A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie or a sea creature hovering above a crab, the tug between “now” and “later” shapes daily choices. Across species, holding off for a better payoff often pairs with sharper thinking and long-term success.



Scientists have tracked this link for decades in humans and chimpanzees, yet evidence in animals without fur or feathers has been thin.



A new study puts cuttlefish at center stage with the famous "marshmallow test," and shows that these soft-bodied hunters can summon patience - and brainpower - to rival some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-chimpanzees-take-risks-like-human-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flashiest vertebrates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-marshmallows-and-cuttlefish">Patience, marshmallows, and cuttlefish</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Self-control</a> is the mental brake that lets an individual pass up an immediate bite for a bigger meal down the road. In people, stronger self-control predicts better grades, steadier income, and healthier habits. 



Among animals, apes, parrots, and crows often wait, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-with-greater-social-tolerance-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a>, rats, and pigeons seldom do. Biologists think the variation reflects how each species makes a living.



Lifespan, growth rate, and food supply all shape patience. Long-lived creatures can afford to wait, and social animals may hold back until a partner arrives. 



Predators stalking elusive prey, from ravens to reef fish, also do well to bide their time. Untangling which factor matters most is tough because many well-studied vertebrates share several of those traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-undersea-cuttlefish-marshmallow-test">Undersea cuttlefish marshmallow test</h2>



The famous marshmallow test gave preschoolers one marshmallow right away or two if they waited 15 minutes. 



To translate that setup underwater, the team offered hungry cuttlefish a piece of ordinary shrimp and, behind a clear barrier, a tastier live grass shrimp. 



Sliding doors let each animal see both treats while controlling when each became reachable.



Some cuttlefish snatched the plain snack at once. Others hovered, watched, and resisted for more than two minutes, choosing the better catch when the moment came. 



Individual wait times ranged from 50 to 130 seconds, figures that match those reported for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots and crows</a> despite the cephalopods’ far shorter lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-perform">How did they perform?</h2>



The work comes from lead author Alexandra Schnell of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, who collaborated with <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> senior scientist Roger Hanlon and colleagues. 



“We used an adapted version of the Stanford marshmallow test, where children were given a choice of taking an immediate reward (1 marshmallow) or waiting to earn a delayed but better reward (2 marshmallows),” Schnell explained.



The cuttlefish that participated in the marshmallow study were able to wait for the better reward, tolerating delays of up to 50–130 seconds. 



This is comparable to what we see in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large-brained vertebrates</a> such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots.



Patience alone would be interesting, yet the researchers also asked whether it linked to learning ability. They trained each animal to match a colored mark on the tank wall with food, then reversed the rule so the reward switched colors. 



“The cuttlefish that were quickest at learning both of those associations were better at exerting self-control,” Schnell continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-pays-off">Patience pays off</h2>



Reversal learning tests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental flexibility</a> because an animal must suppress a habit and update its plan when conditions flip. 



In the study, individual cuttlefish that waited the longest in the marshmallow food test also adapted fastest when the color code changed. 



The pairing hints that the brain circuits holding an impulsive tentacle in check may also help rewrite memories on the fly.



The findings appeared in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, marking the first documented link between delayed gratification and intelligence outside the primate lineage. 



For researchers, that pushes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-demonstrate-an-unanticipated-level-of-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex cognition</a> deeper into the tree of life and invites fresh questions about how such abilities evolve among invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-wait-on-the-marshmallow">Why cuttlefish wait on the marshmallow</h2>



Cuttlefish spend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most of their time camouflaging</a>, sitting and waiting, punctuated by brief periods of foraging. 



“They break camouflage when they forage, so they are exposed to every predator in the ocean that wants to eat them," Schnell concluded. 



"We speculate that delayed gratification may have evolved as a by-product of this, so the cuttlefish can optimize foraging by waiting to choose better-quality food.”



That scenario fits their daily routine. A cuttlefish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-use-camouflage-to-stalk-unsuspecting-crabs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">can blend its skin</a> with pebbles or coral in less than a second, then freeze for hours. 



Every dash into open water risks a chase from cod, dolphins, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bigger cephalopods</a>, so selecting the richest prey while exposed could boost energy intake without extra danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-intelligence-everywhere-we-look">Finding intelligence everywhere we look</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-chromosome-discovered-in-octopuses-is-480-million-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopuses</a> and squids already headline stories for maze solving and coconut-shell shelter building, yet cuttlefish now join them as evidence that big brains are not the only route to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sophisticated behavior</a>. 



Similar challenges - avoiding predators while hunting nimble prey - can mold very different nervous systems into comparable solutions through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>.



Self-control underpins planning, cooperation, and perhaps the roots of culture in vertebrates. 



Finding the same thread in a creature that last shared an ancestor with humans more than 500 million years ago suggests that patience is more than a moral virtue; it is a versatile strategy etched deep into the fabric of life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cuttlefish easily passed a test designed for kids, startling scientists with their high intelligence level

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie...

Not all traditions make sense. That’s true for humans, and maybe even monkeys, as we are about to learn. We humans are experts at passing down habits, rituals, and cultural quirks that don’t always have a clear purpose. 



Why do we knock on wood or toss salt over our shoulder? Half the time, we’re just copying what we’ve seen others do. 



Scientists have long wondered: do animals do this too? Can they pass along behaviors that seem… well, pointless?



Turns out, maybe they can. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capuchin-monkeys-and-baby-howlers">Capuchin monkeys and baby howlers</h2>



On a remote island in Panama, researchers spent over a year watching a group of young male capuchin monkeys do something bizarre: they started grabbing and carrying around baby howler monkeys from another species. 



This wasn't a one-off event - it happened again and again, involving five different capuchins from the same group. Even more fascinating, these are the same monkeys known for a rare tradition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">using stone tools</a>. 



The scientists tracked how this odd “howler abduction” behavior began with one curious monkey and slowly caught on with others. 



And here's the kicker: this trend, strange as it seems, may have spread the same way their more practical tool-use habits did - through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-tolerance-helps-monkeys-pass-along-new-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social learning</a>, imitation, and the powerful pull of monkey see, monkey do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-capuchin-baby-abduction">Studying capuchin baby abduction</h2>



Researchers from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (<a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-AB</a>) and other institutions began monitoring these capuchins in Coiba National Park back in 2017.



Their camera traps were designed to capture the tool-using behaviors of the primates. But in 2022, something unexpected showed up in the footage.



“It was so weird that I went straight to my advisor’s office to ask him what it was,” remembered Zoë Goldsborough, who is conducting her dissertation at MPI-AB.



What she saw was a capuchin carrying an infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/howler-monkeys-use-mental-maps-for-route-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">howler monkey</a>. Nothing like it had appeared before in five years of data. Curious and concerned, the researchers decided to dig deeper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-observation-of-unusual-behavior">First observation of unusual behavior</h2>



Goldsborough began reviewing the footage from every motion-triggered camera on the island. She found more than just a single instance. 



There were actually four different howler infants being carried. And in most of the clips, the carrier was the same capuchin: a young male they nicknamed “Joker.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/capuchin-monkey_abduction_howler-monkey-baby_credit-MPI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/capuchin-monkey_abduction_howler-monkey-baby_credit-MPI_1s.webp" alt="A young male white-faced capuchin monkey carrying a baby howler monkey, caught by a remote camera trap on Jicarón. Credit: Brendan Barrett / Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior" class="wp-image-1970602"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A young male white-faced capuchin monkey carrying a baby howler monkey, caught by a remote camera trap on Jicarón. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brendan Barrett / Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</figcaption></figure>



This raised new questions. How did Joker get the babies? And why was he carrying them?



“At first, we thought it could be adoption,” said Goldsborough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cross-species-adoption">Cross-species adoption </h2>



There are rare stories of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bonobos-adopt-infants-outside-of-their-social-group/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals adopting</a> babies of other species. In one famous case, a pair of capuchins adopted a marmoset and raised it to adulthood. 



But there was a catch. Adoption is typically done by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">females</a>, often as a way to practice mothering. This made Joker’s behavior especially unusual.



“The fact that a male was the exclusive carrier of these babies was an important piece of the puzzle,” she adds.



For a while, nothing else surfaced. The team assumed it was an isolated case. Capuchins are known for trying new things, so one monkey acting oddly wasn’t too surprising.



“We’d decided that it was one individual trying something new,” said Brendan Barrett, a group leader at MPI-AB.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-capuchins-start-stealing-babies">Other capuchins start stealing babies</h2>



Five months later, the researchers hit pay dirt. The cameras captured more footage of howler infants being carried - this time by multiple monkeys. The infants were verified as separate individuals by a howler monkey expert from Ithaca College.



And now Joker had company. Four other young male capuchins were also carrying howler babies.



In a span of just 15 months, five capuchins carried a total of 11 howler infants. Each baby clung to the back or belly of its carrier. 



The monkeys didn’t change their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daily routines</a>. They kept traveling and using tools, even with a baby howler in tow.



“The complete timeline tells us a fascinating story of one individual who started a random behavior, which was taken up with increasing speed by other young males,” said Barrett.



The team documented the entire timeline on an interactive website. What emerged was a new kind of social tradition - what the researchers described as a cultural fad. 



Like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-killer-whales-wearing-fish-hats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales wearing salmon hats</a> or chimpanzees sticking blades of grass in their ears, the capuchins appeared to be mimicking one another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sad-side-of-animal-research">Sad side of animal research</h2>



But unlike other animal fads, this one had troubling consequences. The howler infants were very young - less than four weeks old. 



Their parents were seen nearby, calling to them from the trees. Four of the babies died. The researchers believe none of them survived.



"The capuchins didn’t hurt the babies,” stressed Goldsborough, “but they couldn’t provide the milk that infants need to survive.”



So what did the capuchins get out of it? Nothing obvious. They didn’t eat the infants, interact with them playfully, or receive any extra attention from others in their group.



“We don’t see any clear benefit to the capuchins,” said Goldsborough, “but we also don’t see any clear costs, although it might make tool use a little trickier.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



This may be the first recorded case of a social tradition where animals repeatedly abduct and carry the young of another species - without any benefit to themselves. 



It also shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture in animals</a> isn’t always functional or harmless.



“We show that non-human animals also have the capacity to evolve cultural traditions without clear functions but with destructive outcomes for the world around them,” commented Barrett.



This opens up a deeper question.



“The more interesting question is not ‘why did this tradition arise?’ but rather ‘why here?’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-capuchins-innovate-out-of-boredom">Do capuchins innovate out of boredom?</h2>



These same capuchins are also the only ones known to use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> on Jicarón Island. They crack nuts and shellfish with stones. And just like the howler-carrying behavior, this tool use is performed only by males.



Why these traditions? Why only males?



“Survival appears easy on Jicarón. There are no predators and few competitors, which gives capuchins lots of time and little to do,” said Meg Crofoot, managing director at MPI-AB.



“It seems this ‘luxurious’ life set the scene for these social animals to be innovators. This new tradition shows us that necessity need not be the mother of invention. For a highly intelligent monkey living in a safe, perhaps even under-stimulating environment, boredom and free time might be sufficient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-howler-monkeys">Potential impact on howler monkeys</h2>



The camera trapping period ended in July 2023. It’s still unclear if the behavior is continuing. If it spreads or begins to impact the local howler monkey population, which is an endangered species, it could become a serious conservation issue.



“Witnessing the spread of this behavior had a profound effect on all of us,” said Crofoot. 



“We therefore feel even more responsible to keep learning from this natural population of primates who, to our knowledge, are the only ones on earth to be practicing this strange tradition.”



The story unfolding on Jicarón Island is a reminder that animals, like humans, can be deeply influenced by their peers. 



Sometimes, those influences lead to remarkable adaptations. Other times, they can lead to something far more puzzling.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225003720" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Capuchin monkeys have developed a very disturbing 'social tradition' of abducting babies

Not all traditions make sense. That’s true for humans, and...

Many people wonder what to do with the endless stream of used batteries. Batteries can contain toxic elements of nickel that escape into water or soil if they are tossed out incorrectly, raising concerns for public safety and wildlife. 



Experts at the Institute of Materials Chemistry (<a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/tch/imc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMC</a>) have introduced a plan for extracting nickel from Ni-MH batteries and recovering aluminum from everyday foil.



The experts' work is led by <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/tch/tch-persons-and-groups/habilitation-holders/guenther-rupprechter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Günther Rupprechter</a> from the Institute of Materials Chemistry at TU Wien. The strategy involves making a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/nanocatalyst" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanocatalyst</a> that converts carbon dioxide into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-source-of-methane-emissions-discovered-glacial-fracking-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> using moderate conditions and minimal pressure requirements.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-use-of-nickel-from-batteries">Making use of nickel from batteries</h2>



“Recycling is an important step, but even greater impact can be achieved by upcycling nickel into catalysts capable of producing fuels,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com.pk/citations?user=r7RcyIEAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Qaisar Maqbool</a>, first author of the study. 



Aluminum foil adds the second ingredient. Ni-MH batteries, widely used in portable gadgets, hold valuable nickel. Separating that metal from old batteries can be complicated, but the effort is worthwhile.&nbsp;



Both scraps undergo a series of treatments in solutions. Nickel salts are extracted from the battery parts, while aluminum foil is turned into a stable oxide. 



Then both ingredients are combined, dried, and heated to form an active solid. That final material supports nickel particles on aluminum oxide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transforming-carbon-dioxide">Transforming carbon dioxide</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-based-carbon-dioxide-removal-may-not-be-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carbon dioxide</a> can be converted into methane in a reaction often called CO₂ methanation. Scientists have been testing metal-based catalysts for this process for years. By mixing the new catalyst with a stream of CO₂ and hydrogen, the final product is methane.



“We believe that this approach can transform sustainable fuel production,” stated Prof. Rupprechter. Producers may collect the resulting methane for industrial energy demands. 



Some believe this approach can be paired with renewable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen systems</a> to reuse captured CO₂. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nickel-catalyst-has-steady-performance">Nickel catalyst has steady performance</h2>



Researchers report that the nickel-alumina catalyst holds up well at normal pressures and moderate temperatures. That resilience suggests it could find use in large-scale operations without suffering significant damage. 



Tests indicate the catalyst is stable and maintains a good conversion rate of CO₂ even with temperature adjustments. Reliability matters because catalysts often lose efficiency over time, especially in repeated heating cycles. 



The team, however, did not spot a major drop in the performance of the nickel-based system in their trials. That stability is a key advantage when considering industrial adoption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recycling-nickel-and-aluminum-as-catalysts">Recycling nickel and aluminum as catalysts</h2>



Spent catalysts can accumulate carbon buildup or structural changes. Even if efficiency stays high, a plan is needed for the final phase. This team focused on easy recycling. 



Spent nickel and aluminum are separated through a mild chemical treatment, leaving both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-mountain-snow-contains-toxic-metals-from-faraway-mining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metals</a> ready for another round of use. Those steps highlight a desire for full-circle resource usage. 



This means nickel and aluminum can go back into new catalysts instead of ending up as garbage. Chemists point out that this loop may lower overall emissions and operating costs for companies involved in renewable fuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-benefits-of-battery-disposal">Environmental benefits of battery disposal</h2>



Battery disposal has long been a thorny subject for local waste facilities. Spent Ni-MH units sometimes end up abandoned. Nickel, a heavy metal, can leach into soil or water without careful handling. 



Meanwhile, aluminum foil is often discarded after a single kitchen use, despite its high potential for reuse. By turning both into a single product, the project cuts down on metal waste and puts those metals to work. 



Such methods may trim reliance on fresh raw materials. That is crucial as industries hunt for new ways to conserve finite resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-might-go-next">Where research might go next</h2>



“Now we want to investigate how this process can be scaled up for technological applications,” shared Prof. Rupprechter. Results so far point to an encouraging path, though more refining is needed. 



Smaller pilot systems might appear first in academic labs. Then, if these do well, larger facilities could adopt the strategy.&nbsp;



Some organizations see potential to fit this model into sectors where methane is in high demand. Continued progress depends on reliable suppliers for waste batteries and used foil. It also hinges on the ability to bring down costs for hydrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closing-the-loop">Closing the loop</h2>



This concept aims to blend two environmental dilemmas - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-electric-car-battery-charges-in-just-4-5-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">battery</a> waste and CO₂ buildup - into one practical fix. The catalyst’s durability and straightforward production offer a notable opportunity for business ventures wanting cleaner energy. 



A system that helps keep nickel and aluminum out of landfills may also reduce the impact on natural habitats. Such efforts reflect a broader emphasis on recovering metals for reuse. 



Leaders in the field see it as a logical move toward a future with smaller carbon footprints and less industrial discard. The approach also shows how hidden value can be tapped from items commonly seen as trash.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/gc/d4gc05217j" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green Chemistry</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New recycling method plants dead batteries in the ground and harvests clean fuel

Many people wonder what to do with the endless stream...

What do chickens and women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have in common? Quite a lot, it seems. A common diabetes drug - metformin - may bridge their reproductive challenges.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have made an unexpected discovery. Metformin, often prescribed for type 2 diabetes and PCOS in humans, can boost egg-laying in aging chickens. 



The findings could change poultry farming while offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sperm-have-a-heat-activated-switch-that-may-be-key-to-fertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a> across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-hens-lose-fertility-fast">Older hens lose fertility fast</h2>



Broiler breeder hens are specially bred for one goal: producing the chickens people eat. These hens give birth to fast-growing offspring, allowing the meat industry to meet global demand. 



But this intense selection has a downside. As these hens age, they struggle to lay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertile</a> eggs. Their reproductive efficiency drops sharply after a certain point.



The decline in egg production has puzzled researchers for years. It mirrors certain characteristics of PCOS in women - a disorder marked by irregular cycles and hormonal imbalances. 



Scientists began to ask whether a treatment effective in women could also improve egg-laying in chickens. Their attention turned to metformin.



PCOS is the most common endocrine disorder in women. It affects an estimated 4% to 12% of the female population. Many women with PCOS experience infertility due to hormonal disruptions and insulin resistance. 



Metformin, while not originally developed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a>, has become a key treatment option for managing PCOS symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metformin-boosts-hormone-health">Metformin boosts hormone health </h2>



In a 2023 study published in Reproduction, Penn State researchers tested metformin on broiler breeder hens. Over a span of 40 weeks, a group of hens received small daily doses of the drug. 



The team monitored their reproductive performance and physiological changes. What they found was striking.



The hens on metformin laid significantly more fertile eggs. They also had reduced body fat and more stable reproductive hormone levels compared to untreated hens. 



These findings thrilled the researchers, who saw not only a performance boost but a meaningful biological shift.



“These findings suggest that metformin can significantly improve ovarian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">function</a> in broiler breeder hens,” said Ramesh Ramachandran, senior author on the study and professor of reproductive biology in the College of Agricultural Sciences.



The next step was to figure out how metformin caused these changes. The team had a hunch the liver played a key role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metformin-alters-genes-in-chickens">Metformin alters genes in chickens</h2>



In birds, the liver is central to reproduction. It is the site where egg yolk proteins are produced before being transported to developing eggs. If metformin could influence liver function, it might explain the broader improvements seen in the hens. 



To test this, the research team examined liver samples using gene sequencing tools at Penn State’s Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences. They analyzed RNA from the liver - material that controls which genes are active or silent. The sequencing results told a compelling story.



Metformin activated genes tied to yolk protein production and blood sugar regulation. At the same time, it suppressed genes associated with fat buildup, a known disruptor of hormone balance.



