A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Earth’s magnetic field is not the steadfast guardian that most of us imagine it to be. About 41,000 years ago the field unraveled, then flipped, during the Laschamp event, a <a href="https://ngawhageneration.co.nz/assets/Cooper_Turney_Adams_Event_Science_2021.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geomagnetic reversal</a> that briefly cut its strength to roughly five percent of today’s level 



That collapse let torrents of <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-are-cosmic-rays" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a> shower the atmosphere, leaving spikes of radiocarbon in ancient kauri trees and beryllium in polar ice. 



<a href="https://orbit.dtu.dk/en/persons/klaus-nielsen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Klaus Nielsen</a> of the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> led a team that has now made those silent numbers audible, converting satellite and <a href="https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/paleo.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleomagnetic data</a> into a two‑minute stereo track that vibrates like subterranean thunder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-magnetic-field-flipped">Why Earth's magnetic field flipped</h2>



Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-once-had-a-strong-magnetic-field-but-now-only-traces-remain/">magnetic</a> field grows in the molten outer core where liquid iron moves like a planetary dynamo. 



When those currents become unstable the dipole tilts, weakens, and can even flip, a process recorded in cooling lava flows on every continent.



Sediment cores show the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq7275" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laschamp excursion</a> began quickly, perhaps within a single human lifetime, and lingered for about 800 years. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carrington-event-biggest-solar-storm-history-radiocarbon-earth-tree-rings/">Tree‑ring chronologies</a> reveal the weakest phase lasted a century, with the field hovering near five percent before strength rebuilt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-fallout-on-a-fragile-planet">Cosmic fallout on a fragile planet</h2>



With the magnetic curtain tattered, high‑energy particles sliced deeper into the upper air, altering ozone chemistry and shifting wind belts. 



Climate proxies from New Zealand to the Andes mark synchronous cooling pulses, and megafaunal extinctions in Australia cluster in the same window.



Modeling of the weakened field suggests surface ultraviolet light may have doubled at mid‑latitudes, bad news for Pleistocene inhabitants who lacked sunscreen but prized red ochre for body paint. 



Some researchers link increased auroral activity at lower latitudes to a burst of cave art, arguing night skies turned neon and inspired storytelling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sounds-of-earth-s-magnetic-field">Sounds of Earth's magnetic field</h2>



Nielsen’s group drew on ESA’s three‑satellite <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-05-swarm-probes-weakening-earth-magnetic.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swarm mission</a>, which has measured Earth’s field with magnetometers since 2013. 



Those data, combined with magnetized minerals from ancient sediments, let the team map field lines as they writhed during Laschamp.



Each changing vector was assigned to a loudspeaker in a 32‑channel array buried below Copenhagen’s Solbjerg Square. 



Wood creaks, rock falls, and other field recordings were pitch‑shifted and layered to mirror the numerical intensity, producing a low‑frequency growl that migrates from speaker to speaker like a restless tide.



“The rumbling of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic</a> field is accompanied by a representation of a geomagnetic storm that resulted from a solar flare on Nov. 3, 2011, and indeed it sounds pretty scary,” said  Nielsen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-audio-reveals">What the audio reveals</h2>



The loudest moments coincide with the field’s sharpest dip, emphasizing how vulnerable the planet became. 



Listeners notice an almost rhythmic ebb and flow, reflecting brief rebounds when multipolar fragments tried to regain dominance.



A sudden surge near the finale captures the instant the dipole re‑established itself, snapping the poles to their opposite hemispheres. 



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/6Tc7XI0iUYU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: Animation and science: Maximilian Arthus Schanner and Guram Kervalishvili (GFZ); Sound: Klaus Nielsen (DTU Space)</figcaption></figure>



Researchers say that audible transition helps non‑experts grasp time scales that graphs alone cannot convey.



Public reaction in Copenhagen was visceral; some children hugged parents while older visitors stood transfixed, feeling sub‑bass pulses through their feet. 



