A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Since the Industrial Revolution, the world has witnessed a sharp increase in noise pollution generated by human activities. Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic, airplanes overhead, or the repetitive clamor of construction, these sounds can obstruct animals’ abilities to give and receive crucial signals - a process that is fundamental to their survival and reproduction.



Now, a team of biologists at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a> (UNL) has published one of the first known studies demonstrating how one group of animals can react to human-made noise by adjusting its own method of sensing sounds.&nbsp;



In an article published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.02.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers Brandi Pessman and Eileen Hebets show that funnel-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-reveal-how-cave-creatures-lose-their-vision-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> alter how their silk webs transmit vibrations in response to local noise. 



This finding suggests that the spiders might deliberately change web structure to cope with the auditory chaos surrounding them, ensuring they receive vital cues from potential mates, prey, or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-key-discovery-about-web-adjustments">A key discovery about web adjustments</h2>



Drawing on lab experiments, the study uncovered a particularly unexpected insight: the way a spider’s web conveys vibrations varies depending on whether its architect was collected from a rural or urban area. This discrepancy hints at the idea that prior exposure to noise - possibly even inherited across generations - may influence a spider’s malleability when it comes to spinning webs.



“One of the most interesting things that we found is that urban and rural spiders are reacting differently when they're put into a noisy environment,” said Pessman, a postdoctoral researcher in biological sciences and the lead author of the paper. 



“This means that spiders with different experiences with noise - whether they themselves experienced it or their mothers passed it down to them across generations - respond differently.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-webs-as-sensory-extensions">Spider webs as sensory extensions</h2>



It has been well documented that animals such as birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> can change their calls or the timing of their vocalizations in the face of increased human noise. However, little was known about how animals manage to tweak the way they receive acoustic or vibratory signals. 



The main challenge is the hidden nature of most animals’ sensory systems, which are located within their bodies. But web-building spiders are unique, as their webs function effectively like external sensory extensions that capture vibrations from the environment.



This distinction makes funnel-weaving spiders, also known as Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, an ideal test group. They rely predominantly on vibratory signals for vital information. Their webs connect to various surfaces - trees, rocks, or buildings - capable of transmitting the vibratory noise created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic</a>, industrial activities, and more.&nbsp;



The research team hypothesized that funnel-weaving spiders might be able to reduce the volume of unwanted or irrelevant vibrations caused by human-related noise, which often shares the frequency range these spiders need for effective communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-urban-areas">Spiders in urban areas</h2>



Pessman started by collecting a total of 60 funnel-weaving spiders in and around Lincoln, Nebraska - some from city settings and others from out in the countryside. In the lab, the spiders were then placed in controlled environments that were either quiet or noisy as they spun webs over four nights. 



Upon completion, the researchers introduced test vibrations into those webs, measuring how energy moved across the silk in different conditions.



They observed that spiders from urban areas tended to build webs that lost more energy in short-distance vibrations across a broader set of frequencies when placed under noisy conditions. 



Interpreted practically, these webs essentially “muffled” environmental noise. This may prevent sensory overload, giving the spiders a clearer signal from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> or other relevant vibrations in their immediate vicinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-that-are-exposed-to-less-noise">Spiders that are exposed to less noise</h2>



Meanwhile, rural spiders assembled their webs in such a way that energy from biologically important long-distance vibrations was preserved. This indicates they might be amplifying or enhancing certain frequency ranges to pick out meaningful vibrations above the background noise.



“Rural spiders are not used to as much noise in their environment,” Pessman said. “When they suddenly get a lot of noise, they might try to 'turn up' the volume in their webs or amplify what's coming in to better hear certain signals above the noise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecology-and-future-studies">Implications for ecology and future studies</h2>



Given the role of funnel webs as external sensory structures, these findings open a new window into how animals can adjust the way they receive signals, a research area that had remained largely unclear until now. 



The ability to alter web structure in response to different noise environments could prove vital as human-made noise continues to escalate across the planet.



In the future, the team plans to investigate precisely how the spiders are changing their webs - whether they adjust the tension of certain silk lines, vary anchor points, or adopt an entirely new shape to filter or boost specific frequencies. 



High-speed video of the web-building process, combined with digital tracking methods, will let them delve deeper into these construction nuances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-overcoming-environmental-noise">Spiders overcoming environmental noise</h2>



“This study really highlights the role of receivers in overcoming environmental noise,” said Hebets, who is a professor of biological sciences at UNL. 



“It opens up entirely new avenues of research. For example, are receivers placing themselves at certain locations in the environment where signals are going to receive less attenuation or overlap of noise?”



By revealing that some species can modify their “sensor” for hearing, the team hopes to inspire more research on how other animals cope with rising noise levels. 



The funnels built by these little invertebrates may seem inconsequential to an urban passerby, but as the study shows, each strand of silk can be precisely tuned to help the spider thrive in a clamorous world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiders adapt their webs to filter out human-made noise

Since the Industrial Revolution, the world has witnessed a sharp...

The blue lotus, a captivating water lily entwined with Egyptian mythology, has long dazzled archaeologists and historians. Its petals were famously found adorning King Tutankhamun’s mummy, and its image flourishes in ancient scrolls and temple art.&nbsp;



For decades, scholars have speculated that the flower held powerful psychedelic properties - used in wine-soaked rituals steeped in ecstasy and divine visions.



Today, a plant bearing the same name is sold widely online, promising everything from tranquility to heightened awareness. But according to <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a> anthropology student Liam McEvoy, those modern offerings have little in common with the true blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-does-a-lotus-flower-grow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lotus</a> of antiquity.



McEvoy has spent years tracing the story of Nymphaea caerulea, the authentic Egyptian blue lotus. With a minor in Egyptology and support from the UC Berkeley Center for the Science of Psychedelics, he’s dug into ancient texts, collaborated with chemists, and even turned to Reddit to track down specimens.&nbsp;



McEvoy’s findings reveal that the plant revered in ancient Egypt is not the same as the water lilies currently sold in online marketplaces - and that both the species and its supposed effects have been widely misunderstood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-the-egyptian-blue-lotus-nbsp">The story of the Egyptian blue lotus&nbsp;</h2>



McEvoy’s journey began unexpectedly during high school when he stumbled upon an old BBC documentary called Sacred Weeds. In it, researchers gave participants wine infused with lotus petals and watched to see if they entered a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychedelic</a> state. The footage, complete with dated special effects and questionable methodology, left a lasting impression.



He was hooked. “I wanted to let the plant tell its story and contribute to a discussion where there's all this pseudoscience floating around - pseudoscience that makes some people a lot of money.”



Once at Berkeley, McEvoy dove deeper. Through coursework and work at the <a href="https://hearstmuseum.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology</a>, he learned to read hieroglyphs and came to recognize the true Egyptian blue lotus by its distinctive spotted sepals and consistent petal count.&nbsp;



It appeared again and again in scrolls and religious festivals, most notably in the Hathoric Festival of Drunkenness - an event where celebrants drank themselves into a stupor and awoke, if only briefly, to see the face of the goddess Hathor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-sold-as-blue-lotus">Flowers sold as blue lotus</h2>



The more McEvoy studied, the more he questioned whether the flowers sold online as “blue lotus” were the real thing.&nbsp;



Many of these products, often marketed as calming or aphrodisiacal, are used in teas, vapes, or essential oils. They claim effects ranging from spiritual insight to improved sleep. But were they really Nymphaea caerulea?



To find out, McEvoy needed a legitimate sample. With wild populations now rare - dam construction and habitat loss have pushed the species to the edge of endangerment - he turned to the internet.&nbsp;



On Reddit, he connected with a user in Arizona who claimed to grow authentic blue lotus. The stranger agreed to send a live plant, which botanists at UC Berkeley confirmed as genuine.



That plant now resides in the <a href="https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Botanical Garden</a>’s Virginia Haldan Tropical House, making it the only known living Egyptian blue lotus in a U.S. university collection.



McEvoy also ordered petals from Etsy to compare. Partnering with Berkeley chemistry professor Evan Williams and scientist Anthony Iavarone, he used mass spectrometry to analyze both samples.&nbsp;



The results were clear: the authentic flower contained significantly higher levels of the alkaloid nuciferine, thought to be responsible for its psychoactive effects. The Etsy sample, by contrast, likely came from a common non-psychoactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-lily-species-discovered-after-over-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lily</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-take-on-ancient-rituals">A new take on ancient rituals</h2>



In ancient Egypt, it’s often assumed that people steeped the blue lotus directly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wine</a> to unlock its effects. But McEvoy’s chemical analysis suggests that’s unlikely.&nbsp;



While pure nuciferine dissolves in alcohol, the waxy petals of the flower do not release it so easily. Instead, a fatty substance - similar to olive oil - may have been used to extract the compound before mixing it into wine.



“We're beginning to think the ancient Egyptians didn't just put it into wine,” McEvoy said. “We hypothesize they actually created an infused oil, which was later added to wine.”



This revised understanding reframes centuries of assumptions about ancient Egyptian ceremonial practices and raises new questions about how they engaged with plant-based compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-molecular-remnants">Searching for molecular remnants </h2>



McEvoy’s next steps include a chemical analysis of a 3,000-year-old Egyptian goblet housed in the Hearst Museum. He hopes to detect trace amounts of fats that would support his theory about infused oils - and perhaps even find molecular remnants of the lotus itself.



Together with Williams and Ph.D. candidate Veena Avadhani, he also plans to use liquid chromatography to break down the flower’s chemical makeup even further.&nbsp;



This advanced method will allow them to isolate individual compounds and gain a clearer understanding of what makes the true blue lotus unique.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-magic-and-modern-science-nbsp">Ancient magic and modern science&nbsp;</h2>



As McEvoy prepares to graduate and pursue a career in intellectual property law, he sees his work as a model for how science and the humanities can illuminate each other.&nbsp;



“There should be someone at the table who has studied people - not just economics, money or political science,” he said. “Someone who sees people as human beings and sees communities as interconnected webs of meaning.”



For now, he’s focused on finishing his research. But in doing so, he’s already redefined the story of a flower once believed to be mythic. His project not only separates fact from fiction in today’s lotus-laced health products - it reopens a window into the lived experience of an ancient civilization.



“This is a rare example of how ancient magic and modern science can come together to deepen our understanding of the nature that has always surrounded us,” he concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Blue lotus: Unraveling an Egyptian psychedelic mystery

The blue lotus, a captivating water lily entwined with Egyptian...

Ocean currents swirl, surge, and shift across vast blue territories. Once clean and free, they now carry drifting human waste - on its way to find a settling place.



One of these destinations is the <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-pacific-garbage-patch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>, an enormous stretch of floating plastic located between Hawaii and California. Larger than the state of Texas, it has become a symbol of the ocean’s pollution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crisis</a>.



But it’s not alone. Similar garbage patches exist all over the globe. Invisible highways of water link distant shores, pulling in bottles, nets, and microplastics. Cleaning the circulating water has proven difficult and expensive.



Fuel costs, environmental risks, and the sheer scale of the problem leave many efforts stuck in trial stages. But now, a group of scientists might have found a smarter way - by looking down from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-that-clean-for-us">Ocean currents that clean for us</h2>



A recent study in Ocean Science offers a new idea: stop chasing the trash, and let the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-ocean-current-may-be-more-stable-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> bring it to you. 



Using satellite data and knowledge from years of tracking ocean currents, scientists have identified areas where debris naturally gathers. These hotspots form through specific current patterns and making use of these could help clean the seas more efficiently.



"With this information, we can let the currents do the work. Instead of boats slowly trawling and burning fuel, they can hold their position and keep the nets steady at a location where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents</a> funnel and aggregate drifting objects, which will theoretically save cleanup crews time, money and fuel," explained <a href="https://www.psi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> research scientist Rodrigo Duran.



Instead of deploying sweeping boats over long distances, crews could position nets at fixed points. The currents, not engines, would collect the waste. This method could reduce fuel usage, lower emissions, and cut down on operational costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ocean-clean-up">The Ocean Clean Up</h2>



The lead author of the study is Luca Kunz, a graduate student from the University of Hamburg.



The project received support from <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ocean Cleanup</a>, a nonprofit in the Netherlands that is developing plastic removal technologies. <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/r-duran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rodrigo Duran</a>, the U.S.-based co-author, explains how ancient physics ideas now help decode ocean behavior.



"Sir Isaac Newton was the first to solve trajectory problems while trying to understand celestial bodies orbiting within a gravity field. But, he was thinking in terms of how Earth orbits the sun," Duran said.



"Over the following centuries, new tools and ideas were used to solve these kinds of extremely complicated problems. However, it wasn't until the last couple of decades that these tools were adapted to surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> currents and wind, which bring an additional level of complexity. It's not like the equations of gravity, which remain predictable for a very long time. The ocean is always changing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traps-and-why-they-matter">TRAPs and why they matter</h2>



To study these unpredictable currents, the researchers analyzed more than 20 years of satellite observations. They also used data from “drifters” - floating devices that move with currents and log their paths.



From this data set, the team identified 3.5 million Transient Attracting Profiles, known as TRAPs.



TRAPs are not fixed garbage patches. They are temporary zones where currents merge and pull in floating objects. These zones are created when two or more eddies - circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current</a> systems - interact in specific ways.



Each eddy can stretch between 60 and 180 miles (96 and 290 kilometers) wide. When combined, they form a larger area, up to 60 miles (96 kilometers) across, that holds drifting material for several days.



These regions don’t last forever. On average, TRAPs stay active for about six days before dissolving or shifting. Still, that window offers a valuable opportunity for targeted cleanup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geometry-of-stability">Geometry of stability</h2>



Among the many TRAPs identified, some stand out for their efficiency. The research team found that the most stable and common configuration involves four eddies positioned in a special arrangement. 



If imagined on a grid, counterclockwise eddies sit in the top right and bottom left. Clockwise eddies spin in the top left and bottom right.



"This is almost 60% of cases," Duran said. "These are common because they are the most stable."



This balance helps the TRAP hold its shape and function more reliably. It offers a predictable way to plan cleanup strategies. Rather than reacting to ocean chaos, scientists can work with nature’s patterns and set traps in advance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-garbage-broader-possibilities">Beyond garbage: Broader possibilities</h2>



While the focus of the study was on cleaning ocean waste, the applications don’t stop there. Knowing where the ocean pulls material can help in emergencies or scientific predictions. The same method could guide rescue missions, track oil spills, or monitor airborne hazards.



"An obvious example would be search and rescue of missing people," Duran said, "or maybe a cargo ship loses their cargo. This can even be used for atmospheric data. When volcanoes erupt or wildfires break out, airports need to know whether to redirect flights. It's a very exciting time."



These insights give agencies tools to act quickly and precisely. By reading the invisible pull of the ocean, we gain not just cleanup opportunities, but also protection and preparedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-working-with-nature-to-clean-oceans-nbsp">Working with nature to clean oceans&nbsp;</h2>



The collaboration behind this research unites institutions from Germany, the U.S., and the Netherlands. With the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a> leading the data science, and The Ocean Clean Up pushing forward practical solutions, the project blends theory and action.



Rather than relying solely on expensive equipment, this approach embraces simplicity and efficiency. Nature's own movements offer guidance. If we can learn to predict and use them, we may finally be able to manage what we’ve dumped into the sea.



The path ahead remains uncertain. But one thing is clear: the ocean is not a passive victim. It moves, it organizes, and now - with the right science - it might help us repair what we’ve broken.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://os.copernicus.org/articles/20/1611/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ocean currents may soon clean up waste, thanks to space tech

Ocean currents swirl, surge, and shift across vast blue territories....

For years, scientists have puzzled over one big question: where do meteorites come from? 



These rocky visitors crash into Earth from space, but tracing their paths back to specific locations in the asteroid belt has been a challenge. 



Thanks to years of work tracking fireballs streaking across the sky, scientists are beginning to piece together the answer.



The new research comes from astronomers at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> and the SETI Institute, in collaboration with NASA Ames Research Center.



The findings connect the orbits of 75 meteorites to their likely points of origin in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.



This long-term effort brings us closer to mapping the geology of our solar system’s asteroid neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-fireballs-on-camera">Catching fireballs on camera</h2>



About ten years ago, the team began setting up a network of all-sky cameras across California and Nevada. 



These cameras were designed to catch the flash of light created when a meteorite hits Earth’s atmosphere. 



“Others built similar networks spread around the globe, which together form the Global Fireball Observatory,” said astronomer Hadrien Devillepoix of Curtin University. "Over the years, we have tracked the path of 17 recovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weather-radar-systems-can-detect-meteorite-falls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteorite falls</a>.”



In addition to professional networks, many fireballs were also captured by doorbell cameras, dashcams, and videos from citizen scientists. 



With enough data from these sources, the researchers could begin plotting the meteorites’ paths through space.



“Altogether, this quest has yielded 75 laboratory-classified meteorites with an impact orbit tracked by video and photographic cameras,” said study lead author Peter Jenniskens of the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center.



“That proves to be enough to start seeing some patterns in the direction from which the meteorites approach Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-meteorites-to-their-source">Tracing meteorites to their source</h2>



Most meteorites that land on Earth come from the asteroid belt, home to over a million objects larger than one kilometer. 



Many of these meteorites were originally part of larger parent bodies that broke apart in violent collisions. The resulting debris fields, or clusters, continue to spread out over time.



“We now see that 12 of the iron-rich ordinary chondrite meteorites (H chondrites) originated from a debris field called “Koronis,” which is located low in the pristine main belt,” said Jenniskens. “These meteorites arrived from low-inclined orbits with orbital periods consistent with this debris field.”



The researchers used a technique called cosmic-ray exposure dating to determine how long ago a meteorite was exposed to space. This method helps identify when the rock was dislodged from its parent body.



When matched with the dynamical age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-how-an-asteroid-strike-would-change-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> clusters, a clearer picture emerges.



“By measuring the cosmic ray exposure age of meteorites, we can determine that three of these twelve meteorites originated from the Karin cluster in Koronis, which has a dynamical age of 5.8 million years, and two came from the Koronis2 cluster, with a dynamical age of 10–15 million years,” said Jenniskens. 



“One other meteorite may well measure the age of the Koronis3 cluster: about 83 million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-families-more-clues">More families, more clues</h2>



Not all H chondrites came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Koronis</a>. Some meteorites with steep orbits seem to be linked to the Nele asteroid family, located in the central belt.



Others, with an exposure age of about 35 million years, appear to come from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecules-discovered-on-an-asteroid-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massalia</a> family in the inner belt.



“In our opinion, these H chondrites originated from the Massalia asteroid family low in the inner main belt because that family has a cluster of about that same dynamical age,” said Jenniskens. “The asteroid that created that cluster, asteroid (20) Massalia, is an H chondrite type parent body.”



The researchers also traced lower iron meteorites - L chondrites and LL chondrites - to their own source regions.



LL chondrites are strongly linked to the Flora family, while L chondrites likely originated from the Hertha family.



“We propose that the L chondrites originated from the Hertha asteroid family, located just above the Massalia family,” said Jenniskens. 



“Asteroid Hertha doesn’t look anything like its debris. Hertha is covered by dark rocks that were shock-blackened, indicative of an unusually violent collision."



"The L chondrites experienced a very violent origin 468 million years ago when these meteorites showered Earth in such numbers that they can be found in the geologic record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-planetary-defense">What this means for planetary defense</h2>



Understanding where meteorites come from is more than just a scientific curiosity. It’s also crucial for identifying and preparing for potentially hazardous asteroids that could threaten Earth.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Near Earth Asteroids</a> do not arrive on the same orbits as meteorites, because it takes longer for these to evolve to Earth,” said Jenniskens. “But they do come from some of the same asteroid families.”



This connection means that by learning which asteroid families are sending meteorites our way, scientists can better assess which larger bodies might pose a risk in the future.



Jenniskens and Devillepoix also examined other meteorite types and their possible source regions. While not every link is confirmed, the expanding map of meteorite origins is already providing key insights.



“We are proud about how far we have come, but there is a long way to go,” said Jenniskens. "Like the first cartographers who traced the outline of Australia, our map reveals a continent of discoveries still ahead when more meteorite falls are recorded.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-meteorite-tracking">Next steps in meteorite tracking</h2>



In the future, scientists hope to observe more asteroids in space just before they reach Earth. That was the case in 2008, when a small asteroid named 2008 TC3 was tracked in space and then recovered after it landed.



Thanks to upcoming observatories and new detection technologies, researchers expect to repeat this process more often - and continue filling in the blanks on their asteroid belt map.



