships. Instead, it comes from the seafloor itself, disturbed by ship traffic. This means that all ships, regardless of their fuel, can cause these emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shallow-seas-emit-more-gas">Shallow seas emit more gas</h2>



The study focused on shallow marine environments rich in organic matter. These areas have oxygen-free sediments, ideal for producing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-methane-emissions-could-quickly-slow-global-warming/">methane</a>.



Methane in such regions builds up naturally within the seafloor. In many cases, it slowly escapes in small bubbles or leaks through cracks into the water above.



But when a ship passes through, the story changes. The passing vessel causes sudden pressure changes at the seafloor. This triggers methane to burst out from the sediments in large amounts.



The effect grows stronger when combined with the mixing action from the ship’s wake. This mixing allows methane to travel more quickly from the water to the surface, where it escapes into the air.



As ships pass repeatedly throughout the day, the methane pulses accumulate into significant emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-link-found-by-chance">Methane link found by chance</h2>



The research team stumbled upon this phenomenon by accident. They were conducting unrelated measurements in Neva Bay, part of the Baltic Sea, when they noticed strange methane spikes.



This accidental finding became the starting point for a new line of inquiry. Their work has now been published in Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment.



Johan Mellqvist is a professor of Optical Remote Sensing at Chalmers. His group made the unexpected discovery that forms the basis for the new results.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ships_methane-leaks-discovery_illustration_credit-Chalmers-University_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ships_methane-leaks-discovery_illustration_credit-Chalmers-University_1s.webp" alt="A Chalmers-led study shows that ship passages can trigger clear pulses of high methane fluxes from the water to the atmosphere. Credit: Chalmers University of Technology and Amanda Nylund" class="wp-image-1976785"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Chalmers-led study shows that ship passages can trigger clear pulses of high methane fluxes from the water to the atmosphere. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Chalmers University of Technology and Amanda Nylund</figcaption></figure>



"The discovery of the hitherto unknown impact of ships is important for improving global estimates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/">methane</a> emissions, not least considering that nine of the world's ten largest ports are located in waters with similar conditions as Neva Bay," he said. 



This finding holds global significance because many of the world's busiest ports are in shallow waters similar to Neva Bay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-ships-bigger-leaks">Smaller ships, bigger leaks</h2>



The study analyzed emissions from different ship types. Large cruise ships and container ships produced the highest and most frequent methane releases.



Surprisingly, smaller ropax vessels, which transport both passengers and cargo, also caused major emissions. These vessels, though smaller than cruise or container ships, had high methane release rates.



Interestingly, larger bulk carriers showed lower methane emissions than expected. This challenges the assumption that bigger ships always cause greater emissions.



Researchers believe that ship design may influence these results.



"A possible explanation for the high emissions of ropax vessels is that they have double propellers," says Rickard Bensow, Professor of Hydrodynamics, Chalmers, and responsible for the study's modeling of ship traffic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-ports-hide-methane-risks">Big ports hide methane risks</h2>



The findings suggest a need for urgent changes in how methane emissions of ships are monitored and reported. The authors stress that more attention must be given to coastal areas where natural and human activities interact.



The researchers now plan to expand their investigation to include large ports in river deltas - these locations likely face similar methane risks.



"The next step is to estimate how large these effects can be globally," said Ida-Maja Hassellöv, a professor of Maritime Environmental Science. She will lead the follow-up project that will start this autumn.



"Major ports in China, Singapore, and South Korea, as well as European ports such as Rotterdam, Antwerp, and river systems in Germany, have similar conditions to the Neva Bay," she said. "It is very likely that we underestimate methane emissions there as well." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shipping-rules-could-tighten">Shipping rules could tighten</h2>



This research could reshape how the world calculates methane emissions. Current models may leave out critical methane sources hidden beneath the waves.



If similar emissions are found in other shallow ports worldwide, it may prompt major changes in global climate strategies. It could also affect shipping regulations, urging stronger controls on ship routes and port operations in sensitive areas.



This surprising discovery proves that hidden climate risks can emerge from unexpected places. Ships do not just carry cargo and passengers - they may also be pushing greenhouse gases into the air, one wave at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02344-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Ships moving in shallow waters cause huge hidden methane leaks

Ships have long connected the world’s economies. They bring goods...

When researchers lowered a cow carcass 5,345 feet (1,629 meters) beneath the waves off Hainan Island, they were studying natural whale fall processes in the deep sea. Instead, the bait attracted uninvited guests never before filmed in these waters: Pacific sleeper sharks (Somniosus pacificus).



The video, captured on the continental slope of the northern South China Sea, marks the species’ southernmost sighting in the Pacific Basin. 



It also reveals a suite of behaviors - from polite feeding queues to protective eye retractions - that deepen our understanding of how large predators survive in the deep ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-spotted-far-from-home">Sharks spotted far from home</h2>



Until now, Pacific sleeper sharks were considered residents of the North Pacific, with records stretching from Japan and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-did-billions-of-crabs-vanish-from-the-bering-sea/">Bering Sea</a> to Alaska and as far south as Baja California. Their sudden appearance in tropical latitudes stunned marine biologists.



The deployment, designed to mimic a natural whale fall, quickly drew multiple sharks that took turns tearing at the carcass. 



Because sleeper sharks routinely dive below 3,280 feet (1,000 meters), direct observations have been scarce. Remote baited cameras provided the first clear window into their deep-sea routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-shapes-shark-feeding-style">Size shapes shark feeding style</h2>



Back on shore, the research team reviewed hours of footage and divided the sharks into two categories: individuals longer than 8.85 feet (2.7 meters) and those shorter. 



The threshold was chosen purely as a reference point, not as a marker of maturity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">Size</a> proved to be a major factor in feeding style. The bigger sharks charged the carcass head-on, ripping chunks of flesh with sweeping bites. Smaller sharks kept their distance, circling watchfully before making tentative nips. 



The contrast suggests a competitive hierarchy in which bulk confers priority access to limited resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-take-polite-turns">Sharks take polite turns</h2>



Perhaps the most unexpected behavior was a kind of underwater etiquette. As each shark finished feeding, it glided away, making room for the next arrival. 



<a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">On the video camera footage</a>, the handover looked almost orderly, with newcomers approaching steadily from behind while current feeders yielded position.



“This behavior suggests that feeding priority is determined by individual competitive intensity, even in deep-water environments," said study author Han Tian, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/">Sun Yat-sen University</a>. 



"This reflects a survival strategy suitable for non-solitary foraging among Pacific sleeper sharks.”



Comparable line-ups have been reported when sharks scavenge floating whale carcasses near the surface, where space is equally contested. 



The deep-sea footage indicates that such social rules persist even in the aphotic zone, where encounters are rare and every calorie counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defensive-eye-roll"><a></a>Defensive eye roll</h2>



Pacific sleeper sharks lack the nictitating membrane - a transparent eyelid - found in many shark species. Yet the video shows them repeatedly retracting their eyes while feeding.



Scientists interpret this as a built-in safeguard against sudden jabs from protruding bones or the teeth of rival sharks. 



The involuntary eye roll could compensate for the missing membrane, protecting vision during frenzied meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-an-expanded-range"><a></a>Clues to an expanded range</h2>



Finding Pacific sleeper sharks 1,800 miles (3,000 kilometers) south of their documented range forces scientists to rethink what governs their distribution. 



Do shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-are-rising-faster-than-expected-and-likely-to-accelerate/">ocean temperatures</a> invite them farther into the tropics? Or does the South China Sea offer prey reservoirs that make the journey worthwhile?



All individuals filmed were female - a pattern echoed by other rarely seen giants such as the megamouth shark, which also shows a female bias here. 



The sex skew hints that the region might double as a nursery or feeding ground for pregnant sharks needing high-energy meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-in-the-abyss">Energy in the abyss</h2>



Large predators cannot thrive without a steady food supply. Sleeper sharks typically scavenge or ambush seals and squids in colder waters.



In the subtropical South China Sea, their presence implies robust nutrient pathways moving organic matter from surface ecosystems to abyssal depths.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pacific-sleeper-sharks_rare-observations_deep-ocean_SME-DEEP_1s.webp" alt="The presence of Pacific sleeper sharks of varying body sizes was detected in the deep waters of the South China Sea using stationary cameras, with all individuals identified as female. Credit: Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research" class="wp-image-1976702"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The presence of Pacific sleeper sharks of varying body sizes was detected in the deep waters of the South China Sea using stationary cameras, with all individuals identified as female. Click image to watch the video. Credit: Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</figcaption></figure>



“The highly aggressive behavior of sharks observed in the South China Sea suggests that this region still harbors abundant food sources in the deep sea," Tan said. 



"But what exactly are they? This question is intriguing for both animal distribution and behavioral research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-sharks-in-the-deep">Tracking sharks in the deep</h2>



The team plans to deploy additional baited cameras and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/">environmental DNA</a> samplers across the basin to gauge how many Pacific sleeper sharks prowl these depths and whether they stay year-round. 



Comparative studies from other oceans could reveal whether deep-water queuing is widespread among large scavengers or unique to this lineage.



Biologists also hope to determine if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/">climatic changes</a> or altered current patterns are drawing cold-adapted predators southward. 



Answers will feed into global models of deep-sea energy flow and illuminate how carbon moves from surface waters to the seafloor, a key piece of the climate puzzle.



For now, the footage shatters old assumptions. Pacific sleeper sharks are not confined to polar and subpolar seas. 



They form loose social hierarchies, even in perpetual darkness, and they may rely on uncharted nutrient highways that link surface productivity with the deep ocean.



-----



<a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to watch the full video footage...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>.



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Rare video shows elusive deep-sea predators feeding thousands of miles from home

When researchers lowered a cow carcass 5,345 feet (1,629 meters)...

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. 



Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike.



Julius Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-greenland-sharks-live-so-long">Why Greenland sharks live so long</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating</a> shows females can live at least 272 years, with one specimen estimated at 392 ± 120 years. The method pinpoints birth dates because the lens proteins stop exchanging carbon after a shark pup forms in utero.



“This is the longest living vertebrate that we know of,” said Nielsen, who helped age the record fish. He and colleagues calculate that females do not reach sexual maturity until roughly 150 years, a timetable unheard of in other sharks.



Slow annual growth, barely half an inch, means injuries heal gradually but bones and organs escape the cumulative cellular wear seen in faster‑growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">animals</a>. 



Researchers suspect a combination of frigid water, low oxygen demand, and genes that police DNA damage all contribute, yet no single “silver bullet” for longevity has appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-have-slow-heartbeats">Greenland sharks have slow heartbeats</h2>



Greenland sharks have resting <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/19/jeb186957/33812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rates</a> of about 10 beats per minute and unusually low blood pressure. That’s much lower than what you’d find in other large sharks, and it may help protect their blood vessels from long-term damage like heart attacks or strokes.



Even with such a slow heartbeat, each pump moves a lot of blood, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-shark-species-seen-scavenge-feeding-together-in-rare-event/">bodies</a> fueled during slow swimming under Arctic ice. 



Doctors are paying attention, hoping this natural “strong pump, gentle pressure” system could offer ideas for treating high blood pressure in people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-bodies-save-energy">Slow bodies save energy</h2>



These sharks burn energy very slowly. In fact, their oxygen use is among the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76371-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest ever recorded</a> for a fish their size. That kind of slow metabolism may reduce cell damage over time and help them survive long gaps between meals. 



A 280-pound shark might get through the day on fewer calories than a cheeseburger, making a single big meal last for months.



Because the deep Arctic is so cold, they digest food slowly too. Instead of burning energy for speed or growth, they stretch it out for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-are-toxic-top-predators">Why they are toxic top predators</h2>



Greenland shark meat is laced with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5127123/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimethylamine N‑oxide</a>, a compound that stabilizes proteins under high pressure yet renders the raw flesh neurotoxic to mammals.



Icelanders neutralize it through months of fermentation to create the ceremonial dish kæstur hákarl, but few tourists finish more than a nibble.



The species ranks as an apex predator; evidence shows adults seizing fish, squid, and the occasional sleeping seal. 



Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico and off Spain reveal a wider range than once believed, hinting at deep‑water corridors that connect polar and temperate seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-are-at-risk">Greenland sharks are at risk</h2>



Commercial trawlers unintentionally haul up about 3,500 Greenland <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/07/greenland-shark-finally-gets-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> each year as bycatch. Because breeding may not begin for a century and a half, losing even sub‑adults chips away at population recovery.



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60213/3112909" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> lists the species as “Vulnerable,” citing low fecundity and expanding deep‑sea fisheries. 



Simple changes, switching to LED‑lit nets that deter sharks, banning deep set gill nets in nursery zones, and funding release‑training for crews, can cut mortality without shrinking catches of cod or halibut.



Scientists also urge Arctic nations to establish no‑take refuges around known mating aggregations once those secret sites are found. Protecting a fish that may still be swimming in 2425 demands policies that look far beyond typical political horizons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-nursery-grounds">The search for hidden nursery grounds</h2>



No one has ever observed Greenland sharks mating or giving birth in the wild. Only one pregnant female has been studied, and her embryos suggest the species may be <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharpen-your-shark-facts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aplacental viviparous</a>, meaning the young develop inside eggs that hatch within the mother’s body.



Females seem to carry up to 10 pups at a time, but the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/five-wild-facts-about-shark-reproduction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation period</a> could last several years. Without regular breeding or nursery sightings, it's hard to estimate how often they reproduce or whether their range shifts during these vulnerable periods.



This gap in knowledge makes population modeling difficult. Without better data, scientists can't say how quickly these sharks could recover if current bycatch trends continue. 



Tagging mature females may help reveal mating routes or hidden nursery grounds. Learning how and where they reproduce could play a key role in designing effective marine protected areas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Julius Nielsen



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Longest-living vertebrates on Earth survive for centuries in icy waters

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower...

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A new study shows they may pick foods that don’t meet their nutritional needs - and those choices might actually harm their health.



In research conducted at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a>, scientists found that when bumble bees were offered diets enriched with varying levels of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, their eating habits didn’t lead to better health. 



The study raises new questions about how bees choose what to eat - and whether those choices are good for them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-don-t-choose-healthy-options">Bumble bees don't choose healthy options</h2>



The researchers designed a controlled study where bumble bees were split into groups and given specific diets. Some groups received <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/">pollen</a> with added protein or fat. Others got nectar-like sugar solutions with different sugar levels. 



A control group was allowed to eat a standard diet of wild pollen and a 60% sugar solution. All the bees were the same age and housed in small groups to keep testing conditions consistent. 



What happened next surprised the researchers. The bumble bees didn't go for the food options that were healthy. 



The bees ate more when protein levels in pollen were higher, less when fat levels were higher, and they over-consumed sugar when the nectar was watered down. 



None of the eating patterns benefited the physical health of the bumble bees. Egg-laying declined. Body weight stayed the same or dropped. Nothing the bees chose to eat led to better outcomes than the control group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-make-bad-food-choices">Bumble bees make bad food choices</h2>



The results challenge the long-standing assumption that bees instinctively know what to eat to stay healthy.



Etya Amsalem is an associate professor of entomology in the College of Agricultural Sciences and lead author of the study. She noted that bee preferences are unlikely to reflect true needs and more likely result from evolutionary constraints.