“Essentially, metformin helps older hens stay metabolically healthier, which lets them keep producing eggs well beyond their usual decline,” said Evelyn Weaver, postdoctoral researcher and lead author on both studies. Her explanation captured the study’s essence in plain terms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-implications-for-poultry-farming">Wider implications for poultry farming</h2>



These findings could reshape how poultry farms manage their flocks. When hens lose their fertility early, farmers must replace them often, increasing both costs and stress on the animals. Metformin’s ability to prolong egg production offers a new approach - one that is both practical and humane.



By keeping hens reproductively active longer, farms can reduce the frequency of flock turnover. This could improve animal welfare and lead to more efficient use of resources. Importantly, metformin is quickly broken down by chickens, so it poses no threat of entering the human food chain.



Weaver emphasized that safety aspect, assuring that the drug does not leave residue in eggs or meat. This makes it a promising tool for farms looking to improve production without compromising safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-the-lives-of-people-and-chickens">Improving the lives of people and chickens</h2>



This research shows how biological pathways can overlap across species. Chickens and humans might seem unrelated at first glance, but their reproductive systems respond to the same drug in surprisingly similar ways. 



The hormonal, metabolic, and genetic responses observed in hens may offer clues for improving PCOS treatment strategies in people. While the goal was to support poultry farming, the outcomes also prompt deeper reflection. 



Could further study of animal models like hens refine our understanding of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a>? The evidence suggests it’s worth investigating.



Metformin has already improved the lives of countless people with diabetes and PCOS. Now, it’s helping hens produce eggs more consistently. In the process, it’s also helping scientists understand the rich tapestry of life where chickens and humans unexpectedly meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-funding">Collaborations and funding</h2>



The work was conducted in the Ramachandran lab&nbsp;at&nbsp;Penn State’s Department of Animal Science. The research team included Professor Ramesh Ramachandran, Professor Tae Hyun Kim, and undergraduate researcher Nathan Connolly.



The experts published two studies - one focused on egg production and another on liver gene expression. Funding came from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>.



Ultimately, the project connects food production with broader biological questions. By exploring how a human medication interacts with avian biology, the researchers have opened new doors for science and farming alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolreprod/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biolre/ioaf072/8099357?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology of Reproduction</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Common drug humans take is found to boost fertility in both women and chickens

What do chickens and women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)...

It's widely known that elephants are intelligent. Their deep family bonds, tool use, and emotional awareness have fascinated humans for generations. But despite being one of the animal kingdom’s most admired creatures, their brains remain largely understudied. 



That’s starting to change. In a recent study led by researchers at the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin</a> and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, scientists took a closer look at elephant brain. 



The team analyzed the brains of both Asian and African elephants using dissections, MRI scans, and data from past studies. What they found offers new insights into the differences between the two species and raises new questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-behavior-linked-to-brain-size/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain size connects to behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-size-differences">Surprising size differences</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-asian-elephants-exhibit-strong-capacity-for-innovation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian elephants</a> tend to be smaller than their African counterparts. They have shorter ears, a single “trunk finger” instead of two, and most females don’t grow tusks. But inside their skulls, things get interesting.



Researchers found that adult female Asian elephants have brains weighing around 5,300 grams on average. In comparison, African females average just over 4,400 grams. 



That’s a substantial difference. While data for male Asian elephants is limited, it’s clear that males of both species generally have heavier brains.



One more surprise came from the cerebellum. In the African group, it makes up about 22% of total brain weight, compared to 19% in the Asian group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-expanding-intelligence">Elephants' expanding intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-cant-remember-being-babies-but-our-brains-might/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human babies</a> are born with brains that weigh only about 20% of their final adult size. Elephants aren’t far behind. 



The study found that elephant brains nearly triple in size from birth to adulthood. That’s more postnatal growth than any other primate besides humans. Why so much growth? The researchers believe social learning may be the key.



“Social factors and learning processes could explain the strong brain growth after birth, as elephants live in complex social structures and have an outstanding memory," said Michael Brecht and Thomas Hildebrandt, co-lead authors of the study.



"The experience and accumulated knowledge of adult elephants, especially matriarchs, is central to the group behavior of elephants, and the young animals are very closely cared for over a long period of childhood and adolescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-elephants-two-brains">Two elephants, two brains </h2>



The two species of elephants behave very differently around people. Asian elephants have been working alongside humans for centuries, often in domesticated or semi-domesticated roles. 



In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-will-soon-become-extinct-without-immediate-international-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African elephants</a> rarely adapt to human presence. Domestication attempts have been largely unsuccessful.



Could brain weight be part of the reason? “The difference in brain weight is perhaps the most important difference between these two elephant species,” said Malav Shah, first author of the study. “It could explain important behavioral differences between Asian and African elephants.”



Motor control could also play a role. African elephants, with their two trunk fingers, have a more dexterous trunk. Scientists link this complexity to the larger cerebellum and the higher number of neurons dedicated to trunk movement.



“With their two trunk fingers, African elephants can perform more diverse movements, which is also reflected in a higher number of neurons in the trunk's control center in the brain,” said Brecht and Hildebrandt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-brain-mystery">Unlocking the brain mystery</h2>



The team analyzed a rare collection of 19 elephant brains, most from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-pandemic-lockdowns-affect-zoo-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zoo animals</a> or wild elephants that died naturally or were euthanized for welfare reasons. These specimens are extremely hard to come by, making the findings even more valuable.



Still, much remains unknown. Brecht and Hildebrandt acknowledge that many questions are left unanswered. 



The researchers plan to continue studying elephant brains to understand how structure affects social behavior, memory, and motor skills. As they put it, research into these massive “control centers” is only just beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-elephants-through-science"> Saving elephants through science</h2>



Understanding the elephant brain isn’t just about satisfying curiosity. It helps scientists learn more about intelligence, memory, and social behavior across species - including humans.



These animals share traits with us that are rare in the animal world: they grieve, they cooperate, and they learn from experience. 



By studying how their brains develop and differ between species, researchers are piecing together how these abilities are wired.



The study also raises important questions about conservation. As human activity continues to threaten wild elephant populations, knowing more about how these animals think and interact could play a vital role in shaping better protection strategies. 



If we want to ensure a future where these animals continue to roam, we need to understand what makes them who they are - inside and out.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/5/pgaf141/8138140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Elephant brains reveal big differences among species

It's widely known that elephants are intelligent. Their deep family...

Humpback whales have long been thought to give birth in tropical waters, like the Great Barrier Reef. But sightings of newborn calves stretching all the way down to Tasmania are changing that narrative. 



The sightings of baby humpback whales suggest that some mothers are giving birth over 1,500 kilometers south of the expected calving grounds.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a> Sydney led the study that brought this discovery to light. The research was based on over 200 calf sightings reported by whale watching operators, government wildlife agencies, and everyday observers.



The sightings span from Queensland down to Tasmania and even across to New Zealand’s South Island. The findings challenge what we thought we knew about where these giant creatures begin their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-humpback-whale-sightings">Baby humpback whale sightings</h2>



The idea for this research began when PhD candidate and whale watching skipper Jane McPhee-Frew saw something unusual off the coast of Newcastle.



“I was working part-time as a skipper on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loud-tourist-boats-endanger-the-long-term-survival-of-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale-watching boat</a> in Newcastle when I first spotted a calf in the area,” said McPhee-Frew.



“It seemed out of place. The calf was tiny, obviously brand new. What were they doing here? But none of my tourism colleagues seemed surprised."



That moment led to conversations with research colleagues. McPhee-Frew discovered there was a gap between what science had recorded and what people out on the water were witnessing.



“Eventually, we just ran out of land to see them from. So we don't actually know where the limit is. But we had reports right to the bottom of Tassie, the southernmost points of Western Australia and to the South Island of New Zealand.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-in-the-danger-zone">Whales in the danger zone</h2>



The first sighting in Newcastle came in a very busy shipping area - home to the largest coal export port on Earth. Many of the calf sightings in the study were recorded from 2016 onwards, with the bulk of them happening in 2023 and 2024.



“It’s not just the sightings themselves that are important,” noted McPhee-Frew. "The pattern we’re seeing is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-is-important-to-keep-young-right-whales-undetected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mother whales</a> with calves travelling through some of the busiest shipping lanes and urbanised regions.



“This means these vulnerable animals are exposed to risks like boat strikes, entanglements, pollution - and just general public unawareness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-baby-humpback-whales">Threats to baby humpback whales </h2>



Humpback whales were nearly wiped out in the 1960s. Conservation efforts have since helped their numbers bounce back to an estimated 50,000 today.



While the idea of baby humpback whales being born this far south may sound new, McPhee-Frew thinks it might be an old habit we’re only now seeing again.



She explored 19th-century whaling logs and old expedition notes that included reports of calves and mothers in similar southern locations.



The low population after decades of industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-whaling-wiped-two-species-of-whales-in-the-eastern-atlantic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> might have made this behavior invisible for years. Now, thanks to drones, social media, and booming whale tourism, people are noticing more than ever before.



According to McPhee-Frew, it’s vital to raise awareness about the dangers these young whales face as they travel thousands of kilometers north.



“Regardless of the health of population now, we can't be in a situation where we're putting any age of whales - especially baby whales - in a situation where they're getting caught in nets, being exposed to chemicals, being hit by boats and being harassed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newborns-in-busy-shipping-lanes">Newborns in busy shipping lanes</h2>



Study co-author Professor Tracey Rogers noted that newborn whales face unique challenges. 



“Newborns are like Great Dane puppies. They have those long, enormous fins that they need to grow into, and they’re not very strong swimmers. So they rest a lot of the time on their mum’s back,” said Professor Rogers.



“Imagine giving birth off Hobart and then swimming up the coast. It’s heartbreaking to think of these young whales traveling through busy ports and dangerous shipping lanes with those long, clumsy fins."



“And it's not just happening here in NSW - this is off WA, Victoria, Tasmania, New Zealand - it's something we just didn't know before.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-humpback-whales">Protecting humpback whales </h2>



Dr Adelaide Dedden from the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service says that while laws exist to protect humpbacks, many water users still aren't aware of them.



“The legislation to protect humpback whales, including mothers and calves, is already in place across all states,” said Dr Dedden. "But we do have a gap in public awareness, particularly among recreational water users."



“People need to be aware that calves are being seen not just on the southern migration but also on the northern one.”



Close-up photos may make it seem like baby whales are easy to spot, but these moments are rare and should happen on the whales' terms - not because a boat got too close.



“Humpbacks are charismatic and curious,” said Dr Dedden. “They're going to want to come and check out the boat.”



The recommended distance is 100 meters from adult whales and 300 meters from a mother-calf pair.



“We’ve been working hard to get this message out to the public and encourage boaters, surfers, kayakers and jet-ski operators to be aware of these guidelines,” noted Dr Dedden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excitement-and-curiosity-about-whales">Excitement and curiosity about whales</h2>



According to McPhee-Frew, collaboration between scientists, government agencies, tourism operators, and the public has made this research possible.



Whale watching crews often spot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-struggles-of-pregnant-humpback-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calves</a> and pass on vital information. They also help educate the public on how to safely enjoy watching whales.



Social media platforms have played a big role too. Photos and sightings shared by users help track where whales are seen - and when.



“The excitement and curiosity around whales are contagious,” said McPhee-Frew. "We’ve built a huge repository of data just by encouraging the public to share observations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



There’s still one big question that remains. Why are the mothers still traveling north after giving birth, especially when food is so scarce in tropical waters?



McPhee-Frew suggests we need to rethink the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale migration</a> has fixed start and end points. Maybe whales use different environments in different ways.



“We still have a lot to learn. But, you know what? It's such a privilege to see whales. It is such a fantastic aspect of living in Australia. We just need to follow the rules so everyone can enjoy.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1545526/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



Image Credit: © Vanessa Risku (Instagram: @droning_my_sorrows)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Er</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">c Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Baby humpback whales are born in places we didn't expect

Humpback whales have long been thought to give birth in...

A burst of energy more powerful than any other laser in the United States just fired from the ZEUS facility - at a jaw-dropping 2 petawatts. That’s two quadrillion watts in a single pulse. It's a flash so brief it lasts just 25 quintillionths of a second.



At peak output, ZEUS briefly outshines the global electricity grid - by more than 100 times. But this isn’t just about raw power. It’s the beginning of a new era in ultrafast laser experiments with far-reaching possibilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-lab-with-a-shared-mission">National lab with a shared mission</h2>



Based at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, ZEUS - short for Zettawatt-Equivalent Ultrashort Pulse Laser System - just completed its first official experiment at this intense 2-petawatt level. 



The lab is part of the Gérard Mourou Center for Ultrafast Optical Science and is funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF).



"This milestone marks the beginning of experiments that move into unexplored territory for American high field science," said Karl Krushelnick, director of the center.



As a user facility, ZEUS offers its capabilities to researchers across the U.S. and around the world. Teams can apply to conduct experiments through an independent selection process, making it a truly collaborative space for discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zeus-laser-is-like-no-other">ZEUS laser is like no other</h2>



"One of the great things about ZEUS is it's not just one big laser hammer, but you can split the light into multiple beams," explained Franklin Dollar, a professor at the University of California, Irvine (<a href="https://www.uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCI</a>). Dollar’s team is running the first user experiment at full strength.



Their goal? To generate high-energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-could-improve-radiation-treatments-for-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron beams</a> that are comparable to those from kilometer-long particle accelerators, using a device that fits in a room the size of a school gym.



Dollar’s experiment aims to hit energy levels five to ten times higher than ZEUS has ever produced before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laser-beams-accelerate-electrons">Laser beams accelerate electrons</h2>



The team uses two synchronized laser <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-shadows-are-created-by-light-how-can-laser-light-cast-a-shadow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beams</a>. One creates a guiding channel; the other accelerates electrons down that path.



"We aim to reach higher electron energies using two separate laser beams - one to form a guiding channel and the other to accelerate electrons through it," said Anatoly Maksimchuk, a University of Michigan research scientist leading the experimental setup.



This process relies on plasma physics. The laser blasts into helium gas, transforming it into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma</a> - a soup of free electrons and ions. Electrons surf behind the laser pulse in a process known as wakefield acceleration.



By extending the gas cell and reducing its density, electrons stay in the accelerating zone longer before overtaking the pulse. This allows them to reach much higher speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-zeus-laser-testing">More ZEUS laser testing</h2>



Later this year, ZEUS plans to run its signature test. Accelerated electrons will smash into a laser pulse coming from the opposite direction. 



In the electrons' reference frame, the laser’s 3-petawatt pulse will appear a million times more powerful - hitting the “zettawatt equivalent” level that gives ZEUS its name.



"The fundamental research done at the NSF ZEUS facility has many possible applications, including better imaging methods for soft tissues and advancing the technology used to treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-cancer-cell-death-may-transform-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> and other diseases," explained Vyacheslav Lukin, program director at NSF.



"Scientists using the unique capabilities of ZEUS will expand the frontiers of human knowledge in new ways and provide new opportunities for American innovation and economic growth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-space-big-power">Small space, big power</h2>



The ZEUS facility packs an incredible punch in a relatively small footprint. The laser starts as an infrared pulse, stretched out by diffraction gratings to reduce its intensity. 



It then passes through four stages of amplifiers. At its largest, the beam is 12 inches (30 centimeters) wide and several feet long.



As it enters a vacuum chamber, another set of gratings compresses the beam into a disk only 8 microns thick, which is ten times thinner than paper. It's then focused down to less than a micron to achieve peak intensity.



"As a midscale-sized facility, we can operate more nimbly than large-scale facilities like particle accelerators or the <a href="https://lasers.llnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Ignition Facility</a>," commented John Nees, a research scientist who leads ZEUS laser construction. "This openness attracts new ideas from a broader community of scientists."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-zeus-hasn-t-been-easy">Building ZEUS hasn't been easy</h2>



The journey to 2 petawatts hasn’t been fast. A key challenge has been sourcing components - especially the titanium sapphire crystal at the heart of the final amplifier. 



At nearly 7 inches (18 centimeters) wide, it’s one of only a few in the world.



"The crystal that we're going to get in the summer will get us to 3 petawatts, and it took four and a half years to manufacture," said Franko Bayer, ZEUS project manager.



Even scaling up to 1 petawatt came with issues. The diffraction gratings darkened during tests, raising alarms. 



The team discovered the cause - carbon deposits from broken-down air molecules in the vacuum chamber - and developed a maintenance schedule to clean them between experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-zeus-laser-is-just-getting-started">The ZEUS laser is just getting started</h2>



Since opening in October 2023, ZEUS has already supported 11 experiments, and hosted 58 researchers from 22 institutions. 



There’s still plenty of science to do with a 1 petawatt pulse while the team works steadily toward their 3-petawatt goal.



This facility isn’t just pushing boundaries. It’s reshaping what’s possible for high-powered laser research in the U.S. - and doing it with shared access and global collaboration at its core.



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/3SYbLsSQBZE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video of how ZEUS works...</a>



Details of the research were obtained from a University of Michigan <a href="https://news.umich.edu/the-us-has-a-new-most-powerful-laser/">press release</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most powerful U.S. laser just hit an astounding 2 petawatts, over 100x the global electricity output

A burst of energy more powerful than any other laser...

Scientists have long wrestled with turbulence, the chaotic whirl of eddies and swirling flows. Engineers crave the ability to predict how fluids move for better plane designs, more efficient engines, or more reliable weather modeling. Now, a new approach has been developed, using the power of quantum computing.



The new approach comes from a team at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>. The scientist driving it is <a href="https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/our-people/gourianov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Nikita Gourianov</a> from the Department of Physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-randomness-in-quantum-turbulence">Randomness in quantum turbulence</h2>



Predicting flow behavior is often challenging because of the disordered nature of turbulence. Rather than track every swirl, some researchers treat the entire process statistically by defining a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/turbulent-flows/C58EFF59AF9B81AE6CFAC9ED16486B3A#overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">probability distribution function</a> for the fluid’s fluctuations.&nbsp;



This distribution-based view ignores small-scale mayhem and focuses on quantities such as lift and drag. 



Solving these high-dimensional probability equations has been out of reach for regular supercomputers, but a clever solution relies on <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.00006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tensor networks</a>, a computational structure that avoids heavy direct simulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-physics-breakthroughs">Quantum physics breakthroughs</h2>



The idea behind this method comes from work in <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691175607/quantum-many-body-physics-in-a-nutshell?srsltid=AfmBOoooTiFaGzn4LgVTTQpWcA0BPozTyj5W6yMwiO9InDSeSr8LupWj" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum many-body physics</a>, where researchers face a similar challenge - how to describe systems with huge numbers of interacting parts. 



In that field, tensor networks have already helped simulate exotic materials and quantum computers.



By borrowing those tools, the Oxford team showed that structured systems - even ones that look chaotic - can often be represented in a simplified way. This crossover shows how progress in one field can unexpectedly push another forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-inspired-simulations">Quantum-inspired simulations</h2>



Researchers adapted ideas from quantum <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/quantum-computation-and-quantum-information/01E10196D0A682A6AEFFEA52D53BE9AE#overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computing</a> to compress complicated probability maps. That technique encodes fluid states into a chain of mathematical objects, allowing engineers to run simulations on far fewer resources.



“The demonstrated - and future - computational advantage not only opens up new, previously inaccessible areas of turbulence physics for scientific probing, but also beckons next-generation computational fluid dynamics codes,” said Dr. Gourianov. 