As more meteorites are tracked from sky to ground, each one becomes another puzzle piece in understanding our solar system’s past, and preparing for its future.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What meteorites tell us about their birthplace in space

For years, scientists have puzzled over one big question: where...

A Deep-Sea Sponge and Anemones in Antarctica

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare chance encounter to explore a massive new expanse of seafloor exposed by the breakup of an Antarctic ice shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea.&nbsp;



On January 13, 2025, an iceberg named A-84 - which was the size of the city of Chicago - broke off from the George VI Ice Shelf, which sits along the Antarctic Peninsula. 



This event uncovered roughly 209 square miles (540 square kilometers) of seafloor that had previously been concealed under floating ice.



The team arrived aboard <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s R/V Falkor (too) at this newly exposed site on January 25, making them the first to study such a large underwater area that had previously been covered by an ice shelf.&nbsp;



Their effort marks the first large-scale interdisciplinary exploration of geologic, oceanographic, and biological features hidden beneath an extensive floating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-shifting-expedition-goals">Rapidly shifting expedition goals</h2>



Co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.cesam-la.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Environmental and Marine Studies</a> (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the <a href="https://www.ua.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Aveiro</a> in Portugal.&nbsp;



"We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below,” said Esquete.



“We didn’t expect to find such a beautiful, thriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



Originally, the science mission did not include venturing beneath a freshly fractured portion of the ice shelf. 



However, the movement of this newly calved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-iceberg-that-broke-away-from-antarctica-sparks-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> offered a rare opportunity to explore a site that, until recently, had never been examined by any human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-seafloor-reveals-lush-communities">Antarctic seafloor reveals lush communities</h2>



Using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, the science team spent eight days surveying the seafloor at depths down to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet).&nbsp;



The experts discovered an unexpectedly rich ecosystem that was teeming with corals, sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> - an indication that marine life can flourish under ice-covered regions of the Antarctic in ways not previously documented.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963224"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



According to the researchers, these observations offer insight into how ecosystems function beneath the Antarctic ice sheet. Such an ecosystem has seldom been accessed. 



Earlier findings, notably by <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> researchers in 2021, revealed possible bottom-dwelling life beneath ice, but the present study marks the first time an ROV survey has thoroughly documented wide areas of this vibrant seabed.



The experts were surprised by the large biomass and biodiversity in the ecosystem and suspect they have discovered several new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-life-survives-in-darkness">How marine life survives in darkness</h2>



Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on nutrients trickling down from surface waters. However, these Antarctic seafloors had been buried under ice some 150 meters (nearly 500 feet) thick for centuries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



With no direct sunlight, how such abundant organisms manage to feed is still uncertain. The scientists propose that ocean currents under the ice may be funneling essential nutrients to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-ice-sheet-behavior">Antarctic ice sheet behavior</h2>



Apart from their ecological discoveries, the international group - which included scientists from Portugal, the United Kingdom, Chile, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, and the United States - examined geological samples to gain knowledge about past changes in the Antarctic ice sheet.



The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass for decades in response to climate change.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963222"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



“The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide,” said co-chief scientist Sasha Montelli of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, who is also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow.&nbsp;



“Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change - projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-the-antarctic-seafloor">Samples from the Antarctic seafloor </h2>



During this mission, the team collected both biological and geological samples. 



In addition, they deployed autonomous underwater vehicles, called gliders, to analyze how meltwater from the ice shelf impacts the region’s physical and chemical properties. 



Preliminary measurements hinted at high biological productivity and strong meltwater flow from the George VI ice shelf, providing further context for how such deep-sea populations may thrive in these surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-larger-global-initiative">Part of a larger global initiative</h2>



The expedition is part of Challenger 150, a global cooperative dedicated to deep-sea biological study, and recognized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (<a href="https://www.ioc.unesco.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOC/UNESCO</a>) as an Ocean Decade Action. 



This alignment ensures that findings from the George VI Ice Shelf breakage feed into broader international efforts to understand and safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“The science team was originally in this remote region to study the seafloor and ecosystem at the interface between ice and sea,” noted Schmidt Ocean Institute’s executive director, Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Being right there when this iceberg calved from the ice shelf presented a rare scientific opportunity. Serendipitous moments are part of the excitement of research at sea - they offer the chance to be the first to witness the untouched beauty of our world.”



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to continue analyzing the collected data for insights into both ice sheet behavior and the unique marine life that has flourished unseen for centuries beneath the ice.&nbsp;



With accelerating climate change, the study’s findings about species adaptability and the resilience of Antarctic habitats carry implications for future conservation and policy decisions on a global scale.



<a href="https://schmidtocean.photoshelter.com/galleries/C0000QszlkoaNkKU/G0000p4LRtGEAfWo/I0000X_S5KjUr4QU/FKt250110-20250126-IceScanningCollectionAndIcebergViewing-Ingle-0202-jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">See more of the photos taken on this mission by the Schmidt Ocean Institute here...</a>



Images Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Iceberg break from Antarctica reveals seafloor full of rare and vibrant ocean creatures

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare...

Ten years ago, the scientific community had no idea that a remarkable group of microbes called Asgard archaea even existed. 



That changed in 2015 when researchers studying deep-sea sediments stumbled upon mysterious gene fragments. With the help of computer software, they pieced these fragments together and discovered something entirely new - a previously unknown group of microbes.



These microbes are part of a group of organisms known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aggressive-predatory-behavior-discovered-in-tiny-single-celled-organisms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaea</a>, and are single-celled organisms similar to bacteria but genetically distinct.



Archaea differ from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> in important ways, such as how their cell envelopes are built and how they process energy. 



This newly identified group was so unique that scientists gave it its own category: Asgard archaea. 



The name, inspired by Norse mythology, acknowledges their initial discovery near Loki’s Castle, a hydrothermal vent in the mid-Atlantic Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tiny-microbes-to-complex-life">From tiny microbes to complex life</h2>



What made this discovery even more exciting was the realization that Asgard archaea may be the closest living relatives of eukaryotes - organisms whose cells contain a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-nuclei-play-unexpected-role-in-organ-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus</a>, including humans, animals, and plants.



This revelation challenged the long-standing model that life falls into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Some scientists now argue that eukaryotes may actually have evolved from within the Asgard archaea, which would reduce the tree of life to just two early domains: archaea (including eukaryotes) and bacteria.



At <a href="https://sce.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, scientists have been exploring these microbes for several years. In a 2022 study, researchers focused on a species that is found in the sediments of a brackish water channel in Slovenia called Lokiarchaeum ossiferum.



The species was isolated by a research team from the University of Vienna. The team found that Lokiarchaeum ossiferum shares key features with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotic</a> cells.



“We found an actin protein in that species that appears very similar to the protein found in eukaryotes – and occurs in almost all Asgard archaea discovered to date,” explained Professor Martin Pilhofer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-skeleton-of-tentacles">A skeleton of tentacles</h2>



To study this further, the researchers used a variety of advanced microscopes. They discovered that this actin protein, named Lokiactin, forms long, thin filaments, which are especially visible in the many tentacle-like projections of the microbes. 



“They appear to form the skeleton for the complex cell architecture of Asgard archaea,” added Florian Wollweber.



Eukaryotic cells don’t just have actin filaments - they also rely on structures called microtubules, which are built from proteins known as tubulins. Microtubules help move materials around inside cells and play a key role during cell division.



For a long time, scientists didn’t know where microtubules originally came from. That mystery may now be closer to being solved. 



The ETH Zurich team found similar structures in Asgard archaea. Although the Asgard versions are smaller, they share striking similarities with the microtubules found in eukaryotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-but-important-structures">Rare, but important structures</h2>



Interestingly, only a small number of Lokiarchaeum cells produced these microtubule-like structures. 



Unlike the widely present actin proteins, tubulins only appear in a few known Asgard species. It’s still unclear why they are so rare or what precise function they serve. In eukaryotic cells, microtubules act like highways, allowing motor proteins to transport materials. 



So far, the ETH Zurich researchers have not seen these types of motor proteins in Asgard archaea. But they did observe something telling. 



“We have shown, however, that the tubes formed from these tubulins grow at one end. We therefore suspect that they perform similar transport functions as the microtubules in eukaryotes,” explained Jingwei Xu, co-first author of the study.



Xu produced the tubulin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proteins-identified-that-allowed-vertebrates-to-evolve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a> using insect cells and examined their shape and behavior.



The study brought together experts in microbiology, biochemistry, cell biology, and structural biology. “We would never have progressed so far without this interdisciplinary approach,” stated Pilhofer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-of-complex-life">Building blocks of complex life</h2>



Could the cytoskeleton - the structural framework inside cells - have played a vital role in the rise of complex life? The researchers think so.



They believe that long ago, an Asgard archaea may have used its tentacle-like appendages to grab a bacterium.



Over time, this type of bacterium became a permanent resident inside archaeans, and evolved into the mitochondrion - the energy center of today’s cells. From there, other features like the nucleus eventually developed, giving rise to the eukaryotic cell.



“This remarkable cytoskeleton was probably at the beginning of this development. It could have enabled Asgard archaea to form appendages, thereby allowing them to interact with, and then seize and engulf a bacterium,” said Pilhofer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-for-elusive-microbes">Fishing for elusive microbes</h2>



The ETH Zurich team isn’t stopping here. They’re now shifting focus to understand the role of actin and tubulin in Asgard archaea. They also plan to study the unique proteins that appear on the microbes’ outer surfaces.



One goal is to create antibodies that can recognize these surface proteins. This would let scientists “fish” for Asgard archaea within complex microbial communities. 



“We still have a lot of unanswered questions about Asgard archaea, especially regarding their relation to eukaryotes and their unusual cell biology,” said Pilhofer. “Tracking down the secrets of these microbes is fascinating.”



The search for answers continues, but one thing is clear: these tiny organisms may hold the key to one of life’s biggest mysteries.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00254-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867425002545%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



Image Credit: Margot Riggi, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny microbes may have given rise to complex life

Ten years ago, the scientific community had no idea that...

Dogs can’t speak, but they express themselves clearly through body language. A bark, a tail wag, or a growl can reveal their feelings, but to understand them better, we must learn to interpret their silent cues.



"Understanding our dogs' basic body language allows us to gain insight into their thoughts and feelings about the world around them and what they are experiencing," said Harmony Diers, a veterinary technician and project manager for the Dog Aging Project at the Texas A&amp;M <a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Veterinary Medicine</a> and Biomedical Sciences.



Diers explains how common behaviors can help us understand what our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> are trying to communicate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-relaxed-dog">Signs of a relaxed dog</h2>



Relaxed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-feel-smells-may-help-keep-us-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> show it with their entire body. Their ears may lean forward or rest gently backward. Sometimes, submissive dogs fold their ears back, but the overall signal is calmness.



One clear sign of happiness is a circular tail wag. If your dog moves its tail in a loop, that shows true joy.



You may also notice soft, squinting eyes, a steady and kind gaze, leaning against you, lying down peacefully, rolling over for belly rubs, or panting with a slightly open mouth.



"It is important to recognize a calm and content <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a>'s body language to determine whether he or she is comfortable with the current environment and circumstances," Diers explained.



Understanding these signs helps you support your dog without overwhelming it or ignoring its comfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dogs-want-distance">When dogs want distance</h2>



Not all body language signals comfort. Discontented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> often try to create space when feeling stressed.



A tucked tail usually indicates fear. A dog on high alert might raise its tail and wag it quickly, signaling tension rather than joy.



"A dog experiencing an uncomfortable situation may also turn his body away from the threat to present his back," Diers said.



Dogs sometimes shake their entire bodies after a stressful moment, similar to drying off after a bath. This helps them release built-up tension.



Ears held straight up can show readiness for action, while ears pinned close to the head show nervousness or submission. 



If your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> stares intensely or shows the whites of its eyes - often called the "whale eye" - it may be feeling scared or trapped. Tension in the mouth, pulled lips, licking, or yawning can all be signs of stress.



Learning these signals helps protect your dog and others, especially when meeting unfamiliar dogs or entering new spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-language-varies-by-breed">Body language varies by breed</h2>



Some breeds naturally appear alert, even when relaxed. Recognizing your dog’s baseline posture is important.



"When these dogs are in alert mode or feel threatened, the tail may go higher and stiffer and wag quickly," Diers said. For instance, German shepherds often have upright ears by nature. Huskies and malamutes usually carry curled tails, even when relaxed.



"Look at our pugs. They always have big open eyes, but if a wide-eyed pug is giving the whale eye, he may be experiencing a threat or feeling nervous."



Knowing your dog’s unique structure will help you tell the difference between comfort and caution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illness-can-alter-body-language">Illness can alter body language</h2>



Body language doesn’t only reflect emotion. It can also signal health issues.



"An ill dog may sleep more, be grumpier and not want the normal interaction he usually gets excited about," Diers said.



A dog in pain might limp, lower its head, keep its posture stiff, tuck its belly inward, or arch its back. Whimpering may also occur. Lip-smacking could mean nausea or nervousness.



If your lively dog suddenly isolates, eats less, or shows no interest in play, something might be wrong.



"Ultimately, if your normally active and happy dog starts to isolate and show lethargy and/or decreased appetite, this is a sign that something has changed with their overall health, and seeking the care of a veterinarian is a suggested course to take," stressed Diers.



Paying attention to your dog’s body language strengthens your relationship. You build trust when you listen to their unspoken signals. Understanding what they say without words keeps them safe, happy, and healthy - and brings you even closer.



Information supplied by <a href="https://phys.org/partners/texas-a-m-university/">Texas A&amp;M University</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Want to know how your dog is feeling? Learn their body language

Dogs can’t speak, but they express themselves clearly through body...

Most people can't recall their first steps, their first birthday, or even their first favorite toy - as if the brain somehow erased those early memories.



For decades, researchers believed this memory loss, known as "infantile amnesia," stemmed from the underdevelopment of a key brain region. But new research from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> challenges that idea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-role-of-the-hippocampus">Early role of the hippocampus</h2>



Scientists at Yale University have found that even very young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-imaging-device-reveals-infant-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a> can encode memories. 



The team studied babies aged four months to two years using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor their brains as they viewed new images of faces, objects, and scenes. 



When infants were shown a previously seen image alongside a new one, those who had more hippocampal activity during the first viewing were more likely to look longer at the familiar image. That’s a sign the infant remembered it.



Study senior author Nick Turk-Browne is a professor of psychology in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences and director of Yale’s Wu Tsai Institute.



“The hallmark of these types of memories, which we call episodic memories, is that you can describe them to others, but that’s off the table when you’re dealing with pre-verbal infants,” said Turk-Browne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-memory-in-babies">Measuring memory in babies</h2>



Because babies can’t talk, studying their memory has always been tricky.



The team developed a test using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounds-can-change-the-way-we-see-things/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual recognition</a>. Babies usually look longer at things they recognize. So, if a baby stared at a previously seen image longer than a new one, researchers took that as a sign of recognition.



“When babies have seen something just once before, we expect them to look at it more when they see it again,” said Turk-Browne. 



“So in this task, if an infant stares at the previously seen image more than the new one next to it, that can be interpreted as the baby recognizing it as familiar.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-in-the-hippocampus">Brain activity in the hippocampus </h2>



The study focused on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-reboots-the-brain-making-room-for-new-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a> - the area of the brain involved in memory. The researchers found that activity in the hippocampus during the initial viewing of an image predicted how well the baby would recognize it later.



The strongest activity was in the back part of the hippocampus, which in adults is associated with episodic memory - our ability to remember specific events.



The results were consistent across all 26 infants in the study, but the effect was especially strong in those over 12 months old. This supports the idea that the hippocampus gradually develops the capacity for episodic memory in the second year of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-memory-in-one-small-brain">Two types of memory in one small brain</h2>



This isn’t the first time the Yale team has looked at memory in babies. In earlier research, the researchers showed that even three-month-old infants use a different type of memory called "statistical learning."



While episodic memory helps us remember specific events - like a birthday party - statistical learning helps us notice patterns, such as how most birthday parties have balloons and cake.



“Statistical learning is about extracting the structure in the world around us,” said Turk-Browne. 



“This is critical for the development of language, vision, concepts, and more. So it’s understandable why statistical learning may come into play earlier than episodic memory.”



These two types of memory use different areas of the hippocampus. Statistical learning happens in the front part, which develops earlier. Episodic memory relies more on the back part, which matures later. 



This difference might explain why babies are good at picking up patterns even if they can’t recall specific events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-those-early-memories-go">Where do those early memories go?</h2>



If babies can form episodic memories, why don’t we remember our own earliest experiences? According to Professor Turk-Browne, there are a few possible explanations.



One is that these early memories don’t stick around - they may fade before becoming part of long-term memory. Another idea is that the memories still exist but are inaccessible later in life.



In fact, the Yale team is now exploring whether memories formed in infancy can persist, even if we can't recall them as adults. 



The researchers are testing whether children can recognize home videos taken from their own perspective as babies. Early results suggest some of these memories might last into preschool years.



Tristan Yates, lead author of the current study, is a developmental cognitive neuroscientist at Colombia University who received her PhD from Yale under the guidance of Professor Turk-Browne.



“Tristan’s work in humans is remarkably compatible with recent animal evidence that infantile amnesia is a retrieval problem,” said Turk-Browne. 



“We’re working to track the durability of hippocampal memories across childhood and even beginning to entertain the radical, almost sci-fi possibility that they may endure in some form into adulthood, despite being inaccessible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-the-baby-brain">A new understanding of the baby brain</h2>



This study suggests that the baby brain might be more powerful than we thought and that our earliest memories may not be completely lost. Instead, they might be stored in ways we don’t yet understand. 



The hippocampus seems to be working much earlier in life than once believed, and the idea that we simply can’t retrieve those memories - rather than not forming them at all - is gaining traction.



The research opens new questions about how memory develops, how it changes over time, and whether those lost moments from our baby years are still hidden deep within us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt7570" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

We can’t remember being babies - but our brains might

Most people can't recall their first steps, their first birthday,...

Latimeria,Fish,Isolated,On,The,Black,Background

Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life and ocean creatures, one fish long believed to have vanished from our planet captured worldwide attention. 



This interest emerged from an unexpected finding that changed our perspective on what might still be lurking in the deep.



Before 1938, experts spoke of the coelacanth as a classic example of an extinct fish dating back more than 400 million years. Scholars concluded it had disappeared 65 to 70 million years ago. 



This assumption crumbled when a 32-year-old museum employee in East London, South Africa, examined a strange specimen brought by a local fisherman near the Chalumna River. The fish defied every existing category she knew.



Soon after, she contacted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._B._Smith" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor James Leonard Brierley Smith</a> of <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodes University</a> for advice. He confirmed that the fish was indeed a living coelacanth. 



That surprise discovery shifted the zoological narrative and demonstrated how the fossil record can be incomplete, especially when only a small number of individuals survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-fish-tale">Fascinating fish tale</h2>



In the eyes of many scientists, the coelacanth’s resurgence placed it into what is called a Lazarus taxon. The term refers to creatures that vanish from evidence, then reappear without warning. 



One telling moment from that occasion remains the telegram from Brierley Smith: “MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED.” 



No one anticipated those words, yet they confirmed something rare had surfaced.



After that event, more than a decade passed before another coelacanth turned up. In 1952, two fishermen in the Comoro Islands accidentally netted the second specimen, prompting renewed fascination among marine researchers. 



A further revelation followed in the 1990s, when experts identified a second species around the Indonesian archipelago. 



These examples carry the names <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-megacities-at-highest-risk-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Indian Ocean</a> coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae) and Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coelacanth-has-unique-physical-traits">Coelacanth has unique physical traits</h2>



This fish stands apart for its lobed pectoral fins, which appear to be an early link to vertebrates that eventually ventured onto land. These fins move in a synchronized pattern, allowing the fish to navigate underwater terrains. 



Unlike many other fishes, it also bears an unusual hinge in its skull, once a subject of speculation about how it might bite or process food.



Its coloration often blends with the rocky surroundings where it resides, offering a measure of cover in deep marine environments. 



The habitat provides sufficient shelter from predators, while the species’ low metabolism helps it survive on fewer resources. 



Scientists note that it rests in lava-cave recesses during daylight hours, an approach that likely shields it from hazards in open water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancestral-ties-to-land-creatures">Ancestral ties to land creatures</h2>



Researchers classify the coelacanth under the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-fish-like-fossil-finally-classified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group Sarcopterygii</a>, or lobe-finned fishes, which include lungfish and the earliest ancestors of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. 



Shared skeletal features, such as sturdy fin bones, point to a closer relationship with organisms that adapted to life on land. 