“For instance, bees may under-consume lipids not because high-lipid diets are harmful, but because their physiology is not well-suited for digesting or storing large amounts of lipids," said Professor Amsalem.



“Bees may over-consume proteins because they have evolved to seek them out whenever they’re available, even though excess protein can be detrimental because it affects how efficiently bees can eliminate nitrogen from their bodies."



This mismatch - between what bees eat and what actually helps them - may be putting more strain on already vulnerable bee populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-bee-survival">Why this matters for bee survival</h2>



Bumble bees are under serious stress worldwide. Habitat loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticide</a> exposure, climate change, and industrial farming have drastically reduced the variety and quality of flowers bees depend on. 



In many areas, rich, diverse meadows have been replaced by monocultures or urban development. That leaves bees with fewer options - and often with subpar food sources.



This drop in floral diversity doesn’t just mean less food overall - it means less nutritionally balanced food. Even when bees find enough to eat, the quality of that food may not support key functions like reproduction, colony growth, or immune strength.



Nutrition plays a big role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/">bee health</a>. But if bees can’t always tell what’s good for them, that complicates conservation efforts.



“It’s an odd assumption when you think about it - my toddler prefers chocolate over broccoli, but I wouldn’t conclude from that that chocolate is healthier for her,” said Professor Amsalem. 



“So, why do we assume bees are different? Understanding potential mismatches between consumption and fitness outcomes is important, as most conservation and management strategies assume bees can self-regulate their diets for optimal health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bumble-bee-health">Rethinking bumble bee health</h2>



The results suggest that preference alone isn’t a reliable guide for diet planning - not for bees, and likely not for conservation strategies either. 



Instead of assuming bees will naturally eat what’s best for them, the researchers say we need a deeper understanding of how diet affects their health at a physiological level. According to Professor Amsalem, future research needs to dig deeper.



“Future research could investigate why bees fail to optimize diet - for example, metabolic limitations, gustatory biases or ecological tradeoffs - and may explore nonmacronutrient components like vitamins and minerals that may explain fitness discrepancies,” she said.



For conservation groups, farmers, and scientists trying to support healthy bee populations, this study is a clear reminder: what bees choose to eat may not be what’s best for them. And that makes understanding their real nutritional needs more urgent than ever.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022191025000769">Journal of Insect Physiology</a>.



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How bumble bees are sabotaging their own health

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A...

Off the eastern tip of Java, dredging barges dragged up more than sand. They pulled a piece of the past: a submerged river valley under the Madura Strait packed with fossils that had slept under fifty feet of water since long before the last Ice Age melted away.



Among the finds were two skull fragments of Homo erectus, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/">human ancestor</a> that roamed Asia until roughly 117,000 years ago, as well as more than 6,000 animal fossils that paint a vivid portrait of a lost ecosystem. <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/staffmembers/harry-berghuis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harold Berghuis</a> of <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a> leads the team studying the haul.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sundaland-rises-then-sinks">Sundaland rises then sinks</h2>



During colder glacial times, much of Southeast Asia’s continental shelf formed a single low‑lying continent known as <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/sundaland#:~:text=The%20Sundaland%20Biodiversity%20Hotspot%20covers,islands%20of%20Borneo%20and%20Sumatra." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sundaland</a>. 



Sea level then sat about 400 feet lower than it does today, exposing wide plains crisscrossed by rivers and grasslands.



When global ice melted between <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-04510-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">22,000 and 6,000 years ago</a>, the ocean climbed roughly 443 feet, drowning half of that landmass. 



The rapid pulses of rise carved islands out of peninsulas and pushed coastlines hundreds of miles inland, isolating plants, animals, and the people who depended on them.



Geologists can still follow the drowned river channels with high‑resolution sonar. Each channel marks a corridor that once connected Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the Asian mainland, providing migration routes for both megafauna and hominins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-river-fossils-under-the-madura-strait">River fossils under the Madura Strait</h2>



The valley now mapped under the Madura Strait was carved by the ancient Solo River. 



Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating (<a href="https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/dating-glacial-sediments-2/optically-stimulated-luminescence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSL</a>) shows its sandy fill settled between 162,000 and 119,000 years ago, anchoring the new fossils to the late <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S295023652500012X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a>.



OSL works because quartz grains store energy from cosmic rays like tiny batteries. When technicians shine a laser on a grain in the lab, it releases that stored charge as light, revealing the moment the grain last basked in sunlight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/madura-strait_sunda-shelf_homo-erectus-remains_map_credit-ScienceDirect_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/madura-strait_sunda-shelf_homo-erectus-remains_map_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="The Sunda Shelf of Southeast Asia, with the Indonesian archipelago. Box indicates the position of map B. B: Eastern Java, the Madura Strait, the Solo River, Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and other hominin sites. Box indicates the position of map C. C: The Madura Strait north of Surabaya, with the sand extraction area and the location of the BMS land-reclamation. Map data: GEBCO and ALOS" class="wp-image-1976530"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Sunda Shelf of Southeast Asia, with the Indonesian archipelago. Box indicates the position of map B. B: Eastern Java, the Madura Strait fossils location, the Solo River, Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and other hominin sites. Box indicates the position of map C. C: The Madura Strait north of Surabaya, with the sand extraction area and the location of the BMS land-reclamation. Click image to enlarge. Map data: GEBCO and ALOS</figcaption></figure>



The method is ideal for underwater sites where radiocarbon fails, yet it is rarely applied because retrieving uncontaminated samples from the seafloor is difficult. 



The Madura team’s success shows how pipeline spoil, often discarded as waste, can become forensic evidence on continental‑scale change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-madura-strait-reveals-fossil-menagerie">Madura Strait reveals fossil menagerie</h2>



The tally of species rivals a natural‑history museum catalog. There were buffalo, several kinds of deer, and <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/komodo-dragon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragons</a> longer than a canoe.



The biggest draw, though, is <a href="https://eartharchives.org/articles/stegodon-the-elephant-with-sideways-trunk/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegodon trigonocephalus</a>, an elephant‑like giant that could stand almost 13 feet at the shoulder. 



Its presence suggests tall grass and open water holes, conditions that match pollen studies from upland Java.



Fossil monitors link today’s dragon‑patrolled islands to their mainland roots; remains of <a href="https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/komododragon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varanus komodoensis</a> have turned up on nearby <a href="https://www.theextinctions.com/articles-1/lesser-sunda-islands-part-1-flores-and-sumba" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flores and Sumba</a>, confirming that the apex lizard once ranged far beyond its present refuges. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_ancient-remains_credit-ScienceDirect_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_ancient-remains_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="Madura Strait 1 (MS1): Homo erectus frontal fragment with dextral supraorbital torus. A: Photographs. B: CT-based 3D surface rendered images. Note that the exact orientation of the fragment is unknown. For the anterior view, a slightly diagonal orientation has been assumed. C: CT-based 3D surface rendered image of MS1 in a more horizontal orientation, with anatomical indications. D: CT-slice. Credit: ScienceDirect" class="wp-image-1976532"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Madura Strait 1 (MS1) fossils: Homo erectus frontal fragment with dextral supraorbital torus. A: Photographs. B: CT-based 3D surface rendered images. Note that the exact orientation of the fragment is unknown. For the anterior view, a slightly diagonal orientation has been assumed. C: CT-based 3D surface rendered image of MS1 in a more horizontal orientation, with anatomical indications. D: CT-slice. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ScienceDirect</figcaption></figure>



Carnivore teeth in the assemblage are scarce, hinting that reptiles, not big cats, topped the food chain.



Antelope‑like bovids and open‑country rodents round out the scene, pointing to savanna rather than rainforest. Together the bones sketch a community more East African than Indonesian.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-with-tools-and-strategy">Humans with tools and strategy</h2>



Researchers counted more than 300 bones marked by stone blades or flakes. Some show percussion scars where marrow was pounded out.



“The Sunda Shelf played an important role in the dispersal and evolution of hominin populations,” wrote Berghuis and colleagues in their 2025 report. Others bear parallel slices typical of tendon removal.&nbsp;



“Thus far, hominin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/">fossils</a> from submerged Sundaland were not available.” The Madura Strait fragments break that drought. Underscoring the novelty of the find.&nbsp;



Tool cut geometry matches <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4920301/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acheulean‑derived technologies</a> already known from Java’s terrestrial sites. That continuity supports the idea that people followed rivers seasonally, carrying simple gear that was easy to replace when tools were lost in mud or water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-skulls-add-to-the-story">What the skulls add to the story</h2>



Although each piece is only a few inches across, the brow ridge profile and bone thickness match late <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18479734/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo erectus skulls</a> dug from Ngandong and Sambungmacan farther up the Solo. 



That link pushes the species’ confirmed range hundreds of miles east, showing it followed river corridors onto the shelf when sea level was low.



One fragment comes from an adolescent, the other from a lightly built adult. Their presence alongside butchered game hints that family groups, not lone hunters, roamed the valley.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_skull_credit-ScienceDirect_1.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_skull_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="3D surface images of MS1 and Sambungmacan 3 (anterior view). This comparative skull has the closest metric and morphological match with MS1. Credit: ScienceDirect" class="wp-image-1976534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D surface images of Madura Strait (MS1) and Sambungmacan 3 (anterior view) fossils. This comparative skull has the closest metric and morphological match with MS1. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ScienceDirect</figcaption></figure>



Because no fire traces were found, the visitors probably camped on higher terraces that are now long submerged. 



The bones they left behind washed into lower channels during seasonal floods and were sealed beneath overbank sand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-cousins-beneath-the-waves">Looking for cousins beneath the waves</h2>



The Solo River was only one of many channels draining Sundaland. As survey vessels map more buried valleys, archaeologists expect to meet a wider cast: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/">Denisovans</a>, perhaps, or even the diminutive <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-floresiensis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo floresiensis</a>.



Every bucket of dredged sand now promises not just minerals for construction but clues to human origins. 



Underwater archaeology once focused on shipwrecks; now it is turning to paleolandscapes that could double the search area for early humans in Southeast Asia.



The Indonesian government is drafting guidelines that will require sand‑mining companies to report <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">fossil</a> finds within 48 hours. 



Those rules could transform commercial dredges into accidental research partners, expanding the data set at a fraction of normal field costs.



For now the Madura Strait cache stands alone, yet it already stretches the timeline of underwater archaeology in Asia. 



Skulls, riverbeds, and giant beast bones, all locked together in a drowned landscape, remind us that today’s ocean floor was yesterday’s hunting ground.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S295023652500012X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Environments and Humans</a>.



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Archaeologists find 140,000-year-old human and animal remains at the bottom of the ocean

Off the eastern tip of Java, dredging barges dragged up...

The sea spider, those spindly marine oddities that seem composed almost entirely of legs and claws, just given up their genetic secrets.



An international effort led by the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> has delivered the first chromosome-level genome for Pycnogonum litorale, a species common in North Atlantic tide pools.



Stretching across 57 pseudo-chromosomes and paired with extensive developmental transcriptomes, the assembly offers an unprecedented look at how an arthropod can evolve such an extreme body plan. This includes a nearly vanishing abdomen and internal organs that spill far into its limbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-sea-spider-genome">Mapping the sea spider genome</h2>



To achieve a genome this contiguous, the team combined long-read sequencing with Hi-C proximity data. Long reads captured tens of thousands of DNA bases at a stretch. This helped bridge the repetitive regions that routinely break short-read assemblies.



Hi-C, which measures how DNA folds inside the nucleus, then provided a “scaffolding” map that placed those long contigs into chromosomal order.



“The genomes of many non-canonical laboratory organisms are challenging to assemble, and Pycnogonum is no exception," said first author Nikolaos Papadopoulos, a zoologist at the University of Vienna. 



"Only the combination of modern high-throughput data sources made a high-quality genome possible. This can now serve as a stepping stone for further research.”



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-breeding-behaviors-of-giant-sea-spiders-revealed/">sea spiders</a> are not standard lab animals, researchers collected specimens by hand, often prying them from kelp during low tide. They then rushed them back to the lab for nucleic acid extraction.



The payoff is a reference genome that joins spider, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-the-first-ancestors-of-scorpions-and-spiders/">scorpion</a>, mite, and horseshoe crab assemblies on public databases. Yet it lacks the duplications that mark other arachnid genomes, making it a vital baseline for evolutionary comparisons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanished-gene-vanished-abdomen">Vanished gene, vanished abdomen</h2>



The analysis focused on Hox genes, key developmental regulators shared by animals from fruit flies to humans. One gene turned up missing: abdominal-A (abd-A).



In most arthropods, abd-A helps establish the rear-body segments that carry guts and reproductive organs. Sea spiders, with their virtually absent abdomens, appear to have dispensed with both the physical structure and its genetic architect.



“In arthropods, Hox genes play a central role in the correct specification of the different body segments, explained co-author Andreas Wanninger, who co-led the Vienna team. "In many other animal groups they are essential ‘master controllers’ during body plan development.” 



The disappearance of abd-A mirrors patterns seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mites-survived-without-sex-for-millions-of-years/">mites</a> and barnacles, two other arthropod groups that have independently shrunk or lost their hind segments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-spiders-skipped-genome-doubling">Sea spiders skipped genome doubling</h2>



Spiders and scorpions carry extra copies of almost every gene, relics of an ancient whole-genome duplication that likely fueled innovations such as silk glands and complex venom cocktails.



P. litorale shows no sign of that event. Because sea spiders sit at the very base of the chelicerate lineage, the simplest explanation is that the duplication occurred later. It likely arose within the spider-scorpion branch, rather than in the common ancestor of all chelicerates.



That finding reshapes timelines for when gene families expanded and may help researchers pinpoint which duplications underlie spider-specific traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-for-growth-and-repair">Tools for growth and repair</h2>



Beyond raw sequence, the consortium generated RNA profiles from embryos and juveniles, capturing when each gene flicks on and off as new body segments form.



Those developmental datasets make the sea spider a promising model for studies of ancestral arthropod development, limb regeneration, and physiological resilience in cold, nutrient-poor seas.



Georg Brenneis, an expert in arthropod development at the University of Vienna, is a senior author of the study.



“From an evolutionary developmental perspective, sea spiders are very interesting: their mode of development may be ancestral for arthropods, but at the same time they boast multiple body plan innovations unique to themselves. Beyond this, they also possess remarkable regenerative abilities.” 



“Now that we have the genome and comprehensive datasets on gene activities during development, we can systematically study all of these aspects on the molecular level,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-editing-limbs-and-trunk">Editing limbs and trunk</h2>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> editing becoming feasible in marine invertebrates, investigators can now ask how the remaining sea spider Hox genes choreograph eight elongated walking legs and a tubular trunk. They can also explore how the animals quickly regrow lost appendages.



Comparative physiologists might search the genome for stress-response genes that let sea spiders thrive in icy fjords, while ecological genomics teams could examine how gene flow operates across their wide geographic ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-ancient-sea-spider-cousins">Tracing ancient sea spider cousins</h2>



Without the duplication, shared sea spider genes likely existed as single copies in the last common chelicerate ancestor.



Aligning those sequences will clarify where new venom toxins arose, when silk machinery evolved, and how immune genes diversified.