This tensor-network framework calculates meaningful flow properties in hours on a single CPU core. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-turbulence-chemical-simulations">Quantum turbulence chemical simulations</h2>



One of the key wins in this research is how well it handled <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0093641321000987" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactive</a> turbulence, where two chemicals interact while flowing. In past methods, adding reactions into the model meant massive increases in computational cost and complexity.



The Oxford team showed that even when factoring in chemical reactions, the compressed simulations still tracked the system’s behavior accurately, capturing how two substances mixed and reacted over time. This could lead to better combustion models or help improve industrial chemical reactors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-that-remain-for-turbulence-problems">Challenges that remain for turbulence problems</h2>



Despite the success, the method isn't a universal fix for all turbulence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-milky-way-galaxys-magnetic-space-turbulence-captured-in-unprecedented-detail/">problems</a>. 



The maximum bond dimension, a key parameter in the tensor network, still limits how much detail can be captured. If it’s too low, accuracy drops. If it’s too high, the computation slows down.



Scaling up to more complex systems - like full 3D flows with coupled velocity and reaction fields - will require careful balancing between speed and precision. 



The researchers acknowledge that choosing the right structure for each simulation will be crucial as the technique is applied to broader use cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-smaller-cores-to-bigger-leaps">From smaller cores to bigger leaps</h2>



One of the most striking results is that the quantum-inspired algorithm delivered answers faster than conventional methods that run for days on a supercomputer. 



This shorter runtime highlights the power of clever compression when dealing with complicated systems.



Experts in fluid dynamics of quantum turbulence see potential for large gains if this tensor-network code is combined with specialized hardware. 



Devices built for matrix operations might reduce the cost even further, letting teams run more complex turbulence scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-for-quantum-turbulence">Applications for quantum turbulence</h2>



Researchers note that most real-life turbulence scenarios involve complex physics, including chemical reactions and temperature changes. 



They believe the probability-based method can be extended to capture these extra details without blowing up memory demands.



They also point to similar complexity in fields like finance or biology, where chaos dominates and direct simulation is overwhelming. 



Statistical descriptions could open new frontiers for analyzing unpredictability in a range of phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



This quantum-inspired scheme is only the first step. Future work involves tailoring different tensor-network designs for more intricate flow patterns or for coupling velocity fields with chemical reactions.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/">computing</a> evolves, dedicated chips with fault-tolerant quantum gates could speed up this process dramatically. 



Researchers hope such developments will improve weather forecasts, aerospace designs, and even industrial mixing for cleaner energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turbulence-still-matters">Why turbulence still matters</h2>



Turbulence isn't just an academic puzzle - it’s a daily concern in industries that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-being-tested-to-prevent-stalls-and-reduce-air-turbulence-for-smoother-flights/">move fluids or gases</a>. Airplane designers, oil pipeline engineers, and even weather forecasters deal with it constantly. Getting it wrong can mean wasted energy, unpredictable behavior, or serious safety issues.



Better simulation tools could mean planes that use less fuel, faster drug manufacturing, or more accurate storm predictions. This research could cut down on guesswork and bring real-world improvements across multiple sectors.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads5990" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientific surprise as turbulent mixing dynamics captured using quantum computing

Scientists have long wrestled with turbulence, the chaotic whirl of...

No spacecraft ever touched down, no drills cracked the crust, yet two new studies used gravity data to pull back the curtain on the deep interiors of the Moon and one of the solar system’s largest asteroids.



By analyzing subtle shifts in spacecraft trajectories, a team led by Ryan Park at NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> has produced the most detailed gravity map of the Moon to date - and uncovered a surprising correlation inside of the asteroid Vesta.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravity-could-be-the-definitive-clue-that-the-universe-is-a-computer-storing-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gravity</a> is a unique and fundamental property of a planetary body that can be used to explore its deep interior,” Park said. 



"Our technique doesn’t need data from the surface; we just need to track the motion of the spacecraft very precisely to get a global view of what’s inside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-gravity-to-see-inside">Tracking gravity to see inside</h2>



The method relies on Doppler and range measurements between orbiting probes and Earth’s antennas. Any lump or void inside the target world tugs on the passing spacecraft, and alters its speed by mere fractions of a millimeter per second. 



Fed into super­computers, those perturbations translate into three-dimensional maps of hidden mass. NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAIL mission</a> supplied the raw numbers for the lunar investigation.



From December 2011 to December 2012, twin probes nicknamed Ebb and Flow, whipped around the Moon in choreographed formation, their separation tracked to sub-micron precision.



For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-vesta-may-be-a-fragment-of-a-lost-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vesta</a>, Park’s group mined radiometric data gathered by the Dawn spacecraft during its 14-month residency above the battered protoplanet in 2011-2012, and supplemented it with high-resolution imagery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-s-interior-shows-gravity-divide">Moon's interior shows gravity divide</h2>



The team’s new lunar model goes beyond static topography. Because the Moon follows an elliptical path, Earth’s gravity squeezes and relaxes its rocky shell during each 27-day circuit. The researchers found that the degree of “tidal deformation” differs between hemispheres.



“We found that the Moon’s near side is flexing more than the far side, meaning there’s something fundamentally different about the internal structure of the Moon’s near side compared to its far side,” Park said.



"When we first analyzed the data, we were so surprised by the result we didn’t believe it. So we ran the calculations many times to verify the findings. In all, this is a decade of work.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/earth-moon_interior_volcanism_credit-NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/earth-moon_interior_volcanism_credit-NASA_1s.webp" alt="This artist’s concept shows the Moon’s hot interior and volcanism about 2 to 3 billion years ago. It is thought that volcanic activity on the lunar near side (the side facing Earth) helped create a landscape dominated by vast plains called mare, which are formed by molten rock that cooled and solidified. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech" class="wp-image-1970563"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist’s concept shows the Moon’s hot interior and volcanism about 2 to 3 billion years ago. It is thought that volcanic activity on the lunar near side (the side facing Earth) helped create a landscape dominated by vast plains called mare, which are formed by molten rock that cooled and solidified. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</figcaption></figure>



The modest yet measurable extra flex on the near side points to a warmer upper mantle enriched in heat-generating radioactive elements. 



Such a pocket would have kept basaltic lavas molten long after the far side cooled, explaining the maria - dark plains that dominate the Earth-facing side - while the reverse hemisphere remained rugged.



The new gravity field, the most precise ever assembled, will let future landers and rovers compute their position and local time more accurately, a crucial step as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Artemis program</a> prepares for permanent outposts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rule-breaking-asteroid">A rule-breaking asteroid</h2>



Vesta, by contrast, spins like a wobbling top. Each slight tilt alters where its bulk shifts relative to space, and produces detectable changes in its gravity signature.



“Our technique is sensitive to any changes in the gravitational field of a body in space, whether that gravitational field changes over time, like the tidal flexing of the Moon, or through space, like a wobbling asteroid,” said Park.



“Vesta wobbles as it spins, so we could measure its moment of inertia, a characteristic that is highly sensitive to the internal structure of the asteroid.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/vesta-asteroid_dawn-mission-photo_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/vesta-asteroid_dawn-mission-photo_NASA_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s Dawn mission obtained this image of the giant asteroid Vesta on July 24, 2011. The spacecraft spent 14 months orbiting the asteroid, capturing more than 30,000 images and fully mapping its surface. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA" class="wp-image-1970567"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">NASA’s Dawn mission obtained this image of the giant asteroid Vesta on July 24, 2011. The spacecraft spent 14 months orbiting the asteroid, capturing more than 30,000 images and fully mapping its surface. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA</figcaption></figure>



Conventional wisdom holds that Vesta, which was once partially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molten</a>, should have settled into layers: a dense iron-nickel core, a rocky mantle, a basaltic crust. 



But the new analysis suggests little separation occurred. Either the core is minuscule or absent, leaving a body whose interior is mostly uniform.



That possibility reshapes theories of how planetary embryos cooled. Perhaps Vesta froze so quickly that heavy elements never had time to sink, or later impacts mixed the interior like a cosmic spoon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crunching-the-gravitational-code">Crunching the gravitational code</h2>



Both projects demanded years of coding and supercomputer time. The researchers wrestled with countless variables, including spacecraft thruster firings, solar radiation pressure, and even the gravitational pull of passing planets.



Park’s group iterated models until the simulated spacecraft motions matched the historic tracking records within centimeters. Only then could they isolate the fingerprints of buried structures.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/earth-moon_near-side_far-side_NASA-LRO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/earth-moon_near-side_far-side_NASA-LRO_1s.webp" alt="These views of the Moon’s near side, left, and far side were put together from observations made by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech" class="wp-image-1970565"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">These views of the Moon’s near side, left, and far side were put together from observations made by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</figcaption></figure>



The payoff is twofold. For mission planners, refined gravity maps mean safer orbits and pinpoint landings. 



For planetary scientists, they provide new boundary conditions for models of accretion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanism</a>, and thermal evolution across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-moon-and-asteroid-targets">Future Moon and asteroid targets</h2>



The twin studies also demonstrate that a single analytical framework can tackle bodies as different as a 3,475-kilometer-wide (2,160-mile-wide) satellite and a 525-kilometer-wide (326-mile-wide) asteroid.



Future targets may include Mars’s moons Phobos and Deimos, icy dwarf planets such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ceres</a>, or the rubble-pile asteroids visited by missions like OSIRIS-REx. Each carries a unique gravitational code ready to be deciphered.



In the meantime, the Moon’s asymmetric flexing strengthens the case for concentrated heat sources beneath its nearside crust, while Vesta’s unexpected sameness raises fresh questions about the earliest chapters of planetary formation.



Together they illustrate how, with nothing more than radio links and orbital dance steps, scientists can reach beneath hardened surfaces and reconstruct stories written in mass and motion - stories of magma oceans, tidal kneading, and frozen beginnings that shape the architecture of our cosmic neighborhood.



The studies are published in the journals <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08949-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02533-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA uses gravity data to look inside planetary structures without having to land on them

No spacecraft ever touched down, no drills cracked the crust,...

The world is rapidly investing in renewable energy to combat climate change. Solar panels, wind farms, and hydroelectric plants are spreading across landscapes once dominated by coal plants and oil rigs. 



These changes give the impression of an inevitable transition away from fossil fuels. Yet a new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> suggests that this shift might not be as straightforward as it seems.



Professor Ryan Thombs, a rural sociology researcher, examined more than two decades of U.S. energy data. His findings challenge a common belief: that building more renewable energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-natural-power-of-plants-for-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sources</a> will naturally lead to a decrease in fossil fuel production. 



The research, published in the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, paints a more complex picture of energy use in the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewable-growth-and-fossil-fuel-use">Renewable growth and fossil fuel use</h2>



Thombs analyzed fuel production data from 33 U.S. states that produce fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fuels</a>. His dataset spanned from 1997 to 2020, covering coal, natural gas, crude oil, and various renewable sources including wind, solar, hydro, and biofuels. 



The United States, as the world’s second-largest energy producer and greenhouse gas emitter, offers a crucial case study for understanding global energy transitions.



When Thombs looked at how renewable energy production varied alongside fossil fuel output, he found no significant link. States that ramped up renewables didn’t necessarily reduce their fossil fuel production. 



This suggests that renewable growth alone does not push out fossil fuel use. Instead, the study shows that over 96% of the differences in fossil fuel production between states can be explained by fixed factors unique to each state.



These factors include the amount of fossil fuel deposits underground, the strength of local fossil fuel industries, and historical patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy development</a>. In short, geography and legacy infrastructure matter more than many policy assumptions suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewables-won-t-displace-fossil-fuels">Renewables won't displace fossil fuels</h2>



The disconnect between policy expectations and real-world outcomes is important. Many environmental strategies assume that increasing renewable energy will automatically shrink fossil fuel production. Thombs argues this assumption needs reevaluation.



“Policies could include ones that directly limit fossil fuel production through carbon taxes, setting production caps on fossil fuels and keeping fossil fuel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/report-earth-is-headed-for-an-irreversible-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reserves</a> in the ground,” he said.



Such policies would directly address fossil fuel use rather than relying on indirect market competition. Without these measures, fossil fuel-rich states may continue extracting oil, coal, and gas - even as they expand their renewable portfolios.



This is particularly true in states where both types of energy resources exist side by side. Instead of displacing fossil fuels, renewables may simply be added to the mix. This outcome weakens efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and meet climate targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-fuels-still-dominate-global-emissions">Fossil fuels still dominate global emissions</h2>



Climate science leaves little doubt about the consequences of continued fossil fuel use. According to the United Nations, fossil fuels are responsible for over 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions and nearly 90% of carbon dioxide emissions. 



Reducing reliance on these sources is essential for limiting global temperature rise and avoiding the most severe climate impacts.



In recent years, renewable energy has grown rapidly and now leads new energy generation projects in many parts of the world. This expansion creates a sense of momentum. 



Yet, Thombs’ research warns against overconfidence. He notes that assuming renewable growth alone can reduce fossil fuel use may result in weak or incomplete policies.



“However, many policies to this point assume that growth in renewable energy corresponds with a proportional decrease in fossil fuels,” he said. 



“If it doesn’t, then we may need to implement additional policies to reduce fossil fuel production directly rather than hope that deploying renewables will crowd out fossil fuels.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewables-fail-to-replace-fossil-fuels">Renewables fail to replace fossil fuels</h2>



To ensure that his conclusions held up, Thombs used three different statistical modeling techniques. He worked with state-level data on per capita production of both fossil fuels and renewables. This included geothermal, wind, solar thermal, photovoltaic, hydroelectric, biofuels, and waste-based sources.



Despite the diversity in energy types and methods of analysis, the results remained consistent. The growth of renewables did not correlate with a decline in fossil fuel output. 



The findings suggest that entrenched patterns of fossil fuel use won’t simply shift with market changes alone.



The study also indicates that states with large fossil fuel reserves have deeply rooted advantages in continuing extraction. These advantages, tied to geology and existing infrastructure, make it hard for renewables to replace fossil fuels unless laws or regulations intervene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-regulations-are-needed">Stronger regulations are needed</h2>



Thombs acknowledges the study has some boundaries. The analysis applies specifically to the U.S. and only covers the years from 1997 to 2020. 



Global energy dynamics or more recent data might produce different results. Still, the findings offer a useful starting point for thinking about energy policy in similar industrialized nations.



“It's possible that renewables will substitute fossil fuels as the broader political economy transforms, especially if state regulations are implemented,” he said. 



“However, the findings do demonstrate that any such transition will be hindered by the close proximity of renewable and fossil fuel resources in many fossil-fuel-dependent states.”



This dual presence of resources can trap states in a mixed-energy status. Without stronger policies that directly curb fossil fuel use, these states may maintain both systems rather than phasing one out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-energy-strategies">Implications for future energy strategies</h2>



Thombs’ work points toward a broader conclusion: the U.S. needs a layered approach to energy transition. Investing in renewables remains important, but it cannot stand alone. Policymakers should also create legal and economic barriers to fossil fuel extraction if they want to see real change.



This could involve setting caps on fossil fuel production, taxing carbon emissions, or legally designating certain reserves to remain untapped. Each strategy comes with political and economic trade-offs, but the study suggests such moves are necessary.



The energy transition won’t happen just because renewables get cheaper or more abundant. Real reductions in fossil fuel use will likely depend on active decisions to limit their production. Only then can renewables take center stage - not just as additions, but as true replacements.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13412-025-01013-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Renewables alone may not cut U.S. fossil fuel use

The world is rapidly investing in renewable energy to combat...

Climate change is rapidly joining overexploitation and habitat destruction as a third major driver of global biodiversity loss. 



A sweeping analysis has recently identified at least 3,500 animal species that are directly threatened by rising temperatures, intensifying storms, droughts, and other climate-related stresses.



The research, led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> ecologist William Ripple, draws on international databases to show that risk is especially acute for invertebrates, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-climate-impacts-threaten-key-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> that cannot easily move away from warmer waters. 



The experts warn that true vulnerability is likely far greater because most animal groups have never been formally assessed for climate danger.



“We’re at the start of an existential crisis for the Earth’s wild animals,” Ripple said. “Up till now, the primary cause of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> loss has been the twin threats of overexploitation and habitat alteration, but as climate change intensifies, we expect it to become a third major threat to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s animals</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-are-vulnerable-to-climate-change">Animals are vulnerable to climate change</h2>



Ripple and colleagues analyzed records for 70,814 species across 35 taxonomic classes, relying on the <a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s threat categories.



The researchers discovered that in six whole classes - arachnids, centipedes, anthozoans, hydrozoans, and two other invertebrate groups - at least one-quarter of species are judged vulnerable to climate change.



Other classes, including mammals, birds and reptiles, contain smaller but still significant proportions of climate-imperiled members. The oceans stand out as a danger zone because seawater absorbs most excess heat from greenhouse forcing.



“We are particularly concerned about invertebrate animals in the ocean, which absorbs most of the heat from climate change,” Ripple explained. “Those animals are increasingly vulnerable because of their limited ability to move and promptly evade adverse conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-mortality-events">Mass mortality events </h2>



In recent years extreme climate events have delivered dramatic proof of these vulnerabilities. Off Israel’s coast, a 90 percent crash in mollusk abundance followed a jump in sea-surface temperature.



During the 2021 Pacific Northwest heat dome, billions of intertidal mussels, clams, and snails died in a matter of days. A severe marine heatwave in 2016 bleached nearly 30 percent of Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a>.



Terrestrial and pelagic vertebrates have suffered too: an extreme warm spell in 2015-2016 altered the marine food web in the North Pacific, starving four million common murres, slashing Pacific cod numbers by 71 percent, and contributing to the loss of roughly 7,000 humpback whales.



Ripple noted that such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass mortality</a> events reverberate through ecosystems. “The cascading effects of more and more mass mortality events will likely affect carbon-cycle feedbacks and nutrient cycling." 



"Those effects also likely will have an impact on species interactions such as predation, competition, pollination and parasitism, which are vital for ecosystem function.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-data-on-a-massive-scale"><a></a>Missing data on a massive scale</h2>



Although the headline figures are sobering, the authors emphasize that they represent only a fraction of the problem. 



Sixty-six of the planet’s 101 recognized animal classes have not had any species evaluated for climate risk by the IUCN, and the 70,814 species examined in the study account for just 5.5 percent of all described animals.



“Our analysis is meant to be a preliminary effort toward assessing climate risk to wildlife species,” Ripple said. 



“Understanding the risk is crucial for making informed policy decisions. We need a global database on mass mortality events due to climate change for animal species in all ecosystems, and an acceleration in assessing currently ignored species.”



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">Red List</a> itself is heavily skewed toward vertebrates, which make up fewer than six percent of named animal species, leaving the vast majority of invertebrates - essential to pollination, soil health, and marine food webs - largely unexamined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-biodiversity-policies">Climate and biodiversity policies</h2>



Ripple argued that improved risk assessments must be coupled with policies that synchronize biodiversity conservation and climate mitigation.



“There is also a need for more frequent climate risk assessments of all species and better consideration of adaptive capacity,” he added. “We need the integration of biodiversity and climate change policy planning on a global scale.”



He and his co-authors call for real-time monitoring of die-off events, expansion of citizen-science initiatives to cover overlooked taxa, and incorporation of species’ dispersal abilities and genetic diversity into risk models.