This connection is intriguing because it shows how certain aquatic traits can mirror structures later found in creatures roaming dry terrain.



Some studies suggest that the coelacanth’s rostral organ, located in its snout, may sense electrical signals from prey. 



That adaptation is reminiscent of strategies seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lobe-finned fish</a>, hinting at a link between modern species and those that made their way onto shore millions of years ago. 



Observers note that this hidden ability emphasizes how an ancient design can remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-stability-has-helped-coelacanths">Geological stability has helped coelacanths</h2>



The ancient environment of undersea caverns has changed little over vast stretches of time. 



Because of this stable setting, the coelacanth has not faced the intense pressures that other species might encounter in rapidly shifting habitats. 



Food sources may be limited, but the fish’s slow pace lessens its caloric needs.



Its specialized niche also guards it from fierce competition. Other oceanic predators seldom patrol these dark, quiet zones, giving the coelacanth space to endure without altering the basic features that first appeared centuries ago. 



This alignment between organism and setting reveals a powerful strategy: remain where the external world barely intrudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiring-story-of-adaptation-and-survival">Inspiring story of adaptation and survival</h2>



Many living forms adapt constantly to survive. By contrast, this fish’s story underscores how a creature can persist if external demands remain light and internal physiology fits the available conditions. 



Though it caused surprise among zoologists, the coelacanth itself quietly continued in an environment well-suited to its capabilities.



To many observers, it sparks discussions on biodiversity and the surprising ways life endures. While others might call it a relic, it is very much a survivor. 



Each sighting encourages experts to keep watching the deep sea, a region that may hold additional beings we once wrote off as extinct.



Scientists continue to investigate whether this fish harbors undiscovered traits. Each observation can add to our understanding of marine evolution. 



Observers hope that further study might shed new light on adaptations that remain hidden in dark, remote corners of the ocean.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-37849-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World’s oldest fish was presumed extinct for 60 million years before being rediscovered

Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life...

Particles,,Quantum,Entanglement,(quantum,Correlation),,Quantum,Mechanics.,3d,Illustration

In the past, events that took place in a flash were considered instantaneous. Yet modern experiments show that even when particles seem to shift in the blink of an eye, as with quantum entanglement, there are measurable intervals involved. 



These findings spark questions about how electrons leave atoms or how entangled pairs form, opening avenues for precise control in various applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-in-attoseconds">Measuring in attoseconds</h2>



Scientists once assumed that an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrons-can-follow-neat-paths-even-in-chaotic-quantum-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron remained in orbit</a> around its nucleus and was then abruptly pulled away by a burst of light. 



A similar assumption held for particles that collided and became entangled without any noticeable time span. 



Today, attosecond-scale measurements allow researchers to scrutinize these events with remarkable detail. 



By tracking processes once believed to be immediate, scientists can better understand interactions that may influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-teleportation-communication-achieved-on-regular-internet-cables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum communication</a> and next-generation computing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-attoseconds-the-basics">Understanding attoseconds - the basics</h2>



An attosecond is an insanely tiny slice of time - just one-quintillionth of a second (that’s a 1 followed by 18 zeros). 



To put it in perspective, light can only travel about the width of a human hair in that time. 



Scientists use attoseconds to track the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electron-movement-seen-atomic-level-quantum-microscopy-material-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements of electrons</a>, which are some of the fastest things in the universe. 



It’s like having a super high-speed camera for the quantum world, letting researchers watch events that were once way too fast to even imagine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-scale-of-quantum-entanglement">Time scale of quantum entanglement</h2>



"You could say that the particles have no individual properties; they only have common properties," explains Prof. Joachim Burgdörfer from the Institute of Theoretical Physics at <a href="https://www.itp.tuwien.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Wien</a>. 



"From a mathematical point of view, they belong firmly together, even if they are in two completely different places," 



In work published in Physical Review Letters, he and collaborators from China show how quantum entanglement can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arise on ultrafast scales</a>.



"We, on the other hand, are interested in something else - in finding out how this entanglement develops in the first place and which physical effects play a role on extremely short time scales," says Prof. Iva Březinová. 



Rather than focus on preserving quantum entanglement, her team explores the birth of this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Their approach involves intense, high-frequency laser pulses striking atoms. 



The first electron is ejected from the atom and propelled away. Under certain conditions, the second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron also absorbs energy</a> and moves to a higher orbital. 



"We can show that these two electrons are now quantum entangled," says Burgdörfer. 



"You can only analyze them together - and you can perform a measurement on one of the electrons and learn something about the other electron at the same time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-entangled-at-birth">Entangled at birth</h2>



The timing of the escaping electron links directly to the state of the electron left behind. 



"This means that the birth time of the electron that flies away is not known in principle. You could say that the electron itself doesn't know when it left the atom," says Burgdörfer. 



"It is in a quantum-physical superposition of different states. It has left the atom at both an earlier and a later point in time."



If the electron that remains is in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-vibrating-atoms-tune-single-electron-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher-energy state</a>, the departed electron likely left earlier. If the remaining electron is in a lower-energy state, that departure happened later. 



On average, the difference is around 232 attoseconds, an incredibly short duration that the scientists believe can be tested in future experiments. 



"We are already in talks with research teams who want to prove such ultrafast entanglements," says Burgdörfer.



When an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron leaves an atom</a>, it spreads out like a wave. 



"It is a wave that spills out of the atom, so to speak - and that takes a certain amount of time," says Březinová. 



"It is precisely during this phase that the entanglement occurs, the effect of which can be measured later by observing the two electrons."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Knowing how entanglement begins at such tiny time intervals can shape efforts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum-based encryption and computing</a>. 



By pinpointing the moment when two particles become linked, future technologies might harness these correlations more effectively. 



Understanding the sequence of events could also help scientists refine methods of generating entangled pairs for secure data transfer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-entangled-electrons">Using entangled electrons</h2>



Many investigations have focused on preserving quantum entanglement. These results highlight that the creation of entanglement itself is equally important. 



Observing how two electrons become correlated on timescales of a billionth of a billionth of a second opens possibilities for experimental work. 



Researchers aim to verify these simulations in the lab, guided by the notion that quantum events unfold in ways once deemed too fast to measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-timing-in-the-quantum-realm">Precision timing in the quantum realm</h2>



These studies suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-fractal-pattern-predicted-50-years-ago-observed-in-lab-hofstadters-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum behavior</a> is not purely immediate. Instead, even processes that seem abrupt have definable periods during which entanglement takes hold. 



By zooming in on those intervals, scientists can gain insights into cause-and-effect in the quantum world. As laser technologies advance, the door opens to new measurements that capture the fleeting birth of entangled pairs. 



This line of exploration may reshape how we design future systems that rely on the delicate interconnections of quantum particles. 



It also underscores the importance of time-sensitive observations in unraveling complex interactions, suggesting that many so-called instantaneous events may hold untapped opportunities for quantum research. 



As further collaborations emerge, these attosecond-scale findings could spark new methods to manipulate and measure entangled states, paving the way for innovative paths in science and technology. 



Research teams worldwide are likely to build on these insights, examining how precise timing can refine quantum simulations and deepen understanding of particle interactions in next-generation devices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.163201" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Speed of quantum entanglement is measured, but it's too fast for humans to understand

In the past, events that took place in a flash...

Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash something on the road that turns out to be an unprecedented scientific revelation. Well, that's exactly what happened to NASA's Curiosity Mars rover on May 30, 2024 when it struck sulfur.



While working its usual Martian shift, the rover stumbled upon, rather drove over, a rock and cracked it wide open, revealing a sight never before seen on Mars - a dazzling display of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-vallis_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">yellow sulfur crystals</a>.



This unexpected discovery was relayed to a team of astounded scientists, including Ashwin Vasavada, the Curiosity’s project scientist from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“Finding a field of stones made of pure sulfur is like finding an oasis in the desert. It shouldn’t be there, so now we have to explain it. Discovering strange and unexpected things is what makes planetary exploration so exciting," Vasavada enthused. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-sulfur-surprise-on-mars">Sweet sulfur surprise on Mars</h2>



The bright, odorless crystals found by Curiosity open a window into a new chapter of study. 



Researchers want to know what factors created this elemental form and how it can exist alongside other deposits that speak to the planet’s watery past.



Since October 2023, Curiosity has been rambling about in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfate-rich region</a> of Mars. Now, sulfates aren't exactly Martian novelties. 



These salts, formed as water evaporates, had been detected before, but only as constituents of sulfur-based minerals - mixtures of sulfur and other stuff. But this time, it was pure, elemental sulfur, a first of its kind.



What's so peculiar about this elemental sulfur? Well, contrary to the stinkiness associated with hydrogen sulfide gas, elemental sulfur is odorless. 



Its formation requires specific conditions not previously linked to this Martian location. Hence, the revelation of an entire field of bright, sulfur-laden rocks is indeed something to marvel at.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-as-a-signal-for-life-on-mars">Sulfur as a signal for life on Mars</h2>



Sulfur is an important element for understanding the potential for life, both on Earth and beyond. Certain microorganisms on our planet depend on sulfur compounds as an energy source. 



The presence of sulfur on Mars, even in forms discovered in earlier missions, has always raised questions about ancient habitats. 



Water influences the formation of sulfates, and water stands out as a critical ingredient for biology. 



Finding pure sulfur, though, points to specialized conditions that could expand possible scenarios for past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life on the Red Planet</a>.



Sulfur compounds also reveal information about Mars’s potential hydrothermal systems, volcanic activities, or ancient lakes and seas - habitats that might have supported life.



They are involved in chemical reactions that produce energy, a survival mechanism for some Earth microbes in extreme environments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-riftia-tubeworms-survive-on-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea hydrothermal vents</a>.



The identification of sulfur on Mars raises questions about the planet's historical habitability. It suggests a range of chemical environments that could have supported microbial life. 



While sulfur alone doesn't confirm the existence of life, its presence alongside other life-sustaining elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus strengthens the case for past life on Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-mount-sharp">Scaling Mount Sharp</h2>



Curiosity has climbed Mount Sharp for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than seven years</a>, examining its layered formations. 



Each layer represents a separate phase of the planet’s development, offering glimpses of ancient river networks, lake sediments, and shifting climates. 



Data show that different types of minerals, including sulfates, appear in these layers, hinting at cycles of evaporation and chemical alteration that occurred when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water was likely more plentiful</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-gediz-vallis-and-sulfur-crystals">Mars' Gediz Vallis and sulfur crystals</h2>



A site drawing particular interest is the Gediz Vallis channel. Researchers suspect it was shaped by water-driven events and landslides that left a jumble of rocks at the bottom. 



Findings suggest that both factors had a hand in the formation of these Martian landscapes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939362"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Becky Williams, a scientist with the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> in Tucson, Arizona, and deputy principal investigator of Curiosity’s Mast Camera, has studied these processes. 



“This was not a quiet period on Mars. There was an exciting amount of activity here. We’re looking at multiple flows down the channel, including energetic floods and boulder-rich flows," she explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drilling-for-more-sulfur-clues-on-mars">Drilling for more sulfur clues on Mars</h2>



Curiosity’s drill has stayed busy near the newly found sulfur field. On June 18, the rover created its 41st borehole in a rock called “Mammoth Lakes.” 



That powdered sample is now under scrutiny. Researchers hope to see if the elemental sulfur sits alongside compounds that might reveal the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical history of Mars</a>. 



Identifying the mixture of ingredients in the soil can shed light on previous hydrothermal processes, environmental conditions, or even the faint possibility of microbial life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-valles_wide-view_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939365"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The journey so far has been an adventurous one, with unexpected discoveries and valuable scientific data turning up at every corner. The team eagerly awaits what other surprises lay within the channel. 



Each new finding brings us a step closer to understanding the Martian history and whether the planet once harbored conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">favorable for life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



No single discovery confirms ancient life on Mars. Yet each sample broadens the view of what might have occurred on this neighbor world. 



The discovery of elemental sulfur on Mars enhances our understanding of our neighboring planet while stoking our curiosity about what else lies out there in the cosmos. 



The rover’s path offers new perspectives each time it rolls across unfamiliar terrain, revealing minerals that shouldn’t be there and sites that demand fresh explanation.



With every turn of its wheels, Curiosity encourages scientists to rethink prior assumptions and look forward to whatever else might be waiting in this dusty frontier.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Curiosity rover cracked open a rock and may have settled the 'life on Mars' debate

Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash...

Friendships matter deeply, especially during adolescence. In today’s digital world, staying in touch through social media has become the norm. Many teens feel the need to be constantly available online.



This availability, while helpful in some ways, can become exhausting. When friends don't reply or engage, it often leads to frustration and misunderstandings.



New research conducted by scientists in Italy has uncovered the hidden strain social media puts on teenage friendships. The team tracked how young people navigate expectations <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teens-with-problematic-smartphone-use-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> and how those expectations impact real friendships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-friendships-and-digital-stress">Teen friendships and digital stress</h2>



"We show that adolescents' perceptions of social media norms and perceptions of unique features of social media contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taking-a-smartphone-break-can-improve-your-life-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital stress</a>, which in turn increases friendship conflicts," said Federica Angelini, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.unipd.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Padua</a> and first author of the study.



Angelini and her team surveyed over 1,100 teenagers aged 13 to 18. They studied how teens' emotions shifted depending on whether friends replied, engaged, or seemed distant online. 



Two key emotions stood out - feeling trapped by the need to always be available (entrapment) and feeling hurt when friends didn’t respond (disappointment).



"Disappointment from unmet expectations on social media - such as when friends do not respond or engage as expected - is a stronger predictor of friendship conflict than the pressure to be constantly available."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-clues-and-social-media">Visual clues and social media</h2>



Over time, disappointment proved more damaging than entrapment. Six months after the first round of data collection, teens who felt disappointed by their friends were more likely to experience conflict. 



Constant availability, surprisingly, had less impact. It may be that always being online is now just a part of teenage culture.



"Individuals feel let down by their friends' availability or responsiveness online. This disappointment arises from unmet expectations and leads to negative emotions which can spill over into friendship conflicts," Angelini said.



Visual content - images and videos - adds another layer. Teens often see their friends active online or socializing without them. This creates feelings of exclusion and jealousy.



"Visual content makes it easier for teens to see what their friends are doing at any given time. If teens notice that their friends are active online or spend time with others while ignoring their messages, they may feel excluded, jealous, or rejected," Angelini explained. 



"This heightened awareness can intensify negative emotions and contribute to friendship tension."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-boundaries-for-teen-friendships">Better boundaries for teen friendships </h2>



The findings offer a roadmap to help teens build stronger friendships. Awareness is the first step. By recognizing how online behavior affects real emotions, teens can begin to make small changes.



"Identifying key stressors, for example, visual content and availability expectations, and understanding dynamics of online interactions among friends can help educators, parents, and teens develop healthier online habits," Angelini said.



Setting boundaries may help. Teens could try turning off notifications or agreeing on break times from social media with their friends. These steps reduce the pressure of instant replies.



"Learning to accept that not every message requires an immediate reply can ease digital stress while maintaining healthy friendships."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-teens-online-behavior">Future research on teens' online behavior</h2>



While the study provides useful insights, it has its limits. The analysis was based on teens' own reports of their online use, which may not tell the full story. Also, the six-month timeframe might not capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term patterns</a>.



"Future research could use objective measures of social media activity and extend the timeline to better understand how digital stress and friendship conflicts evolve over time," noted Angelini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-to-find-balance">Learning to find balance</h2>



Friendship is one of the most meaningful parts of growing up. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-is-helping-save-wild-animals-like-caracals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social media</a> has changed how these relationships form, grow, and sometimes falter. 



Understanding the emotional landscape of teen interactions online can guide better communication, deeper empathy, and more stable friendships.



This research doesn’t ask teens to step away from technology. Instead, it invites them to be more aware of their habits and reactions. When disappointment or stress rises, a small shift - like talking openly or logging off for a while - can make a big difference.



In the end, what teens need most is not constant digital presence, but consistent emotional support - on screen or off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/digital-health/articles/10.3389/fdgth.2025.1497222/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Digital Health</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social media pressure is straining teen friendships

Friendships matter deeply, especially during adolescence. In today’s digital world,...

There’s something timeless about the way a puppy looks at you. Wide eyes, wagging tail, a little clumsy in its steps - that kind of innocence tugs at the heart. Puppies don’t ask for much, yet they give everything. They trust without question, love without conditions, and fill silence with soft breathing and happy barks. That’s why every year, on March 23, we celebrate National Puppy Day.



But while this day showers attention on wagging tails and floppy ears, it also carries a deeper purpose - one of compassion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-puppy-owners-report-challenges-but-remain-committed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>, and responsibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-national-puppy-day">Purpose of National Puppy Day</h2>



1National Puppy Day began in 2006, thanks to <a href="https://www.colleenpaige.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colleen Paige</a>, an animal behaviorist and author. Her goal wasn’t just to fill the world with cute puppy pictures. She established this day to spotlight the rising concerns around puppy mills and animal homelessness.



With millions of puppies born into poor conditions every year, the world needed a day that reminded people to adopt, not shop.



Colleen Paige wanted the public to understand that many dogs in shelters wait for homes while puppies are bred for profit in overcrowded and inhumane facilities. Puppy mills often keep mother dogs in cages with barely enough space to turn around. 



These mothers are bred repeatedly until they are too old or sick, at which point they are discarded. Puppies from these mills often suffer from health problems due to poor breeding practices and lack of medical care.



National Puppy Day isn't just a feel-good moment. It’s a social movement wrapped in soft fur and bright eyes. By choosing to adopt from shelters instead of buying from pet stores or online breeders, people can disrupt this cycle of cruelty. 



Paige’s initiative has since gained worldwide recognition, sparking conversations about animal rights and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-experience-puppy-blues-with-a-new-pet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responsible pet care</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppy-mill-problem">The puppy mill problem</h2>



Puppy mills are not rare. In the United States alone, there are an estimated 10,000 of these commercial breeding facilities. These mills collectively produce over 2 million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puppies</a> each year, many of which end up in pet shops or are sold online.



Meanwhile, nearly the same number of dogs are euthanized annually in overcrowded shelters. This staggering contrast reveals a harsh truth - there is no shortage of dogs in need of homes, only a shortage of awareness.



Puppy mills focus on quantity, not quality. Dogs are often kept in wire cages without proper bedding, food, or medical care. Their emotional needs are ignored. 



Mothers give birth repeatedly without rest, their bodies weakening over time. Puppies raised in these conditions may look healthy but often carry long-term health and behavioral issues.



By adopting, potential pet owners help break the cycle. Adoption gives homeless dogs a second chance and reduces the demand for mass breeding. National Puppy Day calls on people to educate themselves, their families, and their communities about the potentially cruel conditions in which many puppies are bred.



Change begins with knowing the truth, and this day is about more than just cuddles - it’s about making informed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compassionate choices</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-make-national-puppy-day-count">Make National Puppy Day count</h2>



March 23 should be more than just a day to post photos. It should be a moment of reflection, kindness, and action. People can celebrate by visiting local shelters, spending time with the animals, and learning more about how they can help. 



Shelters often use this day to host special events, encouraging community members to meet adoptable puppies and learn about rescue work.



Even if adopting isn’t an option right now, there are other ways to support the cause. Volunteering time, donating supplies, or simply sharing information online can help shelters find loving homes for their animals. 



Raising awareness within your own network can lead to more adoptions, better understanding, and stronger support systems for animals in need.



For those with pets already, National Puppy Day is a lovely excuse to give them extra attention. A longer walk, a new toy, or a few more minutes of playtime can mean the world to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-feel-smells-may-help-keep-us-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puppy</a>. These small moments remind us why dogs are considered to be man’s best friend.



They bring loyalty, joy, and a kind of companionship that’s hard to find elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puppy-facts-that-brighten-the-day">Puppy facts that brighten the day</h2>



Puppies may be young, but they have fascinating quirks that make them even more lovable. Most puppies sleep between 15 and 20 hours a day. This sleep fuels their rapid growth and development.



Dalmatians, known for their spots, are actually born without any. Their signature markings develop as they grow older. In rare cases, light-haired puppies are born with a green tint from a pigment in the womb - a color that fades within a few days.



The smallest adult dog ever recorded was just 3.8 inches (9.6 centimeters) tall. On the other end of the scale is the famous floral sculpture in Bilbao, Spain - a forty-foot-tall (12 meter) puppy covered in tens of thousands of fresh flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-celebrate-and-reflect">A day to celebrate and reflect</h2>



National Puppy Day 2025 is more than a celebration of cuteness. It’s a reminder that love comes with responsibility. 