The genome also lets scientists investigate regulatory DNA - enhancers, promoters, and non-coding RNAs. These elements rewired a conventional arthropod blueprint into the minimalist sea spider form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-genomic-catalog">Expanding the genomic catalog</h2>



The authors envision expanding the catalog to additional sea spider species to test whether abd-A loss is universal. They also aim to map gains and losses of other developmental genes across the group’s 1,300 known species.



Such work could uncover genetic shortcuts to extreme morphological change - insights that extend far beyond any single marine arthropod.



For now, the P. litorale genome stands as a milestone: the first high-quality reference for the world’s most enigmatic chelicerates. It’s also a reminder that even life’s strangest branches follow molecular rules that genomics can finally reveal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02276-x">BMC Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Richard Lord/ <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.en">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0</a>



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All legs, no guts: Sea spider genome stuns scientists

The sea spider, those spindly marine oddities that seem composed...

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks.



“They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">small</a> and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://corbidi.org/">CORBIDI</a>). 



Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach calling sites above 9,000 feet.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountains-support-unique-frog-species">Mountains support unique frog species</h2>



The <a href="https://blog.pensoft.net/2025/06/27/hidden-gems-in-the-mist-three-new-frog-species-uncovered-in-northern-peru/cordillera-de-huancabamba-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordillera de Huancabamba</a> forms a natural break in the Andes, splitting watersheds and isolating species. 



Ecologists classify the region as a <a href="https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/tropicalandes_techsummary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a>, one of only thirty‑five on Earth where extraordinary endemism collides with severe habitat loss.



"The Cordillera de Huancabamba is not just a remote range - it's a living archive of biodiversity and cultural legacy," said Wilmar Aznaran. "And we've barely scratched the surface."



Isolation breeds novelty, and novelty fills the genus Pristimantis. With 619 described species, Pristimantis is now the most diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whistling-forest-frogs-recently-discovered-may-be-wiped-out-before-we-learn-about-them/">amphibian</a> genus on the planet.



The new frogs, Pristimantis chinguelas, P. nunezcortezi, and P. yonke, occupy different niches along the same ridge. One clings to cliff faces, one prowls leaf litter beside clear streams, and the smallest tucks itself deep inside tank bromeliads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-new-species">Confirming the new species</h2>



Night surveys began after dusk, when temperatures hovered near 50 °F and fog erased headlamp beams. Team members listened for faint “peep” notes that barely rose above dripping leaves. 



Finding a caller did not end the chase. Each frog had to be photographed, swabbed for DNA, measured, and released without harming delicate skin.



Back in Lima, the researchers compared mitochondrial 16S sequences. Genetic distances exceeded the three‑percent threshold herpetologists often use to flag separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">species</a>, clinching the case for formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-amphibians-are-poorly-studied">Many amphibians are poorly studied </h2>



All three newcomers enter the IUCN books as <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-169-autumn-2024/4079-03-how-many-data-deficient-amphibians-are-threatened-iucn-red-list-assessments-for-amphibian-species-previously-classed-as-data-deficient" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data Deficient</a>, meaning scientists lack enough information to judge extinction risk. 



The label sounds neutral, yet recent reassessments show that roughly half of amphibians that start as Data Deficient later prove threatened.



Formal names unlock funding and legal tools that nameless creatures rarely receive. Conservation plans, environmental‑impact statements, and protected‑area budgets almost always hinge on a taxon’s standing in recognized databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-climate-shifts">Indicators of climate shifts</h2>



The Cordillera de Huancabamba isn't just a biological goldmine, it’s wrapped in layers of folklore. In nearby villages, frogs are often seen as signs of rain or omens tied to agriculture and spiritual beliefs.



This cultural lens makes local communities key allies for conservation. When researchers name <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/">species</a> after regional icons or traditions, like P. yonke, they honor local identity and encourage stewardship.



Unlike most frogs, species in the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64811-Pristimantis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristimantis genus</a> bypass the tadpole stage entirely. They hatch from eggs as fully formed froglets, ready to climb, hop, and call without ever entering water.



This reproductive shortcut allows them to thrive in places where standing water is rare or seasonal. It also makes them sensitive indicators of climate shifts and microhabitat changes in mountain ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-species-in-fire-prone-habitats">Frog species in fire-prone habitats</h2>



Each frog occupies an area smaller than four square miles, hemmed in by crop fields and fire scars. Peru recorded about 10,400 wildfires in 2024, more than double its previous record, burning grasslands and cloud‑forest edges alike.



P. chinguelas calls from a road‑cut cliff where charred bamboo still smells of smoke. P. nunezcortezi shares a single stream corridor that now borders new potato plots.



P. yonke lives higher, inside bromeliads at roughly 9,800 feet, in what locals call the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/northern-andean-paramo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">páramo</a>, a chilly grassland‑wetland mosaic perched above the treeline. 



Páramo vegetation stores water like a sponge, so every lost bromeliad weakens both the frogs and the human communities farther down‑slope.



“Exploring this area is more than fieldwork - it’s an immersion into wilderness, culture, and resilience,” said Karen Victoriano‑Cigüeñas.&nbsp;



"Many of these mountain&nbsp;ridges&nbsp;are isolated, with no roads and extreme terrain," noted Ivan Wong. "The weather shifts within minutes, and the steep cliffs make every step a challenge. It's no wonder so few scientists have worked here before. But that's exactly why there's still so much to find."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-frog-species">Protecting the new frog species </h2>



No one has recorded the breeding calls of P. nunezcortezi or P. yonke, so females remain unverified. Diet, predators, and lifespan also remain mysteries for all three species.



Future expeditions will test whether the frogs persist on neighboring ridges or whether each ridge hosts its own micro‑endemic. 



Acoustic monitors and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA traps</a> could reveal silent populations hiding in moss tunnels or bromeliad tanks beyond the reach of hikers.



For now, the frogs depend on local goodwill. Community fire patrols, low‑impact grazing, and small protected micro‑reserves can buy time while researchers gather the missing data.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evolsyst.pensoft.net/article/148522/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Systematics</a>.



Image Credit: Germán Chávez et. al



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Three new frog species found in Peru face an uncertain future

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a...

Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals - isn’t random. It’s shaped early on, during fetal development, by how the brain responds to hormones like androgens (male sex hormones). 



This early exposure is known to affect many important adult traits. But there's been one big obstacle: how do you measure that influence without invasive methods?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-fingers-hint-at-sexual-behavior">Rat fingers hint at sexual behavior </h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.okayama-u.ac.jp/index_e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okayama University</a> in Japan may have found an answer - by looking at rats’ fingers.



In a recent study, a team led by Professor <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/32931/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hirotaka Sakamoto</a> and Dr. Himeka Hayashi found that a simple finger measurement - the ratio of the second digit to the fourth digit, known as 2D:4D - can predict sexual behavior and preference in rats.



This digit ratio has been studied in humans for years. On average, men tend to have a lower 2D:4D ratio than women, meaning their index fingers are shorter relative to their ring fingers. 



But surprisingly, there hasn’t been much research testing whether this holds true in other animals, nor has sexual proclivity been measured against 2D:4D ratio in humans or other animals. That’s what drew the researchers to rats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-2d-4d-ratio">Understanding the 2D:4D ratio</h2>



As stated, the 2D:4D ratio compares the lengths of your index finger (2D) and your ring finger (4D). 



To find it, just look at your right hand: if your ring finger is longer than your index finger, your 2D:4D ratio is considered low; if your index finger is about the same length or longer, your ratio is higher. 



Scientists have found that this ratio is set before you're born, influenced by the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-with-low-testosterone-have-a-higher-risk-of-mortality/">testosterone</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-menopause-can-be-delayed-or-even-eliminated/">estrogen</a> you were exposed to in the womb. 



In general, people with lower ratios were exposed to more testosterone, while higher ratios suggest more estrogen exposure.



This tiny finger difference has caught scientists’ attention because it seems to connect to traits like athletic ability, aggression, risk-taking, and even career interests. 



For example, some studies have found that people with lower 2D:4D ratios tend to do better in competitive sports or lean toward science and engineering fields. 



It’s also been tied to traits like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/practicing-yoga-nidra-improves-sleep-memory-and-cognition/">cognition</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/">personality</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sexual-satisfaction-linked-to-rapid-memory-decline/">sex drive</a>, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/same-sex-sexual-behavior-linked-to-evolutionary-advantages-in-monkeys/">sexual orientation</a>.



But it’s not a rule - it’s just a pattern seen in large groups, not a way to predict someone’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shorter-fingers-stronger-sex-drive">Shorter fingers, stronger sex drive</h2>



“We found that the 2D:4D ratio serves as a reliable biological marker for predicting sexual activity in rats,” said Sakamoto. 



“Rats with shorter second digits were not only more sexually active but also showed a clear preference for female scent.”



Building on their initial measurements, the team then ran mating trials to observe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">behavior</a>.



The results were clear. Male rats that ejaculated during their first encounter had shorter second digits compared to those that didn’t. 



These males also showed signs of higher sexual drive: they ejaculated more often, did so more quickly, and had stronger erectile function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scent-of-sexual-behavior">The scent of sexual behavior </h2>



To go beyond behavior and look at preference, the researchers ran a simple but telling test. They placed male rats in a cage with two kinds of bedding: one scented by females, and the other by males.



All the male rats initially explored the male-scented bedding. But only those with shorter second digits stayed interested in the female-scented bedding. They sniffed, explored, and spent more time with it - indicating a clear sexual preference.



“While most studies have only linked the digit ratio to morphological sex differences, we noticed a surprising lack of research connecting digit ratio to the biological basis of sex itself - especially sexual activity and preference,” notes Hayashi. “This curiosity marked the start of our study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingers-mirror-brain-wiring">Fingers mirror brain wiring</h2>



Beyond offering insight into rat behavior, the study points to a deeper question: how early hormone exposure shapes the brain in lasting ways.



Before birth, hormone exposure might wire our brains in ways that the 2D:4D ratio later reflects - potentially shaping complex behaviors like sexual orientation or emotional attachment.



“Our results suggest a profound link between the body and mind, with significant scientific and clinical implications,” said Sakamoto. “Simply examining our fingers could one day help identify aspects of our behavioral tendencies.”



The findings also offer a practical model for exploring biological questions that are difficult - or impossible - to study directly in humans. 



Because 2D:4D is also connected to cognitive traits and mental health conditions, this research could help explain sex-based differences in disorders like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/">autism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a>, or attachment issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-is-not-the-whole-story">Biology is not the whole story</h2>



While the findings are compelling, they also raise important questions. For one, it’s still unclear how well results from rats translate to humans. 



Rats provide a useful model for controlled experiments, but human sexuality is influenced by many layers - cultural, social, psychological - that go far beyond biology.



The researchers also focused only on male rats. Future studies will need to explore whether similar patterns hold true for females, and how other factors like environment or stress interact with digit ratios to shape behavior.



Another key question is causation. Rats with shorter 2D:4D finger ratios tend to show more sexual activity and stronger preferences, but scientists aren’t yet sure whether the digit ratio drives this behavior - or if both stem from shared prenatal influences.



None of this takes away from the value of the study. But it highlights the importance of treating biological markers like 2D:4D as part of a much larger picture. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/expanim/advpub/0/advpub_24-0159/_article" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experimental Animals</a>.



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Does your finger length predict sexual behavior? A new study says yes

Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals...

Ants, with their unique genes, outnumber people by roughly 2.5 million to one. Their combined dry mass, about 12 million tons of carbon, rivals one‑fifth of humanity’s weight on land.



An international research team has compared 163 ant genomes to show how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">insects</a> turned cooperative living into an evolutionary engine. They reshuffled DNA while guarding key caste <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for more than 100 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-to-colony-life">Genetic clues to colony life</h2>



Dr. Lukas Schrader of the <a href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Münster</a> helped coordinate the <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> and still sounds amazed by its scope.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2665839/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin</a> once fretted over sterile workers, calling them a “special difficulty” because natural selection seemed unable to favor individuals that never breed. 



Inclusive‑fitness theory, formalized in 1964, solved the logic by showing that workers spread their genes by helping sisters.



The new data add genetic proof to that idea: worker‑specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">gene</a> clusters stayed almost identical across lineages, hinting that any mutation hurting brood care was swiftly purged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-colonies-behave-like-bodies">Ant colonies behave like bodies</h2>



Biologists label an ant colony a superorganism because its members behave like cells of one body. 



The new <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674%2825%2900617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dataset</a> spans army ants with millions of workers, species such as Camponotus japonicus whose queens dwarf their tiniest laborers more than 100‑fold, and even parasites that have lost workers altogether.



Researchers sequenced 145 species from 25 countries and folded in 18 earlier genomes to reach chromosome‑level quality for 17 of them. That’s no small feat when many ants are smaller than a comma.



“The publication is a milestone in our understanding of the molecular and genetic foundations of ants and probably also other social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ants-could-help-stop-the-tree-killing-lanternfly/">insects</a> such as honeybees,” said Schrader.



Across the tree, queen and worker blueprints sit side by side. Yet workers never hatch reproductive organs because development is rerouted by hormones and gene‑regulation circuits embedded in the shared DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-keep-critical-survival-genes">Ants keep critical survival genes</h2>



The study tracked <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/synteny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synteny</a>, the order of genes along a chromosome. Whole blocks had flipped, fused, or fractured at a rate up to four times that seen in vertebrates. Ant groups with the fastest breakage spawned the most species.



Even so, 970 tiny gene clusters, street blocks in the genetic city, remained frozen across 80 percent of species. Many code for metabolism and caste traits, suggesting that breaking them would cripple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/">colony</a> function.



One conserved block houses two <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/vitellogenin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vitellogenin genes</a> vital for queen egg yolk and sits unchanged in 148 genomes. Another links fatty‑acid enzymes to worker‑biased expression, underlining how diet and labor intertwine.



Holding those modules steady while the surrounding landscape rearranged let ants explore new lifestyles without losing the caste machinery that keeps colonies alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-decide-jobs-and-stability">Hormones decide jobs and stability</h2>



A single molecule can tip a larva toward royalty or toil. <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2406999121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juvenile hormone</a> has long been that switch, and gene copies for the enzyme <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2134232100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHAMT</a> rise in species with extreme queen‑worker size gaps.&nbsp;



Insulin and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm8767" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAPK signaling</a> join the act. In the jumping ant Harpegnathos, blocking MAPK with the drug trametinib makes workers grow larger, echoing lab findings that this pathway expands ovaries when workers become egg‑laying gamergates.&nbsp;



The new comparison shows MAPK genes under intensified selection in lineages where workers can still replace a queen, but relaxed selection where caste roles are rock‑solid. 



That fits the idea that plastic colonies need fine hormonal tuning, while rigid ones lock their switches.



Hormone receptors for juvenile hormone and insulin sit inside conserved synteny islands. This hints that the entire endocrine toolkit rode through deep time as a connected package.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-genes-shift-with-colony-size">Ant genes shift with colony size</h2>



Bigger colonies and steeper queen‑worker dimorphism marched together in evolution; both correlate with trails, trophallaxis, and worker polymorphism. 



Genes tied to brain development, such as <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=GCM1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GCM</a> and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/37892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscarinic receptor mAChR‑A</a>, show worker‑type biased activity and signs of adaptive change in species sporting soldiers beside tiny foragers.



Where workers lost ovaries altogether, selection on oogenesis genes like otu relaxed, but those same genes stay under pressure in species whose workers can still lay male eggs.