Only with such detailed knowledge, they contend, can land managers and lawmakers craft interventions that give vulnerable species a fighting chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgency-to-protect-animals">Urgency to protect animals</h2>



With global temperatures already flirting with the 1.5°C threshold that scientists warn will unleash accelerating hazards, the time for closing data gaps is rapidly shrinking. 



The new study shows that climate change is no longer a distant or incremental danger for wildlife; it is a present <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-largest-threat-to-u-s-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crisis</a> that compounds long-standing threats.



Whether governments heed the warning will decide how many species remain confined to the 3,500-strong endangered column - and how many more quietly slide into it as the planet continues to warm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf059/8127685?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

More than 3,500 animal species are directly threatened by climate change

Climate change is rapidly joining overexploitation and habitat destruction as...

Fertilizer is often viewed as a tool to enhance plant growth under ideal conditions. But new research suggests it may have an unexpected power: helping plants survive during drought.



A global study involving 26 grassland sites across 9 countries - including the work of faculty at Binghamton University, State University of New York (<a href="https://www.suny.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY</a>) - has found that fertilizer can reduce or even cancel out the damage drought does to plant growth. 



In a world increasingly impacted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate stress</a>, this insight could be significant for agriculture and food systems everywhere.



“Resources such as nutrients and water have been fundamentally altered by humans on a global scale, and this can disrupt how plants grow,” said Amber Churchill, assistant professor of ecosystem science at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> and co-author of the study. 



“Extreme changes in these resources are therefore predicted to have an even larger potential impact, with implications for a range of economic sectors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-fertilizer-help-plants-survive-drought">Can fertilizer help plants survive drought?</h2>



To explore how grasslands might cope with drought and changing resource levels, scientists set up a large-scale field experiment - something rarely done at this scope. 



The project looked at how adding nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium influenced plant resilience under severe drought conditions.



“It took what are often very site-specific methodologies, where we're interested in the impacts of nutrients or the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> and water availability, and it scaled a single site experiment up to something at a much larger spatial scale,” said Churchill.



The novelty here wasn’t just the size of the study. It was the ability to look at interactions - not just what drought or fertilizer does individually, but how they affect one another when applied together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertilizer-reduces-drought-damage">Fertilizer reduces drought damage</h2>



The researchers discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> alone cut plant growth by 19%. Fertilizer alone boosted it by 24%. But combining both? Surprisingly, it resulted in almost no net loss of growth. 



This means that plants - particularly grasses - managed to maintain growth levels even in dry conditions, thanks to the added nutrients.



“The really big takeaway is that adding nutrients can offset the impact of drought, and this is really true in areas that are already pretty dry,” Churchill said.



This finding goes against a long-held assumption: that in arid environments, water limits plant growth so strongly that extra nutrients wouldn't matter. But the study showed otherwise. Plants in drier locations actually responded better to added nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-collection-to-new-experiments">Data collection to new experiments</h2>



Churchill was hands-on at two of the global sites. At the Yarramundi site in Australia, she recorded plant presence and abundance. At Minnesota’s Cedar Creek site, she cleaned and organized massive amounts of data for the broader research network.



“In terms of drought, we get less growth; we add fertilizer, we get more growth,” Churchill explained. "Traditionally, we might hypothesize that if plants are already limited by water at, say, an arid site, plants may not be able to respond to adding nitrogen. But we actually found the opposite of that.”



Churchill is now bringing this research home. She will implement similar treatments at Binghamton University’s Nuthatch Hollow - a 75-acre open-air lab - as part of a new project called the Pasture and Lawn Enhanced Diversity Global-change Experiment (PLEDGE).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-solutions-need-biodiversity">Long-term solutions need biodiversity</h2>



While the idea of fertilizer as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> buffer is exciting, it’s not a silver bullet.



“In a forage production system where you need to offset the effects of drought, adding fertilizer will remove that effective drought,” Churchill said. “That's a great benefit, but that costs a lot of money. So there's a tradeoff there.”



There’s also the question of how ecosystems respond over longer timeframes. One factor that might prove just as important as nutrients is biodiversity. A more diverse plant community might be more resilient to environmental stress.



“We have a prediction that as you have more species, one of those species is more likely to withstand the drought,” Churchill said. “And so the idea is you'll have more stable biomass over the long term if you have more species present.”



The research will be published in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02705-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>&nbsp;under the title:&nbsp;“Aridity modulates grassland biomass responses to combined drought and nutrient addition.”



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fertilizer reduces plant damage caused by droughts

Fertilizer is often viewed as a tool to enhance plant...

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stone tools created 400,000 years ago show tech advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long...

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

For years, the Signal Crayfish has carried a notorious reputation. It’s invasive, aggressive, and has spread far beyond its native habitat.



Found across Europe, Asia, and parts of the United States, this crustacean is often blamed for pushing native species toward decline. But in the rush to control it, something remarkable was overlooked right in its original home.



A team from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> took a fresh look at the Signal Crayfish in its native range. What they found was surprising - two entirely new species that had been hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-one-species-after-all">Not just one species after all</h2>



The two new species, now officially named the Okanagan Crayfish and Misfortunate Crayfish, had been long mistaken for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-fish-can-cause-ecosystem-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Signal Crayfish</a>. The discovery adds to the growing catalog of species around the world.



Study co-author Eric Larson is an associate professor in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences.



“I think we underestimate how rich the biological world around us can be,” said Larson. "People are surprised to learn that there are over 600 described species of crayfish globally, and now, there are two more.”



This wasn’t an overnight find. The process spanned years of fieldwork and careful analysis. 



Scientists first noticed unusual-looking species in the Pacific Northwest. Over time, with improved genetic tools, they began to piece together the truth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-confirms-the-new-species">DNA confirms the new species</h2>



To distinguish the new species, Larson and his colleagues used a method called genome skimming. It allowed them to sequence both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. 



By comparing these sequences with known crayfish lineages, the team confirmed that the odd specimens weren’t just variations - they were entirely separate species.



“Most research on the Signal Crayfish focuses on its role as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-could-cause-dramatic-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>,” Larson said. “I think people would be surprised that within its native environment, we missed that this animal we thought was the Signal Crayfish was actually harboring multiple, undescribed species.”



Through DNA analysis, field sampling, and physical comparisons, the team finally gave these animals their own identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-effects-of-moving-crayfish">Unintended effects of moving crayfish </h2>



While the discovery is exciting, it comes with a serious warning. The newly identified crayfish species may already be in danger. 



Larson expressed concern that invasive species - especially the Rusty Crayfish and Virile Crayfish - are threatening the survival of these native animals. These invaders often displace native populations and damage aquatic habitats.



One of the biggest problems is human behavior. Moving crayfish from one waterway to another - whether for bait, farming, or even through classroom and aquarium releases - can have unexpected and long-lasting effects.



“There are unexpected consequences when we move crayfish from one place to another,” Larson said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-crayfish-cannot-be-controlled-through-trapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive crayfish</a> can't easily be removed, and as they spread, they seem to be replacing these newly described crayfish species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-species">Protecting the new species</h2>



By giving these species official names, the researchers hope to spark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. Naming a species is often the first step toward protecting it. Recognition helps raise awareness and gives conservationists a reason to act.



“By the time we discovered the Misfortunate Crayfish, it had already lost much of its native range to the invasive Rusty Crayfish,” Larson said. “That’s what gave us the idea for its name. This animal went unrecognized by science until a fairly unlucky event had happened, and that seemed like a little bit of a misfortune.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-fish-to-crayfish">From fish to crayfish</h2>



Larson’s journey into crayfish research wasn’t planned. He started out in fisheries science but became more interested in crayfish during his doctoral work at the University of Washington.



“It’s funny, I didn’t intend to develop this interest,” Larson said. “But as it developed, studying crayfish gained momentum and took on a life of its own.”



What began as a side interest eventually became a central focus of his research career. Thanks to that unexpected turn, two long-overlooked native species now have names - and a real shot at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-and-wise-animals-are-essential-for-the-survival-of-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5632.3.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



Image Credit: Eric Larson, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Two new crayfish species discovered, but were they found too late?

For years, the Signal Crayfish has carried a notorious reputation....

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved Darwin right - it links today’s birds to ancient dinosaurs. Even though the first specimen was discovered over 160 years ago, this iconic fossil continues to offer fresh insights into how birds came to fly.



One of the most revealing specimens yet, the “Chicago Archaeopteryx,” was recently studied by researchers from the Field Museum. 



Their findings, published in the journal Nature, were made possible thanks to remarkable preservation and advanced technology.



The fossil was put on public display in 2024 at the Field Museum, giving both scientists and the public a close look at one of the most complete Archaeopteryx fossils found to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-archaeopteryx-fossil-ever-found">Smallest Archaeopteryx fossil ever found</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx was discovered in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany, a site well known for yielding all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx specimens</a>.



This particular fossil had been in private hands since before 1990. In 2022, it arrived at the Field Museum through a collective effort from fossil enthusiasts and supporters.



“When we first got our Archaeopteryx, I was like, this is very, very, very cool, and I was beyond excited," enthused Jingmai O’Connor, the Field Museum’s associate curator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nothosaur-polar-sea-reptile-fossil-oldest-ever-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil reptiles</a> and lead author of the paper. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Credit: Michael Rothman" class="wp-image-1970311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael Rothman</figcaption></figure>



"But at the same time, Archaeopteryx has been known for over 160 years, so I wasn’t sure what new things we would be able to learn. Our specimen is so well-preserved and so well-prepared that we’re actually learning a ton of new information, from the tip of its snout to the tip of its tail.”



This specimen is the smallest known Archaeopteryx, being only about the size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pigeon</a>. Its tiny bones are embedded in extremely hard limestone, making extraction especially tricky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-archaeopteryx-fossil">Preparing the Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



Because the bones and soft tissues are nearly the same color as the surrounding rock, even identifying where the fossil ended and stone began was a major challenge. Preparing it took over a year. 



The Field Museum’s fossil prep team worked under UV light to avoid damaging delicate soft tissues and used CT scans to guide their work.



“A CT scanner is essentially a machine that takes a series of X-rays, which it uses to build a three-dimensional image, based on differences in density. It lets you see inside things,” explained O’Connor.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CT scanning</a> was very important for our preparation process - it let us know things like, the bone is exactly 3.2 millimeters (0.1 inches) below the surface of the rock, which let us know exactly how far we could go before we would hit the bone."



This is the first time a complete Archaeopteryx has been CT scanned and the data made available.



The UV lighting was equally important. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Previous studies</a> have shown that there’s something in the chemical composition of Solnhofen fossils that makes the soft tissues fluoresce, or glow under UV light,” said O’Connor.



“So, our amazing prep team utilized UV light periodically through the preparation process to make sure that they weren't accidentally removing any soft tissues that you can’t see with the naked eye.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-detail-in-this-archaeopteryx-fossil">Unprecedented detail in this Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



The result is a specimen that reveals more fine detail than any previous Archaeopteryx fossil.



“We’re lucky in that this specimen happens to be extremely well-preserved, but we can also see features that probably were preserved in other specimens, but which didn’t make it through cruder preparation processes in the past,” said O’Connor. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum." class="wp-image-1970309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Click image to enlarge. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum.</figcaption></figure>



“Having the preparation of this specimen done by scientists whose goal was to preserve as much tissue and bone as possible made a huge difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The new fossil has helped answer questions about several parts of Archaeopteryx anatomy - its skull, hands, feet, and wings.



“The bones in the roof of the mouth help us learn about the evolution of something called cranial kinesis - a feature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern birds</a> that lets the beak move independently from the braincase," explained O'Connor.



She added that, although this may not sound exciting to the average person, to those who study bird evolution it is an important thing. 



It's been hypothesized that having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized skulls</a> for different ecological niches might have helped birds evolve into the more than 11,000 species present today.



Preserved soft tissues in the feet and hands suggest that this animal walked on the ground and possibly even climbed trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeopteryx-took-flight">How Archaeopteryx took flight</h2>



One of the most debated topics in paleontology is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how flight evolved</a> in dinosaurs.



Archaeopteryx wasn’t the first feathered dinosaur, nor the first with wing-like structures, but it may have been the earliest to truly take flight. 



“We think it’s the earliest known dinosaur that was able to use its feathers to fly,” said O’Connor, who highlighted this as her favorite finding in the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Credit: Delaney Drummond" class="wp-image-1970313"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Delaney Drummond</figcaption></figure>



The key to its aerial ability may lie in a set of upper arm feathers known as tertials. Archaeopteryx had an unusually long upper arm bone, which could have created a disruptive gap in the wing's surface - problematic for flight. 



“If air passes through that gap, that disrupts the lift you’re generating, and you can’t fly,” O’Connor explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-modern-birds">Differences in modern birds</h2>



Modern birds evolved shorter upper arm bones and specialized tertial feathers to close this gap. 



Remarkably, the Chicago specimen of Archaeopteryx shows it had long tertial feathers too - something unseen in its flightless dinosaur relatives. 



“Our specimen is the first Archaeopteryx that was preserved and prepared in such a way that we can see its long tertial feathers,” she noted.



These feathers, absent in closely related non-avian dinosaurs, suggest those creatures couldn’t fly. 



“That tells us... Archaeopteryx could,” O’Connor added. “This also adds to evidence that suggests dinosaurs evolved flight more than once - which I think is super exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-160-years-later">Still more to learn, 160 years later</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx has already helped scientists answer long-standing questions. But this study is only the start.



“We're learning something exciting and new from just about every part of the body that we have preserved. And this paper is really just the tip of the iceberg,” remarked O’Connor.



After 160 years, it’s clear that Archaeopteryx still has plenty to teach us. Thanks to the care and tools used in preparing this fossil, we’re seeing it in ways that past generations of scientists could only imagine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08912-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Archaeopteryx fossil found with preserved soft tissue proves Darwin was right all along

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved...

Honey,Bee,,Apis,Mellifera,,Silhouette,Of,A,Bee,,Anatomical,Structure

This World Bee Day, a troubling message is buzzing through the air - bees and other pollinators face a wave of new and unexpected threats that could cause even more losses in the coming decade. 



War, plastic pollution, artificial light, and even well-meaning climate actions are creating new obstacles for pollinators already under strain.



Pollinators such as bees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, moths, bats, and birds are essential to our environment and food production. Nearly 90% of flowering plants and over three-quarters of the world’s major crops depend on them.



Yet these species are already declining at alarming rates due to habitat loss, pesticide use, climate change, and invasive species. Now, researchers say even more risks are on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-scientists-are-saying-about-bees">What scientists are saying about bees</h2>



Experts from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a> contributed to a new report commissioned by Bee:wild, a science-led global campaign to save pollinators. The report identifies 12 rising dangers that could further endanger pollinators in the next 5 to 15 years.



Professor Simon Potts, lead author and chair of Bee:wild’s Scientific Advisory Board, noted that identifying new threats and finding ways to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> early is key to preventing further major declines.



“By acting early, we can reduce harm and help pollinators continue their important work in nature and food production. Various conservation opportunities already exist and more are emerging," continued Potts. 



"This is not just a conservation issue. Pollinators are central to our food systems, climate resilience, and economic security. Protecting pollinators means protecting ourselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-and-pollinators-in-war-zones">Bees and pollinators in war zones</h2>



The report outlines a series of surprising new threats to pollinators that extend beyond the usual concerns like pesticides and habitat loss. For instance, war and conflict, such as the ongoing situation in Ukraine, are changing agricultural practices. 



Countries involved in or affected by conflict tend to grow fewer crop types, leading to a lack of diverse flowering plants that pollinators need throughout the season for proper nutrition and survival. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-and-artifical-light">Plastic and artifical light</h2>



Another troubling issue is the discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-the-latest-victims-of-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics in bee</a> colonies across Europe. Testing from 315 honey bee hives revealed the widespread presence of synthetic materials, including PET plastic. 



These microplastic particles are now contaminating hives, raising questions about their impact on bee health and the quality of honey.



Artificial light at night is also proving harmful. Studies show that nocturnal pollinators, such as moths and certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, visit 62% fewer flowers in areas with light pollution. 



This drastic reduction disrupts nighttime pollination, which is essential for many plant species and ecological cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-and-pollinator-behavior">Pollution and pollinator behavior </h2>



Antibiotic pollution is emerging as yet another hazard. Residues from antibiotics can contaminate both hives and honey. 



Worse still, they may interfere with pollinator behavior by reducing their foraging activity and visits to flowers, which are critical for pollination and plant reproduction.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Air pollution</a> is adding further stress, affecting the growth, reproduction, and overall survival of pollinators. Exposure to polluted air can impair navigation and reduce the chances of bees returning to their hives.



The use of pesticide cocktails - mixtures of various chemicals - is becoming more common, particularly in developing countries. These combinations can be more toxic than individual pesticides, weakening pollinators and making them more susceptible to disease and stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-threats-to-bees">Additional threats to bees</h2>



More frequent and intense wildfires are destroying vital habitats. As these fires become larger and harder to control, they not only remove food sources but also hinder the ability of pollinator populations to recover.



While climate action is critical, some approaches could unintentionally harm pollinators if not carefully managed. For instance, planting fast-growing non-flowering trees for carbon capture could reduce food for pollinators. 



Choosing a mix that includes flowering trees would help balance carbon storage with pollinator support.



Mining for materials like lithium - used in electric car batteries - can damage habitats rich in pollinators. Avoiding these areas and restoring land afterward could reduce long-term impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-ways-to-support-biodiversity">Smart ways to support biodiversity</h2>



Among the 12 strategies highlighted in the report, five stand out as particularly promising. First, introducing stronger regulations to reduce antibiotic pollution would help protect pollinator and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee health</a>. 



Moving toward electric vehicles can significantly reduce air pollution, which in turn benefits pollinators. In addition, breeding new crop varieties that produce more nectar and pollen can improve the diet of pollinators, boosting their health and resilience.



Furthermore, integrating flower-rich habitats into solar parks can transform these spaces into pollinator-friendly areas, supporting biodiversity while generating renewable energy. 



Finally, scientists are developing RNAi-based treatments that specifically target harmful pests without affecting beneficial insects like bees, reducing the need for broad-spectrum pesticides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-actions-big-difference">Small actions, big difference</h2>



Other opportunities include protecting stingless bees, which are vital to tropical ecosystems. This can be done by creating urban gardens, re-wilding spaces, and preserving natural habitats.



There's also growing interest in using artificial intelligence to monitor and track bee and other pollinator health and behavior more efficiently. Even AI tools to monitor pollinator populations could all make a big difference.



Dr. Deepa Senapathi is head of the Department of Sustainable Land Management at the University of Reading and co-author of the report.



“Meaningful action to protect bees is not a ‘nice-to-have’ future aspiration - practical solutions that we can implement now already exist and more are emerging. The most promising opportunities are ones that tackle multiple problems at once," said Dr. Senapathi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-bee-and-pollinator-decline">Reversing bee and pollinator decline</h2>



According to Dr. Senapathi, focused and determined action could significantly slow and even reverse pollinator decline while creating environments that benefit both nature and people.



“It will take effort from everyone to address these threats. We need to maintain, manage and improve our natural habitats to create safe spaces for pollinators," said Dr Senapathi.



"But policy changes and individual actions must work together so everything from gardens and farms to public spaces and wider landscapes can all become pollinator-friendly habitats.”



Razan Khalifa Al Mubarak, President of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Board Member of Re:wild, which helped launch Bee:wild, offers a hopeful reminder in the report’s foreword.