Puppies are not toys. They are living beings who need time, patience, and care. Dogs deserve safe homes, not cages. They deserve kindness, not neglect.



Whether you have a dog, want one, or just love seeing them in your feed, March 23 is a day to pause and consider how we treat animals in general, and how we can do better.



So this year, take a moment to celebrate the joy of puppies. But also take a step toward change. Visit a shelter. Share a story. Adopt if you’re ready. Speak up when you see cruelty. Because behind every happy bark is a chance to build a more compassionate world. 



And every puppy, no matter where it starts, deserves that chance.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

National Puppy Day 2025: Where happiness meets responsibility

There’s something timeless about the way a puppy looks at...

Feathers did not arrive in nature as fully formed tools for flight. Their development began long before birds took to the sky. The fossil record tells a story that stretches back over 200 million years.



Now, with the help of genetic tools and carefully timed experiments, scientists can reawaken ancient traits inside of modern embryos.



This is not just about feathers. It's about how complexity arises, how it endures, and how biology protects the structures it builds. By reversing certain steps in feather <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-dinosaurs-to-birds-the-mysterious-origin-of-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">development</a>, researchers reveal a hidden resilience. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-development-before-birds">Feather development before birds</h2>



The earliest feathers didn’t help animals fly. Instead, they started as simple, hollow filaments. These "proto-feathers" likely emerged in some dinosaurs during the Triassic period, around 200 million years ago. 



There’s even evidence they may have evolved earlier, in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs nearly 240 million years ago.



Unlike modern feathers, proto-feathers had no central shaft, no branching barbs, and no follicle. But they still served a purpose. They helped with insulation and may have acted as colorful or patterned signals during social interaction. 



Over time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> shaped feathers into complex tools that now support everything from flight to waterproofing.



This progression - from basic filaments to branched, aerodynamic feathers - didn’t happen randomly. It followed a path written in genes, using signaling pathways shared across the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-hidden-in-bird-embryos">Clues hidden in bird embryos</h2>



Modern bird embryos offer a way to retrace this path. At the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a>, Professor Michel Milinkovitch and his team have explored the genetics of feather formation. Their lab focuses on how molecular signals drive the development of skin structures like scales, hair, and feathers.



One such signaling system, the Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) pathway, plays a crucial role in shaping feathers. In earlier studies, the team activated this pathway in chicken embryos. 



The result was remarkable - scales on the feet of the birds transformed into permanent feathers. That experiment proved how a single shift in signaling can alter skin identity.



But what would happen if the Shh pathway were blocked instead?



"Feathers, ancient and intricate, still hold secrets that science is just beginning to unlock," noted Rory Cooper, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-feather-development-recreated">Ancient feather development recreated</h2>



To investigate, the researchers injected a drug called sonidegib into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-inspire-improvements-in-airplane-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chicken</a> embryos on their ninth day of development.



This drug shuts down the Shh pathway by targeting a key protein called Smoothened. The timing was crucial - day nine is when feather placodes begin to form, marking the start of feather bud development.



The results were dramatic. Feather buds failed to grow and remained short and unbranched. The typical invagination that forms a feather follicle was absent. Instead, the skin developed smooth, hollow filaments - almost identical to proto-feathers seen in fossils.



This temporary block in development held until the fourteenth day. After that, something unexpected happened. Feather growth resumed on its own. Chicks that hatched had patches of bare skin, but over the next several weeks, those areas filled in with normal feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-how-feathers-recover">A closer look at how feathers recover</h2>



The researchers tracked development from embryo to hatchling using imaging and RNA sequencing. They confirmed that the Shh pathway was indeed suppressed. 



Key genes like Ptch1, Ptch2, and Gli1 were all turned down. These genes normally guide outgrowth, branching, and follicle formation. Blocking them prevented barbs and ridges from forming.



Microscopy revealed that in high-dose treatments, feather buds remained fused, stubby, and lacked branching. 



Follicle invagination - the folding-in of the skin to support feather roots - was completely absent. But despite all this, the system rebounded. By 49 days after hatching, the chicks showed normal feather coverage.



The only part that didn’t return to normal? The flight feathers. These specialized feathers, located on the posterior edge of the wing, failed to form correctly in high-dose embryos. 



Even weeks later, their positions were filled by smaller, contour-type <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a>. This indicated that some aspects of feather identity are locked to narrow developmental windows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



To verify that the observed effects were specific to Shh signaling, the team ran a second experiment. They combined the Shh-blocking drug with a Shh activator known as SAG. If feathers could be restored this way, it would confirm that both molecules act directly on the same pathway.



And they were. Chicks treated with both sonidegib and SAG developed normal feathers. Even when SAG was delivered one or two days after sonidegib, the feathers grew, branched, and invaginated as they should. 



Only late treatment - beyond day eleven - led to partial recovery. This showed that timing is everything in embryonic development.



"Our experiments show that while a transient disturbance in the development of foot scales can permanently turn them into feathers, it is much harder to permanently disrupt feather development itself," noted Michel Milinkovitch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-recover-scales-do-not">Feathers recover, scales do not</h2>



This recovery points to something fundamental about feathers. They grow from follicles that contain stem cells. These cells regenerate feathers cyclically throughout a bird’s life. 



In contrast, scales - like those on a bird’s foot - do not grow from follicles and cannot regenerate. That may explain why transformed foot scales remain feathers, while disrupted feathers bounce back.



Even at the gene expression level, this distinction is clear. After sonidegib treatment, the feathers showed temporary suppression of hundreds of genes tied to structure and shape - keratin production, signaling gradients, and branching formation. 



But the spatial map of feather follicles remained intact. Once signaling returned, so did the feathers.



Flight feathers, however, rely on precise placement and signaling levels during a short developmental window. If Shh signaling is missing at that moment, the opportunity is lost. The feather becomes ordinary, not aerodynamic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mechanisms-modern-precision">Ancient mechanisms, modern precision</h2>



The entire experiment rests on a principle called reaction-diffusion. It’s a model that explains how patterns like stripes, spots, and ridges form in living tissues. 



The Shh protein works as an activator, while another molecule, Bmp2, acts as its inhibitor. Together, they create a spatial map that tells cells where to grow barbs, shafts, or follicles.



By altering the Shh signal, scientists rewrote this map. The result: broad stripes of gene activity replaced the usual dotted pattern of feather placodes. This type of disruption aligns with theories on how feathers evolved from simpler, unbranched structures. 



Proto-feathers didn’t have a patterned map yet - just the beginnings of one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-development-and-evolution">Feather development and evolution</h2>



The study does more than recreate an ancient structure. It shows that feather development is built to recover from disruption. 



This makes sense from an evolutionary point of view. Feathers are essential to survival in many bird species. Evolution may have shaped them to resist failure - much like a city has backup systems to keep it running.



And yet, these systems remain open to change. By manipulating just one pathway, scientists can trigger a full shift in identity - from scale to feather. Or they can recreate traits that vanished millions of years ago.



It’s a reminder that the genetic blueprint of life is both sturdy and flexible. The key lies not in the parts themselves, but in the timing and tuning of their signals. Feathers evolved through such changes - and continue to teach us how form and function intertwine across deep time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chicken embryos reveal secrets of early feather development

Feathers did not arrive in nature as fully formed tools...

Young,Golden,Retriever,For,A,Walk,With,His,Owner.,Dog

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like a chore. College life piles on exams and assignments, leaving many people feeling overwhelmed. A new study shows that playing with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly dog</a> for just 15 minutes can lighten that emotional load.



The research was led by senior investigator Dr. Jaruwan Khonmee from <a href="https://www.cmu.ac.th/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiang Mai University</a> in Thailand and included 122 students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-bond-with-humans-the-basics">How dogs bond with humans - the basics</h2>



There’s something incredibly special about the bond between dogs and humans - it goes way beyond companionship. 



Dogs don’t just live alongside us; they tune into our moods, read our body language, and somehow just get us. 



They know when we’re happy, when we’re stressed, when we need a nudge to go outside or a quiet moment to breathe. And we respond in kind. 



We learn to understand their barks, their tail wags, their little quirks. It’s not just loyalty - it’s this deep, wordless connection built on trust, time, and a whole lot of shared experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-help-lower-stress">Dogs help lower stress</h2>



<a href="https://archive.org/details/psychologicalstr0000laza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stress</a> is a feeling of mental tension triggered by tough situations, and it can drain your energy before you realize it. Over time, stress can harm your mood, focus, and physical health in multiple ways.



College students often juggle challenging courses, part-time work, and new social circles. When responsibilities pile up, anxiety can creep in and catch people off guard.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2485862/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cortisol</a> is a hormone that climbs when you’re tense and goes down when you’re relaxed. Lowering it can support better heart function and clearer thinking under pressure.



That’s where a quick session of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine interaction</a> steps in to break the cycle. A wagging tail or a nudge from a friendly snout can act like a natural mood lifter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-helped-students">How dogs helped students</h2>



In this project, students had their heart rates, saliva samples, and stress surveys measured before and after interacting with dogs. 



The researchers observed significant drops in both physical and emotional stress markers once the session ended.



Compared to just moments earlier, students’ self-reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress levels</a> decreased by 33.5% after hanging out with the pup. This quick drop demonstrates how a little interaction can go a long way.



Some participants chose to cuddle or chat with the dog, while others offered treats or toys. Even short bursts of play were enough to see a noticeable shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-reduce-stress-levels">Dogs reduce stress levels</h2>



“Even brief interactions with dogs can significantly reduce stress levels among university undergraduate students,” concluded the researchers. 



They noted that stress hormones in the dogs themselves appeared to drop over time, suggesting shared benefits.



Fecal tests indicated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pups</a> had lower cortisol a week after these sessions. This finding points to the possibility that dogs might also feel relaxed when spending time with attentive humans.



Crucially, none of the six dogs used were certified therapy animals. Their friendly nature alone seemed enough to help students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-relief-through-genuine-connection">Stress relief through genuine connection </h2>



Researchers have spent years examining the human-animal bond. One <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279314X14072268687808" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> found that petting a calm dog cannot only slow heart rate but also quiet the mind.



A good-natured pup provides social interaction without the same judgment people fear in formal therapy settings. Students can feel understood without having to explain every feeling or worry.



These canine sessions may work in part because they tap into <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/co-regulation-helping-children-and-teens-navigate-big-emotions-202404033030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional co-regulation</a>, where two living beings calm each other. It’s less about a clinical approach and more about genuine connection.



That sense of warmth can reassure students who hesitate to seek human counseling. A dog’s presence often feels comforting, making it easier to let go of anxious thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-outcomes-for-students">Encouraging outcomes for students</h2>



Not every campus has the resources to bring in certified therapy animals. This study shows that friendly, well-behaved pets might offer help even if they lack formal training.



Some universities have started hosting dog visits during final exams to give frazzled students a break. In many cases, just a few minutes can revive a tired mind.



Researchers stress the importance of ensuring dogs enjoy the interaction. Signs of anxiety or discomfort in pets could prevent the positive effects.



Preparing a calm environment, offering treats, and supervising the sessions can keep everyone happy. It’s a balancing act that respects both human and canine comfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-with-dog-visits">Managing stress with dog visits</h2>



Experts want to know if repeated dog sessions can bring lasting improvements. Longer studies might track stress relief over entire semesters to see if the benefits accumulate.



Some researchers wonder if these visits spark additional gains, like boosted motivation or a steadier mindset. Others are curious whether multiple short sessions are better than one extended visit. 



Further studies are needed to determine the ideal balance for ongoing stress management.



College life is not about to slow down, but dog visits seem promising for easing at least some of the mental load. Quick, simple sessions can offer a breather when books and deadlines pile high.



These findings encourage schools and organizations to consider how a wagging tail might bring calm to busy people. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318777" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Petting a dog is the easiest way to reduce stress without medication

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like...

Not all great hammerhead sharks are long-distance travelers. In fact, some prefer to stick close to home. 



Recent research focusing on sharks near Andros Island in the Bahamas has revealed that while some great hammerheads are known to migrate vast distances, others appear to settle down, likely because the local environment already meets their needs. 



This discovery could help improve conservation efforts for this critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-sharks-study-reveals-hidden-crisis-of-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> species.



The study was led by Tristan Lee Guttridge, director of <a href="https://www.savingtheblue.org/?srsltid=AfmBOopD-gfmsVvvpjjjgw_pZcwXw0DuEAkFdxsThf_tvfMhnr_N9qE-" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saving the Blue</a>, in collaboration with researchers supported by Discovery’s Shark Week.



The team focused their efforts on the Bahamas, especially around Andros Island, an area largely unexplored in terms of great hammerhead activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-tracking-in-the-bahamas">Shark tracking in the Bahamas </h2>



“When we started this study there was little to no information about great <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-hammerhead-sharks-hold-their-breath-to-stay-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hammerheads</a> in the central Bahamas and no information about their habitat use at Andros, which has one of the largest fringing reefs in the world and arguably has the most pristine flats habitats in the wider Caribbean,” explained Guttridge. “We had no answers to simple questions like, what do these sharks eat?”



Until now, most shark tracking in the Bahamas focused on areas like Bimini, known for its seasonal shark visitors. However, the role of Andros Island in the sharks' life cycle remained a mystery. 



Scientists wanted to find out if the island served as a year-round habitat, a feeding ground, or even a potential mating site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tagging-tracking-and-shark-science">Tagging, tracking, and shark science</h2>



Between March 2020 and June 2024, the team captured 22 great hammerhead sharks in locations that matched their known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> preferences.



Using baited block rigs, they carefully caught the sharks, assessed their health, and recorded key data like sex and size. 



Muscle biopsies were taken for isotope analysis, and seven sharks were equipped with satellite trackers. Because great hammerheads are sensitive to stress, only the healthiest individuals were tagged.



The researchers didn’t rely on their captures alone. They also included opportunistic sightings, compiling a total of 78 shark encounters between 2018 and 2024. Most of these were large juveniles or adults.



Sightings spiked in January through March, with a second increase in June and July. Two of these sightings suggested recent mating, pointing to the island’s importance as a possible breeding ground.



Some sharks were even recaptured in the exact same areas years later, showing a surprising degree of site fidelity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shark-s-preferred-neighborhood">A shark’s preferred neighborhood</h2>



The sharks didn’t use the island randomly. They favored eastern waters just off the northern and central coast of Andros, consistently returning to a relatively small 400-square-kilometer area. 



Other popular spots included edge habitats near steep reef drop-offs, where prey was abundant.



But if the sharks ventured too far south or past the northern tip of the island, they were more likely to keep moving. 



Those that left the Bahamas often traveled to the eastern United States, indicating a possible connection to the broader western Atlantic hammerhead population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-of-hammerhead-sharks">Eating habits of hammerhead sharks </h2>



Isotope analysis from the biopsies shed light on the sharks' eating habits. Barracudas and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stingrays</a> made up about two-thirds of the diet, with smaller sharks filling in the rest. 



However, dietary preferences varied between individuals. One shark, for instance, had a diet consisting almost entirely of silky sharks.



“Resource availability is a key driver of space use, but why don’t all of them stay if food is so abundant? We found evidence of individual variation in their diets, so deciding whether to stay or go might depend on what they feed on," said Guttridge.



“For other species, why or if migration has been linked to environmental conditions, body size, food availability, competition, and predation."



“Perhaps, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-salmon-outsmart-predators-on-their-journey-to-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon</a>, there is a genetic component to it? We need to explore this phenomenon further.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-patterns-of-hammerhead-sharks">Movement patterns of hammerhead sharks</h2>



Guttridge noted that the global population of great hammerheads is thought to have reduced by more than 80% over the last three generations, and genomic analysis revealed low genetic variation and inbreeding.



“Understanding the movement patterns of great hammerheads is important for improving conservation efforts. We find that some great hammerheads show residency in the Bahamas, protecting them year-round from fishing pressures.”



The Bahamas shark sanctuary offers protection to sharks that stay within its borders, but not all sharks remain in these waters. That means local conservation efforts alone aren't enough to protect the species.



“Our research showcases the importance of Bahamian waters and their protective measures. It also shows that although some individuals reside year-round in protected waters, others do not, emphasizing the need for international collaboration on conservation efforts for these mobile species," said Guttridge.



"A key next step is seeing how these hammerheads fit in with the broader north-west Atlantic population.”



Understanding who stays and who goes - and why - may be the key to keeping the species alive.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1544482/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why some great hammerhead sharks rarely leave home

Not all great hammerhead sharks are long-distance travelers. In fact,...

Many people assume that cats are aloof and uncooperative. The results of a new study are challenging this assumption, suggesting that certain felines might be surprisingly effective in therapy and other animal-assisted services (<a href="https://aas-int.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAS</a>).



Professor Patricia Pendry of <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a> collaborated with Belgian researchers to investigate whether some cats show consistent, friendly behavior in settings that help people cope with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> and anxiety.



The study was focused on how cat personality traits might fit into therapy programs, even though dogs have historically dominated this field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-using-cats-in-therapy">Potential of using cats in therapy</h2>



Cat-based support programs have lagged in popularity in the United States. In some parts of Europe, however, professional teams have quietly introduced cats into schools, hospitals, and community centers, with positive anecdotal feedback.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194067/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have been digging into cat behavior for years to understand how these animals communicate with people. 



Cats form strong emotional bonds and may <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-for-childhood-brain-cancer-halts-tumor-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense</a> when someone is upset, giving them a unique way to offer comfort that differs from dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-traits-that-soothe">Unique traits that soothe</h2>



Some therapy professionals report that cats can help clients feel less tense in stressful environments. These observations align with general <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24565951/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> that time spent with animals can lower heart rate and calm the nervous system.



Cats involved in certain AAS scenarios often display a gentle demeanor, especially when people are seated or in lower-energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-therapy-offers-hope-for-millions-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moods</a>. 



Unlike many dogs, which may leap around or bark loudly, a calm cat can bring a sense of stillness that some individuals prefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screening-cats-for-therapy">Screening cats for therapy</h2>



“There’s this perception that cats just aren’t suitable for this kind of work, but our study shows that some cats may thrive in these settings,” said Pendry. 



Preliminary survey results from hundreds of Belgian cat owners revealed that specific felines show high sociability, enjoy contact with new people, and display patience when handled.



This openness may make a select group of cats better suited for therapy visits, especially when multiple clients move through a room each day. Not every cat wants this much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-may-be-the-key-to-anxiety-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interaction</a>, so experts emphasize the importance of screening and ongoing monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relieving-feelings-of-isolation">Relieving feelings of isolation </h2>



Therapy animals have been popular at universities, where students grapple with academic pressure and homesickness. While dogs still appear most often in the U.S., a few schools in Europe have experimented with cats to provide quieter, more low-key sessions.



Institutions that tested cat therapy sessions reported enthusiastic responses from students who already favored felines at home. Practitioners say a purring cat in someone’s lap can help relieve feelings of isolation, particularly if that person is more introverted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-welfare-of-therapy-cats">Welfare of therapy cats </h2>



<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33">Studies</a> show that cats suitable for therapy may be tolerant of being picked up and transported. Researchers also note that some outgoing cats seem to handle bustling therapy spaces without hiding under tables or hissing.



This calm acceptance of new situations goes hand in hand with the animal’s own comfort level. Professionals warn that if a cat consistently appears tense, it’s better to remove them from the program for the sake of their well-being.



Even the best-suited cats can feel overwhelmed by long therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-reduces-distress-in-people-with-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sessions</a> or large groups of people. More investigations are needed to explore the stress levels cats may experience during repeated interactions in different locations.



Caregivers and therapists often watch for signs of burnout in cats, such as excessive grooming or agitation. These signals can indicate that a break or a reduced workload is necessary, ensuring the cat remains comfortable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-felines-are-a-match">Not all felines are a match</h2>



Some cats are extremely social, while others are content to lounge alone at home. Advocates of cat therapy stress that the idea is not to force a reluctant cat into these roles but to let the more confident ones shine.



“It’s about recognizing that some cats may genuinely enjoy this kind of interaction,” said Pendry. She pointed out that certain outgoing felines have much in common with therapy dogs.



Professional trainers rarely work with cats in the same structured way they do with dogs. Many cats in AAS programs appear to bring their natural style of greeting, which may be enough when the cat is friendly and calm.