Social parasites flip the pattern. Workerless inquilines shed odorant‑receptor genes and rack up chromosomal breaks, mirroring their narrow ecological niche and tiny population sizes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-genes-explain-social-evolution">Ant genes explain social evolution</h2>



Many themes, hormonal control, preserved gene neighborhoods, break‑induced innovation, also shape honeybees, wasps, and higher termites. Ants simply had a 150‑million‑year head start, offering a living time machine for social evolution.



Knowing which genes stay linked during caste splits could aid synthetic‑biology efforts that aim to engineer division of labor in microbes or even tissues.



The study also reminds us that nature can be both flexible and conservative: colonies reinvent chromosome layouts yet keep critical circuits intact, a balance worth emulating in adaptive technologies.



Ants may be tiny, but their genomes read like manuals on how cooperation rewires life. Future research will test whether the same genetic choreography repeats whenever individual interests yield to collective success.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Ant genes show how evolution created perfect teamwork

Ants, with their unique genes, outnumber people by roughly 2.5...

Milk, a staple in countless diets worldwide, now faces an uncertain future. As climate change accelerates, its effects are being felt far beyond melting glaciers and rising seas. 



One of the most troubling consequences is unfolding silently in dairy farms - where heat is becoming an ever-present threat.



Heat stress in cows is not new. Dairy farmers have long dealt with summer slumps in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-shows-that-dairy-milk-cheese-consumption-improves-gut-biodiversity-health/">milk</a> production. But today's climate shifts are not just occasional hurdles. They are becoming regular, intense, and prolonged. 



Scientists now warn that the future of milk production could face irreversible changes, with major impacts on food supplies and farmer livelihoods.



A recent study offers deep insight into this challenge. It reveals that extreme heat reduces milk yields by up to 10 percent, and cooling systems are only partly effective. The results highlight the limits of technology in fighting nature’s heat waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-is-cutting-milk-production">Extreme heat is cutting milk production</h2>



The study examined 320 million daily records from Israeli <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/">dairy</a> farms over 12 years. It shows that extreme humid heat reduces milk yield by up to 10 percent. These effects linger beyond 10 days.



“Climate change will have wide-ranging impacts on what we eat and drink, including that cold glass of milk,” said Eyal Frank, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://harris.uchicago.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harris School of Public Policy</a>.



Even farms with the best technology could only offset less than half of these losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-israeli-farms-offer-global-insights">Israeli farms offer global insights</h2>



Israel's dairy sector uses advanced technology and operates under government-controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dairy-farms-can-join-the-climate-fight-by-trapping-methane/">milk</a> prices. 



The researchers gathered data from more than 130,000 cows. They also surveyed 306 farmers on their heat mitigation strategies, including cooling technologies.



“The dairy industry in Israel is a good testbed because farms are scattered throughout the country and experience a wide range of temperatures and humidity that represent conditions for top milk producing countries around the world,” noted Ram Fishman, associate professor of Public Policy at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-heat-causes-sharp-milk-declines">Humid heat causes sharp milk declines</h2>



The study shows milk yields fall sharply when wet-bulb temperatures exceed 26°C (78.8°F). Wet-bulb temperature captures both heat and humidity, making it more accurate for gauging heat stress.



When cows face these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-could-carry-deadly-flu-viruses-for-days/">conditions</a>, production drops by nearly 10 percent. It also takes more than 10 days for milk output to recover.



Cooling systems, such as fans and sprinklers, help but lose effectiveness as temperatures rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-helps-but-only-partially">Cooling helps, but only partially</h2>



Cooling equipment can cut losses by about half on moderately hot days. However, on hotter days, this protection weakens.



Farms typically recoup cooling costs within 1.5 years, making it a profitable, though incomplete, solution.



“Dairy farmers are well aware of the negative impacts that heat stress has on their herds, and they use multiple forms of adaptation,” says Ayal Kimhi, associate professor at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-damage-to-milk">Heat damage to milk </h2>



The researchers discovered that heat’s effects on milk production can last longer than previously believed.



Ten consecutive days of humid heat can reduce yields by up to 26 percent. These prolonged impacts suggest that heat stress accumulates, making recovery slow and difficult.



Some farms also shift calving periods and change feeding schedules to reduce heat impacts. These additional tactics offer slight benefits. Farms using both calving and feed adjustments showed better resilience during extreme heat.



Still, the researchers found that these methods offer limited protection compared to the scale of the problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-heat-will-worsen-milk-shortages">Future heat will worsen milk shortages</h2>



The research models future scenarios for major dairy-producing countries. Without cooling, these nations may lose up to 4 percent of their annual milk production by mid-century.



India, Pakistan, and Brazil face some of the largest losses. Cooling can reduce some of the impact, but not eliminate it.



The study also highlights that even with cooling, losses persist in countries like the United States and China.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-dairy-adaptation">Rethinking dairy adaptation</h2>



The researchers found a clear trade-off. Higher-producing cows suffer more from heat stress.



Milk losses are highest during early lactation stages and among older cows that produce more milk. This trade-off raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of high-output dairy systems.



The study raises questions about current dairy farming practices. Full indoor housing can reduce heat exposure but introduces new problems, like stress from confinement.



“Our research underscores the value and the limitations of cooling technologies and other efforts taken by dairy farmers to adapt to climate change,” said Claire Palandri, a postdoctoral scholar at the Harris School of Public Policy.



Palandri urges policymakers to explore alternative ways to ease heat stress on cows, such as reducing confinement or allowing more natural behaviors, to protect milk production in a warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw4780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Milk prices are rising with the heat around the world due to production issues

Milk, a staple in countless diets worldwide, now faces an...

Phyllium,Is,The,Largest,And,Most,Widespread,Genus,Of,Leaf

In the wild, survival often depends on looks. Some insects evolve disguises that trick their predators into keeping a safe distance. One of the most fascinating examples of this is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/batesian-mimicry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Batesian mimicry</a>, where harmless species mimic dangerous ones.



Predators that are wary of painful stings, or toxic bites, learn to avoid the warning patterns on the bodies of these potential prey species. 



But some other species evolve to copy these signals, despite being completely harmless themselves. This strange dance of deception shapes the appearance of many species worldwide.



Recently, researchers at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham</a> pushed this idea further. They explored how advanced 3D printing technologies can unravel mysteries surrounding mimicry. Their results revealed surprising insights about evolution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">predators</a>, and survival strategies.



This study not only shines a light on insect mimicry but also offers a deeper look at the forces that mold nature’s endless forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-predators-judge-insect-disguises">How predators judge insect disguises</h2>



The Nottingham team, led by Dr. Tom Reader and Dr. Christopher Taylor, decided to take an experimental leap. They created life-size, 3D-printed models of insects to study how predators respond to different levels of mimicry.



By controlling every aspect of these models - such as shape, color, size, and patterns - they crafted accurate representations of real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">species</a>. These included wasps that are known for their stings, and hoverflies that are famous mimics of wasps.



This approach allowed the scientists to explore a central question: Why do some mimics look almost identical to their models, while others resemble them only vaguely?



With 3D printing, they could manipulate every trait precisely and test how predators react to slight variations. This marked a significant step beyond previous studies that relied on natural specimens alone.



“In our study, we are asking a question about how evolution works and what determines where evolution reaches at a particular point in time," Dr. Reader said.



"Our experiments looked at the competing influences which might ultimately shape what organisms look like. Insects and mimicry offer a powerful and accessible way to investigate questions that are relevant across the entire tree of life,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-and-shape-matter">Color and shape matter</h2>



The team employed cutting-edge imaging tools to scan real wasps and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hoverflies-navigate-by-aligning-their-bodies-with-the-sun/">hoverflies</a>. Then, using advanced morphing software, they modified these images to create insects with varying degrees of accuracy in terms of mimicry.



These experiments allowed the researchers to demonstrate the potential for using modern 3D imaging, along with computer morphing, to design insect models that displayed many different combinations of colors and patterns, shapes and sizes.



“The models enabled us to ask ‘what-if’ questions about these insects. What if they were better mimics because their color was more wasp-like?" said Dr. Taylor.



"It allowed us to play around with the insect’s appearance in a way you can’t with real specimens," he said. "Which meant we could ask a much broader range of questions about what it is that makes a good or bad mimic.”



This experimental flexibility opened new doors for exploring mimicry. The researchers could fine-tune every trait independently and combine them in unexpected ways.



Their key aim was to understand how much precision a mimic needs in order to avoid being eaten. They also wanted to see why poor mimics still manage to survive in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-demand-better-insect-disguises">Birds demand better insect disguises</h2>



In their experiments, the scientists presented their models to real predators in controlled settings. Their main subjects were wild birds, particularly great tits, which rely heavily on sight to identify prey.



The results showed that birds responded strongly to variations in mimicry. They focused mainly on color and size, ignoring finer pattern details.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/insect-imitation_3d-printed-wasps_credit-UNottingham_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/insect-imitation_3d-printed-wasps_credit-UNottingham_1s.webp" alt="3D printed models of a common wasp. The model in front is life-sized. Credit: Dr. Tom Reader (University of Nottingham)" class="wp-image-1976458"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D printed models of a common wasp. The model in front is life-sized. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Tom Reader (University of Nottingham)</figcaption></figure>



The birds were quick learners. They soon began to avoid models that looked more like wasps, even if those models were still rewarding to eat.



Interestingly, the team discovered that intermediate mimics, those blending traits of two different wasp models, gained no extra protection. Birds seemed to prefer clear signals over mixed ones, demanding accurate mimicry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sloppy-mimics-still-survive">Sloppy mimics still survive</h2>



While birds proved strict judges, invertebrate predators reacted differently. The team tested crab spiders, jumping spiders, and mantises alongside birds to compare predator responses.



Invertebrates showed less concern about precise mimicry. They tolerated models with poor resemblance and attacked more broadly.



This revealed an important insight: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a> impose weaker pressure on mimics to evolve perfect disguises. Some insects can survive despite their sloppy mimicry if their main threats come from these predators.



This creates a fascinating evolutionary tension. Birds push for more accurate mimics, but invertebrates allow greater variation to persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-evolution-shapes-insect-disguises">How evolution shapes insect disguises</h2>



A major breakthrough in this study was the creation of an adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">landscape</a> for mimicry. By using their 3D printed models, the team could systematically map how changes in traits affected predator decisions.



They designed smooth transitions between models, allowing them to visualize shifts in predator responses as traits varied. The experiments showed that the landscape was steep for color and size, traits that birds select strongly for, but flatter for other features like pattern.



This landscape explained why some mimics evolve to look highly accurate, while others remain imperfect. It all depends on the types of predators in their environment.



In bird-heavy areas, precise mimicry becomes essential. In areas dominated by invertebrates, imperfect mimics can survive without major risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-future-disguises">Simulating future disguises</h2>



3D modeling and visualization tools allow researchers to create life-size, full-color models of potential past or future hoverflies and then test them with real predators like birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/">spiders</a> to see how they respond to those traits.



“As an evolutionary biologist, you are constantly trying to understand something that happened in the past, and without a time machine you can’t know how a hoverfly ended up like it did, " Dr. Reader said.



This study not only revealed the subtle pressures shaping insect disguises today but also hinted at how those forces may have operated throughout history.



By bridging technology and biology, the team has crafted a remarkable tool for studying evolution. Their work helps explain how nature fine-tunes survival strategies and keeps evolving in unexpected ways.



Their experiments brought new clarity to questions that have puzzled scientists for decades, showing how insect mimicry remains one of nature’s most astonishing tricks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09216-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Mimicry among insects: 3D models reveal how nature's disguises trick predators

In the wild, survival often depends on looks. Some insects...

Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for a mammal, it is practically yesterday. A new study uses whole‑genome data to show that the Norwegian lemming, Lemmus lemmus, split from its Siberian cousin only about 35,000 years ago.



“The Norwegian lemming is a key ecological species in the Fennoscandian tundra. Among other things, it serves as primary food for many predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-animals-evolved-in-different-ways-to-beat-the-cold/">species</a>, including some threatened ones such as the Arctic fox,” said David Díez del Molino, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, <a href="https://www.su.se/">Stockholm University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-shape-arctic-life">Lemmings shape Arctic life</h2>



Ecologists have tracked lemming booms and busts for decades because those <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00258.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cycles</a> ripple through the tundra food web, shaping the breeding success of Arctic foxes, owls, and even geese. 



When rodent numbers crash, fox litters shrink, snowy owls skip nesting, and grasses rebound after seasons of heavy grazing.



Unlike most small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">mammals</a>, Norwegian lemmings overwinter aboveground by tunneling under snow, a habit that keeps them active when many rodents lie low. Their winter wanderings aerate soil, mix plant nutrients, and feed predators during the hungriest months.



During peak years, the species can reach densities of hundreds per acre. Yet its loud squeaks and bold charge‑and‑bite defense make predators think twice, granting the animal an outsized ecological voice relative to its three‑ounce frame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-became-a-separate-species">Lemmings became a separate species</h2>



Researchers compared nine modern and two ancient lemming genomes and found a clean split from the Western Siberian lemming with no evidence of crossbreeding, even in areas where the two meet today. 



That result stands in sharp contrast to polar bears and brown bears, whose DNA still shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517859/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient admixture</a> from repeated hybridization events.



“Our findings indicate that the Norwegian lemming is among the most recently evolved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-otter-day-2025-on-the-front-lines-of-a-habitat-crisis/">mammals</a>, diverging from its sister taxon, the Western Siberian lemming, at a remarkably shallow time depth,” said <a href="https://palaeogenetics.com/people/edana-lord/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edana Lord</a>, a postdoctoral researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics.



The team’s high‑resolution sequencing also resolved relationships within the genus Lemmus, confirming that Eastern Siberian lemmings belong to a separate species and helping clean up a century of contested rodent taxonomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-born-in-an-ice-age">A species born in an ice age</h2>



The divergence date places the split just before the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1172873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, when ice sheets peaked between roughly 26,500 and 19,000 years ago. 



Glacial barriers likely trapped an ancestral lemming population in a Scandinavian refuge, cutting gene flow with Siberian relatives and setting the stage for rapid speciation.



Once the ice retreated, the newly minted Norwegian lineage expanded westward, but climatic swings had already written separation into the animals’ DNA. Modern population genetics shows no trace of later contact, suggesting that geography and behavior together kept the young species distinct.



Because the entire living population coalesces to a common ancestor only about 6,400 years ago, every Norwegian lemming alive today shares surprisingly shallow roots, a reminder that dramatic evolutionary change can happen fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-blocks-crossbreeding">Color blocks crossbreeding</h2>



Hybridization often lingers for thousands of years after a split, yet these rodents seem to have slammed the door shut. 



One reason may be their vivid black‑and‑yellow coat, a pattern that functions as an <a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/aposematism-warning-signals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic warning</a> and an instant badge of identity, reducing mating mistakes with the drab Siberian form.



Aggressive ritual boxing, loud chirps, and high‑speed chases further isolate the species by favoring individuals that court their own kind and bully outsiders away from snow burrows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-power-survival">Genes that power survival</h2>



Sequencing uncovered unique changes in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093193/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LYST pigment gene</a> that help produce the lemming’s splashy jacket, a mutation class also linked to altered melanosome function in laboratory mice. 