Nielsen notes that fear was never the aim; the installation intends to remind citizens that the unseen <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/earths-magnetosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere</a> is essential, yet far from permanent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-installation-came-to-life">How the installation came to life</h2>



The setup in Copenhagen wasn’t just a technical demonstration, it was an immersive sound sculpture. 



Each of the 32 underground speakers represented different spatial segments of Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/">magnetic</a> field, playing synchronized sounds based on magnetic changes over 100,000 years.



To convert the invisible field lines into sound, the researchers used a technique called <a href="https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/news/blog/from-data-melody-data-sonification-its-role-open-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data sonification</a>. 



Instead of visual graphs, magnetic variations were translated into pitch, volume, and spatial movement, allowing the public to feel the data through vibration and tone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Swarm observations show the field has lost about nine percent of its strength over the last two centuries, with the South Atlantic Anomaly expanding westward. 



Although most geophysicists caution that a flip is not imminent, the trend underscores the importance of monitoring the <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/ionosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionosphere</a> where many satellites operate.



By sonifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/">magnetic</a> data, the team offers a fresh outreach tool that bypasses technical jargon and speaks to the body’s instinct for vibration. 



Educators are already adapting the soundtrack for classrooms, pairing the audio with aurora videos to illustrate space‑weather hazards.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-theory-explains-why-neanderthals-vanished-and-homo-sapiens-are-alive-today/">Laschamp event</a> also gives climate scientists a natural laboratory for testing models of atmospheric chemistry under extreme radiation. 



Understanding that past stress test may refine predictions for how modern infrastructure, from power grids to airline routes, would fare if the shield faltered again.



Human ancestors survived the last collapse with stone tools and campfires; today’s society rides on electronics that could fry in minutes. Turning a page of deep time into sound may be the wake‑up call policymakers need.



Credit for the video and study information goes to the <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency (ESA)</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq7275" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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This is what the total collapse of the Earth's magnetic field sounded like 41,000 years ago

Earth’s magnetic field is not the steadfast guardian that most...

Lightning usually roars; on this particular night, it whispered. Far above a thunderhead straddling northern India and Tibet, the sky lit up with silent crimson flashes called "red sprites."



They flared for only a split second, yet 105 of them - more than anyone had ever tallied over a single South Asian storm - were caught on video.



Two Chinese astrophotographers, Angel An and Shuchang Dong, captured this spectacular display - over one hundred red sprites - high above the Himalayas as they sat perched near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puma_Yumco" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pumoyongcuo Lake</a> on the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-roof-of-the-world-keeps-rising-over-time/">Tibetan Plateau</a>. 



Their vantage point, almost three miles above sea level, offered an unobstructed view of the upper atmosphere. 



What filled their camera frames was both breathtaking and scientifically intriguing, because red sprites are not your everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-captured-creating-gamma-ray-bursts-on-earth-which-normally-come-from-space/">lightning bolts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-a-secret-sky-show">Capturing a secret sky show</h2>



Red sprites hover between 40 and 55 miles up, far above the tallest thunderclouds. Up there, the air is thin, so electric fields can spark gigantic filaments that glow red, sometimes crowned with bluish tendrils. 



In South Asia, sightings are rare; bad weather and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">light pollution</a> usually hide them. Yet this storm did more than oblige - it delivered a whole cast of sprite species. 



Nearly half the events formed “dancing” clusters, 16 secondary jets shot upward, and four fleeting green glimmers, nicknamed ghost sprites, trailed the red flashes.



The cameras recorded without synchronized timestamps - a snag if you want to match each sprite to the lightning stroke that birthed it. Still, the observers kept every frame, knowing fresh methods might salvage the timing later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-this-red-sprite-storm">Science behind this red sprite storm</h2>



Enter atmospheric physicist Gaopeng Lu and colleagues at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology of China</a>. They compared the stars drifting across the video with satellite-tracked star charts, pinning each frame within one second of its true moment. 