However, some experts think basic training could reduce fear and help cats become comfortable with unusual sounds or sudden movements. Simple exercises involving handling and social exposure might give prospective therapy cats a smoother transition into these roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-appeal-of-quiet-companions">The appeal of quiet companions</h2>



Even in noisy environments like hospitals, a well-chosen cat can soothe patients who feel intimidated by hyperactive animals. This option might also support individuals who have had negative experiences with dogs and prefer a less boisterous companion.



Several cat breeds like <a href="https://cfa.org/breed/maine-coon-cat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maine Coons</a> and <a href="https://www.purina.co.uk/find-a-pet/cat-breeds/ragdoll" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ragdolls</a> are sometimes described as more tolerant of human contact, though the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> did not focus on specific breeds. Researchers emphasize that individual personality matters more than general breed traits.



Belgian groups appear more open to cat-based therapies, while U.S. programs remain cautious. With growing evidence, some American facilities may soon broaden their horizons and incorporate felines for special sessions.



Pet welfare organizations suggest that expansions should be slow and monitored. Collecting data on cat temperament and stress responses will help refine best practices for feline involvement in therapy settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-growth-of-cat-therapy">Potential growth of cat therapy</h2>



Animal-assisted services can be beneficial for humans when done ethically. Cats offer a calmer approach for those who prefer their peaceful presence, which can be an ideal match in certain therapy contexts.



Nevertheless, it is vital to guard against pushing cats beyond their comfort zone. Programs that prioritize the cat’s autonomy and track their stress signals stand a better chance of a successful and humane experience.



As knowledge spreads, interested cat owners may look for ways to share their pets’ gentle nature with local organizations. Europe’s warmer reception could foreshadow gradual acceptance elsewhere, as more evidence supports feline therapy under the right conditions.



Focused research on cat well-being is a natural next step. Scientists are eager to pinpoint whether cats adapt to therapy work or whether personality traits drive success from the start.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cats that like attention can soothe people during therapy

Many people assume that cats are aloof and uncooperative. The...

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell. It helps them find lost hikers, sniff out contraband, and detect health issues. Their noses pick up odors we barely notice, offering an invisible map of the world around them.



Scientists have taken a closer look at this skill by scanning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-smell-human-stress-and-it-makes-them-feel-gloomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine brains</a> while they work their sniffing magic. The study was led by Professor Zeev Zalevsky from the Kofkin Faculty of Engineering at <a href="https://engineering.biu.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>. 



The researchers found key insights in the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24894-amygdala" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482171/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a>, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11158/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olfactory bulb</a> of four dog breeds, which shed light on how dogs separate one odor from another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-read-smells-with-their-brain">Dogs read smells with their brain</h2>



Dogs have a larger set of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS22337/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odor receptor genes</a> than humans, allowing them to detect scents in trace amounts. 



Their noses send signals to the olfactory bulb, where initial processing happens. Next, the signals reach deeper regions of the brain linked to memory, motivation, and emotion.



The research team used a remote optical sensor that could scan a dog’s brain activity while it took in four different smells. Experts say this approach might open the door for observing real-time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-detect-scents-better-than-the-most-advanced-lab-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> responses without bulky equipment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-amygdala-matters">Why the amygdala matters</h2>



“The findings show that the amygdala is crucial in the way dogs process and react to odors, with specific scents triggering distinct emotional and memory responses, and we are capable of optically detecting their brain activity in this region,” said Professor Zalevsky.&nbsp;



”This discovery could be the first step toward creating a device that enables us to better understand and interpret the unique way dogs perceive and differentiate smells.”



The amygdala is often associated with emotion and survival instincts. The researchers saw this region activate differently when the dogs sampled each odor, highlighting why some smells bring about strong behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-smell-response-of-dogs">Tracking the smell response of dogs</h2>



“Our next step is to develop a portable, Wi-Fi-controlled device equipped with a mini camera and laser system, which could be mounted on a dog’s head and used to monitor its olfactory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-detect-bladder-cancer-in-other-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> in real time,” said Dr. Yafim Beiderman, an expert in Professor Zalevsky’s Optical Research Lab at Bar-Ilan University.



This technology could potentially transform how dogs are used in substance detection or medical diagnosis.



Some experts have looked at dogs for <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/329/7468/712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer screening</a> and diabetes alerts. A deeper understanding of their scent processing could speed up these efforts, making it possible to gather data without waiting for canine training to finish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-from-a-distance">Scanning from a distance</h2>



Using lasers to pick up tiny vibrations on the surface of the skull may sound out of the ordinary. Yet <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224123007145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that such non-invasive methods can sense blood flow and neural activity in humans. 



The researchers adapted that idea for dogs, focusing on specific brain zones where odor signals land.



Data from the sensor was processed by a machine-learning system, revealing that each area of the brain responded in unique ways. This led to the conclusion that the emotional center is a heavyweight in scent separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-health-and-safety">Implications for health and safety</h2>



Police often rely on K9 units to sniff out drugs and other illegal substances. A remote brain scanner might help them interpret the dog’s recognition of a target odor without confusion or guesswork. 



In medical fields, a quick read of a dog’s amygdala response may one day spot an illness before a patient notices symptoms.



Teams that conduct search-and-rescue missions also stand to gain. Any gadget that clarifies what a dog is smelling could guide them toward trapped individuals more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-how-we-see-dogs">A shift in how we see dogs</h2>



The research emphasizes that dogs are more than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loyal companions</a>. Their noses have been described as sophisticated analyzers that monitor odors for emotion-based clues. 



Decoding those responses may add new dimensions to how people partner with animals in daily tasks.



A deeper look at the hippocampus in dogs may also reveal how memories of smells guide their actions. The research team noted that future studies could expand to more breeds and more scents, refining the technology along the way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-scent-triggers-from-a-dog-s-brain">Subtle scent triggers from a dog's brain</h2>



Some individuals rely on service dogs for anxiety or panic disorders. Interpreting real-time signals from the dog’s brain might uncover subtle scent triggers that a person hasn’t recognized. 



This concept extends to therapy animals, especially if professionals want to measure how dogs respond to stressful environments.



Researchers have found that dog noses can often detect changes in body chemistry, sometimes months or years before medical tests confirm a disease. Real-time tracking of this skill could produce a fast approach for problem detection, bridging the communication gap between species.



Scientists plan to explore broader ways to translate canine brainwaves into easy-to-read data. There might come a time when a single device reveals how dogs process everything from everyday household smells to suspicious substances. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbio.202400501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biophotonics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How dogs are able to "feel" smells may help keep us safe

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell....

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in the Southern Ocean, where any moment a torpedo-shaped penguin could appear, devouring thousands of your fellow krill at lightning speed. Now, new research suggests that even the faintest hint of penguin droppings in the water is enough to prompt krill into escape behavior.



“Here we show for the first time that a small amount of penguin guano causes a sudden change in the feeding and swimming behaviors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a>,” said Nicole Hellessey, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> in Maine.



Antarctic krill play a vital role in the Southern Ocean. They serve as a major carbon sink and provide food for a large array of species, from penguins to whales. 



By some estimates, approximately 700 trillion adult Antarctic krill still swim these frigid waters, though their populations have drifted further south over time, likely due to climate change, diminishing sea ice, and acidifying ocean conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-penguin-poop-to-krill-behavior">Linking penguin poop to krill behavior</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-poop-can-be-used-to-store-carbon-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a> are highly sensitive to chemical cues - from signals guiding them to food or potential mates to indicators of pollution. Hellessey and her colleagues sought to determine whether krill also react to the scent of predators. 



Their study zeroed in on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a>, the southernmost-breeding penguin species, which depend on Antarctic krill for 99.6% of their diet. An adult Adélie can consume as much as 1.6 kilograms of krill each day, and the global Adélie population collectively devours around 1.5 million tons per year.



Researchers aboard the vessels Laurence M Gould and Nathaniel B Palmer in the Bransfield Strait in late 2022 netted live Antarctic krill, which they then placed in aquaria at Palmer Station. 



Meanwhile, bird researchers had collected 78 grams of Adélie guano from a colony on Torgersen Island off the Antarctic Peninsula near Palmer Station. “Smells like rotten shellfish. Not pleasant to handle,” said Hellessey, describing the guano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abrupt-behavior-shifts-in-krill">Abrupt behavior shifts in krill</h2>



To test the krill’s reaction to the guano, the scientists ran trials using six to eight krill per five-minute session in a flume tank held at 1.5°C, with lights dimmed to simulate conditions at about 40 meters below the surface - the most productive layer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a>. 



Water flowed through the flume at either 3 centimeters or 5.9 centimeters per second, and it contained either algae alone, penguin guano alone, or both combined. Each setup was tested four times.



The researchers used two automated cameras to record the movements of four krill during each trial, capturing precise data on each animal’s 3D position as well as speed and swimming direction.



The data revealed that in control settings, krill generally practiced “rheotaxis,” swimming straight upstream against the current. 



But in the presence of Adélie guano, their behavior shifted abruptly: they began to vary their swimming speed more, reaching between 1.2 and 1.5 times their usual pace, and they performed three times as many turns - over an angle that was on average 1.4 times greater than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-make-sacrifices-to-avoid-penguins">Krill make sacrifices to avoid penguins</h2>



A second experiment showed that guano in the water caused krill to reduce their algae consumption by 64%, plunging from 12.7 micrograms of carbon per hour per krill to 4.6 micrograms. 



This indicates that the frequent changes in swimming direction came at a cost, making them less efficient at feeding.



The researchers interpreted these dramatic differences in speed and direction as part of an avoidance response. 



“Such behavior to escape from nearby penguins would greatly increase the krill’s odds of survival. And these odds would increase exponentially in a swarm, if their neighbors could detect the same cues and communicate the danger to each other,” Hellessey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-chemical-trigger">Investigating the chemical trigger</h2>



Though the team uncovered the behavioral shift, it is still unclear which specific compounds from penguin guano set off these alarms for krill.&nbsp;



“We hypothesize that Antarctic krill are avoiding the odor of ground-up krill and fish in the penguins’ guano. We thus expect krill to show similar swimming behaviors and suppressed feeding around seals, whales, and other types of krill predators in Antarctica,” Hellessey noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-signals-in-a-warming-ocean">Krill signals in a warming ocean</h2>



Given that these signals and their resulting behaviors occur in the often vast Southern Ocean, open-water conditions could dilute the cues and alter how krill respond. Moreover, warming oceans and acidification may alter how effectively these cues travel or how quickly the krill can respond.&nbsp;



“We don’t yet know how the ability of krill to sense these chemical cues and their escape behavior towards them might vary when diluted in open waters, or under global warming or ocean acidification conditions," said Hellessey. 



"Any changes to krill’s behavior could have major impacts on the future Southern Ocean, as Antarctic krill are a keystone species in this ecosystem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-broader-ecological-shifts">Predicting broader ecological shifts</h2>



Ultimately, this study adds an important layer to our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> in polar waters. As climate shifts reshape the Southern Ocean, understanding how krill perceive and react to predator signals may help predict broader ecological shifts.&nbsp;



If krill alter their movements and feeding drastically, it could influence entire marine food webs and carbon cycling processes - a reminder that even simple chemical cues can produce outsized effects on oceanic ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1508287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Just a whiff of penguin poop can send krill into a frenzy

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in...

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife behavior. A new study published in the journal Animal Behaviour reveals that Galápagos yellow warblers (Setophaga petechia aureola) grow more aggressive in response to traffic noise. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, found only on the islands, respond differently based on their proximity to roads.



​The study was led by researchers from <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a> and the <a href="https://klf.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konrad Lorenz Research Centre</a> at the University of Vienna. Using recorded bird songs and simulated traffic sounds, the team observed how warblers reacted in different territories.​



The results showed birds living near roads exhibited more aggression, while those farther away behaved more passively when exposed to the same noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-human-impact-on-islands">Growing human impact on islands</h2>



The Galápagos Islands lie over 500 miles off Ecuador’s coast. Once a quiet haven of biodiversity, the region now feels the strain of human presence. 



A rapid rise in population and tourism has increased the number of vehicles on roads. This shift transforms the once-isolated environment, bringing unexpected consequences for its native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



The Galápagos yellow warbler, a subspecies genetically distinct from its mainland relatives, serves as a biological indicator of this change. The researchers studied the birds on the islands of Floreana and Santa Cruz.



In both regions, vehicle noise prompted warblers to behave more aggressively, even on Floreana, where only around 10 vehicles are in use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-change-their-songs-near-traffic">Birds change their songs near traffic</h2>



The scientists tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird responses</a> by playing songs through a speaker, simulating a territorial intruder. Sometimes the sounds were paired with traffic noise. 



When this occurred near roads, birds became more aggressive - flying near the speaker and singing longer. In quieter areas, birds became less confrontational when noise accompanied the song.



This pattern suggests that long-term exposure matters. Warblers with more experience around noise adjusted their behavior in ways that could help maintain territorial control despite sound interference.



“Birds use song during territorial defense as an aggressive signal. However, if external noise such as traffic interferes with the signaling, effectively blocking this communication channel, increasing physical aggression would be an appropriate response,” noted Dr. Caglar Akcay, senior lecturer in behavioural ecology at Anglia Ruskin University.



The research suggests these birds are learning to adapt. Changes in song length and pitch help their calls rise above low-frequency traffic sounds. 



In all territories, birds raised the minimum frequency of their songs when traffic was present. This adjustment could improve their chances of being heard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-flexibility-and-conservation">Behavioral flexibility and conservation</h2>



The findings shed light on the unexpected reach of human activity. Even in the Galápagos - long seen as a sanctuary for natural evolution - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-breathing-in-plastic-what-does-that-mean-for-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> now must compete with the noise of progress.



“Our results show that the change in aggressive responses in yellow warblers occurred mainly near roads. Birds occupying roadside territories on both islands, and therefore having regular experience of traffic noise, may have learned to increase physical aggression when the territorial intrusion was accompanied by traffic noise,” said Dr. Akcay.



Beyond aggression, warblers demonstrate flexibility. They tweak their songs to cut through the clamor. These subtle changes show nature’s resilience, but they also signal a need for reflection.



“Our study shows the importance of considering behavioral plasticity in conservation efforts and developing strategies to mitigate the effects of noise pollution on wildlife. It also highlights the significant impact of human activities on wildlife behavior, even in relatively remote locations such as the Galápagos Islands,” noted Dr. Akcay.



Understanding this behavioral flexibility may guide future conservation. It reminds us that protecting biodiversity requires more than preserving land - it demands attention to the noise we bring with us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-noise-changes-birds-behavior">Traffic noise changes birds’ behavior</h2>



This study urges conservationists and policymakers to look beyond visible damage. Roads, buildings, and pollution are easy to spot. Noise, on the other hand, slips in silently, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> in less obvious ways. 



Yet its effects are clear. For the Galápagos yellow warbler, this may mean adjusting song and behavior just to be heard and understood.



The warbler’s story is a quiet warning: the modern world reaches even the most distant corners. If we are to protect these natural wonders, we must consider not only what we build, but what we sound like as we do.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some birds get 'road rage' when exposed to traffic noise

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife...

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by comparing flightless species like chickens and ostriches, which walk on two hind legs, or predatory hawks and eagles with their keen senses and sharp talons, to small theropod dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Still, birds have diverged in crucial ways from their reptilian predecessors. One vital turning point was their development of larger brains, which spurred changes in skull size and shape.



Recent work by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a> demonstrates how these physical transformations affected how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> move and utilize their beaks to eat and interact with the world - adaptations that helped them become one of the most diverse lineages on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-nature-of-a-wiggly-skull">Complex nature of a “wiggly” skull</h2>



Unlike many other animals, modern birds, along with certain snakes and fishes, have skulls whose jaws and palates are not firmly fixed in place.&nbsp;



Alec Wilken, a graduate student in integrative biology at the University of Chicago and lead author of this new study, calls this kind of flexible anatomy “wiggly.” He notes that such a trait complicates attempts to understand its function.&nbsp;



“Just because you have a joint there, that doesn’t mean that you know how it moves. So, you also have to think about how muscles are going to be pulling on the joint, what kind of torque they have, and how other joints in the head limit the mobility,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-how-bird-skulls-evolved">Investigating how bird skulls evolved</h2>



Wilken first became involved in this project in 2015 while studying at the University of Missouri. 



There, Casey Holliday, an associate professor of pathology and anatomical sciences, had received support from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) to investigate how bird skulls, jaw muscles, and feeding mechanics evolved from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> lineage to modern birds.



Wilken contributed to the research by analyzing data from computer tomography (CT) scans of fossils and existing birds, as well as the skulls of other reptiles such as alligators. 



The gathered data then supported the creation of 3D models that track muscle positions, movements, and the physics of how they operate together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-modern-bird-skulls">Advantages of modern bird skulls</h2>



One distinctive feature of modern birds is referred to as “cranial kinesis,” which is the capacity to move different portions of the skull independently. This affords birds an evolutionary edge, letting them open or expand their palates and use their beaks in various ways.



“Having a wiggly head like this really gives them a lot of evolutionary benefits,” Wilken said. Parrots, for instance, employ their beaks to climb, while other birds break open tough seeds and nuts.&nbsp;



“In some ways, the beak functions like a surrogate hand, but being able to move the palate around while eating is also mission critical to helping them acquire food and survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-from-dinosaurs-to-birds">The path from dinosaurs to birds</h2>



From analyzing these 3D models, the scientists observed that as non-avian theropod dinosaurs developed increasingly larger brains and skulls, muscles shifted into arrangements that allowed for more mobile palates and jaws.&nbsp;



Consequently, these transformations increased muscle force and supported cranial kinesis in the majority of today’s birds.



“We see this cascade of changes that happened along the dinosaur to bird transition,” said Holliday. “A large part of it hinges upon when birds evolved a relatively large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. Just like in humans, bigger brains drive a lot of changes in the skull.”



Over time, paleontological findings have shown that the line between dinosaurs and birds is considerably blurred, especially since many dinosaurs sported feathers and some were capable of flight.&nbsp;



However, the scientists noted that truly flexible skulls and palates appeared later than species such as Archaeopteryx, leading them to speculate that cranial kinesis may turn out to be a key factor distinguishing modern birds from more primitive dinosaur-like birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-future-understanding">A blueprint for future understanding</h2>



While it is well established that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric reptiles</a> gave rise to the birds we now see flying overhead, the genetic and mechanical steps along that journey remain a topic of intense investigation.&nbsp;



This latest research strengthens the idea that the interplay between a bigger brain and skull modifications allowed birds to free up their jaws and palates, leading to vast ecological success.



Ultimately, the improved skull flexibility and diversified feeding methods among birds mirror the complicated interplay of evolutionary pressures that have continued since the time of dinosaurs.&nbsp;



The new study represents only one step in unravelling how birds learned to harness their beaks’ capabilities, and how earlier dinosaur species formed the foundation for today’s avian biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411138122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Wiggly’ skulls helped birds evolve from dinosaurs

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by...

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish, Ferruaspis brocksi, from a site near Gulgong, in NSW, Australia.



This discovery, led by Dr. Matthew McCurry from the <a href="https://australian.museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> and <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a>, provides a rare glimpse into Australia’s ancient aquatic life. 



The fossil, which is estimated to be 15 million years old, preserves both the fish's stomach contents and its color patterns. The Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology has published the findings.



Ferruaspis brocksi belongs to the Osmeriformes order, which includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like the Australian Grayling and Australian Smelt.



It is the first freshwater smelt fossil found in Australia. The species was named in honor of Professor Jochen J. Brocks from the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>, who contributed to fossil discoveries at McGraths Flat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-evolution-of-osmeriformes">Tracing the evolution of Osmeriformes</h2>



Dr. McCurry emphasized that before the discovery of this fossil, scientists lacked evidence to confirm when Osmeriformes first arrived in Australia.



“The discovery of the 15 million-year-old freshwater fish fossil offers us an unprecedented opportunity to understand Australia’s ancient ecosystems and the evolution of its fish species, specifically the Osmeriformes group during the Miocene epoch, 11-15 million years ago,” McCurry said.



Without fossils, researchers could not determine whether these fish had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> significantly over time. This new find provides crucial evidence for understanding how they adapted to ancient Australian waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-the-fish-fossil-reveal">What did the fish fossil reveal?</h2>



The well-preserved fossil reveals fascinating details about the fish’s diet. The stomach contents show that it fed on various invertebrates, mainly small phantom midge larvae. 



This level of preservation is rare and helps scientists reconstruct past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> with greater accuracy.