The same region shows signs of a recent selective sweep, hinting at strong predator‑driven pressure for conspicuous colors.



Other <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30006135/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> appear in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/53630" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BCO1</a>, <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/apob/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APOB</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=RELCH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RELCH</a> - genes involved in fat transport and storage; in mice, knocking out BCO1 triggers fatty‑liver disease and shifts cholesterol pathways. Extra‑efficient lipid metabolism may keep lemmings fueled through subzero winters when seeds are scarce.



The researchers also found clusters of rapidly evolving olfactory receptor genes, suggesting that a refined sense of smell guides the rodents through deep snow tunnels to mates, food, and lurking stoats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-arctic-mammals">Lessons for Arctic mammals</h2>



Climate upheaval can spin off new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquatic-robot-inspired-by-flatworms-can-swim-in-harmony-with-nature/">species</a> in a geological blink, and the lemming’s youth underscores how quickly isolation plus selection can rewrite a mammal’s genetic blueprint. 



Similar patterns play out in Arctic whales, foxes, and hares as shrinking ice opens and closes migration corridors.



“This work represents a big step in our understanding of lemming speciation and evolution,” said Love Dalén, a professor in <a href="https://utbildning.su.se/english/education/course-catalogue/bl/bl7082" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Genomics at Stockholm University</a>. 



Professor Dalén noted that tracing ancient DNA in more Pleistocene specimens could reveal exactly when each adaptive mutation took hold.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424333122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



 n

How Norwegian lemmings rapidly evolved into a new species

Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for...

Poke around a British rockpool and you may spot a shell shuffling over the sand. Inside is a hermit crab - an animal that spends much of its life testing the outside world before deciding whether it is safe to venture forth.



New research from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a> reveals that the speed of that decision, a trait biologists call boldness, hinges on a crab’s built-in sensory toolkit.



The study focuses on microscopic hair-like structures called sensilla that pepper the claws of Pagurus bernhardus, a common UK species.



By counting those hairs on dozens of individuals and matching the totals to behavior in the lab, the team discovered a clear pattern: more sensilla equals faster recovery from a startle response. 



Hermit crabs so equipped are not only bolder, they are also more predictable - showing similar, rapid emergence times across repeated tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-crab-response-times">Measuring crab response times</h2>



The experiment began with a simple but telling ritual. Researchers placed each crab in a small tank and gently startled it with a puff of water or a light tap on the shell.



That cue mimics the sudden pressure wave generated by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-caused-a-mass-extinction-of-top-marine-predators/">predator</a> or rolling wave, prompting the animal to yank its legs and antennae inside its borrowed shell. The team then timed how long it took for eye stalks and claws to reappear.



About a third of a second is considered lightning fast in hermit-crab terms; several minutes, positively timid. Over repeated trials, certain individuals consistently clocked shorter hideouts, indicating a stable personality trait rather than random chance.



“I was especially intrigued by how they used their claws and other sensory appendages, such as their antennae, in their explorations and when re-emerging from their shell,” said lead author Ari Drummond, a PhD student at the University of Plymouth.



That curiosity led to the hunch that claws might act as information-gathering probes, letting crabs “sniff” the water for chemical cues or feel subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-ocean-currents-play-a-huge-role-in-earths-climate/">currents</a> that betray lurking threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-claw-molts-reveal-sensors">Claw molts reveal sensors</h2>



Linking behavior to anatomy required patience. Hermit crabs, like all crustaceans, periodically molt. During this process, they shed the outer exoskeleton, including the thin cuticle covering each sensillum.



Drummond and colleagues waited for each test subject to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">molt</a> naturally, collected the discarded claw tissue, and examined it under a scanning electron microscope.



The high-resolution images looked like alien landscapes - ridged terrain studded with evenly spaced bristles. Each bristle is a sensillum, connected to nerve cells that detect touch, water movement, or dissolved chemicals.



By tracing and counting every sensillum in the images, the team created a detailed sensory map for each crab. This noninvasive method marked a major advance over earlier studies, which often required removing limbs.



Analysis revealed striking variation: some claws sported 50 percent more sensilla than others of similar size. When the researchers plotted those numbers against startle data, the trend became unmistakable. Bolder hermit crabs have more sensilla on the claw surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bolder-crabs-have-more-hairs">Bolder crabs have more hairs</h2>



Why would extra sensory hairs translate into courage? The authors propose that better input reduces uncertainty. With richer information about water chemistry or microcurrents, a crab can judge threats more accurately and resume foraging sooner. 



That efficiency, in turn, may feed back into survival and reproductive success, favoring individuals who “invest” in sensory hardware.



They call the concept the “sensory investment syndrome.” It’s a hypothesis linking an animal’s personality - here, boldness - to the resources it allocates to senses. If confirmed across other species, it could reshape how biologists think about behavioral diversity in nature.



“We’ve known for a long time that individual animals of the same species can show consistent behavioral differences from one another,” said senior author Mark Briffa, a professor at Plymouth. 



“Our new research suggests that in hermit crabs, some of this variation may be linked to how individuals sense the world around them.”



In his opinion, similar mechanisms might operate in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">insects</a>, fish, or even mammals, where variation in eye size, whisker density, or olfactory receptors could underpin consistent behavioral tendencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-survival-starts-with-sensing">Crab survival starts with sensing</h2>



Hermit crabs face mounting challenges: coastal pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/">rising temperatures</a>, and habitat disturbance all alter the sensory landscape of rockpools. Understanding how these creatures sense and decide may reveal which populations are most at risk from environmental change.



“In a world where environments and species are increasingly at risk from human impacts, it is essential that we gain a better understanding of what information animals detect, how they use that information and then respond to stay alive,” Drummond said.



Future work will test what each sensillum detects and whether diet, growth, or shell choice affects hair abundance. 



For now, the takeaway is clear: in the miniature dramas playing out between tide and shore, knowledge is power - delivered through a forest of microscopic hairs on a tiny claw.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0932">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Microscopic hairs drive courage in hermit crabs

Poke around a British rockpool and you may spot a...

Sagging beams and hollow‑sounding walls can signal a menace that quietly drains bank accounts around the world - termites. Building owners and insurers spend close to $5 billion a year fixing damage and fighting infestations.



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://profiles.ucr.edu/app/home/profile/dchoe003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dong‑Hwan Choe</a> at the University of California, Riverside (<a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCR</a>) say they can coax the culprits to a pinpoint dose of insecticide by copying the smell of their favorite meal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-termites-cause-problems">How termites cause problems</h2>



The western drywood termite, <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN526" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Incisitermes minor</a>, thrives along the Pacific Coast and has hitchhiked as far as Florida, Georgia, and even Ontario. 



Its colonies live entirely inside dry wood, so they can chew unseen for years before a blistered board betrays them.



Beyond structural headaches, the insects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/">recycle fallen trees</a> in forests, yet in houses the same appetite leaves rafters brittle and doorframes warped. 



Because they need no soil contact, second‑story condominiums and attic beams are just as vulnerable as ground‑floor studs.



Field surveys show overlapping termite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-play-an-unexpected-role-in-rainforest-revival/">colonies are common</a> in older buildings, compounding the pace of destruction. Inspectors have documented boards reduced to paper‑thin shells while the painted exterior looked intact.



When swarming season peaks, thousands of alates emerge through ventilation gaps, searching for new lumber to colonize. A single missed pair can restart the cycle inside a freshly repaired wall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fumigation-falls-short">Why fumigation falls short</h2>



The go‑to remedy, whole‑structure tenting, bathes a building in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01294-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas sulfuryl fluoride</a>, a pesticide that lingers in the atmosphere for roughly forty years and traps heat far more effectively than carbon dioxide.



Homeowners must vacate for several days, double‑bag food, and trust that every gallery fills with gas, yet the treatment leaves no residue to deter the next swarm.



California alone releases up to <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/03042024/california-sulfuryl-fluoride-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">85 percent</a> of U.S. sulfuryl fluoride emissions, underscoring the climate cost of repeat tentings. 



Each fresh infestation starts the clock, forcing many coastal residents to pay for fumigation every three to five years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-scent-straight-from-the-forest">A scent straight from the forest</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8222632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pinene</a> is the crisp aroma wafting from pine needles and conifer sap. For termites the smell signals digestible cellulose rather than festive wreaths.



“Even at low concentrations, pinene is good at attracting termites from a distance,” said Choe. 



Her team reasoned that drifting molecules could guide workers through their winding tunnels toward a precisely drilled injection point. 



Even at parts‑per‑billion levels, the compound spreads faster in air pockets than liquid insecticide can seep through wood fibers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-on-termites-in-the-lab">Testing on termites in the lab</h2>



The experiments, paired a fipronil plug with an identical plug laced with pinene to mimic local injections in framing lumber. 



Termites released into artificial galleries quickly left their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybrid-termites-could-spread-worldwide-from-florida-boats/">aggregation sites</a> and contacted the treated zone.



“Without pinene, we got about 70 percent mortality. When we added it in, it was over 95 percent,” said Choe. 



Video tracking showed most workers reached the scented plug within six hours, and all feeding halted long before visible signs of distress appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-homeowners-can-expect">What homeowners can expect</h2>



Because the method relies on localized injection, technicians need only a few dime‑size holes instead of circus‑style tarps and warning placards. 



Treated wood stays guarded for years because tiny doses of insecticide remain locked inside the lumber.



The active ingredient, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23980838/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fipronil</a>, can harm aquatic invertebrates at concentrations below 7 micrograms per liter. 



Embedding the chemical in structural beams slashes the chance of runoff or drift, giving the protocol an environmental edge over perimeter sprays and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-desert-structure-termite-mound-built-by-insects-can-be-seen-from-space/">soil drenches</a>.



Early budget modeling by the research group suggests the scent‑boosted injection could cut treatment expenses by half compared with a typical fumigation, since there is no hotel stay, tent rental, or food disposal. 



Contractors also gain scheduling flexibility because residents do not need to vacate, and weather delays become less critical when tarps are no longer part of the plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-for-safer-pest-control">Looking ahead for safer pest control</h2>



Choe’s laboratory is cataloging other tree volatiles to see whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-desert-structure-termite-mound-built-by-insects-can-be-seen-from-space/">termite</a> preferences shift with geography or seasonal wood chemistry. 



Matching the lure cocktail to local diets could push effectiveness even higher without raising insecticide doses.



Collaborators in Florida and Japan are testing the approach against Formosan and powderpost drywood relatives, signaling a future where pest management leans on insect noses more than broad‑spectrum gases.



If regulators approve the formulation, builders may someday treat critical beams during construction, turning the lumber itself into a long‑term shield that keeps houses solid and the climate a little cleaner.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/117/4/1628/7675403?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Economic Entomology</a>.



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New system attracts and eliminates termites with a natural scent and no toxins

Sagging beams and hollow‑sounding walls can signal a menace that...

Vanilla is more than just a kitchen staple. It is the world’s most popular spice after saffron and finds its way into everything from ice creams to perfumes and medicines. 



The allure of vanilla's rich, sweet aroma has made it a global commodity, supporting industries and smallholder farmers alike. Yet, hidden behind its widespread appeal lies a fragile reality deeply linked to climate change.



The commercial vanilla crop, derived from the Vanilla planifolia orchid, faces growing challenges. These include threats from drought, heat, and diseases, all of which are worsening under climate change. 



Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">farming</a> already depends heavily on labor-intensive hand pollination. Any further strain on the species could threaten not only its cultivation but also the livelihoods of many farming communities.



Wild Vanilla species, scattered across the tropics, may hold the key to preserving this treasured crop. They offer a wealth of genetic diversity that could help strengthen cultivated varieties. However, these wild species now face their own climate-driven crises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-affects-vanilla-and-pollinators">How climate affects vanilla and pollinators</h2>



Scientists have long recognized the importance of wild Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">species</a> as genetic resources. These species possess traits that could improve drought resistance, heat tolerance, and disease resilience in commercial vanilla. However, their survival is tightly linked to pollinators, mainly bees from the Euglossini tribe.



In the natural world, most Vanilla species depend on animal pollinators for reproduction. These intricate relationships, often involving specialized behaviors and physical compatibility, are highly vulnerable to ecological disruptions.



“Climate change may lead to a reduced habitat overlap between Vanilla orchid species and their pollinators, resulting in plant-pollinator decoupling that negatively affects the survival of wild vanilla populations,” said Dr Charlotte Watteyn, a researcher at KU Leuven and the <a href="https://www.ucr.ac.cr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Costa Rica</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-shifts-under-climate-pressure">Habitat shifts under climate pressure</h2>



Dr. Watteyn's team analyzed the habitats of 11 Vanilla species along with seven pollinator species. They examined two future climate scenarios: SSP2.4-5 and SSP3-7.0.



The SSP2.4-5 scenario presents moderate climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-farms-can-succeed-but-they-need-support/">risks</a>, with some progress in climate action. In contrast, SSP3-7.0 signals severe challenges, marked by heavy fossil fuel use and limited global cooperation.



Under both scenarios, some Vanilla species may expand their habitats by as much as 140%. However, other species may lose up to 53% of their suitable habitat.



Pollinators face even greater risks. Their suitable habitats are expected to shrink significantly, with the steepest declines under SSP3-7.0. This sharp drop in pollinator populations threatens the entire pollination process.



“Despite the possible increase in suitable habitat for some Vanilla species, their pollinator-dependency may imperil the survival of natural populations,” said Watteyn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-risks-to-vanilla-pollination">Climate risks to vanilla pollination</h2>



Many Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-for-wildlife-how-traditional-practices-can-protect-nature/">species</a> rely on distinct pollination methods. Some provide nectar to attract pollinators, while others use deception. Vanilla pompona employs a combination of floral scents and food mimicry to lure bees.



Pollinators, particularly Euglossini bees, face mounting climate threats. Their habitats are expected to shrink, with smaller bee species showing greater vulnerability than larger ones.



“Vanilla species are known for their specialized relationships with pollinators, hence, they may experience difficulties in replacing pollinators,” explained Watteyn. 



Species like V. planifolia and V. trigonocarpa already have limited overlap with their pollinators. Climate change may worsen this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-priorities-for-vanilla-survival">Conservation priorities for vanilla survival</h2>



The study identified current and future areas where Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-devastate-global-food-production/">species</a> and pollinators overlap. They also flagged areas needing conservation or assisted migration.



By 2050, protected areas covering Vanilla-pollinator overlap could shrink significantly. For example, protected overlap for V. pompona may fall from 42 to 17 percent.



The researchers highlighted areas for urgent conservation. They suggested combining in situ protection with ex situ measures such as seed banks and botanical gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-threats-beyond-climate">Other threats beyond climate</h2>



Habitat destruction, illegal harvesting, and ecological disruptions also affect Vanilla survival. Many Vanilla species have specific needs, including partnerships with fungi and animals for seed dispersal and germination.



The researchers emphasized the need for more studies on these relationships. “Collaborative research on the ecology and genetic diversity of wild vanilla across its natural distribution is paramount if we want to take vanilla breeding into the future,” said Professor Adam Karremans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-vanilla-trade-needs-protection">Global vanilla trade needs protection</h2>



Vanilla remains a major cash crop with high global demand. It supports smallholder farmers worldwide.