"The choices we make today will shape the future - not only for pollinators, but for all life on Earth. Together, we can ensure that these remarkable species continue their vital work, sustaining the natural world that sustains us all,” she said.



The full report, Emerging Threats and Opportunities for Conservation of Global Pollinators, is available <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1odhszqh-5-LJsJgidagHte_OW57Ke09x/view" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rising dangers threaten the survival of bees and pollinators

This World Bee Day, a troubling message is buzzing through...

Picture a mouse entering a narrow, transparent tube. Another mouse approaches from the opposite end. They meet in the middle, noses twitching, bodies tense. One mouse retreats, conceding the passage. The other presses forward, asserting dominance - a silent communication carried by scent.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francis Crick Institute</a> have been using this simple setup to uncover something remarkable: mice don’t just react to physical strength or size. They rely on scent to gauge social rank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-use-scent-to-identify-social-rank">Mice use scent to identify social rank</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-smell-control-your-blood-pressure-new-research-says-yes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mice</a> live in social hierarchies, much like humans. Some lead, some follow, some are forever in between. For a long time, scientists assumed these roles emerged from physical aggression or fixed behaviors. But a study published in Current Biology suggests otherwise. 



Mice, it turns out, can read dominance through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odors-prompt-brain-cells-to-make-decisions-before-you-know-whats-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent</a>. They sniff out social status in the air and on the bodies of their peers. The researchers watched as mice encountered strangers and familiar cage mates.



They wanted to know whether a mouse could identify another’s rank without prior interaction. The answer was yes. The scent said it all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-based-rank-recognition-in-mice">Scent-based rank recognition in mice</h2>



In the tube test, two mice enter from opposite ends. The dominant mouse typically forces the other to back out. Researchers ranked mice within the same cage, creating a clear hierarchy. 



Then they introduced unfamiliar mice, testing whether the scent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-certain-odors-pheromones-speeds-up-aging-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a> still worked when the opponent was a stranger. The findings? Even without prior interactions, the mice accurately detected rank using only scent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-in-the-dark">What happens in the dark?</h2>



Mice can’t rely on vision in complete darkness. So, the researchers plunged the testing room into blackness to eliminate visual cues.



The results stayed the same. Mice still recognized dominant opponents, proving that scent carried all the necessary information. 



The team also castrated some mice to see if the removal of sex hormones affected scent signals. It didn’t. Dominance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-perform-first-aid-and-save-unconscious-peers-in-emergencies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a> remained intact, suggesting that scent signals aren’t tied to hormones but to other chemical compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-perception-through-scent">Manipulating perception through scent</h2>



The researchers didn’t stop there. They tried manipulating rank perception through urine. By painting subordinate mice with urine from dominant males, they created temporary rank shifts. 



Suddenly, the formerly submissive mice behaved like top dogs. Even strangers treated them as if they had climbed the social ladder. This powerful manipulation revealed that scent cues could override an individual’s actual social history. 



“Our work offers an interesting perspective on social mobility: humans, like mice, can enter a new group of people but still maintain understanding of own social rank and gauge the social status of unfamiliar people,” noted Neven Borak, the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-use-two-scent-systems">Mice use two scent systems</h2>



Mice use two chemosensory systems to read scent cues: the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB). To understand how these systems contribute to rank detection, the researchers disabled each one separately. 



Mice with impaired olfactory systems still recognized rank. The same held true for those with damaged contact scent systems.



But when both systems were disrupted, the mice lost their ability to distinguish dominant from subordinate opponents. This dual reliance on scent systems underscores the importance of both airborne and contact-based scent cues in social interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-cues-help-mice-avoid-conflict">Scent cues help mice avoid conflict</h2>



Social life can get messy when animals clash over resources or mates. In mice, scent provides a way to avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unnecessary fights</a>. A quick sniff can tell a subordinate mouse to back down before a confrontation even begins. 



By recognizing the scent of a dominant opponent, the mouse can retreat and avoid injury. This scent-based communication system not only maintains order but also reduces the risk of physical harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-scent-signals">Universal scent signals</h2>



Do mice only recognize familiar scents? The researchers tested this by introducing mice from separate cages. Despite having no prior interactions, the mice still detected rank differences. 



This ability to generalize rank recognition across groups suggests that scent cues carry universal signals of dominance. The implications are profound. Scent can act as a universal language, conveying social information without prior encounters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-scent-to-social-status">Linking scent to social status</h2>



While scent clearly plays a role in rank recognition, how does the brain process this information? Previous studies have identified brain regions involved in self-rank detection, like the anterior cingulate cortex and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. 



But how does the brain interpret opponent rank? The researchers suspect that sensory input from the MOE and AOB converges in areas like the medial amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. 



These regions receive inputs from both olfactory and contact scent systems, suggesting a possible neural pathway for integrating social rank information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-social-dynamics">Implications for social dynamics</h2>



Social hierarchies are not just a mouse problem. Humans also navigate complex social networks, constantly assessing their status relative to others. While humans rely more on visual and verbal cues, the underlying cognitive mechanisms for detecting rank may be similar across species. 



“Humans, like mice, can enter a new group of people but still maintain understanding of own social rank and gauge the social status of unfamiliar people,” Borak notes. 



The ability to perceive social status quickly can help avoid conflict, but it can also reinforce hierarchies, limiting social mobility and affecting health outcomes for those stuck at the bottom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study raises new questions. How do different brain regions work together to process scent cues and assess social rank? 



What specific chemical compounds convey rank information? And how do physiological states, like stress or hunger, affect scent perception?



The researchers plan to use advanced imaging techniques and optogenetic manipulation to explore these questions, aiming to map the neural circuits that translate scent into social behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-redefines-hierarchies-in-mice">Scent redefines hierarchies in mice</h2>



Mice don’t need words or physical strength to assert dominance. A scent can say it all. This study from the Crick Institute highlights how chemical cues can reshape social hierarchies, allowing mice to recognize and respond to dominance without direct confrontation. 



For humans, the implications are equally intriguing. While we may rely less on scent, the underlying cognitive mechanisms for detecting social rank may still be at play, subtly influencing our interactions and shaping the way we navigate the social world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00560-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mice use scent to determine who's the boss

Picture a mouse entering a narrow, transparent tube. Another mouse...

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to make sense of the world. For decades, scientists believed that whisking - the brushing of whiskers against surfaces - was purely a tactile process. 



But researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> have uncovered a surprising twist. Whisking doesn’t just involve touch. It generates sound.



Published in the journal Current Biology, the study shows that these tiny sounds activate the auditory cortex in mice, revealing a previously unnoticed sensory connection. 



The implications stretch far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-beings-emit-a-subtle-light-that-fades-after-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>. They hint at how brains might merge different senses to create a fuller picture of the surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-whiskers-make-sounds">Mice whiskers make sounds</h2>



“Whiskers are so delicate that no one had thought of checking whether they produce sounds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/klotho-s-kl-protein-discovered-boosts-lifespan-muscle-brain-power-with-one-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> are able to hear,” said Professor Ilan Lampl of Weizmann’s Brain Sciences Department.



Lampl’s team started by recording the sounds whiskers make when they brush against different surfaces. They used sensitive microphones capable of picking up ultrasonic frequencies - sounds beyond human hearing. The setup mimicked the distance between a mouse’s whiskers and ears.



Surprisingly, the microphones caught faint yet distinct sounds. Whiskers brushing against Bougainvillea leaves and aluminum foil each produced unique acoustic signatures. 



These whisker-generated sounds weren’t loud, but they were consistent enough for the researchers to wonder: Are mice actually listening to their own whiskers?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-brains-listen-to-whisker-sounds">Mice brains listen to whisker sounds</h2>



To answer that question, the researchers recorded neural activity in the auditory cortex of mice. They wanted to see if the brain responded to these whisker-generated sounds.



The results stunned them. The auditory cortex lit up every time a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-perform-first-aid-and-save-unconscious-peers-in-emergencies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> whisked against a surface, even when the researchers blocked the pathways that convey touch. The brain wasn’t just feeling the whisker’s touch. It was listening to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-listen-to-their-own-whiskers">Why listen to their own whiskers?</h2>



Mice navigate through dense, cluttered environments. They sniff, feel, and now, it seems, they also listen. This auditory feedback might help them distinguish between surfaces. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against a dry leaf may signal danger. The rustle of aluminum foil might mean food. Lampl suggests that mice may have developed this sensory connection to avoid predators.



“Since whisking generates much weaker sounds than walking, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> could rely on it when, for example, choosing whether to walk across a brittle, drier field of crops versus a fresher, quieter one, to avoid being detected by an owl,” said Lampl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-confirms-that-mice-identify-sounds">AI confirms that mice identify sounds</h2>



To confirm that these sounds mattered to the mice, the researchers brought in artificial intelligence (AI). They trained two machine-learning models.



One model analyzed the neural activity in response to whisker-generated sounds. The other analyzed the recorded sounds themselves. Both models accurately identified objects based solely on sound patterns. 



The takeaway? The mice’s brains were not just picking up sound. They were interpreting it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-trained-to-hear-whisker-sounds">Mice trained to hear whisker sounds</h2>



With AI results in hand, the researchers designed a behavioral test. They trained mice whose touch sensation had been blocked to recognize aluminum foil based solely on its whisker-generated sound.



The mice caught on quickly. When they heard the sound of whiskers scraping foil, they responded as if they were touching it. 



This finding confirmed that the auditory cortex could interpret whisker sounds as sensory information, even without tactile input.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-whiskers-helps-mice-survive">Listening to whiskers helps mice survive</h2>



Why would mice evolve to listen to their own whiskers? Lampl believes it’s all about survival. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against objects is subtle - much quieter than a mouse’s footsteps. This quiet feedback allows a mouse to navigate without attracting predators.



“Whisking could also help a mouse figure out whether a stem is hollow or sufficiently juicy and worthy of a bite,” Lampl explained. 



The ability to detect subtle acoustic differences might help mice decide what to bite, what to avoid, and where to hide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mouse-whisker-insights-for-robots">Mouse whisker insights for robots</h2>



The study’s findings have broader implications. If mice can merge sound and touch to perceive their environment, robots might do the same. 



Dr. Ben Efron, a lead researcher in the study, sees potential in collision-avoidance sensors that rely on sound.



“Integrating different types of sensory input is a major challenge in the design of robotic systems. The mouse brain’s whisking system might provide inspiration for technologies that would address this challenge,” said Dr. Efron.



In smoke-filled rooms, underwater environments, or other low-visibility conditions, sensors that interpret subtle sounds could prevent collisions. The mouse brain, it seems, may offer a blueprint for such systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-blind-people-could-benefit">How blind people could benefit</h2>



The study also opens doors for sensory rehabilitation. For people with sensory impairments, integrating touch and sound could enhance perception. 



Consider how blind individuals use the sound of a white cane tapping against a surface. Mice, it turns out, might be doing something similar with their whiskers.



If researchers can replicate this multisensory integration in prosthetic devices, they could create more intuitive feedback systems. Imagine a prosthetic hand that not only feels an object but also “hears” its texture through vibrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-whiskers-big-sensory-impact">Tiny whiskers, big sensory impact</h2>



Mice whiskers are as thick as human hair at the base, ranging from 40 to 80 microns. 



As they extend outward, they become much thinner, ending at just 3 to 4 microns at the tip. This thin, sensitive structure helps them create tiny sounds and detect slight vibrations.



This study is just the beginning. If mice can use whisker-generated sounds to identify objects, what other animals might do the same? Could cats or rats also listen to their whiskers?



The researchers plan to explore how different animals might use touch-generated sounds. They also want to see if mice can learn to distinguish between even more complex sounds or if they can adapt to new auditory cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-mice-whisker-sounds">Significance of mice whisker sounds </h2>



What started as a simple investigation into whiskers has revealed a complex sensory connection. Mice don’t just feel with their whiskers - they listen to them. 



The implications stretch beyond the burrow, hinting at new ways to merge sound and touch in both nature and technology.



And for researchers like Lampl, the work is far from over. The brain’s ability to integrate multiple senses opens up a world of possibilities, from robotic sensors to prosthetic feedback systems. The whispers of whiskers might just be the start.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982225001241?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mouse whiskers can actually "hear" the world by creating internal sounds

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to...

Imagine a world without apples, almonds, tomatoes, or coffee. It would not just be bland - it would be dangerously imbalanced. This isn’t fiction but a potential reality if pollinators like bees disappear. World Bee Day, observed on May 20, is a global call to remember, appreciate, and protect these essential creatures.



In 2025, under the theme&nbsp;"Bee inspired by nature to nourish us all,"&nbsp;the campaign goes beyond admiration. It urges action to support biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, and ecosystem resilience. 



Bees, alongside other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-bee-species-face-extinction-due-to-honey-bee-competition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, not only fill our plates but also keep our planet’s life systems in balance. Their survival is tightly linked to our own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-help-most-plants-grow">Pollinators help most plants grow</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bees</a> are important, but they’re not the only creatures that help plants grow. Butterflies, birds, bats, and even some animals like lemurs also move pollen from one flower to another. This process is called pollination. 



Without it, most plants can't make fruits or seeds. Together, all these pollinators help nearly 90 out of every 100 wild plants grow. They also help with growing more than three-quarters of the food crops we eat, like apples, almonds, onions, coffee, and avocados.



There are more than 20,000 kinds of bees in the world. Most of them live in the wild. We usually just take them for granted. But when they disappear, we feel the difference. 



Farmers lose money because crops don’t grow well. Food prices go up. The variety of fruits and vegetables drops. Our meals become less healthy.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollinators</a> don’t just help plants grow. They make fruits bigger, tastier, and more colorful and work for free, every day, without anyone asking. But when nature is damaged, pollinators are usually the first to be affected. And when they vanish, we have a lot to lose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-bee-day-live-like-bees">World Bee Day: Live like bees</h2>



Bees live in a way that works well with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. They don’t destroy or waste anything. Instead, bees build hives, help flowers grow, and support many other plants and animals. Everything they do fits into the natural system. It’s smart, balanced, and helpful to the planet.



This year’s World Bee Day message means we should look at how bees live and learn from them. Bees work together, help each other and keep nature healthy without causing harm.



If we follow their example, we can grow food in better ways. We don’t need to clear forests or harm wild plants. We can farm without using harmful chemicals. Nature already knows the right way - bees are showing it to us. We just need to watch and do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-are-in-trouble">Pollinators are in trouble</h2>



This isn’t just a story about bees dying. It’s about something much bigger. Nature is like a chain, and pollinators are one of its strong links. When that link breaks, the whole system starts to fall apart. Animals, plants, and people all feel the damage.



Pollinators like bees, butterflies, bats, and birds are disappearing much faster than they should - up to 1,000 times faster. Around 35 out of every 100 insect pollinators are in danger. For animals like birds and bats, 17 out of 100 are also at risk.



If this keeps happening, the way we eat will change. Fruits, nuts, seeds, and leafy vegetables may become rare. The bright, fresh foods we enjoy today might be replaced by plain, cheap ones like rice, wheat, and corn. That means less nutrition and more hunger.



Farmers will have a harder time growing crops. Prices in stores will go up. The poorest people, who already struggle, will suffer the most. No one wants that kind of future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-bee-day-and-pollinator-protection">World Bee Day and pollinator protection</h2>



In 2018, the United Nations officially started World Bee Day. They chose May 20 because it’s the birthday of Anton Janša. He lived in Slovenia in the 1700s and helped improve how people care for bees. He believed bees were special because they worked hard and didn’t need much in return.



Today, we still respect bees for the same reason. But respect is not enough anymore. Bees are in danger, and they need our help.



Yurdi Yasmi is the director of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Plant Production and Protection Division.



“This call is extended to all Member Nations, international and regional organizations, civil society, leaders of Indigenous Peoples, researchers, the private sector, everyone working in the sector and anyone with an interest in bees and other pollinators to get involved, share their experiences and show how important these pollinators are,” said Yasmi.



The <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a> is not just spreading awareness. It’s also training beekeepers, supporting eco-friendly farms, and encouraging laws that protect pollinators. Their message is simple - if we protect pollinators, we protect our future too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-projects-are-helping-people-and-nature">Bee projects are helping people and nature</h2>



In Samoa, bees do more than make honey. A project called “<a href="https://beeeducated.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bee Educated!</a>” trains women to care for hives. They learn, earn, and teach others. Bees bring money and confidence. They also bring balance to the land. It’s not just a project - it’s a movement.



In Yemen, beekeeping keeps going even through war. With support from the FAO and World Bank, farmers get better tools. They learn how to protect their bees and gather honey safely. Despite conflict and climate stress, the bees - and their keepers - persist.



These stories prove something important. When you help bees, you help people. You protect culture, jobs, and land. And you do it with nature, not against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-participating-in-world-bee-day-2025">Participating in World Bee Day 2025</h2>



You don’t need to own a big farm to help bees and other pollinators. Small actions at home make a big difference. You can plant flowers that naturally grow in your area. These flowers give bees food. You can stop using harmful sprays in your garden. You can let wild bees build their nests safely.



Buying honey from nearby beekeepers also helps. So does telling your friends and family why bees matter. Even putting a shallow bowl of water with some stones outside gives bees a place to rest and drink.



Farmers can help too. They can grow many kinds of crops instead of just one. This gives pollinators more food. They can also reduce their use of pesticides and plant hedges and trees around fields to create safe spaces for bees.



Governments can support all these efforts. They can give money or rewards to farmers who protect pollinators. They can listen to Indigenous people, who have deep knowledge of nature and land. The more people who join in, the better it is for pollinators - and for us all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-can-still-protect-bees">We can still protect bees</h2>



Bees may be small, but their role in nature is huge. They help flowers, fruits, and vegetables grow by carrying pollen between plants. This links everything in the natural world - from the soil beneath our feet to the air we breathe.



Bees don’t just move pollen. They help life continue. They build hives from wax and turn flower nectar into honey which feeds people around the world.



Even though bees work quietly, their effect is powerful. Without them, many plants would stop growing. Our food system would weaken. Whole ecosystems would fall out of balance.



World Bee Day is not just a time to thank bees. It’s also a serious reminder. If we don’t act now, we could lose them. But it’s also a message of hope. We can still choose to protect bees and follow the example of nature.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Bee Day 2025: Protecting the pollinators that feed the world

Imagine a world without apples, almonds, tomatoes, or coffee. It...

European honey bees, celebrated for their industrious nature, may be pushing Australia’s native bees to the brink. 



Research from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> reveals how these introduced bees could be reducing the reproductive success of native cavity-nesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. 



The findings hint at a deeper problem - one that could disrupt ecosystems and challenge biodiversity in ways that few expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-bee-reproductive-struggles">Native bee reproductive struggles</h2>



Dr. Kit Prendergast, a researcher at Curtin’s School of Molecular and Life Sciences, didn't just set up bee hotels to provide shelter. She turned them into research stations. 



“Bee hotels are more than just a way to give <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> a place to nest - they’re powerful research tools that let us measure how well native bees are surviving and reproducing in different environments,” Dr. Prendergast said.



For two spring-to-summer seasons, Dr. Prendergast and her team studied 1000 native bee nests in 14 urban bushland and garden sites. 



The findings? In areas swarming with honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, native bees faced trouble. They produced fewer female offspring. Their offspring had higher mortality rates. And the males that survived were noticeably smaller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-outcompete-native-bees">Honey bees outcompete native bees </h2>



Honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-is-giving-beekeepers-a-better-way-to-fight-colony-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> collected pollen from many types of plants, including both local and non-native ones. Native bees, however, focused on a smaller number of specific plants. 