“One of the fossils even shows a parasite attached to the tail of the fish. It’s a juvenile freshwater mussel called a glochidium. These juvenile mussels attach themselves to the gills or tails of fish to hitch rides up and down streams,” McCurry added.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1s.webp" alt="A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo" class="wp-image-1962871"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo</figcaption></figure>



The species’ name reflects its discovery in iron-rich rock. “Ferru” comes from the Latin word “ferrum,” meaning iron, while “brocksi” honors Professor Brocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-scientific-contribution">Honoring a scientific contribution</h2>



Professor Brocks expressed excitement about having this fossil species named after him.



“Collecting fossils at McGrath Flat is a highlight for me every year. Splitting the rust-red slabs of rock is like opening an ancient book, revealing the creatures that inhabited an Australian oxbow lake some 15 million years ago," exclaimed Professor Brocks.



"This little fish is one of the most beautiful fossils there, and finding the first vertebrate among the abundant plant and insect fossils was a real surprise. Having F. brocksi named after me is a real joy.” 



The McGraths Flat fossil site continues to provide remarkable insights into prehistoric life, and contributes to a better understanding of Australia’s ecological past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-the-fish-s-coloration">Revealing the fish’s coloration</h2>



Dr. Michael Frese from the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a> and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a> highlighted another exciting aspect of the research - the ability to determine the fish’s color pattern.



“The fish was darker on its dorsal surface, lighter in color on its belly and had two lateral stripes running along its side,” Dr. Frese said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1s.webp" alt="A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma" class="wp-image-1962873"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma</figcaption></figure>



Using a powerful microscope, scientists identified melanosomes, which are tiny structures responsible for producing color. 



While melanosomes have helped reconstruct the colors of ancient feathers, this is the first time they have been used to determine the color pattern of a long-extinct fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-site-of-exceptional-fossil-preservation">Site of exceptional fossil preservation</h2>



Professor Kris Helgen, Director and Chief Scientist at the Australian Museum Research Institute, praised the ongoing research at McGraths Flat.



“Dr. Matt McCurry’s work at the McGraths Flat fossil site has been outstanding. This is one of many discoveries made at this site, which continues to play a significant role in advancing our understanding of Australia’s evolution during the Miocene era.”



McGraths Flat is one of the rare fossil sites in Australia classified as a "Lagerstätte" - a site with exceptionally well-preserved fossils. 



Located in the Central Tablelands of NSW, it offers a unique window into an ancient rainforest ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-do-fish-fossils-reveal-about-ancient-australia">What do fish fossils reveal about ancient Australia?</h2>



Dr. McCurry explained that fossils from this site, dating back 11 to 16 million years, show that the region was once a temperate, wet rainforest teeming with life. 



These discoveries help scientists reconstruct ancient landscapes and understand the biodiversity of prehistoric Australia.



The initial McGraths Flat expedition in 2017 received funding from a descendant of Robert Etheridge, a renowned English palaeontologist who played a crucial role in developing the Australian Museum’s collections. 



Etheridge launched a series of scientific expeditions that continue today, ensuring that Australia’s rich fossil heritage remains a key focus for researchers.



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi is another milestone in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient species</a> thrived and adapted in Australia’s evolving landscapes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



Image Credit: Salthy Dingo



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stomach contents preserved after 15 million years in fish fossil

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish,...

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza virus is mutating to evade immune defenses in mammals following prior infection or vaccination.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Charlotte</a>, emphasizes the growing threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">H5N1</a> to both agriculture and public health.



“H5N1 can infect avian and mammalian livestock and jump to humans,” the authors wrote. highlighting that new strains appear increasingly resistant to existing antibodies. This evolution, they caution, suggests that older vaccine formulas may lose effectiveness.



“This study shows a trend of weakening binding affinity of existing antibodies against H5 isolates over time, indicating that the H5N1 virus is evolving immune escape from our therapeutic and immunological defenses,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-shifts-in-bird-flu-virus">Rapid shifts in bird flu virus</h2>



By running large-scale computational models of specific viral proteins binding with neutralizing antibodies, the research team discovered “an overall worsening in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-found-powerful-antibodies-that-neutralize-all-covid-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> affinity to more recent H5N1 isolates.”&nbsp;



“If one makes an H5N1 vaccine with a previous vaccine candidate virus, the vaccine will have less efficacy, based on our measurements of how much the virus has evolved in recent years,” explained lead author Colby T. Ford, a visiting scholar at UNC Charlotte’s <a href="https://cipher.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks</a> (CIPHER).



Conducted under the guidance of assistant professor Richard Allen White III, and CIPHER co-director Daniel Janies, the UNC Charlotte team joined forces with <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) researchers Rafael Jaimes III and Phillip J. Tomezsko to explore how the H5N1 virus is adapting so quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-zoonotic-risk">Mounting zoonotic risk</h2>



Analyzing 1,804 antigen-antibody interactions, the researchers examined how the virus’s hemagglutinin subunit changed from 1996 to 2018.&nbsp;



By applying high-performance computational techniques, they tracked the virus’s “antigenic drift” - small cumulative mutations that hamper the effectiveness of immune defenses from earlier infections or vaccines.



The new measurements of how much the bird flu virus has evolved in recent years confirmed that H5N1 is becoming less recognizable to established antibodies.



“These results indicate that the virus has potential to move from epidemic to pandemic status,” wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-across-multiple-species">Emergence across multiple species</h2>



Though H5N1 has primarily circulated in birds, it has jumped to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-h5n1-marine-mammals-spreading-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> and, rarely, to humans.&nbsp;



In the past year, the virus was found in dairy cattle in at least 17 U.S. states, and the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) reported 70 human cases, including one fatality, in the United States since January 2022.&nbsp;



Worldwide, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>, H5N1 has been linked to 466 human deaths since 2003.



Between January 2022 and March 2025, the CDC also documented 12,510 H5N1 outbreaks among wild birds within the U.S., virus detections in 51 jurisdictions and 166,417,923 affected poultry.



Such widespread, cross-species infections strongly indicate that avian influenza can be considered a pandemic among animal populations, raising fears of a future human pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-flu-vaccination-and-public-health">Birds flu vaccination and public health</h2>



In discussing how to avert the looming threat, the authors argue that a new approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a> development may be needed.&nbsp;



These findings indicate that once the bird flu virus modifies itself significantly, older vaccines will have less efficacy, making it essential to develop and regularly update H5N1 vaccines reflecting the virus’s continuous genetic changes.



Furthermore, the study’s results highlight the power of high-performance computing in mapping viral evolution. By integrating AI-based protein folding with physics-based simulations, researchers can anticipate changes in viral structure and better inform policy decisions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-s-potential-for-pandemic-status">Bird flu’s potential for pandemic status</h2>



With H5N1 already widespread among wild birds and expanding its foothold in mammalian hosts, the virus’s cross-species jumps present a significant concern.&nbsp;



According to the experts, more robust monitoring, updated vaccination strategies, and ongoing computational analyses will be crucial in mitigating a potential outbreak.&nbsp;



As Janies concluded, computational modeling can help experts “tune our intuition to the right approaches” for vaccine design and intervention strategies before a fast-adapting virus gains an uncontrollable edge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBioMedicine</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bird flu virus is rapidly evolving to evade immune defenses

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza...

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns starfish is often singled out for its ability to chomp through living coral at staggering rates.



<a href="https://scispace.com/pdf/the-acanthaster-phenomenon-1fnwsb66cy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have puzzled over this starfish’s boom-and-bust population cycles, which can leave once-colorful coral communities in serious trouble.



Crown-of-thorns starfish numbers can spike quickly, damaging reefs from Australia to other parts of the Indo-Pacific. 



Previous explanations have focused on shifting ocean conditions or lack of predators, yet a recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> highlights a surprising group that appears to gobble up young starfish before they mature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-crabs-help-control-starfish-numbers">Small crabs help control starfish numbers</h2>



“Using our newly developed eDNA techniques to detect COTS, we found COTS DNA in the guts of seven species of decapod caught across more than 1,000 km of the Great Barrier Reef. Plus we found fewer crabs in areas prone to COTS outbreaks,” said study senior author Dr. Sven Uthicke from the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> seem to carry pockets of these small <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/decapod" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decapod creatures</a>, which are ten-legged crustaceans that often lurk in cracks and under rubble. 



The researchers found that their absence in certain spots matched places where starfish outbreaks flared up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-eat-young-starfish">Crabs eat young starfish </h2>



“Consuming <a href="https://www.gbrbiology.com/2022/05/26/juvenile-crown-of-thorns-starfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">juvenile COTS</a> is a highly effective way to reduce COTS populations because, not only are they removed before they can start feeding on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a>, but they can be removed in large numbers because they are so small,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Small starfish tend to spend time hiding in rubble and among broken coral fragments. The researchers discovered that crusty guardians live in those same hiding spots, and their diets sometimes include juvenile starfish.



“It’s a numbers game. Some of the crabs can eat 20 juveniles a day, whereas fish or triton may eat one adult every few days or per week,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Differences in how often these crabs show up across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> may explain why some sections avoid major starfish invasions.



By using <a href="https://iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/environmental-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA</a> (environmental DNA) methods, scientists found proof of starfish consumption without needing direct observation. Targeting scraps of genetic material helps capture hidden feeding patterns that traditional surveys might overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-reef-implications">Wider reef implications</h2>



Scientists suspect that fewer small cryptic predators could give young starfish a better chance of surviving to adulthood. Removing juveniles early on may hold the key to keeping starfish populations in check.



A single decapod crab might appear harmless, yet large groups can collectively remove countless baby starfish. This kind of steady predation could halt population spikes before they cause coral damage.



Hidden crabs bring renewed attention to natural pest control on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a>. Managers usually track adult starfish as they munch their way across corals, but juveniles slip below the radar and can later emerge en masse.



Marine experts believe many reef inhabitants remain poorly understood. The study suggests these overlooked animals could influence overall coral health by feeding on starfish in ways that bigger predators might not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crab-populations">Protecting crab populations </h2>



Decapod crabs rely on healthy, structurally complex habitats. When reefs degrade, key crab hideouts disappear, leading to fewer opportunities for them to find and eat juvenile starfish.



Scientists note that preserving coral rubble habitat might help maintain crab populations. Extra protective measures could make a difference, especially in places that have experienced intense fishing or widespread coral decline.



Future work may look at what drives crab populations up or down and whether certain types of rubble or coral attract more crabs. Researchers might also see if artificial reefs provide enough shelter for these decapods to flourish.



Insights like these can improve management. Rather than focusing solely on adult starfish, officials could encourage conditions where small crustaceans thrive and reduce problems before they start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sign-of-hidden-connections">A sign of hidden connections</h2>



Crustaceans are not the only puzzling factor in starfish control, yet their impact sparks curiosity about other nooks and crannies of reef life. Everything from tiny worms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> bacteria may hold clues.



Each new finding reminds us that reefs are webs of interactions with many unsung heroes. Understanding these links may be essential for long-term reef survival.



Researchers suggest that bolstering small predator populations could be a smart tactic in starfish management. Keeping these animal communities strong may help reefs bounce back faster when facing constant stress.



Local conservation groups already invest in large-scale starfish culls, but it may be easier to back up that work by maintaining conditions for crabs and other protective critters. The goal is to strike a balance that curbs harmful sea star numbers without disrupting other species.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny crabs protect reefs by eating baby crown-of-thorns starfish

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns...

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data about marine environments. This data helps monitor human activities, such as fishing, pollution, and noise disturbances from boats and construction, providing insights into their impact on marine life.



A recent study from Kobe University highlights the importance of integrating data from different sources to create an “Internet of Animals” with open-access standards.



Human activities affect marine life in multiple ways. Fishing, industrial waste, and underwater construction alter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and disrupt ecosystems. 



“There is a wealth of oceanographic data from research vessels, drifting buoys and satellites," said Professor IWATA Takashi, an animal ecologist at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>.



"But due to technological and economic constraints, there are many observation gaps and some areas are inaccessible to humans, such as under sea ice or during harsh weather.” 



Understanding how these changes impact individual animals is difficult, making it challenging to design effective conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biologging-window-into-animal-experiences">Biologging: Window into animal experiences</h2>



Attaching small sensors, cameras, or tracking devices to wild animals is known as biologging. Scientists originally used biologging to study animal behavior and movement patterns. Now, it also helps analyze environmental changes affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“We try to minimize the impact this has on the animals by keeping the overall weight of the devices to less than 3% of the animal’s body weight, or even less than 1% for larger animals, and many researchers keep developing smaller and smaller devices," explained Iwata.



This method allows researchers to gather data without disturbing natural behaviors.



Biologging follows a Lagrangian observational method, meaning it moves with the animals, offering insights that fixed observation platforms like satellites or buoys cannot provide. It records a variety of environmental parameters, including temperature, salinity, and oxygen levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-biologging-research">Advancements in biologging research</h2>



The researchers reviewed the latest advancements in biologging. Their analysis showed that biologging has improved typhoon forecasts, revealed differences in how turtle species react to plastic waste, exposed illegal fishing, and influenced the design of bird-friendly offshore wind farms.



“This review showed that while biologging alone is insufficient, it can fill in the gaps in existing knowledge," said Iwata.



"It provides a new type of data that differs from the wide-area environmental information obtained from earth observation satellites and other sources to tackle a broad range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental issues</a>."



Combining biologging with other research methods offers a more complete understanding of marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-ocean-warming-and-pollution">Tackling ocean warming and pollution</h2>



Biologging offers a crucial tool for tracking ocean warming. By attaching GPS loggers to seabirds and marine mammals, scientists can measure ocean currents, wind patterns, and temperature changes over time. These observations have helped improve climate models and typhoon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracking</a>.



Plastic pollution remains a major concern, especially its impact on marine life. Cameras attached to sea turtles have captured floating plastic bags, providing direct evidence of pollution in marine habitats. 



Loggerhead turtles swim past plastic, while green turtles sometimes mistake it for food. Such species-specific behaviors help shape targeted conservation strategies.



Chemical pollution also threatens marine ecosystems. Persistent organic pollutants accumulate in seabirds and marine mammals, serving as bio-indicators of contamination. Tracking these animals allows scientists to monitor pollution levels across different ocean regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-fishery-management">Challenges in fishery management</h2>



Overfishing and bycatch pose significant threats to marine biodiversity. Biologging helps identify migration routes and breeding grounds for fish species like tuna and cod. This information supports more sustainable fishing policies.



Additionally, biologging has revealed that some marine animals, such as seals and whales, actively seek out fishing vessels to feed on discarded fish. This behavior increases the risk of entanglement and vessel collisions. 



Understanding these interactions can help develop better deterrent strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-marine-protected-areas">Conservation and marine protected areas</h2>



Noise pollution from shipping and offshore wind farms disrupts marine animals, particularly cetaceans that rely on echolocation. 



Biologging has demonstrated that naval sonar and shipping noise affect whale behavior, influencing feeding and migration patterns. Some studies have proposed raising turbine heights to minimize risks for seabirds.



Biologging also plays a key role in marine protected area (MPA) management. Data collected from tagged predators such as sharks and seals help determine whether existing MPAs effectively cover important habitats. 



Studies in the Ross Sea and British Indian Ocean Territory have confirmed that MPAs contribute to the conservation of top marine predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-internet-of-animals">A global "Internet of Animals"</h2>



The full potential of biologging depends on worldwide cooperation. 



“The full potential of biologging can only be realized through increased global collaboration and data sharing, enabling the integration of data across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, regions, and environmental contexts,” noted Iwata.



The researchers propose creating an “Internet of Animals,” where experts worldwide share biologging data to study marine life on a larger scale.



However, global data access and standardization remain major challenges. The Japanese research team calls for greater collaboration among scientists and data-sharing platforms to overcome these barriers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-biologging-s-reach">Expanding biologging’s reach</h2>



Iwata hopes this research will encourage more scientists to explore biologging. 



“If we can promote the sharing of biologging data through this paper, I hope to not only recruit more researchers to this field but also to so open up new angles that we haven’t yet envisioned,” he said.



“Researchers are not experts in social implementation, but in recent years, I have seen various issues being solved by sharing data in a data-driven society. It was an enjoyable task to think of ways to return the power of data to society.”



This study was conducted in collaboration with a researcher from <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waseda University</a>. By promoting biologging and data-sharing, researchers hope to build a stronger foundation for marine conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772735125000265?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water Biology and Security</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Biologging: Animals are recording human impact on the ocean

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data...

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating creatures - the kangaroo. Unique among large animals, kangaroos depend on hopping as their main form of locomotion.



This method of locomotion, known as saltation, allows them to cover vast distances with efficiency and speed. But how did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-kangaroos-changed-their-diets-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> develop this distinctive way of moving?



Understanding their evolutionary history requires looking at their ancestors, particularly the musky rat-kangaroo, the only macropodoid that does not hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kangaroo-relatives-that-don-t-hop">Kangaroo relatives that don't hop</h2>



Amy Tschirn is a PhD student and researcher in the <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/college-science-engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Science and Engineering</a> at Flinders University, and co-lead author of the study.



"The musky rat-kangaroo, as the most primitive living macropodoid (a group that includes kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos and bettongs), can offer insight into evolution within the group, including the origin of bipedal hopping locomotion,” said Tschim.



“As the only living macropodoid that doesn’t hop, the musky rat-kangaroo provides a crucial insight into how and when the iconic hopping form of locomotion evolved in Australia.”



Studying the musky rat-kangaroo helps scientists understand how early macropodoids moved before developing bipedal hopping. 



This tiny marsupial, found in the dense rainforests of Queensland, may hold the key to unlocking the evolutionary steps that led to modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protemnodon-kangaroo-fossils-may-explain-their-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musky-rat-kangaroos-in-the-wild">Musky rat-kangaroos in the wild</h2>



To study the movement of musky rat-kangaroos, researchers observed them in their natural habitat in the Atherton Tableland, a region in far-northern Queensland. 



By filming adult muskies in the wild, they documented how these animals move and whether any form of hopping appeared in their locomotion. The findings revealed something remarkable.



Unlike any other marsupial that moves on all fours, musky rat-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-kangaroos-of-the-past-didnt-hop-they-walked-on-all-fours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> use a distinct style of movement called a "bound" or "half-bound" gait. This means their hindfeet move together in synchrony rather than alternating as in most quadrupedal animals. 



This movement pattern is unusual among marsupials and could provide crucial insight into how macropodoids transitioned toward hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-quadrupedal-movement">Role of quadrupedal movement</h2>



Observations also confirmed that musky rat-kangaroos never hop, even when moving at their fastest speeds. This means that hopping likely developed later in macropodoid evolution.



“There remains no evidence of hopping in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-wallace-line-a-natural-border-that-no-species-crosses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Even when travelling at high speeds, muskies always use quadrupedal gaits, never rearing up on just their back legs,” said Harvard’s Dr. Peter Bishop, co-lead author of the research paper.



“These results support the hypothesis that a shift to an asymmetric-gait-dominant locomotor repertoire was a functional prerequisite in the evolution of bipedal hopping in macropodoids.”



Since musky rat-kangaroos lack the ability to hop, scientists believe that the transition toward bipedal movement must have started with an intermediary stage. The bounding gait of these small marsupials may represent a stepping stone in this evolutionary process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bounding-led-to-hopping-in-kangaroos">Bounding led to hopping in kangaroos</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo's movement patterns align with previous studies on quadrupedal Australian marsupials. 



Many use symmetric gaits at lower speeds and shift to asymmetric gaits at higher speeds. Unlike most, however, the musky rat-kangaroo exclusively uses asymmetric gaits, even at slow speeds.



Research suggests that early macropodoids likely adopted a bounding gait before transitioning to bipedal hopping. Small potoroids, close relatives of kangaroos, demonstrate this transition by using both quadrupedal bounding and bipedal hopping at different speeds. 



This pattern hints that bounding could have been the crucial precursor to the hopping behavior seen in modern kangaroos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-structure-and-the-kangaroo-hop">Body structure and the kangaroo hop</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo also retains several physical traits that distinguish it from true hopping macropodoids. Its forelimbs and hindlimbs are proportionally closer in size compared to kangaroos, which have much longer hindlimbs adapted for hopping. 



The musky rat-kangaroo also has a mobile first toe, something absent in larger macropodoids. These features suggest that its anatomy is better suited for quadrupedal movement, making it unlikely to develop hopping.



Studies on limb proportions across marsupials and rodents indicate that animals capable of bipedal locomotion generally have shorter forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs. 



The musky rat-kangaroo falls somewhere in between, suggesting it represents an early stage in macropodoid evolution before the full transition to bipedal hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-bounding-to-hopping">From bounding to hopping</h2>



The transition from quadrupedal movement to bipedal hopping remains one of the most intriguing mysteries of kangaroo evolution. By studying the musky rat-kangaroo’s anatomy and locomotion, researchers can piece together the story of how hopping emerged.