“Like cacao and coffee, vanilla is a global export crop with high international market value. It’s grown to make profit, and is a key driver for rural development, agricultural innovation, and overall welfare,” concluded Dr. Watteyn.



Conserving wild Vanilla species now appears essential not just for ecosystems, but also for global food systems. Protecting these species can help secure vanilla’s future amid climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2025.1585540/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.



Image Credit: Charlotte Watteyn



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Climate change is separating wild vanilla from its pollinators

Vanilla is more than just a kitchen staple. It is...

Shower water carries more than suds. Every shampoo rinse sends long‑chain chemicals from our bathrooms into rivers where they can cling to the bodies of small aquatic animals.



A research team led by Hans Sanderson of <a href="http://Aarhus University https://g.co/kgs/wGFv7P9">Aarhus University</a> tracked what those ingredients do once they leave the drain, focusing on a class called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166445X24003485?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyquaternium conditioners</a> that make hair feel smooth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-shampoos-tame-frizz">How shampoos tame frizz</h2>



Hair carries a natural negative charge, and damaged strands hold even more. Manufacturers add <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166248108701168" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">positively charged polymers</a> so those long molecules wrap around each fiber and neutralize static, leaving a sleek finish.



The most common sub‑group, polyquaterniums, numbers more than 25,000 variations. Together they support a <a href="https://www.businessresearchinsights.com/market-reports/polyquaternium-market-107659" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">market valued</a> at about $0.12 billion in 2024 and projected to grow steadily over the next decade.



Each molecule is huge by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ocean-animals-connect-countries-and-continents/">chemical</a> standards, so toxicology screens once assumed they were harmless to wildlife because they cannot slip through cell membranes. Sanderson’s team asked whether sticking on the outside of a creature could matter just as much.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shampoo-harms-tiny-aquatic-animals">Shampoo harms tiny aquatic animals </h2>



Freshwater ponds and lakes are full of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2042/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daphnia</a>, tiny crustaceans <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Shampoo-animals.jpg">sometimes called water fleas</a>. They filter algae and bacteria, purify water, and form a primary food source for many small fish.



Because daphnia propel themselves with rhythmic strokes of their antennae, any extra drag can slow them down. 



The Aarhus experiments showed that a film of conditioner polymers glued to the animals’ shells, halving their swimming speed and hindering feeding.



“We have conducted the first study in the world to investigate this. The substances do not penetrate the animals’ cells, but rather stick to the surface of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">animal</a>,” explained Sanderson. 



“This physically affects the animal, making it unable to move as well, and it impairs its ability to ingest food,” continued Sanderson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shampoo-s-charge-makes-animals-vulnerable">Shampoo's charge makes animals vulnerable</h2>



The researchers ran complementary tests on two standard laboratory species, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2042/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daphnia magna</a> and <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/483833-Ceriodaphnia-dubia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ceriodaphnia dubia</a>, using three <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166445X24003485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyquaterniums</a> of different designs. 



The team found toxicity thresholds as low as 0.05 mg per liter for the most highly charged polymer, while the same molecule with a lower charge was 400‑fold less toxic.



The pattern was consistent regardless of molecular weight. That result shifts regulatory focus from size to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/charge-density" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charge density</a>, a parameter rarely documented on shampoo labels.



Organic matter in natural water, such as dissolved humic acids, partially blunts the polymers’ stickiness. Yet even moderate concentrations still impaired reproduction and growth during 21‑day chronic tests with both daphnia species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-shampoo-chemicals-move-to-animals">How shampoo chemicals move to animals</h2>



Wastewater plants intentionally add the same <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.macromol.3c01223" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cationic polymers</a> as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/flocculant" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flocculant</a> to clump particles together for easier removal. Ironically, what helps strip other pollutants out of sewage can persist in the resulting sludge or treated effluent.



If facilities discharge more than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/">ecosystem</a> can buffer, sensitive invertebrates pay the price. Because daphnia sit near the base of the food web, their decline can ripple upward and reduce fish recruitment.



Laboratory work measured polymer levels that killed half a daphnia population within 48 hours at phone‑screen brightness‑level concentrations. Field monitoring remains limited, so nobody knows how often small streams approach those doses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-smarter-safety-tests">Call for smarter safety tests</h2>



European agencies already demand hazard labels for chemicals that penetrate cells, but large polymers still slip through many guidelines. 



The European Commission is reviewing <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/chemicals/chemicals-legislation_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polymer assessment rules</a> under its CLP and <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/chemicals/reach-regulation_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">REACH regulations</a>, with updates expected this year.



The researchers argue that future protocols must mimic real‑world water containing organic carbon, rather than the ultra‑clean test media used today. 



They also recommend including movement and feeding endpoints, not just mortality, when assessing ecological risk.



Softening agents may never fully disappear from consumer goods. However, incremental tweaks, lower charge density, biodegradable side chains, or safer alternatives like amino‑based conditioners could cut harm dramatically. 



Manufacturers have incentives to act before formal limits arrive, because production lines adapt faster than legislation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-shampoo-s-harm-to-animals">Reducing shampoo’s harm to animals</h2>



Reading an ingredient list will often reveal polyquaterniums by number, for example polyquaternium‑10 or ‑7. Lower single‑digit numbers usually carry higher charge density, although the label alone cannot quantify risk.



Choosing rinse‑off products certified for low aquatic toxicity is one stopgap, though Sanderson notes that even ecolabel formulations sometimes rely on the same chemistry. 



Reducing dosage helps too; a quarter‑sized blob of shampoo cleans most medium‑length hair, and conditioner is unnecessary every wash for many people.



Small behavior shifts add up because each bottle skipped prevents thousands of gallons of rinse water from picking up extra polymers over its retail life. 



Until wastewater infrastructure and regulations catch up, prevention at the source remains the surest shield for freshwater communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-balanced-bathroom-shelf">Toward a balanced bathroom shelf</h2>



The story of sticky hair conditioners underscores a broader lesson in polymer safety. Size alone cannot protect wildlife if surface charge lets molecules hijack essential behaviors like swimming and feeding. 



Daphnia, though invisible from a shower stall, signal the health of entire lakes and streams. When their numbers fall, algae blooms can surge, water clarity drops, and fish lose a key snack.



Scientists now have lab tools to screen thousands of conditioning agents quickly, ranking them by how strongly they glue onto living surfaces. 



Policy makers can use that knowledge to set practical discharge limits, while industry chemists re‑engineer formulas for performance without collateral damage.



Every shampoo rinse cycle connects personal routine to planetary processes, affecting animals too. Balancing clean hair with clean water and protecting animals is no longer guesswork; the data are in view, and the solutions are within reach.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166445X24003485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aquatic Toxicology</a>.



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Chemicals in shampoos and soaps are infiltrating rivers and killing aquatic life

Shower water carries more than suds. Every shampoo rinse sends...

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums with life. It is not just about colorful fish or vibrant corals. Something else is happening that we cannot see.



Tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">coral</a> larvae drift in the currents, carried away from their parents. Some travel far and some barely move at all. Where these larvae end up can decide the fate of entire reefs.



Now, scientists from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> have unlocked a key mystery. Their new study shows how far these baby corals can go. The research also reveals why this matters more than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-coral-babies-survive">Why some coral babies survive</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">Corals</a> are under pressure. Heatwaves damage them. Storms cause destruction. Oceans keep getting more acidic. Each year, the risk becomes worse. But not all corals are affected equally. PhD candidate Zoe Meziere explained why some reefs survive better than others.



“Quantifying genetic connectivity can predict the fate of populations as more isolated reefs with lower levels of genetic variation are likely more vulnerable,” said Meziere.



When coral species spread their larvae far, they swap genetic material with distant reefs. This boosts their ability to adapt and recover. Corals that keep their offspring close face greater risks. They may struggle to bounce back after disasters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-species-take-different-paths">Coral species take different paths</h2>



Meziere and her team searched for answers. They focused on two coral species found across the Great Barrier Reef, Stylophora pistillata and Pocillopora verrucosa.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-how-humans-completely-changed-caribbean-reef-ecosystems/">species</a> live near each other, but their ways of reproducing could not be more different. Stylophora pistillata plays it safe. It fertilizes its eggs internally. Its larvae do not venture far. Most settle nearby, just meters from their parent colony.



Pocillopora verrucosa does the opposite. It releases eggs and sperm into the sea. Currents carry its larvae far from home.



The results surprised the researchers. Stylophora pistillata larvae traveled only 23 to 102 meters. Pocillopora verrucosa larvae journeyed as far as 52 kilometers.



Professor Cynthia Riginos noted that this is the first study to quantify how connected different coral populations are across the seascape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-journey-of-baby-corals-matters">Why the journey of baby corals matters</h2>



The story does not stop with distance. These differences shape the future of coral populations.



Stylophora pistillata stays close to home. It forms small, tight populations. Over time, these groups grow isolated. They lose genetic diversity. That leaves them vulnerable. Pocillopora verrucosa travels widely. It links distant populations. This mixing keeps its populations strong and diverse.



“Over time, these differences have profound evolutionary impacts with S. pistillata populations being more genetically distinctive with much lower genetic diversity and smaller population sizes than the more widely dispersing P. verrucosa,” explained Professor Riginos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-baby-corals-travel">Where baby corals travel</h2>



The research team did not stop after measuring dispersal. They looked deeper into the genetic maps.



Stylophora pistillata stayed loyal to its local area. Its genetic patterns showed clear boundaries between reefs. Neighboring reefs looked genetically distinct. 



Pocillopora verrucosa showed no such boundaries. Its populations mixed freely throughout the reef. From one end to another, its genetics stayed consistent.



S. pistillata’s world spanned just a few hundred meters, while P. verrucosa’s world stretched across tens of kilometers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-survival-and-recovery">Coral survival and recovery</h2>



Distance is only part of the story. Gene flow also plays a big role. S. pistillata had weak gene flow. Its reefs relied mostly on themselves. This isolation put them at risk. One disaster could wipe out an entire population with no outside help.



P. verrucosa showed strong gene flow, as distant reefs shared genes often. This flow allowed for faster recovery after disasters.



This means that Pocillopora verrucosa can bounce back after bleaching far more quickly than Stylophora pistillata.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-coral-babies-stay-stronger">Some coral babies stay stronger</h2>



Genetic diversity matters for survival. The researchers found striking differences here too.



Stylophora pistillata had low genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">diversity</a>. Its diversity also varied wildly between reefs. The lowest levels appeared in southern parts of the Great Barrier Reef.



Pocillopora verrucosa held onto high diversity. Its genetic richness stayed stable across all reefs. S. pistillata lives in a fragile world, and P. verrucosa thrives in a far more connected one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-conservation-for-corals">Smarter conservation for corals</h2>



The research offers a clear message for coral conservation efforts. Stylophora pistillata needs focused, local protection. Efforts must center on preserving nearby populations. Without these, this species faces collapse.



Pocillopora verrucosa calls for a broader approach. Large-scale conservation networks can help maintain its natural strength.



"Dispersal and connectivity are important drivers of coral adaptation, and being able to adapt is key to having healthy coral reefs in the future,” said Meziere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-reef-restoration">New approach to reef restoration</h2>



Coral restoration should not follow a one-size-fits-all model. Stylophora pistillata may benefit from assisted migration. Moving larvae or adult corals from healthy reefs to damaged ones could restore genetic diversity. 



However, such moves must be done carefully. Forcing new genes into a delicate reef might cause new problems.



Pocillopora verrucosa already benefits from strong natural connections. Protecting these migration routes may be enough.



Each coral species has its own needs. These needs are not the same. Conservation efforts should focus on these differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-for-coral-conservation">New insights for coral conservation </h2>



Coral reefs have an uncertain future. Their survival depends on how well we understand and protect the hidden connections between them.



The study, funded by the Australian Government’s Reef Trust and the Great Barrier Reef Foundation, brings new insights to reef science.



The research makes one thing clear: not all corals are the same. Some need protection close to home, while others depend on far-reaching connections. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2066" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Reef survival may depend on how far baby corals travel

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums...

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood industry is raising red flags among scientists and policy experts. While the order claims to boost competitiveness and cut red tape, critics warn it could do more harm than good - weakening the very systems that protect seafood sustainability.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the University of Washington outlined their concerns in a recent paper. They argue that the executive order misses the mark, prioritizing short-term gains over long-term stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-seafood-deregulation-order">Inside the seafood deregulation order</h2>



Signed in April 2025, the order - titled “Restoring American Seafood Competitiveness” - claims that U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-seafood-industry-has-been-hit-hard-by-the-covid-19-pandemic/">seafood markets</a> are held back by overregulation and unfair trade practices. It calls for reducing regulatory burdens, eliminating unsafe imports, and strengthening the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-spoilage-hidden-dangers-in-the-cold-chain/">seafood supply chain</a>.



However, the researchers say the plan is moving too fast and with too little support. They describe it as a policy that risks unraveling decades of scientific progress.



“(It’s) a significant escalation in undoing federal regulatory frameworks, weakening scientific authority and deemphasizing aquaculture development,” said Halley Froehlich of UC Santa Barbara and Jessica Gephart of the University of Washington.



“Instead of reform, it’s dismantling regulations in a very short amount of time,” added Froehlich, the paper’s lead author.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noaa-s-role-under-threat">NOAA’s role under threat</h2>



The scientists point to cuts to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as a major concern. NOAA oversees roughly 500 commercial fishery stocks in the U.S. It plays a key role in managing, monitoring, and protecting marine resources.



Under the new directive, NOAA faces budget cuts, staff reductions, and tighter controls on communication. That’s a serious blow to its ability to coordinate sustainable fishing, especially across regions where fish migrate between countries.



“It’s quite problematic because NOAA is so central to how we manage our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a>,” Froehlich said. “Data collection, monitoring, oversight, you name it, NOAA is part of that, and a really important part.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plan-ignores-the-ocean-s-limits">The plan ignores the ocean’s limits</h2>



The executive order is supposed to help boost domestic seafood production. But the researchers argue that the ocean has limits - and we’re already close to reaching them.



“We are not going to get more out of the ocean,” Froehlich said. “We’re already near ‘peak fish,’ meaning maintenance and recovery of our stocks.”



Wild fisheries - both in the U.S. and globally - are already producing at or near their maximum sustainable levels. That leaves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-now-produces-more-food-than-wild-fishing/">aquaculture</a> as the only real path for growth. 



However, the new order gives little attention to farmed seafood and offers even less support to the agencies that regulate it. The scientists call it a mismatch between promises and practical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-data-cutting-capacity">Cutting data, cutting capacity</h2>



One of the most troubling issues is the potential loss of data. The researchers warn that NOAA’s online databases, climate research, and monitoring tools may be defunded or decommissioned.



Without this data, managing fisheries becomes guesswork. It also makes it harder to prepare for climate-driven shifts in marine ecosystems.



“Without the data, expertise and capacity to study and understand these systems we run the risk of fishery collapses becoming more common and long-lasting,” the authors wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-conflicts-and-mismatched-markets">Trade conflicts and mismatched markets</h2>



The executive order also makes assumptions about seafood markets that don’t align with reality. 



Much of the seafood farmed in the U.S. isn’t what consumers demand most. And a large portion of seafood caught in U.S. waters is processed overseas before being sold back into the domestic market.



If tariffs are imposed on imported or foreign-processed seafood, prices for high-demand products like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> could rise sharply. Right now, only about 10% of shrimp eaten in the U.S. comes from domestic sources.