This difference in foraging behavior made it harder for native bees to find enough food, as honey bees took pollen from a wider range of sources.



During the first year, honey bees collected pollen from 10.3 different species on average, while native bees gathered from just 4.3. In the second year, honey bees still maintained their wide range, collecting from 8.1 species. Native bees, however, only managed 2.8.



That’s a lot of overlap. Too much. In areas with high pollen overlap, native bees provisioned fewer cells for their offspring. Less food meant fewer babies. And fewer babies meant a population under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-intensify-pollen-competition">Urban gardens intensify pollen competition</h2>



Gardens may look like paradises for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-wearing-tiny-qr-codes-reveal-foraging-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, but they can also be battlegrounds. 



Honey bees, with their broad pollen preferences, took full advantage of exotic plants. They outcompeted native bees in residential gardens, where floral diversity was often lower and more fragmented.



Dr. Prendergast pointed out that in these urban gardens, the impact of honey bee densities became more pronounced. Parasitism rates among native bees increased, suggesting that honey bee competition might make them more vulnerable to parasites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-affect-native-bee-sex-ratios">Honey bees affect native bee sex ratios</h2>



Honey bees didn’t just take pollen. They also affected the sex ratio of native bees. Female bees need more resources to develop, and when those resources get scarce, fewer females emerge.



“In some conditions, greater overlap in pollen use was associated with lower offspring numbers in native bees,” Dr. Prendergast noted. 



And the offspring that did emerge? More males than females. This male-biased sex ratio could destabilize native bee populations over time, making it harder for them to recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-reduces-reproduction">Competition reduces reproduction</h2>



Pollen is essential for bees. They collect it, eat it, and use it to feed their young. The study found that honey bees gathered pollen from more plant types than native bees.



In the first year, honey bees collected pollen from 58 plant species, but native bees only collected from 41. The next year, honey bees still foraged from 41 species, while native bees dropped to 24.



This difference matters. When honey bees take pollen from many plants, they leave less for native bees. 



With less pollen available, native bees have less food to feed their young. This leads to fewer offspring, smaller young, and fewer females, which can weaken native bee populations over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-urban-vs-bushland-divide">The urban vs. bushland divide</h2>



Urban gardens didn’t just have more honey bees. They had more floral competition and higher parasitism rates. 



Native bees in bushland remnants fared slightly better, surrounded by more native flora and fewer honey bees. But even in these relatively protected areas, the pressure was still on.



The competition in gardens was particularly intense, with honey bees exploiting exotic plants that native bees couldn’t use as effectively. As a result, native bees had to work harder, forage longer, and ultimately, face greater risks from parasites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-increase-native-bee-mortality">Honey bees increase native bee mortality </h2>



Mortality rates for native bee offspring spiked in the first year of the study. Urban gardens with high honey bee densities saw the most significant increases. Fewer provisioned cells. More dead larvae. And for the males that did survive? They were smaller than usual.



“This shows that honey bees are not as benign as some might think - they can negatively impact local ecosystems and potentially contribute to declines in native bee populations,” Dr. Prendergast explained. 



And those smaller males? They’re less likely to find mates, further straining the population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-collect-more-pollen">Honey bees collect more pollen</h2>



Pollen analysis revealed a stark picture. Honey bees collected over twice as many pollen species as native bees. They didn’t just stick to native plants - they also targeted exotics, increasing the overlap and making it harder for native bees to find enough food.



The most common pollen species for honey bees included Eucalyptus marginata, Corymbia calophylla, and Melaleuca sp. For native bees, it was the same lineup. 



This shared preference intensified the competition, with honey bees taking more than their share, leaving native bees with less.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-protect-native-bees">Strategies to protect native bees</h2>



What can be done to protect native bees? Dr. Prendergast suggests increasing native plant diversity in urban areas. By planting more species that native bees prefer - and that honey bees don’t - we can reduce competition.



Managing honey bee populations in urban gardens could also help. Fewer managed hives, fewer feral colonies. But it’s not that simple. Honey bees are valuable pollinators, and their removal isn’t always practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Dr. Prendergast’s work is just the beginning. The study, funded by the City of Stirling, the <a href="https://www.aws.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Wildlife Society</a>, Hesperia, and the <a class="" href="https://www.forrestresearch.org.au/">Forrest Research Foundation</a>, points to a need for more targeted research.



Future studies could focus on long-term monitoring, examining how native bee populations fare over several years in areas with varying honey bee densities.



Understanding how pollen overlap affects native bee fitness in different habitats could also provide clues for more effective conservation strategies. Because in this hidden battle, the stakes are high. 



For native bees, survival may depend on more than just flowers - it may depend on the flowers they can still call their own.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1508958/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Native bee species face extinction due to honey bee competition

European honey bees, celebrated for their industrious nature, may be...

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer striking landscapes, distinctive habitats, and a sense of calm that many species find comforting.



A recent analysis suggests that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> may cope with rising temperatures better than people once thought. 



This new research, led by I-Ching Chen from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (<a href="https://www.aaas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAAS</a>), challenges the idea that all mountain species are on a one-way trip toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-affects-mountain-species">How warming affects mountain species</h2>



Scientists have long examined how warming affects animal and plant ranges. One <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group</a> found that alpine regions are experiencing temperature changes faster than many lower areas. This has prompted questions about how quickly species move to stay in suitable conditions.



Traditional theories point to a simple path: as warmth creeps higher, species must scramble upslope or vanish. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-wetlands-are-turning-into-mercury-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> creatures do climb to cooler elevations, but a new dataset of thousands of historical and modern range records suggests that most are managing shifts without the sweeping extinctions many feared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-predictions-may-be-overstated">Extinction predictions may be overstated</h2>



The widely recognized <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1817416115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escalator to extinction</a> concept predicts that steep terrain restricts movement. Higher elevations leave little room for escape, so species get stuck and face extinction. 



However, the researchers found no solid evidence of mass disappearances linked directly to this idea. "Observed changes largely fell within random expectations, accounting for geometric constraints,” noted Chen. 



The team used a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-020-00001-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bayesian modeling approach</a>, a probabilistic method that helps analyze data under uncertain conditions, to track changes in where species live.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-species-with-limited-ranges">Mountain species with limited ranges</h2>



Some species occupy narrow ranges and were predicted to vanish first when forced to new territory. Many have expanded to higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-plants-are-not-safe-from-rapid-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground</a>, but they did not always abandon lower limits.



The study’s findings suggest that tight mountain boundaries are not immediately sealing any fate. Instead, these expansions reflect a flexible response that might help these specialized creatures endure ongoing temperature shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-species-adapt-to-warming">How species adapt to warming</h2>



Not all species respond to warming by moving up. Some adjust by shifting their activity times, altering diets, or evolving faster reproduction cycles to cope with heat.



A <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys/article/4/1/cow035/2951699" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in the Rocky Mountains found certain butterflies adapted by changing when they emerged each season rather than climbing higher elevations. These shifts show that elevation isn’t the only axis of climate response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-blurs-species-boundaries">Climate change blurs species boundaries</h2>



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016953470300288X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotic homogenization</a> is a process where different communities start to look more alike. Lowland species gradually move upslope, and unique mountain specialists mix with newcomers. Over time, these once-distinct groups blend.



Homogenization can reduce diversity of traits that once set each area apart. One <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1219033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> in the European Alps found increasing plant diversity at higher elevations, but it also showed a trend toward more generalist species over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-future-for-mountain-species">Uncertain future for mountain species</h2>



Some scientists warn that the study only reflects current trends, not long-term outcomes. Species might still face delayed consequences known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534709001918" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction debt</a>, where loss happens years after the initial environmental change.



Climate disruptions can also affect reproduction, migration timing, and food chains in ways that take time to appear in range maps. Without ongoing monitoring, early warning signs might be missed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-long-term-effects-of-warming">Potential long-term effects of warming</h2>



Some researchers point out that warming may accelerate, so any delay in extinctions could be temporary. Mountains might be resilient now, but conditions may shift faster than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-rising-mountains-give-birth-to-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can handle in coming decades.



Others emphasize that different regions vary in elevation spread, terrain complexity, and existing conservation measures. Local factors may play a big role in determining which mountain areas remain robust and which slip into trouble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-mountain-ecosystems">Protecting mountain ecosystems </h2>



Scientists note that mountain ecosystems connect with rivers, valleys, and forests. When one part of the chain changes, the surrounding zones feel the impact. 



Some of the study’s authors caution that future ecological interactions may look different as more generalist species move upslope.



Conservation efforts in these regions will likely require new ways to track ongoing shifts. Observing subtle changes in how species occupy space across mountain slopes can help protect vulnerable spots before problems escalate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-on-mountain-species">New insights on mountain species</h2>



Though the picture is more optimistic than predicted for some high-elevation creatures, it raises new concerns about shrinking distinctions between once-separate communities. 



The immediate threat may not be widespread die-offs, but a quiet rearrangement of biodiversity.



Skeptics advise monitoring these patterns closely. Conditions are always changing, and caution remains wise where habitats and their inhabitants are so intimately tied to unique geographic features.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq9512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most mountain species are actually adapting to warming instead of flirting with extinction

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer...

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover. Their bodies may look jerky from a distance, yet these movements help them stay aloft in ways few people expect.



Yanlai Zhang from <a href="http://ev.buaa.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beihang University</a> recently contributed to a study that examines how body angle allows butterflies to maintain stable flight in place. 



The research explores a unique aspect of hovering that might spur fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robobee-mimicking-nature-with-insect-inspired-microrobots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> for small aerial robots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-tilt-helps-a-butterfly-hover">Body tilt helps a butterfly hover</h2>



Butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a> usually looks chaotic. Many experts note that quick shifts and uneven wing beats are actually precise motions that allow them to avoid predators.



These graceful insects rely on flexible wing structures to keep their balance. Some experts suspect there is a fine interplay between wing movement and body alignment that helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> manage their lift.



Scientists have found that the body pitch angle is a major factor in supporting a butterfly’s weight in midair. This angle aligns forces to counteract gravity.



Hovering stability often depends on how insects tilt their bodies. By changing these angles, each wing stroke can steer the butterfly’s overall direction without wasting energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-airflow-in-butterfly-hovering">The role of airflow in butterfly hovering</h2>



Observers have long wondered why <a href="https://horticulture.oregonstate.edu/oregon-vegetables/cabbage-white-butterfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white cabbage butterflies</a> flutter with frequent stops and starts. It appears they are fine-tuning their body positions while hovering.



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adjustments</a> let them tap into beneficial air currents around their wings. This slight tilt is just enough to balance the forces that hold them up.



“Hovering serves as an essential survival mechanism for critical behaviors, including flower visitation and predator evasion,” said Zhang. Scientists continue to explore how individual flight strokes contribute to upward thrust.



They track the flight paths using high-speed video, then compare these recordings with computations. Doing so uncovers how subtle wing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-eagles-go-to-flight-school-to-master-soaring-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> can produce enough lift to hover without drifting too far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-flight-informs-drone-design">Butterfly flight informs drone design</h2>



Groups studying <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/micro-air-vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro aerial vehicles</a> see possibilities in these findings. Lightweight, flapping devices might copy butterflies’ low-frequency wing beats for increased hovering efficiency.



Small robots that hover quietly could someday perform delicate tasks. By adopting the body tilt approach, designers may reduce power demands and extend flight times.



Sound pollution is a concern with many drones. Low-frequency flapping could help reduce noise.



“We are particularly excited about deploying such silent hover-capable MAVs for noninvasive wildlife observation, where their biomimetic appearance and quiet operation would minimize disturbance to natural behaviors,” said Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drones-that-can-monitor-wildlife-silently">Drones that can monitor wildlife silently</h2>



Engineers see value in a slow, quiet platform that can capture tiny details without spooking creatures. That capability could help study pollination and other ecological processes.



Such miniature flappers might even be useful in cramped or sensitive environments. Controlled hovering, guided by the body pitch technique, might be the key to stable flight in tight spaces.



During each wingbeat, airflow changes quickly around the butterfly’s wings. Researchers highlight how forewings and hindwings create separate patterns of circulation.



Vortices form, strengthen, and then shed in brief intervals. This dynamic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9317473/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interplay</a> ensures reliable lift while the butterfly hovers in one spot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-small-flying-robots">Designing small flying robots</h2>



Scientists use computational fluid analysis to piece together these quick movements. High-speed cameras and advanced models allow for precise measurements of wing tilt.



Each shift in angle contributes to a balanced force system. Tracking these details reveals that the butterfly’s body angle is the linchpin of its hovering routine.



Engineers looking at nature’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269045583_Development_of_the_Nano_Hummingbird_A_Tailless_Flapping_Wing_Micro_Air_Vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blueprints</a> often find surprising solutions for mechanical problems. Designing smaller, more versatile aerial devices takes on new meaning when we see how well butterflies control their flight.



By factoring in body pitch, researchers aim to replicate a butterfly’s agility. Such adaptive maneuvers could help robots move with more stability and less vibration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-next-steps">Challenges and next steps</h2>



Developers need to ensure enough lift without adding too much weight. Materials that flex like butterfly wings might offer options for more lifelike motion.



Some of these designs may also require refined sensors. Precise control of angles, wing flaps, and position data is crucial for stable hovering in rough conditions.



This investigation hints at new ways to blend biology with technology. Aerodynamics inspired by butterfly hovering might boost scientific progress on miniature flying robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article-abstract/37/5/051904/3346692/The-roles-of-body-and-wing-pitching-angles-in?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Butterfly hovering technique could revolutionize drone design

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover....

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. 



Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest of ants</a> settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. 



A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge.



The research shows that moderate doses of caffeine sharpen an ant’s memory for the bait’s location. Ants that sipped a caffeinated sugar drop found it again more quickly on later trips, leaving a stronger scent trail for nest-mates. 



The discovery points to a low-cost tweak that might finally turn the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invader’s own teamwork</a> against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ant-huge-impact">Tiny ant, huge impact</h2>



The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) is only about one-tenth of an inch long, yet its cooperative spirit builds super-colonies stretching thousands of miles along the Mediterranean coast and the U.S. West Coast. 



Those armies displace local insects, rob hummingbird feeders, and even short-circuit electrical gear. 



Recent economic analyses peg the global cost of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive ants</a> - including crop losses and control bills - at billions of dollars each year. No wonder pest crews keep searching for smarter tactics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-caffeine-to-ants">Giving caffeine to ants</h2>



To find out, researchers set up a miniature arena: a Lego drawbridge led each ant onto a letter-size acrylic platform where a single sugar drop waited. 



Some drops carried no additive, while others contained 25 parts per million (ppm), 250 ppm, or 2 000 ppm of caffeine. One hundred forty-two ants took part, and each explorer tackled the course four times.



“The idea with this project was to find some cognitive way of getting the ants to consume more of the poisonous baits we put in the field,” says the study’s first author Henrique Galante, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Regensburg</a>. 



Automated cameras tracked every step, logging travel time and the straightness of each path. Without caffeine, the insects wandered, needing the same span to reach the treat on every attempt. Add a modest stimulant, and the story changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-gives-ant-focus-not-speed">Caffeine gives ant focus, not speed</h2>



“We found that intermediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-evolution-in-plants-the-surprising-story-of-yerba-mate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doses of caffeine</a> actually boost learning - when you give them a bit of caffeine, it pushes them into having straighter paths and being able to reach the reward faster," Galante explained.



In fact, ants that tasted 25 ppm caffeine shaved 28 percent off their foraging time on every return. Those on 250 ppm cut the clock by 38 percent. 



Picture an individual that spent 300 seconds during its first outing - it would need just 113 seconds after three more trips on the lower dose and 54 seconds on the medium dose.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The stimulant</a> did not act like an energy drink. There was no uptick in raw speed. “What we see is that they're not moving faster, they're just being more focused on where they're going,” Galante noted. 



“This suggests that they know where they want to go, therefore, they have learned the locations of the reward.” 



Only path geometry tightened; pace stayed the same. At the heaviest 2 000 ppm dose - the level that kills half of honeybees in tests - the learning advantage disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-trails-deadlier-bait">Sharper trails, deadlier bait</h2>



Argentine ants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromone highways</a>. A worker that discovers food drags its stinger along the ground, laying a chemical breadcrumb trail that guides the next shift. Faster relearning multiplies that effect. 



“We're trying to make them better at finding these baits, because the faster they go and come back to them, the more pheromone trails they lay, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more ants will come</a>, and, therefore, the faster they will spread the poison in the colony before they realize it's poison,” Galante continued.



Adding caffeine could also slash the waste that now limits bait stations. In neighborhoods and orchards, technicians often replenish gels every few days because the first wave of foragers gives up. 



A caffeinated lure might stay attractive long enough for queens and larvae to receive a lethal serving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team is already field-testing the recipe at infested sites in Spain. They also plan to check whether caffeine interacts with common active ingredients such as hydramethylnon or spinosad. 



“The lowest dose we used is what you find in natural plants, the intermediate dose is similar to what you would find in some energy drinks, and the highest amount is set to be the LD50 of bees - where half the bees fed this dose die - so it's likely to be quite toxic for them,” Galante notes. 



Selecting a concentration that boosts memory without harming pollinators will be crucial.



Caffeine’s appeal extends beyond Argentine ants. Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> - including fire ants and big-headed ants - share the same food-sharing habits that make baiting tricky. 



If the stimulant nudges their neural circuits in a similar way, managers could deploy a single additive across multiple pest fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-learned-about-ants-and-caffeine">What we learned about ants and caffeine</h2>



To sum it all up, caffeine improves ants' overall focus and learning without increasing speed, allowing them to navigate straighter paths and lay stronger pheromone trails. 



This effect boosts the effectiveness of bait traps, leading more ants to the poison and increasing the chances of it spreading through the colony. 



However, the benefit peaks at moderate doses - very high levels eliminate the learning advantage and can be toxic. So, overall, caffeine makes ants better at foraging and sharing, which ironically makes them more vulnerable to well-designed pest control strategies.



For now, the message is simple: a dash of coffee in the buffet may turn an army’s fabled navigation skills against itself. When the ants get better at remembering dessert, the colony’s days could finally be numbered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01157-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

When ants eat or drink caffeine, many interesting things happen

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they...

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the smuggling of charismatic species like elephants and rhinos. It involves the illegal trade of a wide range of animals, plants, and even insects. 



While public attention often focuses on large mammals, the trafficking of insects remains a lesser-known but equally significant threat.



Recently, four men were arrested in Kenya for attempting to smuggle over 5,000 ants. Their aim was to sell these ants as part of the exotic pet trade. The ants were stored in individual test tubes and syringes, cushioned with small amounts of cotton wool. 



This unusual method highlights the extreme lengths traffickers go to transport even the tiniest of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exotic-pet-trade-fuels-insect-smuggling">Exotic pet trade fuels insect smuggling</h2>



Some people collect rare and unusual insects as exotic pets or decorative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a>. These collectors are willing to pay high prices for insects that are hard to find, unique, or visually striking. 



For example, a rhino beetle’s shiny shell can attract buyers in Japan due to its unusual appearance. In Sri Lanka, butterflies with bright and delicate wings are sought after for collections. Praying mantis eggs are treated as curiosities in the United States, where people keep them as unusual pets or decorative items.