“These results signal a potential pathway to how bipedal hopping evolved in kangaroos. Perhaps it started with an ancestor that moved about on all fours like other marsupials, then an animal that bounded like the muskies, and finally evolved into the iconic hopping kangaroos we see in Australia today.”



This suggests that early macropodoids may have first adopted bounding gaits, allowing them to generate forward momentum using their powerful hind legs. 



Over time, as these animals became more specialized, they may have started relying solely on their back legs, leading to the development of true hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-kangaroo-evolution-studies">Future of kangaroo evolution studies</h2>



The research, published in Australian Mammalogy, provides an important foundation for future studies on kangaroo evolution. 



While the mystery of hopping is still being unraveled, fossil discoveries from early macropodoids could provide more clues about how and when kangaroos made the final leap into bipedal hopping.



Scientists also hope to answer another key question: why did hopping kangaroos grow so much larger than rodents, which also use saltation? Understanding this could reveal more about the evolutionary pressures that shaped Australia’s unique wildlife.



By continuing to study living species like the musky rat-kangaroo and examining fossils from early kangaroo ancestors, researchers move closer to understanding one of the most distinctive adaptations in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How did the kangaroo learn to hop? Insights from its smallest relative

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating...

World Frog Day is more than just a date on the calendar - it’s a global wake-up call. For 265 million years, frogs have hopped through Earth’s ever-changing landscapes. 



They outlived dinosaurs, weathered ice ages, and adapted to shifting climates. Yet today, despite their incredible resilience, frogs stand on the brink of disaster.



These small, unassuming creatures do far more than fill the air with their evening croaks. They control insect populations, provide food for countless predators, and serve as nature’s bioindicators because they are sensitive to environmental changes long before these become crises. 



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> start disappearing from an ecosystem, it’s a sign that something is deeply wrong.



Pollution, deforestation, climate change, and the deadly chytrid fungus are driving entire species to extinction at an alarming rate. 



If frog populations continue to decline, the consequences will be catastrophic. Ecosystems will become unbalanced, food chains may collapse, and Earth will lose one of its most ancient inhabitants.



That’s why&nbsp;World Frog Day, observed every&nbsp;March 20&nbsp;since&nbsp;2014, is important. It shines a spotlight on these amphibians, raises awareness about their plight and urges action before time runs out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-frogs-matter">Why frogs matter</h2>



Frogs are key players in natural ecosystems. As predators, they feast on mosquitoes, flies, and agricultural pests, helping control populations that could otherwise spiral out of balance.



Without them, farmers would struggle with increased infestations, and diseases spread by insects could become even harder to manage.



On the flip side, frogs themselves are prey for countless creatures; birds, fish, reptiles, and even some mammals rely on them as a food source. If frogs disappear, so do many of the animals that depend on them, which would trigger a domino effect throughout the ecosystem.



Then there’s their role as bioindicators. Healthy frog populations signal healthy environments. But declining frog populations indicate bigger issues - polluted waters, rising temperatures, or habitat destruction, for example. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-are-facing-many-threats">Frogs are facing many threats </h2>



Despite their adaptability, frogs face an uphill battle for survival, with habitat destruction being the primary threat.



Wetlands are commonly drained for urban expansion and forests are cut down to make way for agriculture. Rivers and lakes are polluted with industrial waste and pesticides. Every time humans encroach on these habitats, frog populations shrink a little more.



Pollution is another major issue. Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> absorb water directly through their porous skin, they have no defense against toxins in their environment. Pesticides used in farming leach into nearby ponds and streams, poisoning frogs from the outside in.



Then there’s the chytrid fungus, a disease that has devastated amphibian populations worldwide. It attacks their skin, and prevents them from absorbing water and essential nutrients. Entire species have been wiped out in mere decades by this devastating fungus. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-making-things-worse">Climate change is making things worse</h2>



As if habitat loss and pollution weren’t enough, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> are also battling the effects of climate change. 



Rising temperatures have thrown off their breeding cycles, causing unpredictable shifts in their life stages. Some species, accustomed to stable seasonal patterns, now struggle to find mates or lay eggs at the right time.



Extreme weather events have also taken a toll. In some areas, prolonged droughts have dried up breeding ponds before tadpoles have had a chance to develop. In others, flooding has swept away entire populations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fight-to-save-the-frogs">The fight to save the frogs</h2>



Despite the grim outlook, conservationists aren’t giving up. Around the world, dedicated researchers and volunteers are working to preserve frog habitats, restore wetlands, and develop captive breeding programs for endangered species. 



In some cases, frogs have been reintroduced into the wild after their populations were nearly wiped out - a small but hopeful sign that efforts can make a difference.



One of the most effective strategies has been the creation of protected areas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a> can thrive without human interference. These conservation zones shield frogs from pollution, deforestation, and urban expansion, giving them a fighting chance at survival. 



Scientists are also working to combat the chytrid fungus, testing anti-fungal treatments that could slow or stop the spread of infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-frog-day">Take action on World Frog Day</h2>



World Frog Day 2025 presents us with a chance to take action. Across the globe, events will highlight the importance of frog conservation, from educational programs at zoos, to hands-on habitat restoration projects.



The Little Rock Zoo in Arkansas, for example, is set to host special exhibits and talks about amphibian protection. Schools and nature organizations will also join in, organizing workshops and field trips to explore local frog populations.



But you don’t need to attend an event to make a difference. Learning about the different species of frogs in your region is a good start. Avoiding pesticides and herbicides in your garden helps protect their habitats. Creating a frog-friendly space with native plants, small ponds, or log shelters can provide much-needed refuge.



If you want to do more, consider supporting conservation organizations. Donations help fund research, breeding programs, and habitat restoration efforts. Volunteering for local environmental groups can also put you on the frontlines of conservation work.



You can even virtually adopt a tree frog through the <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/species-adoptions/red-eyed-tree-frog?srsltid=AfmBOorRwjDH5ydXRC_2hQV_O2f5MO1PjHWAutpoeSOhQp7kn7mTcs6P" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-world-without-frogs">A world without frogs?</h2>



The loss of frogs isn’t just an ecological disaster - it’s a warning. Their decline signals deeper problems in our environment, problems that will eventually affect humans too. 



If frogs disappear, it means our water is more polluted, our ecosystems are out of balance, and the natural world is in crisis.



World Frog Day reminds us that their survival is tied to our own. By protecting them, we protect ourselves and the planet we share. Whether it’s through education, activism, or simple everyday choices, everyone can contribute to this effort. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Frog Day 2025: Protecting nature’s tiny guardians

World Frog Day is more than just a date on...

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon leafcutter ants (Atta sexdens). These ants not only exhibit social immunity - the ability to detect and remove pathogens to protect their colony - but also appear to remember past infections and respond more aggressively to familiar threats.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a> (UNESP), reveals that leafcutter ants can recognize a pathogenic fungus they have previously encountered, even 30 days after the initial exposure. 



When re-exposed, they intensify their cleaning behaviors and recruit more workers, a phenomenon researchers suggest could be considered a form of “social immune memory.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-superorganism-s-defense-mechanism">A superorganism’s defense mechanism</h2>



“If we think of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> as a superorganism, these behaviors would be like the immune system,” said first author Aryel Goes, a former bioscience student at UNESP. “In the same way that our defense cells attack invaders, such as viruses and bacteria, the workers fight infections that could harm the colony.”



The study shows that, unlike individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune systems</a> in animals, ants respond to infections collectively.&nbsp;



“What we’re showing is that the social immune system of ants can store information about previous infections with the same pathogen, a phenomenon seen in our immune cells, but which occurs at a behavioral level in ant colonies,” Goes said.



To test this idea, the researchers conducted several experiments to observe how ants responded to repeated exposures to the same pathogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-stronger-response-to-familiar-threats">A stronger response to familiar threats</h2>



In one experiment, the team exposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant colonies</a> to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after a month. The ants' response became significantly stronger over time, with the most intense reaction occurring at the 30-day mark. 



More ants participated in cleaning activities, both grooming themselves and removing the harmful fungus from the fungi they cultivate for food.



Lemon leafcutters belong to a group of ants that maintain a mutualistic relationship with fungi, cultivating them inside their colonies as a food source. In return, the fungi provide essential nutrients for the ants.



As part of the study, researchers tested four different pathogens - two harmful to the ants themselves and two that targeted their cultivated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In another experiment, the scientists exposed separate colonies to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after 60 days. This time, the ants' responses were noticeably weaker compared to those that encountered the pathogen after 30 days.



“Unlike our immune system, which in some cases responds expressively to a specific pathogen even many years after initial exposure, ants’ social immune memory has a shorter time frame, so they need to be constantly exposed to the pathogen for the information to persist,” explained Goes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-recognize-specific-pathogens">Do ants recognize specific pathogens?</h2>



The researchers also tested whether the ants' memory-like response was pathogen-specific. In a third experiment, they exposed the ants to one pathogen, then introduced a different pathogen after seven days. The ants' response to the second pathogen was much weaker than their reaction to the original one.



The following week, the researchers reintroduced the first pathogen. While the ants reacted, their response was only moderate - similar to their first encounter with the pathogen, but far less intense than when the pathogen had been reintroduced after 30 days.



Rodrigues suggested that this behavior could be a strategy to prevent accidentally spreading a new pathogen within the colony. “One hypothesis is that the lemon leafcutter reduced its hygienic response to avoid spreading the new pathogen to the rest of the colony.&nbsp;



This is because cleaning altruism, in which ants lick each other to get rid of pathogens, can also spread new contaminants. That’s why they would have been more careful with a second infection that was completely new to the colony,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-respond-to-unknown-substance">Do ants respond to unknown substance?</h2>



To ensure that the ants’ response was indeed triggered by pathogens and not simply by exposure to an unfamiliar substance, the researchers applied a harmless solution to five colonies as a control.&nbsp;



The ants in this group showed the weakest response of all the experiments, suggesting that the ants can distinguish between different substances and respond more aggressively to harmful pathogens.



The study raises the possibility that social immunity in leafcutter ants could increase the efficiency of pathogen removal, improving the colony’s overall survival. However, more research is needed to determine whether this actually qualifies as a form of immune memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-pest-control">Implications for pest control</h2>



Leafcutter ants, including Atta sexdens, thrive in open environments and have adapted well to agricultural landscapes, making them a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest</a> in monoculture farming.&nbsp;



Their strong cleaning behaviors pose a challenge to biological control methods that rely on natural pathogens rather than chemical pesticides.



“Lemon leafcutters are adapted to open areas, so they benefit from monocultures and are a pest. Their cleaning behavior is one of the obstacles to effective biological control without the use of chemical insecticides. Understanding the social immunity of leafcutters can help to develop more effective and ecologically correct controls,” Rodrigues concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Leafcutter ants remember past infections, strengthening colony defenses

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon...

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an unusual trait in thorny skates in the North Atlantic. 



In some parts of their range, these fish appear in two distinctly different sizes, regardless of their sex. Researchers were unable to determine the cause of this phenomenon - until now.



A new study led by Jeff Kneebone and a team from the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has finally solved the mystery, thanks in part to unexpected disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-longstanding-conservation-puzzle">A longstanding conservation puzzle</h2>



The size discrepancy among thorny skates has been noted for nearly a century, but the issue became especially significant in the 1970s when their populations began to plummet. Suspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a> as the main culprit, authorities implemented a strict fishing ban on thorny skates and barndoor skates in 2003.



“The barndoor skate rebounded to the point where they’re now allowed to be harvested again, but for whatever reason, the thorny skate has remained low, despite 20 years of protection,” said Kneebone, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.neaq.org/conservation-and-research/anderson-cabot-center-for-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anderson Cabot Center for Ocean Life</a> at the New England Aquarium.



Data from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> indicates that thorny skate populations have declined by 80% to 95% in some regions, particularly in the Gulf of Maine and Canadian waters off the Scotian Shelf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-thorny-skates">The mystery of thorny skates </h2>



Thorny skates have an extensive distribution, ranging from South Carolina to the Arctic Circle and across to Europe and Russia. However, the size variation appears to be unique to North American waters; in the Arctic and Europe, thorny skates only appear in one size.



“No one could understand what the deal was with these skates,” said study co-author Gavin Naylor, director of the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/sharks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Program for Shark Research</a> at the Florida Museum of Natural History. 



Researchers had previously analyzed thorny skate DNA, searching for genetic differences between the two size variants, but found nothing.&nbsp;



“The big forms are twice the size, and it takes them 11 years to reach adulthood. The small forms are mature by the time they’re six years old. There’s got to be genetic differences.”



Naylor believed a more detailed genetic analysis could uncover the answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-hundreds-of-thorny-skates">Samples from hundreds of thorny skates </h2>



Previous attempts to solve the mystery involved sequencing short DNA fragments from a small number of individuals.&nbsp;



While a reasonable approach, Naylor suspected it had failed because not enough of the genome had been examined. Instead, he proposed a gene capture method, an intensive approach that collects DNA sequences from thousands of genes across an organism’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>.&nbsp;



This would require analyzing samples from hundreds of thorny skates to gather a comprehensive dataset.



Researchers from around the world responded to Naylor’s request for samples, providing more than 600 tissue specimens spanning much of the Northern Hemisphere and helping him prepare for an extensive lab analysis.



Then, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 pandemic</a> shut down lab operations, halting their work indefinitely.



At that point, postdoctoral researcher Shannon Corrigan devised an alternative plan. Instead of conducting a labor-intensive gene capture study on hundreds of skates, they would sequence the full genome of just a handful - four or five individuals. While less comprehensive, it would still allow them to search for significant genetic differences.



It was a gamble. If the genome sequencing approach failed, the team would have used up their funding with no results.



“It was a Hail Mary,” Naylor said. But it paid off. In fact, had they stuck with the original plan, “we would have missed it entirely.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-key-genetic-difference">A key genetic difference</h2>



The breakthrough came when lead author Pierre Lesturgie analyzed the genome - comprising 2.5 billion base pairs. As he sifted through the data, he noticed something unusual.



“There was a large region on chromosome two that we thought was weird. Since it was behaving in a way we didn’t understand, we considered removing it from the analysis,” Lesturgie said.



Initially, he suspected the anomaly was a sequencing error and worried it might skew their results. But before discarding it, Naylor recognized a pattern - it resembled a gene inversion, where a segment of DNA is flipped in the opposite direction.



Gene inversions are common across many species, including humans, but they rarely result in such dramatic physical differences. Still, the team decided to check if this inverted DNA sequence was present in both small and large thorny skates.



It wasn’t. Only the larger skates had the inversion. They had finally uncovered the genetic basis for the size difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Now that scientists understand why thorny skates appear in two distinct sizes, Kneebone believes they can develop more effective conservation strategies.&nbsp;



The next step is to study the skates' life histories more closely - something that has been challenging due to the difficulty of distinguishing between the two types.



“We could identify the large males and females because they’re bigger than anything else,” Naylor said. Both large and small males develop distinctive long claspers on either side of their tails when they reach maturity.&nbsp;



“So when you’ve got a small male with large claspers, we know it’s an adult. But we can’t do anything with the small females because we don’t know whether they’re just babies on their way to getting big.”



This has complicated research on the species. “The big question has always been, what do the life histories of the two morphs look like? Currently, they’re not discriminated in the stock assessment, so a thorny skate is a thorny skate is a thorny skate,” Kneebone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



Even with this discovery, thorny skates are still struggling in parts of their range, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. One potential factor is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



Current evidence suggests that the two size variants may have difficulty interbreeding in areas where populations are declining. Warming ocean temperatures could be exacerbating this natural reproductive barrier.



The Gulf of Maine has experienced some of the fastest ocean warming on the planet, with sea surface temperatures rising at a rate faster than 99% of the world's oceans. This has already led to significant ecological changes, such as the collapse of cod fisheries.



Scientists are now investigating whether climate change is disproportionately affecting thorny skates compared to other skate species in the region.



“We’re trying to use the best available science to make decisions about how to best manage and sustain populations,” Kneebone concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56126-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Illustration by Jorge Machuski



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

DNA twist reveals why some thorny skates grow twice as large

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an...

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A new study from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign examines how heat stress affects U.S. dairy farms. 



The researchers found that high temperatures and humidity lead to a 1% annual decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk yield</a>. Smaller farms suffer more than large ones, which can adopt management strategies to reduce the effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-heat-on-dairy-cows">Impact of heat on dairy cows</h2>



Study co-author Marin Skidmore is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics at the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>.



“Cows are mammals like us, and they experience heat stress just like we do. When cows are exposed to extreme heat, it can have a range of negative physical effects,” explained Professor Skidmore.



"There is an increased risk of infection, restlessness, and decreased appetite, which leads to a decline in milk yield. For dairy producers, the heat impact is a direct hit on their revenue.”



The team studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-types-of-plant-based-milk-are-linked-to-mental-disorders-like-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk production</a> data from nine Midwest states. They analyzed over 56 million cow-level records from 18,000 dairy farms between 2012 and 2016. The researchers adjusted milk data for protein and fat content to better assess milk quality, which determines its market value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-and-dairy-quality">Heat stress and dairy quality</h2>



“Previous studies have focused on fluid milk yield. But in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dairy</a> marketing system, milk is sold on components. When you calculate revenue, it’s not just about how many gallons of milk, but whether it’s high-quality milk with high protein and fat content,” Skidmore said.



The researchers linked milk production records with daily temperature and humidity data. They used temperature-humidity index measurements to gauge how much heat stress cows experience. High heat and humidity make it harder for cows to cool down, leading to reduced milk production.



On average, 1% of annual milk yield is lost to heat stress. That translates to about 1.4 billion pounds of milk over five years for the farms in the study. Based on average milk prices, these losses amount to roughly $245 million in revenue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-farms-suffer-more">Smaller farms suffer more</h2>



Most of the losses occur on low- and moderate-stress days, which happen more often. 



However, extreme heat days have a much greater impact, causing more than twice the dairy milk loss per cow compared to moderate-stress days.



Smaller farms experience the greatest financial burden. The researchers found that herds with fewer than 100 cows lost an average of 1.6% of their annual milk yield. Though these farms contributed less than 20% of the total output in the study, they accounted for 27% of total damages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-combat-heat-stress">Strategies to combat heat stress</h2>



Producers can take steps to reduce heat stress. Open barn sides, fans, and sprinklers can help cool cows. 



“There are a number of different adaptive methods, but there is no silver bullet. You can install more sprinklers and sophisticated ventilation systems. You could change the timing of calving to avoid these warmer periods, but that incurs other risks, and it is a complex issue,” noted Professor Skidmore.



Lower levels of heat stress can be managed with current techniques. Large farms experience minimal losses at those levels. However, when temperatures and humidity rise beyond a certain point, no mitigation strategy is fully effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-projections-and-policy-needs">Future projections and policy needs</h2>



The researchers projected milk yield losses through 2050 using predictions from 22 climate models. The findings suggest extreme heat days will become more common, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-may-transmit-bird-flu-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> yield losses could increase by 30%.



If dairy production remains a priority, small farms will need additional support. Professor Skidmore emphasized the importance of financial incentives to help farmers adopt heat mitigation strategies. Further research will also be necessary to manage extreme heat stress.



“If there's interest in continuing to have a healthy and robust small dairy production presence in the U.S., that probably will require financial incentives to help farmers implement mitigation strategies, as well as investments in further research on how to manage the highest levels of heat stress,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919225000259?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Policy</a>. The research was funded by a Center for the Economics of Sustainability Seed Grant.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Extreme heat makes dairy cows produce less milk

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A...

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the United States. Since its first detection in 2014, this invasive pest has spread across at least 18 states, wreaking havoc on vineyards, orchards, and nursery industries. 



The damage caused by lanternflies threatens agricultural businesses and the environment, pushing scientists to find effective management strategies.



Traditionally, chemical insecticides have been the primary tool for controlling these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. However, reliance on chemical solutions comes with risks, including pesticide resistance and unintended harm to beneficial species. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have been exploring alternative solutions, looking toward nature’s own pest controllers for answers. 



Their study highlights the role of native insect predators in reducing spotted lanternfly populations. The findings suggest that these natural enemies could provide a sustainable and long-term approach to managing the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-predators-of-spotted-lanternflies">Natural predators of spotted lanternflies</h2>



Scientists at Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences conducted extensive research to determine which natural predators could help control spotted lanternflies. 