“In disrupting the market dynamics we do have, especially with trade wars with our trading partners, it’s likely that we’re going to have the opposite effect of creating opportunity long-term,” Froehlich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-seafood-deregulation">An alternative to seafood deregulation </h2>



The paper was submitted as evidence in a recent hearing by the House Natural Resources Committee’s Water, Wildlife and Fisheries Subcommittee. The scientists hope their findings will influence how Congress approaches <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-will-help-feed-earths-future-population-of-10-billion/">seafood policy</a> moving forward.



“When it comes to any shifts in production, these high levels of uncertainty are not a beneficial thing to happen for the sector,” Froehlich said.



While deregulation may sound appealing to some, the authors argue that a stable, well-regulated system - backed by science and data - is what actually keeps seafood both sustainable and competitive. In their view, cutting corners now could cost the industry far more in the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X25002106">Marine Policy</a>.



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Why seafood deregulation may hurt more than help

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood...

In a fascinating new study, scientists documented 34 attempts by wild killer whales to give food to humans. These rare cases spanned four oceans and 20 years. Some happened near boats, others in open water or even from the shore. 



The events highlight the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-kelp-to-massage-and-groom-each-other/">orcas</a>’ possible interest in humans and raise important questions about whale intelligence, communication, and social behavior.



“Orcas often share food with each other - it’s a prosocial activity and a way that they build relationships with each other,” said study lead author Jared Towers, of <a href="https://baycetology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay Cetology</a> in British Columbia, Canada. “That they also share with humans may show their interest in relating to us as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-lives-of-killer-whales">Social lives of killer whales</h2>



Orcas live some of the most complex social lives in the animal kingdom. They stick together in tight-knit family groups called pods, usually led by an older matriarch. 



These family units aren’t just casual gatherings - they’re lifelong bonds. Calves stay with their mothers for life, swimming, hunting, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-killer-whales-wearing-fish-hats/">playing together</a>. 



In some regions, pods form larger communities or clans that share unique vocal dialects, kind of like cultural accents passed down through generations. This tight social structure helps them coordinate during hunts and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-kelp-to-massage-and-groom-each-other/">protect each other</a> from threats.



But it’s not all business. Orcas socialize for the joy of it too. They engage in what clearly looks like play - tossing kelp, breaching dramatically, or nudging one another during underwater games. 



They form friendships beyond their pods and even flirt, showing preferences and personalities. These interactions suggest that orcas have emotional lives and a sense of identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-orcas-gave-humans">What orcas gave humans</h2>



The 34 incidents involved six distinct populations of killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/">whales</a>. They offered humans a total of 18 species: six fish, five mammals, three invertebrates, two birds, one reptile, and even one piece of seaweed.



In 97 percent of these cases, the orcas waited for a human response. Some hovered for several minutes. 



On several occasions, they tried again when the humans ignored or returned the offering. In two especially curious cases, whales retrieved birds after humans returned them, only to offer them again.



This behavior could be a form of interspecies curiosity, communication, or even social learning. As the authors suggest, these events might represent "generalized altruism" - an advanced trait observed in only a few social animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-more-than-play">Exploration more than play</h2>



Though play was observed in 38 percent of the interactions, the researchers argue most cases were not playful. The age of the whales varied widely, and many offered whole, fresh prey. 



In over 75 percent of ignored cases, the whales later used the prey for themselves or their group. This suggests the offerings had purpose and value, not just entertainment.



Curiosity-driven behavior, distinct from play, seemed a stronger motivator. As the study explains, animals often explore to reduce uncertainty. 



Offering food to humans might help orcas learn how we respond, just as they would with unfamiliar members of their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-social-intelligence-at-work">Deep social intelligence at work</h2>



Some whales returned the same item to humans multiple times. Others acted in pairs or small groups. 



Most of the 34 events involved a single whale separating from a larger group. This suggests the act was not for show. Rather, it might reflect the whale's individual decision to interact.



Interestingly, killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dolphin-brains-evolved-to-see-underwater-by-using-sound-echolocation/">whales</a> have also been documented cooperating with human fishers in places like Australia and Russia. The authors noted that this history could influence modern interactions, especially as human activity increases near their habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-may-view-humans-as-companions">Whales may view humans as companions</h2>



Killer whales rank second only to humans in brain-to-body ratio. They also show advanced emotional and social behavior. 



These traits support complex social learning, reciprocal behavior, and possibly even empathy.



“Offering items to humans could simultaneously include opportunities for killer whales to practice learned cultural behavior, explore or play and in so doing learn about, manipulate or develop relationships with us,” the researchers wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-should-not-approach-whales">Humans should not approach whales</h2>



Despite the remarkable nature of these encounters, the researchers urge caution. Orcas can show complex and sometimes unpredictable behavior. 



While no wild killer whale has killed a person, some interactions have been intense. They warn against seeking out such encounters or encouraging the behavior without proper permissions.



Most of these whales belonged to populations that hunt near the surface and share prey frequently. 



No deep-water, fish-only populations were involved. This suggests that cooperative surface hunting may lead to more frequent and visible interspecies interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-minds-of-whales-and-humans">Complex minds of whales and humans</h2>



The findings challenge our assumptions about human-animal relationships. If orcas are experimenting with ways to relate to us, it means they recognize us not as threats, but as potential social partners.



These whales are not just predators. They are thinkers, observers, and maybe, in some way, explorers of culture, curiosity, memory, learning, and emotion. 



Their actions suggest complex minds in both whales and humans, capable of choice, empathy, and communication.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2026-29805-001.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Psychology</a>. 



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Killer whales are attempting to bond with humans, according to scientists

In a fascinating new study, scientists documented 34 attempts by...

Plankton,Are,Organisms,Drifting,In,Oceans,And,Seas.,Zooplankton.

They may be small, but zooplankton like copepods, krill, and salps are pulling serious weight when it comes to storing carbon in the Southern Ocean. 



Every year, billions of these tiny animals migrate from the surface to deep waters. In doing so, they help trap tens of millions of tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">carbon</a> far below the ocean surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-ocean-carbon-storage">A new look at ocean carbon storage </h2>



Until recently, scientists believed most of the carbon stored in the Southern Ocean sank slowly through the water column, tied up in the waste left by larger zooplankton feeding near the surface. But a new study offers a clearer - and more surprising - picture.



The research was led by experts at the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>, and the British Antarctic Survey 



The study is the first to measure how much carbon is pulled down by the “seasonal migrant pump.” 



In this process, zooplankton descend each autumn to depths below 1,640 feet (500 meters), stay there for months, and release carbon into the deep ocean through respiration and death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-swimmers-store-carbon">Tiny swimmers store carbon</h2>



The team analyzed thousands of net haul samples collected over the past century from across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">Southern Ocean</a>. The records helped build a massive database that tracks how deep and how consistently these creatures migrate each year.



What the researchers found is eye-opening: this seasonal migration injects about 65 million tons of carbon annually into the deep ocean. This enormous amount of carbon could otherwise stay in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/">atmosphere</a>, contributing to global warming.



“We find that copepods significantly dominate carbon storage overwinter,” said Dr. Jen Freer. “This has big implications as the ocean warms and their habitats may shift."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-the-southern-ocean">Carbon storage in the Southern Ocean </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/">Copepods</a> - small, shrimp-like crustaceans - are the main drivers of this deep-sea carbon delivery system. They’re responsible for about 80 percent of the total carbon flux linked to the seasonal migrant pump. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-are-natures-unexpected-carbon-warriors/">Krill</a> contribute another 14 percent, while salps account for six percent.



These numbers matter. The Southern Ocean absorbs about 40 percent of human-released CO2 that ends up in the oceans.



That’s a huge chunk, but until now, models didn’t factor in this seasonal migration. They focused mostly on passive sinking - when detritus like feces or dead material falls through the water.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/zooplankton_mesozooplankton_carbon_southern-ocean_credit-LnO_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/zooplankton_mesozooplankton_carbon_southern-ocean_credit-LnO_1s.webp" alt="A schematic representation of our calculations of the seasonal vertical carbon transport by mesozooplankton, krill, and salps during winter of the Southern Ocean. The values for SVMP flux are totals for mesozooplankton, krill, and salps and the upper and lower ranges for POC flux refer to annual estimates based on sediment traps and earth system models. Credit: Limnology and Oceanography" class="wp-image-1976081"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A schematic representation of our calculations of the seasonal vertical carbon transport by mesozooplankton, krill, and salps during winter of the Southern Ocean. The values for SVMP flux are totals for mesozooplankton, krill, and salps and the upper and lower ranges for POC flux refer to annual estimates based on sediment traps and earth system models. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Limnology and Oceanography</figcaption></figure>



Unlike the slow sinking process, the seasonal migrant pump is a direct injection. And it has another upside: it keeps essential nutrients like iron in the upper layers, where they support marine life.



That means zooplankton aren’t just removing carbon - they’re doing it efficiently, without robbing the ocean’s surface of the nutrients needed to keep ecosystems going.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-shifts-zooplankton-paths">Warming shifts zooplankton paths</h2>



The Southern Ocean is changing. Climate warming is shifting the range of species like krill and copepods, and that could reshape how much carbon gets locked away each year.



“The study shows the 'seasonal migrant pump' as an important pathway of natural carbon sequestration in polar regions,” said Dr. Katrin Schmidt. “Protecting these migrants and their habitats will help to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-mitigate-climate-change-with-deep-ocean-storage/">mitigate climate change</a>."



The research suggests that climate models are in urgent need of an update. Current Earth System Models don’t include this zooplankton-driven mechanism, which means they may be missing a key part of the ocean’s carbon story.



“This study is the first to estimate the total magnitude of this carbon storage mechanism,” said Professor Angus Atkinson. “It shows the value of large data compilations to get an overview of the relative importance of carbon storage mechanisms."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-creatures-global-impact">Small creatures, global impact</h2>



By building on nearly a century of data and contributions from scientists in China, the UK, and Canada, the study provides one of the clearest pictures yet of how small marine animals influence global climate through ocean carbon storage.



“Our work shows that zooplankton are unsung heroes of carbon sequestration,” said study lead author Dr. Guang Yang. “Their seasonal migrations create a massive, previously unquantified carbon flux - one that models must now incorporate."



Protecting the Southern Ocean means more than safeguarding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/">biodiversity</a>. It means defending one of the planet’s most efficient natural carbon storage systems - powered by creatures smaller than a grain of rice.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lno.70120">Limnology and Oceanography</a>.



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These tiny creatures play an outsized role in Southern Ocean carbon storage

They may be small, but zooplankton like copepods, krill, and...

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These invasive insects damage trees, crops, and gardens by feeding on plant sap and leaving behind sticky honeydew. A research team led by Assistant Professor Scotty Yang at Virginia Tech has discovered an unexpected helper in the battle against this pest: ants.



Yang and his team found that ants, drawn to honeydew, can carry traces of lanternfly DNA in their bodies. By analyzing the ants, scientists can now detect whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-swim-in-schools-by-stacking-like-ladder-rungs/">pest</a> has reached an area, even without spotting the insect directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-collect-lanternfly-dna">Ants collect lanternfly DNA</h2>



The research is based on environmental DNA, or eDNA. This approach collects genetic material that organisms leave behind in their surroundings. 



Spotted lanternflies leave DNA in their sugary waste, which ants readily consume. Scientists then apply a lab technique called polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, to identify SLF DNA inside the ants.



“Ants are nature’s sugar seekers,” Yang said. “If there’s even a tiny drop of honeydew left behind by a spotted lanternfly, ants are likely to find it.”



Yang’s team named the method “antDNA.” Even a single meal of honeydew lets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">ants</a> retain the lanternfly's DNA for up to five days. Because ants roam widely, this method can detect SLF activity from as far as 100 meters from the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-tests-across-virginia">Field tests across Virginia</h2>



Researchers tested the method at three Virginia sites: Salem, Lynchburg Site 1, and Lynchburg Site 2. These locations represented low, medium, and high lanternfly densities. 



At each site, they placed honey-baited lure stations along transects, attracting ants with cotton balls soaked in honey.



The Salem site showed a 46.7 percent positive rate for SLF DNA. Lynchburg Site 1 and Site 2 showed 62.1 percent and 62.5 percent, respectively. Most stations attracted ants within 30 minutes, proving the method’s ease of use.



The study also tested ants from nine species. SLF DNA was found even in ants that had not directly fed on honeydew, likely due to food sharing within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-in-a-few-ants-can-change-the-behavior-of-the-entire-colony/">colonies</a>. This behavior, known as trophallaxis, helps spread the DNA signal among nestmates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-outperform-other-lanternfly-detectors">Ants outperform other lanternfly detectors</h2>



The antDNA technique works across landscapes and does not depend on the pest being visible. Unlike other methods, it does not require water, filtration, or special storage. Ants can be preserved in ethanol without refrigeration, reducing the burden on field teams.



Ants are present in nearly every habitat, from forests to cities. The collection setup is simple and inexpensive. The ants’ ability to hold liquid in their crop allows the DNA to stay detectable longer than in typical surface samples. 



The study confirmed that DNA from honeydew lasts longer than DNA from insect tissue, making honeydew a more stable source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-early-detection">Importance of early detection</h2>



Spotted lanternflies harm many plants, including grapevines, hardwoods, and hops. As they feed, they weaken plants and coat them in honeydew. This sticky substance promotes sooty mold, which further harms plant health. 



Early detection is critical because removing the pest becomes harder once it spreads. Current surveillance efforts rely on human sightings of the insect or its egg masses. These sightings often occur only when the population has already grown. 



The ant surveillance method allows early detection of lanternfly species even in low-density zones and inaccessible areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-and-looking-forward">Scaling up and looking forward</h2>



Yang and his team are now working on a portable test kit for use in the field. This will allow real-time molecular testing without needing a full lab. Faster results mean quicker action against the pest.



“One of the biggest advantages of using ants is that they live almost everywhere, such as forests, farms, cities - you name it,” Yang said. “Their constant search for food makes them ideal frontline samplers for spotted lanternfly DNA.”



This approach offers a new way to watch for invasive species like lanternflies using ants, without depending on visual surveys. It opens up possibilities for surveillance that is fast, flexible, and low-cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-may-detect-other-pests-like-lanternflies">Ants may detect other pests like lanternflies</h2>



The method could be expanded to track other pests. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">insects</a> excrete honeydew, and ants can pick up their DNA too. This opens the door for broader pest detection strategies using the same principle.



Ants, in their natural role as sugar hunters, may become an essential part of protecting crops, forests, and native ecosystems. With antDNA, researchers are tapping into nature’s own behaviors to find smarter ways of monitoring invasive threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.8814" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeoBiota</a>.



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How ants could help stop the tree-killing lanternfly

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These...

Coral reefs are in trouble. As oceans warm and environments shift, the vibrant ecosystems built by corals are turning pale and dying off. 



While scientists have known for years that coral bleaching is linked to the loss of symbiotic algae, they’ve never been able to watch the process unfold at the cellular level in realtime - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-microscope-for-studying-coral">Underwater microscope for studying coral</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego</a> have created a handheld underwater microscope. The device makes it possible to study coral photosynthesis right where it happens - in the ocean, inside living coral tissue - without causing any damage.