The team verified 95 of the sprites and traced two-thirds of them to individual cloud-to-ground discharges packing more than +50 kiloamps of current.



“This event was truly remarkable,” Professor Lu enthused. “By analyzing the parent lightning discharges, we discovered that the sprites were triggered by high-peak-current positive cloud-to-ground lightning strikes within a massive mesoscale convective system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-red-sprites-are-made">How red sprites are made</h2>



Unlike ordinary lightning, sprite-producing strokes rise through the storm’s spreading anvil rather than the violent core. The positive polarity of those strokes sets up a huge electric field above the cloud top. 



In that rarefied realm, nitrogen molecules glow red when jolted, outlining shapes that can resemble jellyfish, columns, or carrots. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-red-sprite-lightning-captured-from-space/">Ghost sprites</a> add a green afterimage at the base of the ionosphere, hinting at energy rippling even higher.



The parent thunderstorm was a <a href="https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/topics/atmosphere/mesoscale-convective-complex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesoscale convective complex</a> - an oval shield of rain roughly 77,000 square miles across, with cloud-top temperatures plunging to about –135 °F. 



It stretched from the Ganges Plain to the southern flank of the Himalayas, placing the overshooting tops uncomfortably close to the sprite zone. 



That geography matters: mountains force air upward, and the plateau’s thin air lowers the ceiling between troposphere and ionosphere, making sprites easier to trigger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-peaks-meet-the-ionosphere">When peaks meet the ionosphere</h2>



As the findings circled the research community, Himalayan storms joined the short list of global sprite hotspots that already included the U.S. Great Plains and coastal western Europe. 



“This suggests that thunderstorms in the Himalayan region have the potential to produce some of the most complex and intense upper-atmospheric electrical discharges on Earth,” Professor Lu added.



Such discharges are more than pretty lights. They ferry energy and charged particles from weather systems to the middle atmosphere in milliseconds, offering natural laboratories for studying climate-chemistry links that satellites alone can’t resolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transient-luminous-events">Transient luminous events</h2>



Sprites form part of a family known as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/citizen-science/spritacular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transient luminous events</a>, which also includes elves, blue jets, and gigantic jets. Each channel moves heat and reactive gases between layers of the atmosphere. 



Over time, that mixing could nudge ozone chemistry or influence global electric circuits. 



In a region already sensitive to monsoon rhythms and aerosol loading, Himalayan sprites serve as a fresh indicator of how tall storms ventilate the troposphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-more-eyes-on-the-skies">Putting more eyes on the skies</h2>



Because the timing-by-starfield trick needs only clear skies and off-the-shelf cameras, the research team believes amateurs everywhere can now contribute robust data. A reviewer of the study even noted that the method empowers citizen scientists. 



More eyes on the sky mean bigger datasets, sharper statistics, and perhaps the discovery of still unknown sprite cousins.



The May 19, 2022 display proves that the world’s highest mountains can fling electrical tendrils toward space as readily as any prairie supercell. 



For storm chasers, astrophotographers, and atmospheric scientists alike, that is no small feat - and a reminder that the planet’s grandest light shows sometimes stay hidden until someone points a camera in just the right direction.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4143-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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Stunning and mysterious 'red sprite' lightning storm captured in photos

Lightning usually roars; on this particular night, it whispered. Far...

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first humans. Instead, they arrived slowly, traveling with early farmers. A new study uncovers this deliberate journey and connects it to the spread of agriculture and maize cultivation. 



A research team led by Dr. Aurélie Manin analyzed 70 mitochondrial genomes from ancient and modern dogs found between Mexico and Argentina.



The analysis revealed that dogs followed a slow southward path, not with hunter-gatherers, but with farming societies that were transforming the land around 7,000 to 5,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-ancient-dogs-came-from-one-lineage">All ancient dogs came from one lineage</h2>



The study also revealed a single maternal lineage, the A2b1 haplogroup, as the root of all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America. This lineage emerged after dogs entered North America and gradually split as they moved southward. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/famous-ice-age-puppies-are-not-actually-dogs-according-to-new-study/">Dogs</a> likely crossed cultural and ecological boundaries slowly, adapting as they traveled alongside human groups.