They focused on insects already present in the United States, hoping to identify species that could effectively hunt and reduce lanternfly numbers without the need for chemical intervention.



The team examined the feeding behavior of various predators, including spined soldier bugs, Carolina mantises, and Chinese mantises.



These insects, already known for preying on agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>, showed promise in targeting spotted lanternflies. The research suggests that conserving these beneficial predators could serve as a natural and environmentally friendly method for reducing lanternfly populations.



“Our study shows that several native and naturalized predators can consume spotted lanternflies effectively,” said lead researcher and doctoral candidate Anne Johnson, who conducted the study with Kelli Hoover, professor of entomology. 



“By leveraging natural enemies already in the environment, we hope to develop a sustainable, low-impact approach to managing this invasive species that will complement other control methods.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-with-chemical-control-methods">Challenges with chemical control methods</h2>



Current efforts to control spotted lanternflies primarily rely on insecticides. While effective in the short term, these chemicals pose significant risks. 



Over time, pests can develop resistance, making chemical treatments less effective. Additionally, insecticides can harm non-target species, including beneficial insects essential for maintaining ecological balance.



Johnson emphasized that biological control, which utilizes natural predators to regulate pest populations, offers a more sustainable alternative. 



By promoting predator populations, researchers hope to reduce dependence on chemical interventions and create a longer-lasting solution to the lanternfly problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-defenses-of-the-spotted-lanternfly">Natural defenses of the spotted lanternfly</h2>



In its native habitat in southeastern Asia, the spotted lanternfly has natural predators, including parasitic wasps that help regulate its numbers. 



However, introducing foreign species into a new environment requires extensive environmental impact studies and regulatory approvals, which can take years to complete. The <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> and university researchers are currently conducting these studies to assess potential risks and benefits.



One of the challenges researchers faced was understanding whether U.S. predators could effectively hunt lanternflies. Some invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> develop natural defenses that make them unappealing or even toxic to potential predators.



“The spotted lanternfly’s ability to sequester toxins from its preferred host, the tree of heaven, raises concerns about its vulnerability to predators,” Johnson said. 



“We hypothesized that the spotted lanternfly might harness the tree’s bitter-tasting chemical compounds as a defense mechanism that could protect them against predation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-efficiency-in-controlled-settings">Predator efficiency in controlled settings</h2>



To evaluate the effectiveness of different predators, Johnson and Hoover tested ten generalist species, including spined soldier bugs, praying mantises, wheel bugs, lady beetles, and lacewings. Each predator was placed in an enclosure with either 25 spotted lanternfly nymphs or 10 adults for a week.



The results showed that spined soldier bugs and two praying mantis species were the most successful at reducing lanternfly populations. Regardless of the lanternflies’ life stage, these predators actively hunted and consumed them.



Eight-spined soldier bugs proved particularly efficient. They hunt in groups, allowing them to attack and consume prey more effectively. In controlled experiments, these bugs eliminated all lanternflies in their enclosures within three to four days. 



Additionally, researchers found that the predators consumed spotted lanternflies regardless of whether they had fed on tree of heaven or alternative host plants.



“These findings are fascinating because they suggest that natural predators could be incorporated into integrated pest management strategies,” Johnson said. “By conserving and encouraging populations of these beneficial insects, we may be able to reduce the use of chemical controls.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-lanternfly-predators">Observations of lanternfly predators </h2>



Before conducting their controlled experiments, researchers gathered data from community science efforts. 



From 2020 to 2022, Johnson invited the public to report sightings of birds and insects preying on spotted lanternflies. Through social media platforms like Facebook, nearly 2,000 reports were collected. These observations provided scientists with valuable clues about which predators to study in greater detail.



This collaboration between researchers and the public helped confirm that native insects could be effective in spotted lanternfly control. While anecdotal reports do not replace laboratory testing, they offer useful insights that can guide future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-standalone-solution">Not a standalone solution</h2>



While the study’s findings are promising, Johnson and Hoover stress that predator-based control methods should not be seen as a standalone solution. 



The next phase of research will involve field experiments to assess how well these predators perform in natural environments where variables such as weather, prey availability, and habitat conditions play a role.



“While these insects could help keep spotted lanternfly populations in check someday, we recognize that their impact may be limited by consistent presence of sufficient prey and the use of insecticides that can also kill these generalist predators,” Hoover said. 



“Therefore, they should be considered part of a broader integrated pest management strategy rather than a standalone solution.”



Johnson recommends that those interested in additional management techniques consult Penn State Extension’s Spotted Lanternfly Management Guide, which provides practical solutions for controlling the pest. The guide is available for download from the extension website.



The research was a collaborative effort, bringing together experts in entomology and ecology. The study was co-authored by Sara Hermann, a professor of arthropod ecology at Penn State.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-025-10138-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arthropod-Plant Interactions</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Native insects can lead the battle against the spotted lanternfly

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the...

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts have shown promising results. A major review of over 67,000 animal species highlights both the successes and the urgent need for action. 



The study, based on data from the IUCN Red List, emphasizes that targeted measures can bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> back from the brink of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-needs-urgent-conservation-efforts">Biodiversity needs urgent conservation efforts</h2>



The world is losing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> at an alarming rate. About 28% of over 160,000 assessed species are threatened with extinction.



Human activities have put nearly one million species at risk. However, conservation efforts can succeed when backed by evidence-based strategies.



A team led by the University of Cambridge, in collaboration with IUCN, BirdLife International, and other institutions, examined whether conservation measures improved species' survival.



They found that efforts such as habitat protection, breeding programs, and legal protections have helped many species recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-boosts-biodiversity-recovery">Conservation boosts biodiversity recovery</h2>



“We found that almost all the species that have moved from a more threatened category to a less threatened category have benefitted from some sort of conservation measures. It’s a strong signal that conservation works," said lead author Ashley Simkins, a PhD candidate at Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Zoology</a>.



While no single solution fits all cases, some patterns emerge in successful conservation stories. Many recovering species live in isolated areas, such as islands, where conservation efforts can be fully implemented. 



These strategies include habitat restoration, breeding programs, and reintroductions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-stories-in-wildlife-recovery">Success stories in wildlife recovery</h2>



Despite the biodiversity crisis, several species have made remarkable recoveries through conservation efforts. The Iberian lynx, once the world’s most endangered cat, has grown from a few hundred individuals to a few thousand. 



The kākāpō, a flightless parrot from New Zealand, has benefitted from dedicated recovery programs. The European bison, which was hunted to extinction in the wild in the early 20th century, now roams parts of Eastern Europe due to sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Marine species have also seen dramatic recoveries. Humpback and blue whales, once on the brink of extinction due to commercial whaling, have made a comeback following international bans on whaling. 



Challenges remain, however, considering that six times more species are currently declining than improving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventative-conservation-measures">Preventative conservation measures</h2>



Conservation researchers stress the importance of proactive measures over emergency interventions. 



“Humans have gotten pretty good at what could be considered ‘A&amp;E’ conservation – focusing on species at very high risk of extinction,” said Simkins. 



“What we’re less good at is preventing species from becoming threatened in the first place. We need to move beyond treating the symptoms of biodiversity loss and start addressing the root causes.”



Preventative conservation is often more cost-effective and successful in the long term. Protecting habitats, controlling invasive species, and regulating human activities can help species before they reach critical endangerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-community-led-conservation-efforts">Community-led conservation efforts</h2>



Researchers emphasize the importance of collaborative conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a>.



In Papua New Guinea, conservationists worked with local communities to replace tree kangaroo hunting with sustainable farming and fishing. This approach benefited both people and wildlife.



“It’s vital that we as conservationists are working with stakeholders, rather than dictating to them, whether that’s an Indigenous community in Papua New Guinea or a farmer in Somerset,” said Simkins. 



“Conservation doesn’t have to be a zero-sum game – there are compromises that can benefit both the natural world and human society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-to-save-biodiversity">Conservation to save biodiversity </h2>



Despite constant reports of wildlife decline, conservation efforts continue to make a real impact. 



“In this climate of constant stories about wildlife declines and insufficient political action to protect nature, it’s important to realise that there are also many success stories and that conservation efforts are making a real, demonstrable impact in the world,” said co-senior author Dr. Silviu Petrovan. "Conservation works if given the chance.”



Study co-author Dr. Stuart Butchart, Chief Scientist at <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdLife International</a>, noted that this research sheds light on which actions to save species have been effective, and what interventions are needed.



“Governments need to turn their words into actions and rapidly scale up efforts to save species from extinction and help populations to recover. Safeguarding our natural heritage for future generations depends upon this," said Dr. Butchart.



“Almost everyone will have their own favourite example of a conservation success story, whether it’s the bald eagle in North America or the red kite in the UK,” said Simkins. 



“We need joint action to ensure these positive stories aren’t the exception – they’re the norm.”



The research received support from the Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>), part of UK Research and Innovation (<a href="https://www.ukri.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKRI</a>).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003051" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Conservation success stories offer hope for biodiversity

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts...

The past is full of hidden secrets, and fossils offer valuable glimpses into ancient worlds. Each discovery reveals new insights into evolution, extinction, and the environmental shifts that shaped life long ago.



A recent study on a 30,000-year-old vulture fossil from Central Italy has revealed an extraordinary process of preservation. 



The researchers discovered that volcanic rock can capture microscopic details of feathers - a phenomenon that has never been documented before.



Fossilization usually occurs in sediments like mud or sand, where minerals replace organic materials over time. 



However, the vulture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> challenges conventional beliefs by showing how volcanic deposits can preserve soft tissues in stunning detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-30-000-year-old-vulture-fossil">30,000-year-old vulture fossil</h2>



The fossilized vulture was discovered in 1889 near Rome by a local landowner. Its exceptional state of preservation made it a rare find at the time.



Unlike many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> that are flattened by geological pressure, this specimen retained a three-dimensional structure. Even features like eyelids and wing feathers remained intact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_credit-Edoardo-Terranova_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_credit-Edoardo-Terranova_1s.webp" alt="A Fossilized feather preserved with the volcanic rock. Credit: Edoardo Terranova" class="wp-image-1963155"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Fossilized feather preserved with the volcanic rock. Credit: Edoardo Terranova</figcaption></figure>



Despite its discovery more than a century ago, the fossil has continued to fascinate researchers. Recent advances in microscopic and chemical analysis provided scientists with tools to examine it anew, this time in unprecedented detail.



The findings have opened new doors in the study of fossilization and volcanic environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-preserved-at-the-microscopic-level">Feathers preserved at the microscopic level</h2>



Dr. Valentina Rossi from University College Cork led the research team that conducted a detailed examination of the vulture fossil. 



The results, published recently in Geology, reveal that the feathers are preserved down to the microscopic level.



“Fossil feathers are usually preserved in ancient mudrocks laid down in lakes or lagoons,” noted Dr. Rossi.



“The fossil vulture is preserved in ash deposits, which is extremely unusual. When analyzing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-fossils-reveal-signs-of-a-population-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> vulture plumage, we found ourselves in uncharted territory. These feathers are nothing like what we usually see in other fossils.”



Traditional fossilization often occurs in water-rich environments, where sediments gradually cover an animal’s remains. 



However, the vulture’s feathers survived in volcanic ash - a setting not previously recognized for preserving such delicate structures.



This raises new questions about the role of volcanic environments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-zeolite-in-preservation">Role of zeolite in preservation</h2>



By analyzing tiny samples of the fossil feathers using electron microscopes and chemical tests, the researchers uncovered an unexpected preservation mechanism. 



The feathers were found to be encased in zeolite, a mineral composed of silicon and aluminum.



“Zeolites are minerals rich in silicon and aluminum and are common in volcanic and hydrothermal geological settings," Dr. Rossi explained.



"They can form as primary minerals (with pretty crystals) or can form secondarily, during the natural alteration of volcanic glass and ash, giving the rock a ‘mudrock-like’ aspect."



The team determined that water flowing through the ash layers triggered chemical changes that led to the formation of zeolite nanocrystals. These crystals replicated the feathers’ microscopic details, thus preserving them at a cellular level.



This process had never been reported before in soft tissue fossilization, making the vulture fossil a groundbreaking discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserved-soft-tissues-in-a-vulture-fossil">Preserved soft tissues in a vulture fossil</h2>



Volcanic activity is usually associated with destruction, not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preservation</a>. Pyroclastic flows, known for their extreme heat and rapid movement, often obliterate organic material. 



Yet, this study demonstrates that, under certain conditions, volcanic ash can encase and protect soft tissues.



“We are used to thinking that volcanic deposits are associated with hot, fast-moving pyroclastic currents that will destroy soft tissues," noted Professor Dawid A. Iurino from the University of Milan.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_illustration_credit-Dawid-Iurino_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_illustration_credit-Dawid-Iurino_1s.webp" alt="'The Doom of the Alban Hills' a digital painting representing a possible scenario of the moments before the vulture carcass was entombed in the pyroclastic current. Credit: Dawid A. Iurino" class="wp-image-1963158"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'The Doom of the Alban Hills' a digital painting representing a possible scenario of the moments before the vulture carcass was entombed in the pyroclastic current. Credit: Dawid A. Iurino</figcaption></figure>



"However, these geological settings are complex and can include low temperature deposits that can preserve soft tissues at the cellular level.” 



This discovery challenges the assumption that volcanic environments are unsuitable for preserving fossils. 



It suggests that low-temperature ash deposits can serve as protective enclosures for biological remains, and that this may allow scientists to study ancient creatures in ways never before possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-search-for-fossils">Expanding the search for fossils </h2>



The findings have significant implications for paleontology. Scientists have long focused on sedimentary rocks when searching for well-preserved fossils, and may have overlooked volcanic deposits. This research suggests that volcanic rock may hold a hidden wealth of fossils with preserved soft tissues.



“The fossil record is continually surprising us, be it new fossil species, strange new body shapes, or in this case, new styles of fossil preservation. We never expected to find delicate tissues such as feathers preserved in a volcanic rock," stated Professor Maria McNamara from University College Cork.



"Discoveries such as these broaden the range of potential rock types where we can find fossils, even those preserving fragile soft tissues."



This revelation encourages researchers to revisit volcanic fossil sites with fresh eyes. It also raises the possibility that more fossils with soft tissue preservation are waiting to be uncovered in ash-rich environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-paleontology">A new chapter in paleontology</h2>



Scientific discoveries constantly reshape our understanding of the past. 



The vulture fossil provides a glimpse into an ancient world and introduces a previously unknown pathway of fossilization. 



Its preservation within volcanic rock suggests that nature’s processes are sometimes more complex than previously thought.



As researchers continue to explore this phenomenon, future studies may uncover additional cases of soft tissue preservation in volcanic deposits. 



This could revolutionize the study of fossils and expand the possibilities for finding well-preserved specimens in unexpected places.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G52971.1/653118/Fossil-feathers-from-the-Colli-Albani-volcanic?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Vulture fossil reveals that volcanic rock can preserve feathers

The past is full of hidden secrets, and fossils offer...

Many spiders of the species Tegenaria pagana live in caves with limited vision, while others inhabit brighter areas.



This variation has drawn scientists to examine how genes guide the development of vision in Tegenaria pagana, including Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev of The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://www.studyinjerusalem.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=US+ALO+Google+Search&amp;utm_content=Brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw4v6-BhDuARIsALprm330hDnhqhFoZdY_lS4PrH3Yg7CCnccG1xA3LYYjkgHiQcLx06llPK0aAtQ3EALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cave-life-affects-spider-vision">How cave life affects spider vision</h2>



Organisms in dark environments often lose some or all of their eyesight. Some, like blind fish or amphibians, compensate with heightened senses, a theme that also surfaces among <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2570642/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subterranean spiders</a>.



Scientists are intrigued by <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/264001-Tegenaria-pagana" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tegenaria pagana</a> because different populations display varying degrees of eye size. This makes it a helpful model for those who want to uncover the gene interactions that prompt vision changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expression-and-eye-formation">Gene expression and eye formation </h2>



Eye development follows a genetic blueprint known as the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5830122/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retinal determination network</a>. In arthropods, this set of genes can activate when cells are instructed to form visual structures.



By comparing Tegenaria pagana with more typical spiders, researchers learn how shifts in gene expression affect eye formation. One crucial discovery is the <a href="https://www.sdbonline.org/sites/fly/neural/sineocul.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sine oculis gene</a>, which they say remains vital for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sydney-funnel-web-new-giant-species-of-worlds-most-dangerous-spider-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a> eyesight.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13227-025-00238-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">team</a> used fluorescence staining and confocal microscopy to track growth from fertilization to hatching. They noticed that even minor changes in embryonic timing can shift how eyes and other organs develop.



Different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a> species sometimes form their body segments at varying speeds. The researchers saw that Tegenaria pagana embryos progress in unique ways, suggesting evolution can tweak shared patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cave-species-reveal-shifts-in-vision">Cave species reveal shifts in vision</h2>



Studies on cave spiders add fresh insights to our understanding of underground habitats. Predators like Tegenaria pagana can reveal how animals cope with darkness and scarce food resources.



Some relatives of Tegenaria pagana show partial or total eye reduction, creating a range of vision abilities within the same genus. 



Researchers suggest that comparing these differences could clarify the step-by-step process that leads to eye loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-spiders-trade-vision-for-senses">How spiders trade vision for senses</h2>



One focus of this <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13227-025-00238-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> involved scanning a suite of genes for signs of activity in forming eyes. Each gene has a job, and if one is missing, the spider’s vision may never fully develop.



Scientists note that several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> contribute to shaping optical tissues. This offers a clue to why some cave spiders can still see to some extent while others become blind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-life-in-darkness">Adapting to life in darkness</h2>



Reduced vision can open opportunities for enhanced contact-sensitive hairs, odor detection, or other senses. Many cave dwellers prove that what is lost in one sense often appears elsewhere.



Such trade-offs draw evolutionary biologists to cave systems worldwide. Tegenaria pagana adds a spider’s perspective to these discussions, highlighting how genes adapt in areas where light is absent.



“This research provides an essential reference for understanding how developmental and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic factors</a> influence eye formation in spiders.” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



She emphasized that several Tegenaria species in Israel have assorted vision traits. This variety lets researchers gauge how gene interactions shift in response to environments with little to no light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The next research steps might involve tracking similar genes in spiders that have fully lost their eyes. Tests on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/List-of-troglomorphic-troglobitic-species-recorded-in-the-sampled-caves-in-the-Brazilian_tbl1_283984196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">troglomorphic species</a> could lead to deeper insights into how certain genes shut down or reroute.



Findings from Tegenaria pagana may even relate to vision changes in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregor-Aljancic-2/publication/269463496_Biology_and_functional_morphology_of_Proteus_anguinus_Amphibia_Caudata/links/548c45060cf2d1800d7dc089/Biology-and-functional-morphology-of-Proteus-anguinus-Amphibia-Caudata.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other cave life</a>, such as crustaceans or amphibians that shed visual capacity over time.



The search for parallels across distant groups intrigues biologists who want to see if evolution follows similar scripts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-shifts-in-subterranean-spiders">Dramatic shifts in subterranean spiders</h2>



Lab-raised populations of Tegenaria pagana promise a clearer picture of how vision genes behave during each developmental stage. Eggs collected at different intervals let scientists catch gene signals before any tissue forms.



Future research could test if genetic tweaks at early phases can produce permanent vision defects. If so, we might begin to link gene events to the dramatic shifts seen in subterranean spiders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-gene-changes-affect-vision">Small gene changes affect vision</h2>



Tegenaria pagana shows that minor changes in genes can have major effects on sight. These cave spiders add new angles to old questions about how organisms negotiate harsh, light-free habitats.



Experts plan to examine related species with fewer or missing eyes to see if the same genes come into play. This could clarify whether vision reduction follows similar routes in various caves.



Insights from Tegenaria pagana may guide future pest control strategies in human structures. By grasping how vision genes shift, we might refine ways to manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-spiders-outsmart-predators-imitating-mimicking-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> that thrive in dark corners.



Cave exploration groups can also benefit from this line of research, as understanding spider adaptations can provide insights into ecosystem health. If these spiders fail to maintain normal development, it might signal shifts in subterranean environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregor-Aljancic-2/publication/269463496_Biology_and_functional_morphology_of_Proteus_anguinus_Amphibia_Caudata/links/548c45060cf2d1800d7dc089/Biology-and-functional-morphology-of-Proteus-anguinus-Amphibia-Caudata.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EvoDevo</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiders reveal how cave creatures lose their vision over time

Many spiders of the species Tegenaria pagana live in caves...

species in Neolepetopsidae

News coming your way