Traffickers take advantage of this demand. They collect insects and package them in small, everyday containers like crisp packets, candy boxes, or plastic tubes. These containers blend in with regular luggage or shipments, making the insects difficult to detect at airports or customs checks.



Once smuggled and sold, the insects end up in private collections or as exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pets</a>. Collectors may keep them in glass cases, display them as trophies, or breed them for further trade. Some insects become part of illegal markets where rare or endangered species are sold for profit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-is-often-overlooked">Insect trafficking is often overlooked</h2>



When people think of wildlife trafficking, they picture poachers hunting elephants for ivory or rhinos for their horns. But insects? They hardly come to mind. Yet the trade in insects is just as destructive.



Unlike elephants or tigers, insects don’t get much media coverage. Conservationists focus on the big, charismatic animals while the smaller, less glamorous creatures slip through the cracks. 



The black market takes full advantage of this oversight, smuggling insects without drawing much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-insect-populations">Declining insect populations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> are disappearing rapidly around the world. Pesticides used in farming and gardening poison them, killing large numbers of insects. 



Climate change disrupts their habitats, making it harder for them to find food, reproduce, or survive. Urban development also destroys natural areas, replacing forests, fields, and wetlands with buildings and roads. This leaves insects with fewer places to live.



While pesticides, climate change, and urban sprawl are widely recognized threats, another danger looms – trafficking. Insects that are already endangered become even more vulnerable as collectors and traffickers seek out rare species. These individuals capture and sell insects for profit, exploiting their scarcity.



Despite its impact, insect trafficking remains largely unnoticed. Unlike the illegal trade in elephants or tigers, insect smuggling often goes unreported. Insects are small, easy to hide, and less likely to attract attention. 



Law enforcement rarely prioritizes insect trafficking, leading to few arrests and seizures. As a result, the true scale of the problem remains unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anathema-ant-a-species-in-danger">Anathema ant: A species in danger</h2>



Some insects do get protection – at least on paper. The anathema ant, for instance, sits on the <a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> red list as an endangered species. Under international law, no one can capture, kill, or disturb it.



But enforcing these protections is another story. Identifying insects is tricky. Thousands of species look similar. When customs officials intercept a box of ants, how do they tell if they’re dealing with endangered anathema ants or a common garden variety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-and-organized-crime">Insect trafficking and organized crime</h2>



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just the work of lone poachers. Organized crime syndicates have noticed the potential in insects. They’re small, easy to conceal, and cheap to transport.



At Los Angeles International Airport, customs agents discovered 37 rhino beetles stuffed into snack packets. They found them mixed with crisps and sweets, hidden in plain sight.



Why bother with beetles? The answer is simple: demand. Collectors pay top dollar for rare, exotic insects. Crime networks see an opportunity - and they seize it.



Wildlife crimes often sit low on law enforcement’s priority list. Officers focus on drugs, weapons, and human trafficking. Insect smuggling hardly registers.



Even when officials seize insects, prosecution can be difficult. Identifying a rare beetle or ant requires expertise. Misidentifications happen. Cases get dismissed. Traffickers walk free.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species-an-unseen-consequence">Invasive species: An unseen consequence</h2>



Insect trafficking doesn’t just harm the smuggled insects. It threatens entire ecosystems. Smuggled insects can escape or get released. They breed, spread, and sometimes dominate.



In Hawaii, authorities spend millions each year battling the coconut rhinoceros beetle. It tears through crops, devastates local plants, and leaves economic ruin in its wake. 



Invasive species can cause irreversible damage, and trafficking is the door that lets them in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-ignoring-insect-trafficking">Cost of ignoring insect trafficking </h2>



Failing to address insect trafficking costs more than just money. It risks entire ecosystems. It drives endangered species closer to extinction. It helps organized crime networks thrive.



But change is possible. Raising awareness can shine a light on the hidden trade in insects. Stronger enforcement can close the loopholes traffickers exploit. And if more people start to care, the ants, beetles, and butterflies might stand a fighting chance.



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just about rhinos and tigers. It’s about ants in test tubes, beetles in crisp packets, and butterflies smuggled across borders. Insects might not get the spotlight, but they’re part of this story too. 



And unless action is taken, they will remain easy targets in a world where profit trumps preservation.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Insect trafficking is a destructive trade that's been overlooked

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the...

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse ecosystems on Earth. Much of this beauty comes from the tiny algae that live inside coral tissues. But the story doesn’t end there. 



The water surrounding coral reefs is filled with invisible life - bacteria, archaea, and other microscopic organisms. These microbes don’t just float around unnoticed; they react to changes in the environment and can tell us a lot about the health of coral reefs.



In a recent study by scientists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and <a href="https://www.gmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Mason University</a>, researchers make the case for using these microbes as a valuable tool in coral reef monitoring and conservation.



The findings offer new hope for helping reefs recover from the increasing threats of climate change, pollution, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-important-reef-building-coral-habitats-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat destruction</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-coral-reef-health">New insights into coral reef health</h2>



Amy Apprill is an associate scientist in Marine Chemistry &amp; Geochemistry at WHOI and lead author of the study.



“Factoring in microbes is very helpful to understand more about overall reef health,” said Apprill. "My team has produced over a dozen detailed datasets that demonstrate these connections."



"Our goal with this new paper is to make this knowledge accessible to the programs and people interested in using microbes to diagnose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-can-mislead-scientists-about-reef-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef health</a> and ocean conditions.”



Traditionally, coral reef monitoring depends on what people can see - changes in coral color, signs of bleaching, or physical damage.



However, microbial sampling offers a different kind of insight. It can provide more immediate feedback and a clearer picture of what’s happening beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-coral-reef-conservation">Improving coral reef conservation </h2>



These techniques aren’t just for scientists. The study explains how park managers, conservation groups, restoration teams, and policy makers can all benefit. 



Water samples can be collected without harming the reef. Analyzing the samples can be as simple as using a microscope or as complex as genetic sequencing. Costs and technical requirements vary, but that’s part of the appeal - this method can be adapted to many situations.



Study co-author Jennifer L. Salerno is a marine biologist and associate professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at George Mason University.



“The utility of using microbes as meaningful indicators is increasing as our understanding of their roles in maintaining or destabilizing health and ecosystem function is growing,” explained Salemo.



“I think we have the science and accessible technology to take a more nuanced approach to coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a>, management, and policy decisions by deploying diagnostic tools like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-microbes-tell-us">What microbes tell us</h2>



Microbes respond to all sorts of environmental cues - nutrients, oxygen levels, temperature, pH, and light.



For example, the presence of E. coli in reef water typically signals contamination from human or animal waste, which is bad news for the reef. On the flip side, certain photosynthetic microbes may suggest a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a>.



This kind of data is more than just interesting. It can guide decision-making about where and when to intervene, and even how to design better reef restoration projects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-microbial-monitoring">Benefits of microbial monitoring </h2>



One strength of this approach is that it doesn’t require a one-size-fits-all solution. Some tools are inexpensive and easy to use, while others offer deeper insights but require more resources.



The authors of the study also urge the coral reef community to develop standard methods and share their findings.



“Because of the decline of coral reefs and the increased attention towards interventions such as restoration or rebuilding of a reef, it is important to bring all the relevant tools to the table to help restore, manage, and conserve reef ecosystems,” noted Aprill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-reefs-from-emerging-threats">Protecting reefs from emerging threats</h2>



With regular sampling, we can track how a reef’s microbial community changes over time. That opens the door to larger-scale monitoring efforts. 



Eventually, scientists hope to build open databases of microbial data from reefs around the world. These databases could be used with machine learning tools to predict reef health and create a kind of microbial health index for coral ecosystems.



“As coral reef scientists, we are very good at monitoring change and sometimes determining the root causes of the changes we are seeing on the reef,” Salerno said. 



“We aren't as well versed in mitigation and coordinated responses to emerging threats, but I would say as a community, we are improving." 



"If we can become better at predicting emerging threats through the use of diagnostic tools, perhaps we can also become better at preventing them from impacting reefs in the first place."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-coral-reef-bleaching-crisis">The coral reef bleaching crisis</h2>



Recent years have brought some of the worst <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-coral-bleaching-event-prompts-emergency-un-session/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching events</a> on record. This happens when corals lose their symbiotic algae due to heat stress or pollution. 



As oceans keep warming due to climate change, these events are becoming more frequent and severe. The researchers emphasize that we need every tool we can get to help coral reefs survive.



“We need to provide as much practical and accessible information as we can to the people making decisions,” Apprill said. “I think these microbes can enhance our knowledge of the ecosystem and elevate our framework for decision making." 



"I want people to get excited about this idea, and for current coral reef monitoring programs and management agencies to understand how this can make a difference to their programs.”



By listening to the tiniest voices in reef waters, we may be able to protect some of the ocean’s most vital ecosystems before it’s too late.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2949790625000990" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports Sustainability</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Microbes offer new ways to monitor coral reef health

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse...

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader. A tiny minority can influence a much larger group. Fire ants do this too. They show how a small subset of workers can reshape an entire colony’s structure.



Haolin Zeng, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>), decided to study this power of the few. His findings appear in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 



Zeng and his team uncovered how a minority of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> carrying a genetic variant can flip a colony’s structure from single-queen to multiple-queen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-driven-by-genetics">Power driven by genetics</h2>



Fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> colonies come in two flavors: single-queen and multiple-queen. The difference is genetic. 



Single-queen colonies reject any other queen. They protect their reigning monarch with fierce loyalty. New queens are unwelcome. The workers will kill them.



Multiple-queen colonies? Different story. They carry a genetic variant that makes them open to sharing power. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> nurture additional queens, allowing multiple monarchs to coexist. This social setup stems from a specific gene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-order-of-the-ant-colony">Social order of the ant colony</h2>



Zeng wanted to know if a small group of multiple-queen workers could sway a single-queen colony. The answer? Yes.



"When a certain portion of the workers carry this gene, somehow the colony switches to behave as a multiple-queen colony. The workers will happily accept any additional queen, but only ones that carry this genetic element," Zeng said.



Surprisingly, only 10% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> needs to carry this gene for the shift to occur. That’s a tiny fraction of the population. Yet, it’s enough to nudge the entire colony toward a new social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ant-introduction-process">The ant introduction process</h2>



You can’t just throw these two groups of ants together. Chaos would erupt. Zeng’s team had to be careful.



First, they introduced 300 single-queen ants and 100 multiple-queen ants through a fine mesh barrier. The mesh allowed them to sense each other’s presence without direct contact. This acclimation period lasted a full day.



Why the mesh? Without it, the ants would have fought immediately. The gradual introduction prevented lethal combat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-change-in-ant-colonies">Social change in ant colonies</h2>



For over 100 hours, researchers watched the ants interact. Would the genetic minority assert its influence? Yes. Slowly, the multiple-queen workers began altering the behavior of their single-queen counterparts.



Workers that once rejected additional queens started accepting them. But not just any queen. They only embraced queens carrying the genetic element. The minority had spoken, and the majority listened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pheromones-as-invisible-messengers">Pheromones as invisible messengers</h2>



Could the ants be using chemical signals to send messages? Zeng wanted to find out.



The researchers introduced dead multiple-queen ants to the single-queen colony. Some corpses were washed clean of pheromones. Others remained unwashed.



The reaction? The ants responded to the unwashed corpses, suggesting that chemical signals were at play. 



To confirm this, the team coated glass beads in pheromones and placed them in the colony. The ants reacted just as they did to the live workers, proving the power of these invisible messages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-pheromones-and-social-order">Genes, pheromones, and social order</h2>



Zeng’s findings highlight a fascinating dynamic: genetic traits can ripple through a group without direct contact. Pheromones bridge the gap.



"The idea that behavior is impacted not only by your own genes, but by the genes of nestmates or the folks you interact with is important," Zeng said.



This kind of indirect genetic effect isn’t unique to ants. Social mammals, birds, and even fish display similar dynamics. One individual’s genetic makeup can subtly alter the behavior of others around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-crops-to-ants">From crops to ants</h2>



Zeng didn’t start with ants. He began his academic journey studying crop sciences at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Then, in 2016, he switched gears and joined the entomology department at the University of Georgia.



"When I started to study insects, I asked, what are the most interesting system insects to study, ecologically and evolutionarily? That's got to be social insects. They are everywhere and super successful. There are so many questions to ask and behaviors yet to understand," he said.



Now, as a postdoc at UGA’s Odum School of Ecology, Zeng continues his fire ant research, digging deeper into how small groups can change entire colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-influence-beyond-ant-colonies">Social influence beyond ant colonies</h2>



Zeng’s study carries implications beyond ants. It suggests that even in seemingly rigid social structures, a small minority can exert a profound influence. Understanding this dynamic could reshape how we view social power, not just in ants but in all animal societies.



The study’s co-authors include Kenneth G. Ross of the UGA CAES Department of Entomology and Takao Sasaki from the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>.



The paper, titled "Conversion of social organization in fire ants induced by few colony members: unmasking indirect genetic effects," serves as a reminder that sometimes, the few can change the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Just a few ants can change an entire colony's social structure

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader....

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a stir among paleontologists worldwide. These tracks suggest reptiles roamed Earth far earlier than anyone suspected. 



Researchers uncovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a>-like footprints in northern Victoria, Australia, and matched them to the era that started around 359 million years ago.



According to Professor John Long from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, these imprints challenge the traditional view of reptile evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



According to the experts, the tracks suggest that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may have appeared roughly 350 million years ago. That date pushes them back to 40 million years earlier than what was previously recorded.



One set of partial prints had distinct claw marks, hinting that these creatures were true reptiles rather than amphibians. Another set showed a smaller front foot and a larger hind foot, which is typical of land-walking vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-origins-in-gondwana">Reptile origins in Gondwana</h2>



Scientists have long studied the southern supercontinent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41714/chapter-abstract/353976691?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, where many early tetrapods left behind their skeletons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracks</a>. This find in Victoria adds weight to the idea that pivotal evolutionary steps began in these territories.



At the time, Australia formed a central piece of this landmass. Warmer climates may have played a role in encouraging new adaptations among reptile forerunners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-timeline-of-reptile-evolution">New timeline of reptile evolution</h2>



Paleontologists analyze footprints to piece together how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> moved. A set of clawed toes can reveal whether a creature was an amphibian or a reptile.



“This pushes back the likely origin of crown-group amniotes by at least 35-40 million years,” said Professor John Long. The research highlights how vital footprints can be for revealing new timelines.



Reptiles are part of the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amniota.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amniote</a> group, which includes birds and mammals. The discovery of claw marks in these fossil tracks implies full independence from watery environments, which is a characteristic of reptiles.



Many scientists once assumed that amniotes emerged in the Northern Hemisphere. These footprints raise questions about when and where some of the earliest reptiles spread across ancient landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-animal-diversity">Shifting landscapes and animal diversity</h2>



Researchers plan to explore other parts of Victoria for more trace fossils that could fill gaps in the record. They hope future finds will clarify how these animals became adapted for dry land.



Unearthing additional trackways may add to our understanding of how reptiles branched off from amphibians. Each new print can reveal details about posture, movement, and survival tactics.



The Carboniferous Period stretched from about 359 million to 299 million years ago. It featured vast swampy forests, giant insects, and a rise in atmospheric oxygen levels.



Land masses were arranged differently than they are today. Some scientists believe shifting coastlines created niches that spurred new adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-of-reptile-ancestors">Habitats of reptile ancestors</h2>



Some reptile ancestors likely ventured onto stable ground while others stayed near water. Traces of this transition remain scarce, so every fossil footprint matters.



Even a single impression can show scientists how early amniotes balanced their weight or held their tails. The shape, depth, and spacing can reveal clues about speed or range of motion.



A single fossil slab from Victoria has opened up this debate about reptile origins. Researchers suggest it is significant to re-check older formations in case more reptile evidence has been overlooked.



Professor Long and his team emphasize the need for more fieldwork to confirm whether reptiles appeared across multiple regions at around the same time. They believe this discovery highlights how a single trackway can reshape our ideas about early amniotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-more-reptile-footprints">Seeking more reptile footprints</h2>



Future excavations may uncover more footprints from the early stages of reptile evolution. That could bring clarity to how quickly these animals adapted to life away from water.



Technological advancements like high-resolution scans can make it easier to analyze the details of each print. Insights like these help paleontologists reconstruct entire ecosystems from a few traces left in stone.



Footprint analysis often involves laser scanning to capture 3D shapes. These scans can highlight fine ridges that point to muscle strength or toe flexibility.



Traces of skin patterns, though rare, can also indicate the texture of scales. Each layer of mud or sand holds hints about local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-land-adaptation-of-reptiles">Early land adaptation of reptiles </h2>



Before amniotes, vertebrates such as fish and amphibians still needed water for reproduction. Over time, eggs with protective membranes evolved and these allowed animals such as reptiles to venture inland.



That transition set the stage for reptiles, birds, and mammals to diversify into countless forms. These footprints mark a link in that long chain.



Researchers compare new prints to known trackways from synapsids and early amphibians. Key distinctions include toe curvature and the presence of claws.



Synapsids, which later led to mammals, often left broader footprints with different digit spacing. Reptile-like tracks, on the other hand, typically show sharper claw impressions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Ancient footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



These ancient footprints connect modern wildlife to ancestors that once explored muddy banks. Each imprint brings a sense of wonder about how life took shape on land.



Understanding those steps may also shed light on broader evolutionary processes. After all, reptile success paved the way for the future rise of dinosaurs and beyond.



Scientists emphasize that no single discovery stands alone. Footprints, bones, and environmental data must all be pieced together to form a coherent story.



Though incomplete, this record keeps expanding thanks to fresh finds in unexpected places. Each new track offers a glimpse into a time of rapid evolutionary change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Reptile ancestors appeared 40 million years earlier than we thought

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a...

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western Amazon. This small creature, which belongs to the poison dart frog family, stands out with unusual copper accents on its limbs and an overall eye-catching look.



Dr. Evan D. Koch, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nm.cz/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of the Czech Republic</a>, helped document the new species in an underexplored region near the Juruá River.



The team first encountered the frog in March 2023, although its official recognition as a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-tree-frog-origins-back-55-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> was only documented on May 14, 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-blue-poison-dart-frog">Striking blue poison dart frog</h2>



The new species of frog bears light blue stripes set against a darker upper body. Its metallic-hued legs are patterned with irregular brown spots, making the species a definite standout. 



Experts have formally named it <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ranitomeya aetherea</a>, referencing its sky-like tones that bring to mind something almost beyond this world.



Early observations suggest it inhabits lowland Amazonian forests, roughly 443 ft (135 meters) above sea level. Individuals often perch on broad-leafed plants within these humid, palm-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-colors-and-potential-toxicity">Unusual colors and potential toxicity</h2>



Members of the broader family, Dendrobatidae, are well known for their potent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, though each species has its own chemical profile.



Many rely on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2133521100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic coloration</a> to warn potential predators that making a meal of it would be a bad idea. Even though researchers have only examined a handful of R. aetherea specimens, they suspect that the frog’s bright patches hint at toxic defenses, much like in its colorful cousins.



For locals, the presence of vibrant frogs is nothing new, but the copper and pale stripes on this one are not something they typically see. Field teams were quick to note that the frog’s underside shares this light-blue tone, and is spotted with dark blotches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-the-blue-frog">Characteristics of the blue frog</h2>



Study participants noted that these frogs stay near water-filled compartments in certain broad-leaf flora. The watery pockets, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytotelmata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytotelmata</a>, cradle single R. aetherea tadpoles at various stages of development.