The researchers found no signs of other A2b subgroups in South America. Thirty-six archaeological dogs fell into A2b1, forming a tightly clustered clade, with no early presence in the Amazon Basin. 



Genetic data shows that dogs in North, Central, and South America stayed regionally distinct, indicating minimal female-dog movement between areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-spread-with-ancient-maize-farmers">Dogs spread with ancient maize farmers</h2>



The arrival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/">dogs</a> in South America matches the introduction of maize agriculture. According to the study, maternal lineages of northern and southern dogs split around 7,000 years ago - around the same time maize began its journey south.



The results suggest that dogs spread with farmers rather than earlier foraging groups.



“We show that their spread was slow enough to allow the dogs to structure genetically between north, central and south America,” said Dr Manin. “It opens new research avenues on the relationship that existed between dogs and these early agrarian societies.”



The researchers tested this with molecular clocks and population models. Their data showed a north to south diversification pattern in ancient dogs. 



The timing aligns with archaeological remains of ancient dogs found in Mexico, Peru, and Argentina - all appearing after the earliest human settlements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-delay-in-arrival">Why the delay in arrival?</h2>



The study offers possible reasons for the delay in the arrival of dogs. Early foragers may not have needed dogs, or the tropical corridor posed too many risks such as disease, predators, or lack of food. 



European colonial records confirm that dogs remained vulnerable to these threats even in the 1700s.



This delay mirrors what happened in Europe, where Neolithic farmers replaced earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">dog</a> lineages with ones from the Levant. The Americas may have seen a similar turnover during the farming transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-dogs-still-carry-ancient-dna">Some dogs still carry ancient DNA </h2>



Colonial contact brought European dog lineages, which quickly replaced most indigenous dogs. Yet, not everything was lost. 



Some modern Chihuahuas still carry mitochondrial DNA from the ancient A2b1 clade. One Chihuahua's maternal line traces back over 1,500 years to pre-contact Mesoamerican dogs.



The researchers also found dogs in modern Peru with mitochondrial DNA belonging to European lineages. These lineages first appeared in Europe over 14,000 years ago and now dominate the Americas.



Still, ancient bonds with dogs left deeper marks. In some regions, archaeological burials show how ancient dogs were cared for and mourned. 



Early farmers may have used ancient dogs for protection, meat, or companionship. Farming surpluses could have supported feral ancient dogs or drawn scavengers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-of-dogs-and-farming">The journey of dogs and farming</h2>



This study reshapes our view of dog-human history in the Americas. It places agrarian societies, not foragers, at the center of dog expansion. This pattern aligns with other regions like East Asia, where dog dispersal followed farming and surplus food.



The research also shows the fragility of early genetic lineages. Most pre-contact dog DNA is now gone, erased by colonial waves. But rare survivors, like the Chihuahua, still carry whispers of the past.



The study encourages further research using nuclear DNA analysis and isotopic methods. These advanced tools can reveal more than just the origins of ancient dogs. 



The tools can help scientists understand how ancient dogs lived, how they moved across regions, and how they interacted with early American communities.



This deeper knowledge could uncover the everyday roles ancient dogs played in human societies and how those relationships evolved over time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Dogs followed the first farmers through the Americas

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first...

Volcanic islands, such as those in Hawaii and the Caribbean, are often fringed by coral reefs - ring-shaped structures that closely follow the shoreline. These reefs aren’t continuous. They contain natural gaps known as reef passes, which serve as channels connecting the sheltered lagoon with the open ocean.



Water and nutrients move through these gaps, keeping the ecosystem alive and balanced. Reef passes are critical for circulation, helping flush out freshwater and bring in nutrients that coral reefs rely on to survive.