The team named the device the Benthic Underwater Microscope imaging PAM - BUMP, for short.



The Jaffe Lab for Underwater Imaging at Scripps Oceanography built the microscope with support from the U.S. National Science Foundation.



The tool combines imaging with a light-based technique known as pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry to measure how efficiently tiny algae inside corals are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-fate-of-coral-reefs-lies-in-the-hands-of-their-tiny-inhabitants/">photosynthesizing</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-depends-on-glowing-algae">Coral depends on glowing algae</h2>



The algae, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiosis-will-help-some-corals-survive-in-a-warming-world/">symbionts</a>, are essential for coral survival. They live within coral tissue and convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen.



The coral, in turn, uses that energy to grow and build reefs. But when stressed by warming seas or pollution, corals eject these algae. Without them, corals appear white and slowly starve - known as the bleaching effect.



The BUMP microscope makes it possible to monitor this relationship in real-time and in natural environments - something that couldn’t be done before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-huge-technological-leap">A huge technological leap</h2>



“This microscope is a huge technological leap in the field of coral health assessment,” said study lead author Or Ben-Zvi, a postdoctoral researcher at Scripps Oceanography. 



“Coral reefs are rapidly declining, losing their photosynthetic symbiotic algae in the process known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/">coral bleaching</a>."



"We now have a tool that allows us to examine these microalgae within the coral tissue, noninvasively and in their natural environment.”



The microscope is small enough to fit in a carry-on suitcase. It’s light enough for a diver to bring to the seafloor without a ship’s help. 



Controlled with a touchscreen and powered by a battery pack, the microscope uses focused LED lights and high-magnification lenses to capture vivid images and videos. It also creates detailed 3D scans and maps photosynthesis in high resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscope-reveals-corals-inner-glow">Microscope reveals corals’ inner glow</h2>



At just 10 micrometers wide - one-tenth the width of a human hair - coral symbionts are invisible to the naked eye. But when corals are viewed under the microscope, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/">algae</a> glow red due to chlorophyll, the pigment that powers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a>. 



PAM technology measures this glow to calculate how efficiently the algae are converting light into energy. Other glowing areas, like cyan and green patches, come from fluorescent proteins that the coral produces, often around its mouth and tentacles. 



The images help researchers “see” coral health without touching or harming them. "We get a lot of information about their health without the need to interrupt nature,” said Ben-Zvi. 



“It's similar to a nurse who takes your pulse and tells you how well you're doing. We're checking the coral's pulse without giving them a shot or doing an intrusive procedure on them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-corals-at-unseen-scales">Observing corals at unseen scales</h2>



Ben-Zvi and her colleagues tested the microscope at coral hotspots around the world - including Hawaii, the Red Sea, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/">Palmyra Atoll</a> - in collaboration with the Smith Lab at Scripps Oceanography. 



What they saw surprised them. Corals weren’t passive. They moved constantly, changing shape, reacting to particles, and even behaving in ways that looked like fighting or kissing.



Ben-Zvi observed coral polyps contracting their tentacles, possibly trying to remove or capture something floating by.



“The more time we spend with this microscope, the more we hope to learn about corals and why they do what they do under certain conditions,” she said. 



“We are visualizing photosynthesis, something that was previously unseen at the scales we are examining, and that feels like magic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-detection-of-coral-stress">Early detection of coral stress</h2>



Corals face serious threats from climate change, and once bleaching begins, it can be hard to stop. But this microscope might help researchers catch problems earlier.



“The microscope facilitates previously unavailable, underwater observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral health</a>, a breakthrough made possible thanks to the National Science Foundation and its critical investment in technology development,” said Jules Jaffe, a research oceanographer at Scripps and co-author of the study. 



Without continued federal funding, scientific research is at risk. In this case, however, support from <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">NSF</a> enabled the team to build a device that helps solve the physiological mystery of coral bleaching and, ultimately, inform efforts to reverse it.



By detecting signs of stress before the coral reaches the tipping point, the researchers hope to create better strategies for protecting reefs from events like marine heatwaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-kelp-and-ocean-algae">Studying kelp and ocean algae</h2>



The potential doesn’t stop with corals. Scientists at Scripps Oceanography are already using the BUMP microscope to study other tiny marine life that rely on photosynthesis, including baby kelp off the coast of California.



“Since photosynthesis in the ocean is important for life on earth, a host of other applications are imaginable with this tool, including right here off the coast of San Diego,” said Jaffe.



In short, the BUMP microscope gives scientists something they’ve never had before: a new way to look at life underwater - close up, in motion, and alive. And with this new perspective, scientists are hoping to find better ways to protect some of the most fragile ecosystems on the planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/2041-210X.70078">Methods in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



About the image: The photo features the coral&nbsp;Stylophora pistillata&nbsp;taken with the new micrsope, BUMP. Each polyp has a mouth and a set of tentacles, and the red dots are individual microalgae residing inside the coral tissue. Credit: Or Ben-Zvi



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Microscope reveals coral health in unprecedented detail

Coral reefs are in trouble. As oceans warm and environments...

Indian,Senior,Woman,Have,Sensitive,Teeth,With,Ice,Lolly,Or

For most of us, teeth mean crunching pretzels or tearing steak. But a new fossil analysis suggests their first job was feeling the world, not shredding it.



“What good is having all these teeth on the outside?” asked Yara Haridy of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, lead author of the study. Using high‑energy scans, researchers found that the earliest tooth‑like bumps sat on fish skin and were wired for sensation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-began-as-skin-sensors">Teeth began as skin sensors</h2>



These skin teeth, known as <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/projects/000626244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odontode units</a>, appear in Eriptychius fossils from the middle <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/ordovician/ordovician.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician Period</a>, roughly 460 million years ago. 



Slicing the fossils reveals thick bands of <a href="https://www.drbicuspid.com/clinical/imaging-cad-cam/article/15747523/fossil-scans-of-ancient-fish-may-explain-modernday-tooth-sensitivity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dentine</a>, the same pain‑transmitting material that still lies beneath human enamel.



Each odontode contains a pulp <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">cavity</a> and wide tubules that open at the surface, a layout ideal for detecting pressure or temperature shifts. By contrast, later fish with heavy enamel caps muted that sensitivity but gained better protection.



One celebrated Cambrian candidate for the “first fish,” Anatolepis, has been demoted after fresh scans showed its bumps match arthropod <a href="https://abc7chicago.com/post/university-chicago-study-finds-tooth-sensitivity-may-linked-ancient-fish-led-dr-yara-haridy/16499129/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensilla</a>, not vertebrate dentine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-armor-came-with-nerves">Early armor came with nerves</h2>



Sensilla in crabs and scorpions let them taste, feel vibration, and track currents. Early vertebrates adopted a similar strategy, embedding nerves inside mineral caps that hardened into armor.



“Tooth‑like structures likely first evolved in the skin of early vertebrates, prior to the oral invasion of these structures that became teeth,” said <a href="https://biology.ufl.edu/gareth-fraser/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gareth Fraser</a> of the University of Florida, an evolutionary biologist not involved in the scans.



Because armor muffles most tactile cues, adding built‑in sensors restored environmental awareness without sacrificing defense. The same compromise appears again and again whenever <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">animals</a> grow shells, scales, or plates.



The Ordovician seas teemed with cephalopods and sea scorpions, so feeling a predator brush past could mark the difference between survival and lunch. Even a thin sensory layer offered that edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-moved-from-skin-to-mouth">Teeth moved from skin to mouth</h2>



Once fish started lunging at prey, bringing those hard nodules inside the oral cavity made practical sense. The genetic toolkit for building odontodes simply redeployed along the jaw line.



CT reconstructions show a stepwise shift, first lining lips, then clustering on internal ridges that became true teeth. No new tissue was required, only a new address.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/human-teeth-sensitivity_evolution_skate-fish_CT-scan_tooth-like-denticles_Yara-Haridy_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/human-teeth-sensitivity_evolution_skate-fish_CT-scan_tooth-like-denticles_Yara-Haridy_1s.webp" alt="CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles (orange) on its skin. Yara Haridy" class="wp-image-1976721"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles (orange) on its skin. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yara Haridy</figcaption></figure>



This migration explains why modern teeth still flinch when chilled soda hits exposed dentine. The tissue did not lose its ancient job, even after millions of years chewing. 



Human <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21168271/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odontoblast cells</a> inside dentine express <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5244/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature‑sensing TRP channels</a> that trigger pain signals, reinforcing the link between sensation and tooth structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cream-pain-is-ancient">Ice cream pain is ancient</h2>



Skates, sharks, and certain catfish still wear odontodes across their skin, and fluorescent imaging reveals nerves curling around each unit. The same wiring lights up in their oral teeth.



Dentists encounter the legacy daily: about 30 percent of adults report <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34302871/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dentin hypersensitivity</a> - a direct outcome of open tubules harking back to those armored swimmers.



Laboratory studies show that activating <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4541108/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRPA1 and TRPV4</a> channels in human odontoblasts releases ATP, a chemical that excites nearby nerves and sparks the familiar zing of ice‑cream pain.



Understanding the fossil record clarifies why blocking tubules with varnishes or bioactive glasses calms sensitivity more reliably than numbing gels alone. Closing the ancient sensory windows cuts the signal at its source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-mistake-changed-tooth-history">Fossil mistake changed tooth history</h2>



The misidentification of Anatolepis as a vertebrate with dentine pushed the timeline of true teeth further back than the evidence supports. 



With updated scans showing Anatolepis as an arthropod, the emergence of real vertebrate dental tissue now firmly begins in the middle Ordovician.



This correction removes about 40 million years of assumed vertebrate history. It also reorients where scientists search for the evolutionary leap from external skin sensors to internal biting tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-teeth-link-to-modern-health">Ancient teeth link to modern health</h2>



Reclassifying Anatolepis as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">arthropod</a> pushes the oldest confirmed vertebrate dentine forward by almost 40 million years, tightening the evolutionary timeline. Paleontologists can now focus on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/">Ordovician</a> strata when hunting the first mouths with teeth.



The fossil findings also challenge textbook diagrams that present teeth as novel structures formed deep inside the jaw. 



Instead, they appear as immigrants from the skin, carrying sensory baggage that still shapes dental health.



Medical researchers already mine shark and skate genes to inspire regenerative dentistry. Knowing those genes once built skin sensors may guide efforts to coax human cells into growing replacement enamel.



Finally, the study highlights a broader pattern: nature often solves different problems with the same parts. 



Sensory armor, lateral‑line canals, and even mammal whiskers show how sensation sneaks into protective structures whenever the need arises.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08944-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fossil discovery explains why our teeth are still so sensitive to cold

For most of us, teeth mean crunching pretzels or tearing...

Earth’s earliest complex organisms endured harsh environments, and a new study reveals how these ancient life forms used arsenic to survive.



Researchers studied 2.1-billion-year-old fossils from Gabon’s Francevillian Basin. These fossils belong to eukaryotes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-may-have-given-rise-to-complex-life/">organisms</a> with advanced cells.



The team found that these ancient organisms stored arsenic inside special cell compartments. This strategy helped them survive in seas with even low arsenic levels.



Using advanced X-ray technology, they mapped arsenic inside of the fossils. The analysis revealed that arsenic was not the result of later contamination. Instead, it was locked inside during the organisms’ lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-seas-triggered-arsenic-defenses">Ancient seas triggered arsenic defenses</h2>



The study offers a fresh view of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">life</a>’s fight against toxins. The fossils lived in oxygen-rich seas with plenty of phosphate. However, even in these waters, arsenate - the toxic form of arsenic - posed a problem.



“The ability to cope with arsenic was not something eukaryotes developed randomly,” explained Dr. Ernest Chi Fru from <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>.



During this period, Earth’s oxygen levels began to rise. This change made arsenate more common. Since arsenate closely resembles phosphate, it easily entered cells.



Organisms faced a tough challenge. They needed ways to avoid poisoning while still absorbing phosphate, a nutrient essential for life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-arsenic-stored-in-bodies">Fossils show arsenic stored in bodies</h2>



The fossils showed high arsenic concentrations, far above the levels in surrounding rocks. This suggests they absorbed arsenic during their lifetime.



X-ray imaging revealed arsenic at the core of tiny pyrite crystals inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">fossils</a>. This points to a biological origin. The arsenic likely came from within the organisms, not from the environment after burial.



Other structures in the same rocks did not show such patterns. Abiotic concretions nearby lacked this arsenic core structure. Similar arsenic-rich patterns appear in some younger animal fossils. However, they are absent in purely mineral samples.



This difference suggests that the Francevillian organisms actively stored arsenic. It wasn’t simply absorbed from surrounding waters after death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arsenic-storage-for-survival">Arsenic storage for survival</h2>



The researchers tested three scenarios to explain arsenic in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">fossils</a>. First, they ruled out passive absorption from decaying organic material. 



Second, the team dismissed the idea that sulfate-reducing microbes introduced the arsenic. The most likely explanation was bioaccumulation. These organisms absorbed arsenic during their lifetime and stored it inside their bodies.



“This suggests a pronounced biogenic control on arsenic storage,” wrote the researchers. They argue that arsenic storage was not just a survival trick. It was an adaptation tied to the rise of oxygen in Earth’s oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arsenic-damaged-ancient-life-systems">Arsenic damaged ancient life systems</h2>



Arsenic disrupts life by mimicking phosphate. Once inside cells, it blocks key processes like energy production and genetic functions.



Modern organisms use efflux pumps or special enzymes to remove arsenic. Some even store it safely in vacuoles or vesicles.



The fossils showed traces of arsenic linked with other metals like nickel and copper. These metals can also be toxic in high amounts.



This suggests the organisms had a broader detoxification system. They may have stored multiple harmful elements together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-sponges-use-similar-storage">Modern sponges use similar storage</h2>



The researchers drew comparisons with modern sponges. These ancient animals often store arsenic in special compartments.



Sponges use this strategy because it helps them manage metal exposure from their filter-feeding lifestyle.



The Francevillian organisms might have done something similar. Their environment had low arsenic levels, but long-term exposure likely led to gradual buildup inside their bodies.



The stored arsenic later formed pyrite crystals during fossilization. The researchers’ model shows how this process left clear chemical markers in the fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-complex-life">The evolution of complex life</h2>



The findings suggest that arsenic detoxification emerged very early in the evolution of eukaryotic life. It was likely not a rare or isolated event. 



Instead, the ability to manage arsenic probably evolved multiple times throughout Earth’s long history, as different organisms adapted to shifting environmental conditions.



These arsenic-rich fossils reveal much more than just details about ancient organisms. They serve as powerful tools for researchers, offering a way to detect signs of early life in rocks that are billions of years old. 



The chemical traces left behind provide strong clues about how life evolved and adapted in hostile environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-strategies-of-ancient-life">Survival strategies of ancient life</h2>



Ultimately, the research highlights the importance of chemical signatures as records of biological processes. 



Even when organic material disappears, these chemical patterns can tell the story of ancient survival strategies and environmental challenges.



By storing arsenic within their cells, these early organisms developed a unique way to survive in toxic seas. In doing so, they not only overcame dangerous conditions but also preserved a chemical fingerprint that allows scientists today to uncover their ancient existence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59760-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Arnaud Mazurier and Abderrazak El Albani



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