Each juvenile has a tinted tail and a small oval mouth. Once they reach more advanced stages, faint stripes start to appear on the tiny bodies.



According to field notes, adults seem most active in the early morning or late afternoon. Males will climb small plants, typically a few feet off the ground, to call out in a series of fast, chirping notes. 



Observers say that solitary males can gather within the same area without obvious conflict, though they appear to react strongly to call playbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vocal-patterns">Unique vocal patterns </h2>



Calling sessions last under a second and carry a quick flurry of distinct, tonal notes. That pattern sets it apart from a few other relatives whose calls have fewer notes or run at a different pitch. 



In one instance, a male produced a longer series when a female approached, suggesting there may be a special “courtship call.”



That same male was spotted leading the curious female toward a hidden leaf base with water trapped inside. This behavior offers a peek into how they might bond or share parental tasks. 



Previous <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/650727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on other species in this group have documented complex childrearing steps, and the research team suspects that R. aetherea may have similar habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strict-habitat-requirements">Strict habitat requirements </h2>



Across South America, frogs of the genus Ranitomeya often occupy extremely specific habitats. It has been over ten years since a new species in this genus was named, which makes this a significant find for biologists who are keen on amphibian diversity.



Some of its relatives, like Ranitomeya imitator, feature more greens and spots, while others go for bolder oranges or reds. R. aetherea’s softly tinted copper legs represent a separate thread in the group’s evolutionary tree.



Further genetic work suggests it clusters close to other species from the southwestern Amazon, yet it holds its own distinct lineage.



Investigators suspect that these frogs may have strict habitat requirements and boundaries around their living space, which means they may potentially have very limited range sizes.



Such a focus on exact territory often makes each species vulnerable to land-use changes or deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-blue-frog-discovery">Significance of the blue frog discovery</h2>



Local communities were aware of various frogs in their forest, but the scientific world had no formal record of frogs with this patterning until now.



Its presence highlights that the southwestern Amazon, with patches that are still difficult to reach, can house animal groups that slip under the radar. Additional exploration may uncover other new amphibians, especially within pockets that share similar vegetation or water sources.



Researchers plan to keep monitoring these populations over the coming years. This effort is essential for tracking any environmental threats that could place these frogs at risk. 



Given the increasing human activities in this region, timely observation may help shape protective measures in the near future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Koch et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Blue frog with copper legs discovered in the Amazon rainforest

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western...

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey flee. Herds eat and sleep together. It all feels spontaneous -each creature responding to its needs in the moment.



But new research suggests there may be a hidden order to all this movement. And it’s not just found in one place or species. It appears across continents, in animals living very different lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-across-the-globe">Animal movement across the globe</h2>



The study involved animals from three dramatically different environments. In the dry heat of the Kalahari Desert, meerkats dig through the sand. In Panama’s rainforests, coatis nap high in the trees. On the Kenyan savannah, spotted hyenas roam the grasslands. 



These species differ in body size, diet, and behavior. But researchers found something they all had in common - how they moved from one activity to the next.



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior tracked these wild animals using accelerometers, the same sensors found in smartphones and fitness watches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-animal-behavior">Unexpected pattern in animal behavior </h2>



The devices recorded tiny shifts in body movement, many times per second, and for days at a time.



“This approach allowed us to capture detailed behavioral sequences over days and even weeks from multiple individuals across three distinct species,” said Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, group leader at the institute and senior author on the study.



Using machine learning, the data were sorted into different behavioral categories: lying, walking, foraging, and more. 



A meerkat might lie still for a while, scan the area, then dig for food. A coati might spend time climbing, resting, or eating. These changing states, tracked over time, revealed an unexpected pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-that-sticks">Animal behavior that sticks</h2>



Across all three species, one rule seemed to apply: the longer an animal stays in one behavior, the less likely it is to change. 



“We assumed there would be differences,” said Pranav Minasandra, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study. “But we found common patterns in how animals switch between behaviors, regardless of what species and which individual. It's as if their behavior was built on the same hidden algorithm.”



The finding goes against what many might expect. Imagine a hyena that’s been walking for 10 minutes. Most people would assume it’s more likely to stop soon. The researchers thought so too. 



“We originally thought the probability of switching behaviors would increase over time, as we assumed it would not be optimal to lock-in to any behavior,” explained Minasandra.



Instead, the opposite was true. Animals became more committed to the behavior the longer they stayed in it. This effect - known as a “decreasing hazard function” - appeared across all three species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-comes-next">Predicting what comes next</h2>



The researchers also examined a concept they call “predictivity decay.” This refers to how well current behavior can predict future behavior. 



As time goes on, it gets harder to make accurate predictions because of random shifts and outside influences.



Still, even this unpredictability showed a consistent pattern. “We found that the pattern of predictivity decay was remarkably consistent across all animals studied, implying a shared architecture beneath the surface,” the researchers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-patterns-exist">Why do these patterns exist?</h2>



The study points to two possible explanations. One is simple: positive feedback. The longer an animal stays in a behavior - like lying down - the more reasons there are to continue. 



Maybe it’s comfortable, feels safe, or is simply copying what its group is doing. In any case, staying becomes easier than switching.



The second theory involves decision-making over multiple timescales. Animals are constantly processing cues from different sources: hunger, danger, weather, and social cues. 



Each signal operates on its own rhythm. The way these rhythms overlap might explain why behavior unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-ahead">More questions ahead</h2>



There’s still a lot to explore. Do these patterns apply to animals that live alone? What about animals at different stages of life, or under stress? Could these long-behavior states help save energy, improve attention, or coordinate group movement?



“What this study suggests is that real animals, be they hunting, hiding, or resting, are guided by hidden structures that seem to echo across life’s branches,” noted Meg Crofoot, Director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies.



Animal behavior may seem unpredictable. But this research suggests that, deep down, many species are following a similar rhythm. One that links creatures as different as hyenas, coatis, and meerkats in a quiet, shared structure of movement.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals share hidden behavior patterns across continents

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey...

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost the invisible shield that keeps its surface hospitable. Earth's magnetic field, generated by whirling molten iron deep below our feet, faded until it was so weak it was barely detectable.



At the same moment, oxygen flooded the oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and curious soft-bodied creatures began sliding across the seafloor. The coincidence has fascinated geologists and biologists for decades.



Fresh measurements from ancient crystals now reveal just how close Earth came to a magnetic stall. They also strengthen the suspicion that a waning field set the stage for the rise of complex life. 



The new data trace a dramatic drop in magnetic intensity and help explain why the field later rebounded, saving Earth from becoming a dry, radiation-blasted rock like Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ancient-magnetic-field">Earth's ancient magnetic field</h2>



To read the planet’s magnetic diary, researchers collected grains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxenite and gabbro</a> from South Africa, Brazil, and Canada.



Each mineral contains microscopic iron needles that froze in alignment with the ambient field when the rocks cooled. 



By reheating single crystals in a carefully shielded furnace, the team coaxed out tiny magnetic signals that record field strength at the time of eruption.



After analyzing hundreds of crystals, <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> geophysicist John Tarduno and colleagues saw a clear pattern. 



“In general, the field is protective. If we had not had a field early in Earth history, water would have been stripped from the planet by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> (a stream of energized particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth),” Tarduno explained.



“But in the Ediacaran, we had a fascinating period in the development of the deep Earth when processes creating the magnetic field … had become so inefficient after billions of years that the field almost completely collapsed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-weak-magnetic-field">Very weak magnetic field</h2>



Crystals dated to 591 million years ago indicate a magnetic field about 30 times weaker than today - the most feeble long-term value ever measured. 



Follow-up samples show the enfeebled state persisted for at least 26 million years.



Before and after that window, rocks more than 2 billion years old and younger than 565 million years record a field as sturdy as the modern one, revealing just how exceptional the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran lull</a> was.



During the low-field stretch, solar wind could punch far deeper into the atmosphere. Charged particles stripped away lightweight hydrogen, a process that left relatively heavy oxygen behind. 



The timing lines up with multiple geochemical markers that show a sharp increase in oxygen levels, supporting the idea that the weakened shield helped push Earth past a threshold needed for the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large, mobile animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinner-armor-richer-air">Thinner armor, richer air</h2>



The atmospheric link also finds support from geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere shields the Earth</a> from solar wind, thus holding the atmosphere to the Earth. Thus, a weaker magnetosphere means that lighter gases such as hydrogen would be lost from the Earth’s atmosphere,” Xiao explained to CNN.



As hydrogen escaped, oxygen concentrations rose, allowing metabolism-hungry organisms to branch out.



Tarduno agrees that other processes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic microbes</a> - were certainly at work.



“We do not challenge that one or more of these processes were happening concurrently. But the weak field may have allowed oxygenation to cross a threshold, aiding animal radiation (evolution),” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-and-earth-s-core">Magnetic field and Earth's core</h2>



Rock records also solve a puzzle about when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s inner core</a> began to form. Once field strength hit its nadir, it bounced back quickly.



“The observations appear to support the claim that the inner core first nucleated soon after this time, pushing the geodynamo (the mechanism that creates the magnetic field) from a weak, unstable state into a strong, stable dipolar field,” noted Peter Driscoll of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>. 



A solid seed at the center released extra heat, turbocharging convection in the outer core and restoring the magnetic screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-seafloor-pioneers">Strange seafloor pioneers</h2>



While the field flickered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran seas</a> hosted life forms unlike anything alive today.



Disk-shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dickinsonia</a> spread as wide as 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) across the mud; quilted fronds waved gently in the currents; and slug-like Kimberella scraped microbial mats for food.



These pioneers vanished before the Cambrian period began, around 539 million years ago, but their brief reign proved that multicellular bodies could flourish once oxygen climbed to breathable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-if-it-happens-again">What if it happens again?</h2>



Not every expert is convinced the magnetic dip directly influenced the course of evolution.



“It is hard for me to evaluate the veracity of this claim because the influence that planetary magnetic fields might have on climate is not very well understood,” Driscoll cautioned. 



Untangling all the variables - solar activity, mantle chemistry, biological innovation - will take years of careful detective work.



For now, the crystal record points to a simple narrative: Earth’s shield weakened, gases escaped, oxygen levels increased, and life took a bold new turn.



By tracing that chain of events, scientists gain insight into how planets and biospheres interact, a lesson that will guide the search for living worlds far beyond our own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications, Earth and Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Complex life emerged on Earth 591 million years ago, scientists think they finally know how and why

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost...

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures about four feet was recently spotted at a mining facility on a small island off Papua New Guinea’s southeastern coast. Its sleek color and large black eyes stopped researchers in their tracks, and inspired a closer.



This newly identified reptile, named Dendrelaphis atra, belongs to a group of tree-dwelling snakes with a history of murky classification. 



It was described by Fred Kraus from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Ann Arbor</a> after he spent time surveying the local serpent population for a broader research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unusual-snake-discovery">An unusual snake discovery</h2>



One specimen slithered along old building structures and well-trodden terrain, making the moment feel like a real needle in a haystack. Its strong yet subtle features hinted at a species that is different from the rest of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-coral-snakes-caught-in-rare-food-fight-over-caecilian/">relatives</a>.



These snakes appear quite dark when older, a trait linked to ontogenetic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/melanization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanization</a>, where color deepens over time.



A smaller, younger version displayed muted shades, revealing the striking contrast between juveniles and adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-setting-and-snake-biodiversity">The setting and snake biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.undp.org/papua-new-guinea/environment-and-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papua New Guinea</a> sits in the heart of a region that supports a vast range of unique endemic plants and animals. 



The land and offshore islands host incredible numbers of reptiles, as well as other species that have yet to be fully cataloged. The presence of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259869057_A_Guide_to_the_Snakes_of_Papua_New_Guinea_The_first_comprehensive_guide_to_the_snake_fauna_of_Papua_New_Guinea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 80 known snake species</a> in this country speaks to its natural abundance.



“Herein I examine the taxonomic status of Dendrelaphis specimens from outlying large islands in Milne Bay Province,” said Kraus, who authored the study. 



The Milne Bay province, located in the southeastern tip of the country, consists of many scattered islands. Each major island has unique ecosystems that shelter creatures found nowhere else on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-snake-stands-out">Why this snake stands out</h2>



Many members of this genus show lighter tones or distinct patterns. This one shows an almost uniform midnight color, especially as it matures. That difference sets it apart from its close relatives in the D. punctulatus group.



Scientists often rely on scale arrangement, body shape, and even snake genitalia to establish taxonomic differences. 



This approach helped confirm that D. atra is a separate entity. The species takes its name from the Latin word for black, which reflects its appearance in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-hidden-snake-treasures">Other hidden snake treasures</h2>



This black tree snake was not alone in being an unexpected find. Researchers who surveyed nearby islands in the Milne Bay province realized that each large island in the region seems to have its own native Dendrelaphis species. That pattern shows how island isolation can give rise to new and distinct lifeforms.



Kraus also turned up three other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-coffee-snake-discovered-in-the-cloud-forests-of-ecuador/">serpents</a> - each inhabiting a different island. Experts say it is a reminder that scattered landmasses create pockets of biodiversity that evolve in relative seclusion.



Much about these newly documented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/">reptiles</a> remains unknown, leaving room for fresh insights in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-shaped-habitat">Human-shaped habitat</h2>



It is intriguing that the black tree snake first appeared in a degraded setting on a mining island. The site’s developed landscape had buildings, pathways, and other signs of heavy human activity. 



Snakes often prefer wilder spots, yet this species was found thriving in altered environments as well.



Papua New Guinea’s island topography makes it tricky for outsiders to conduct wildlife surveys. Rugged terrain, dense vegetation, and unpredictable weather can limit reliable fieldwork. 



These factors emphasize the importance of any documented sighting, especially when it leads to the classification of an entirely new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



“The Milne Bay province has the richest habitat for endemic reptiles and amphibians on the planet,” Kraus said. 



Multiple researchers have suggested that this corner of the Pacific holds many more undiscovered reptiles and amphibians. 



That richness shows up in the form of unusual snakes, frogs, and lizards that can surprise even seasoned experts.



Biodiversity in this area supports local communities, influences the ecology, and expands our overall scientific understanding. 



Each new species provides a clue about the evolutionary paths and environmental conditions that shape life in remote locales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-things-go-next">Where things go next</h2>



The specifics of D. atra’s diet, reproduction, and daily habits still remain to be established. Scientists usually piece together such details by observing the animals across seasons, and collecting data that confirm patterns in the wild. 



For now, the presence of multiple, island-exclusive <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/26637-Dendrelaphis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendrelaphis snakes</a> highlights the hidden variety waiting to be described.



Ongoing studies may reveal how these reptiles adapt to changes in their environment. Further findings might guide conservation strategies to ensure that future generations can appreciate the region’s diverse wildlife. 



Fresh research could also spark collaboration with local groups that have long been aware of the extraordinary creatures in their midst.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5618.4.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New species of tree snakes with completely black eyes is discovered

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures...

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face precarious conditions. They live in a narrow sliver of high-elevation rainforest, and experts fear even one large disturbance may push them toward extinction.



Professor Michael Mahony from the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Newcastle</a> has studied these amphibians and their limited habitats. Each population ekes out a living in cool, moist spots that are shrinking because of shifting weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolated-existence-in-upland-forest">Isolated existence in upland forest</h2>



The Eungella Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-eungellensis">Litoria eungellensis</a>) persists in fewer than eight square miles (21 square kilometers) of upland <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5584.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland forest</a>. It tolerates a cooler environment than most other tree frogs in the area, but shifting temperatures and rainfall patterns will present new challenges.



The Atherton Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-corbeni">Litoria corbeni</a>) occupies a separate section of the tropics, in northern Queensland, but also at higher elevations. Like its relative, it seems unable to adjust to warmer, drier conditions, which has conservationists concerned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sudden-threats-could-be-devastating">Sudden threats could be devastating</h2>



“One catastrophic event could wipe them out entirely,” said Luke Price, a researcher at the South Australian Museum. 



These amphibians remain vulnerable to quick and catastrophic events. With habitats so restricted, any disaster in these cool enclaves could have devastating results.



Researchers note that increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall might reduce the moist habitats on which these frogs depend. When water sources dwindle, the animals face an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">existential crisis</a> that they may not survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-traits-of-the-forest-frogs">Distinct traits of the forest frogs</h2>



Each species emits a distinct call that sets it apart from more common frogs in eastern Australia. Slight contrasts in vocalizations, combined with deeper genetic evidence, helped scientists recognize them as separate species.



Their coloring ranges from mustard-like hues to flashes of red on the hind legs. These markings help camouflage them among leaves and tree bark, but they offer no protection against heat waves or wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-past-climates-matter">Why past climates matter</h2>



The discovery of these frogs also sheds light on Australia’s ancient climate history. 



According to Price, their presence in isolated highland pockets suggests they once occupied a much larger range of connected wet forests during cooler, wetter periods.



This wider historical distribution supports the idea that climate shifts tied to continental drift and global circulation changes - not just modern greenhouse gas emissions - have shaped where species live today. 



The frogs’ survival may depend on understanding both ancient trends and present-day pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-worries-for-small-forest-frogs">Big worries for small forest frogs</h2>



Low numbers and narrow territories qualify both frogs as highly threatened under the guidelines set by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN</a>). 



Not only do they have minimal resilience to sudden habitat changes, but they also have no opportunities to migrate.



“The mantra of ‘adapt or perish’ doesn’t equally apply across species,” said Mahony. He pointed out that these highland frogs cannot move to cooler terrains any farther upslope.



In remote regions of Queensland, regular surveys are tough to coordinate. Gathering more data on frog numbers and breeding success takes time and resources, yet experts say such efforts are necessary for any hope of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-mother-nature-have-rights-a-tiny-frog-has-joined-the-fight/">preservation</a>.



Fire management is especially difficult in mountainous rainforest. A wildfire in a unique gully or hillside might eliminate water sources and destroy frog refuges in one sweep, leaving no survivors to repopulate those areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-these-forest-frogs-apart">What sets these forest frogs apart</h2>



Unlike many widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-mating-calls-teach-bats-which-prey-to-avoid/">amphibians</a>, these whirring frogs show no signs of behavioral or ecological flexibility. 



They are tightly tied to specific humidity levels, elevation zones, and vegetation types that can be lost quickly with even mild environmental shifts.



Researchers emphasize that while other species may bounce back or shift territory, these frogs lack both the numbers and the landscape corridors to do so. 



That makes them much more vulnerable than most frogs in Australia’s lower altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-take-time-to-adapt">Frogs take time to adapt</h2>



Some amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">populations</a> in other parts of the world have adapted to minor temperature shifts over thousands of years. However, rapid changes may prove too much for small groups that are isolated in tiny zones.



Scientists believe targeted protection of montane areas, along with active measures to maintain moisture levels, could buy these frogs more time. If reserves are created and carefully monitored, that might lessen the risk of sudden habitat loss.



Smaller species can vanish with little notice if they lack escape routes. Because these frogs can’t handle fluctuations in temperature or humidity, the strain of hotter days could tip the balance toward local extinctions.



Habitat restoration efforts and close watching by field biologists might help, but the situation remains tense. Their continued existence depends on coordinated steps that acknowledge the narrow margins in which they live.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zoobank.org/References/C07BE8E9-713C-42E5-9D3F-5F6166C44C5A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Whistling' forest frogs recently discovered may be wiped out before we learn about them

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face...

species in Philinorbidae

News coming your way