Until now, no one had pinned down how these reef passes form. But researchers from <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">MIT</a> and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution have found something surprising.



These coral gateways line up with where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alaskas-rivers-are-rusting-and-the-changes-are-visible-from-space/">rivers</a> exit the island’s coast. The study shows that island rivers are not just bystanders. They help carve these passages through the coral itself.



“The results of this study help us to understand how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">health of coral reefs</a> depends on the islands they surround,” said Professor Taylor Perron.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-offer-benefits-for-reefs">Rivers offer benefits for reefs</h2>



Megan Gillen, the study's lead author, is a graduate student in the MIT-WHOI Joint Program in Oceanography.



“A lot of discussion around rivers and their impact on reefs today has been negative because of human impact and the effects of agricultural practices,” said Gillen.



“This study shows the potential long-term benefits rivers can have on reefs, which I hope reshapes the paradigm and highlights the natural state of rivers interacting with reefs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-coral-reefs-from-space">Observing coral reefs from space</h2>



The team focused on the Society Islands, a group of volcanic islands in the South Pacific that includes Tahiti and Bora Bora. 



With fieldwork off the table during the pandemic, the researchers turned to satellite imagery. Scanning the islands on Google Earth, they noticed something odd.



“The islands in this chain have these iconic, beautiful reefs, and we kept noticing these reef passes that seemed to align with deeply embayed portions of the coastline,” noted Gillen. “We started asking ourselves, is there a correlation here?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-reef-passes">The mystery of reef passes</h2>



From above, the coral reefs looked like cracked rings. The breaks - reef passes - seemed to fall in line with old river valleys that cut deep into the coastline. 



These depressions are where rivers drain out to the sea. Gillen began wondering: are the rivers responsible for these coral gaps?



“People have examined the flow through reef passes to understand how ocean waves and seawater circulate in and out of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-lagoons-have-high-loads-of-microplastics/">lagoons</a>, but there have been no claims of how these passes are formed,” said Gillen. 



“Reef pass formation has been mentioned infrequently in the literature, and people haven’t explored it in depth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-rivers-form-the-reef-passes">Big rivers form the reef passes</h2>



To test the idea, the team used radar data from NASA’s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. The mission mapped about 80% of the Earth's surface back in 1999. 



Using this topographic data, the researchers traced out the island river basins and pinpointed every reef pass on the surrounding coral reefs.



Then they “unwrapped” the islands and their reefs into straight lines. This made it easier to compare locations directly. And the pattern was clear.



“Looking at the unwrapped shorelines, we find a significant correlation in the spatial relationship between these big river basins and where the passes line up,” said Gillen. 



“So we can say that statistically, the alignment of reef passes and large rivers does not seem random. The big rivers have a role in forming passes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-rivers-shape-coral-reefs">How rivers shape coral reefs</h2>



The researchers propose two ways that rivers could shape coral: reef incision and reef encroachment.



Reef incision happens when sea levels are low and rivers can flow directly over exposed reef. The flowing water and sediment grind away at the coral over time, cutting a channel into the reef.



Reef encroachment is the opposite. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-growth-cannot-keep-pace-with-rising-sea-levels/">sea levels rise</a>, coral reefs grow upward and move inward, toward the island, chasing sunlight. But if they grow into an old riverbed that’s too deep for sunlight, the coral can’t survive there. It dies off, leaving a gap - a reef pass.



Together, reef incision and reef encroachment likely shaped the reef passes we see today over many sea-level cycles.



“We don’t think it’s an either/or situation,” said Gillen. “Reef incision occurs when sea levels fall, and reef encroachment happens when sea levels rise."



"Both mechanisms, occurring over dozens of cycles of sea-level rise and island evolution, are likely responsible for the formation and maintenance of reef passes over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-older-islands-tell-us">What older islands tell us</h2>



The researchers also noticed a trend across different islands. Younger islands had more reef passes that were close together. Older islands had fewer, more spread out.



Over time, volcanic islands sink. As they do, there’s less land to catch rain and form strong rivers. Without that flow, the reef passes begin to close, shaped instead by ocean waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-build-better-reefs">Can we build better reefs?</h2>



This study does more than explain a pattern in coral reefs. It opens the door to new ideas for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/">reef conservation</a>.



Gillen is now exploring whether engineered flows - man-made systems that mimic rivers - could help create reef passes where none exist. These artificial channels could boost circulation and help coral reefs stay healthy in places where natural rivers are absent.



“Part of me wonders: If you had a more persistent flow, in places where you don’t naturally have rivers interacting with the reef, could that potentially be a way to increase health, by incorporating that river component back into the reef system? That’s something we’re thinking about."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025GL114881">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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How island rivers quietly shape coral reefs

Volcanic islands, such as those in Hawaii and the Caribbean,...

On a windswept spur of Cookes Peak in Luna County, New Mexico, geologists have logged three minerals never before cataloged by science.



The additions, raydemarkite, virgilluethite, and stunorthropite, nudge the global mineral count to 5,998, an uptick that seems tiny until one recalls how rarely legitimate newcomers are accepted.



"Unlike the plant or animal kingdoms, which have millions of known species, the mineral kingdom has far fewer members," explained <a href="https://www.cas.miamioh.edu/~rakovajf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. John Rakovan</a> with the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources at <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Mexico Tech</a>. 



"Today, there are 5,998 known mineral species, but new minerals are being discovered every year." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cookes-peak-keeps-surprising-geologists">Cookes Peak keeps surprising geologists</h2>



<a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/tour/landmarks/cookes_peak/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cookes Peak</a> stands 8,404 feet high and lies roughly 17 miles north of Deming, a range whose granodiorite core once fed ore‑rich hydrothermal fluids. 



Those fluids left pockets of lead, zinc, silver, and fluorite, and in some of the oxidized cavities they also left the molybdenum‑rich conditions needed for rare molybdic acid hydrates to crystallize.



Raydemarkite forms sprays of colorless needles only a millimeter long but flexible enough to bend without breaking. 



Virgilluethite appears as yellow‑green plates that often overgrow earlier crystals, while stunorthropite shows up as stubby milky blades that sometimes replace the yellow mineral sidwillite.



Each mineral honors a New Mexican whose life’s work advanced regional geology: mineral collector <a href="https://www.mindat.org/reference.php?id=16068079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ramon S. DeMark</a>, economic geologist <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/detail.cfml?name=lueth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Virgil W. Lueth</a>, and University of New Mexico professor <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/16/n1/nmg_v16_n1_p14.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Stuart A. Northrop</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-raydemarkite-special">What makes Raydemarkite special</h2>



Laboratory work shows raydemarkite’s formula is MoO₃·H₂O, the natural analogue of a synthetic α‑phase made in 1903. 



Its triclinic lattice is built from double chains of distorted MoO₅(H₂O) octahedra linked only by hydrogen bonds; those bonds explain both the mineral’s habit and its surprising flexibility.



Virgilluethite shares the same MoO₃·H₂O chemistry but crystallizes in a monoclinic sheet structure identical to tungstite, WO₃·H₂O. 



The sheets represent a dehydrated re‑ordering of sidwillite, making every virgilluethite crystal a textbook pseudomorph, a mineral that keeps its predecessor’s shape while swapping out its internal chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stunorthropite-named-after-a-legend">Stunorthropite named after a legend</h2>



Stunorthropite, (NH₄)₄[Mo₂O₆(MoO₄)₂], immortalizes Dr. Stuart Northrop, author of the still‑authoritative <a href="https://www.abebooks.com/book-search/title/minerals-new-mexico/author/northrop-stuart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Minerals of New Mexico</a>. 



Though its crystals rarely exceed a few tenths of an inch, their occurrence helps map late‑stage ammonium activity in the Cookes Peak system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-new-minerals-still-matter">Why new minerals still matter</h2>



The International Mineralogical Association’s Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification <a href="https://mineralogy-ima.org/docs/IMA2009_ComWG-Rpt.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(CNMNC)</a> reviews about 90–100 proposals a year; in 2009 it handled 91, underscoring the steady yet modest pace of discovery. 



Even when accepted, a new mineral may exist at only one site, so every occurrence helps refine economic models, environmental baselines, and planetary formation theories.



Molybdenum-based minerals like raydemarkite and virgilluethite give researchers clearer insight into how molybdic acids behave under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/significant-rare-earth-metal-deposit-discovered-in-kazakhstan-third-largest-in-world/">natural conditions</a>. 



These compounds are studied for their roles in sensors, batteries, and even hydrogen production, but their natural forms had remained elusive until now.



Finding natural analogues of synthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/superconductivity-achieved-at-room-temperature-with-new-materials/">materials</a> lets scientists compare lab predictions with nature’s results. This helps validate models about crystal growth, bonding, and transformation under pressure, temperature, and hydration changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-cases-to-molecular-models">Museum cases to molecular models</h2>



All three minerals are now on public display at the <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/museum/home.cfml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Mexico Mineral Museum</a> in Socorro. Visitors can view specimens of raydemarkite, virgilluethite, and stunorthropite - each representing a moment where the Earth's chemistry briefly aligned to create something new.



These samples also serve researchers far beyond the museum. 



Crystallographers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-found-the-oldest-rock-in-the-us-dating-back-4-billion-years-zircon-crystals/">geologists</a>, and materials scientists rely on these finds to refine molecular simulations and deepen our understanding of phase transitions, especially in compounds tied to electronics and energy storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-natural-minerals-differ-from-synthetics">How natural minerals differ from synthetics</h2>



Although raydemarkite and virgilluethite had been synthesized in labs over a century ago, their natural counterparts behave differently in the wild. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-found-the-worlds-largest-iron-ore-deposit/">Geologists</a> must confirm these minerals formed without human intervention and remained stable through natural geological processes.



The difference isn’t just academic. Natural conditions often introduce trace impurities, subtle lattice distortions, or unexpected bonding behaviors, details that synthetic processes can miss. 



These differences matter when scientists use mineral data to model Earth’s crust or design real-world applications.



With Cookes Peak still offering unworked seams, curators expect more names will soon join the roster, and collectors may yet find them under a hand lens rather than a microscope.



One study is published in <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/cjmp/article/61/1/203/620425/Raydemarkite-the-Natural-Analogue-of-Synthetic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Canadian Journal of Mineralogy and Petrology</a>. The other study is also published in <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/cjmp/article/61/6/1151/628916/Virgilluethite-A-New-Mineral-and-the-Natural" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Canadian Journal of Mineralogy and Petrology</a>.



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Geologists discover three new minerals in the southwestern U.S.

On a windswept spur of Cookes Peak in Luna County,...

While most people witness only the familiar crack of thunder and flash of lightning from storms on Earth, hidden electrical fireworks detonate much higher, in the thin air up to 55 miles overhead, easily seen from the ISS.



These brief spectacles - blue jets, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-red-sprite-lightning-captured-from-space/">red sprites</a>, violet halos, ultraviolet rings - are collectively known as transient luminous events, or TLEs. 



For decades, they eluded systematic study, appearing only in pilots’ anecdotes and the occasional lucky photograph.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-space-station-observes-something-unknown-55-miles-above-earth/">International Space Station</a> (ISS) has changed that by offering an unobstructed seat above the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-thousand-years-extreme-storms-are-becoming-much-more-frequent/">storms</a>, where specialized cameras and sensors capture every fleeting spark.



Piece by piece, researchers are discovering that what happens in this hidden layer can rattle radio transmissions, affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-has-never-been-safer-and-continues-to-improve/">aircraft safety</a>, and even tweak the chemistry of the upper atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-laboratory-bolted-to-the-iss">Storm laboratory bolted to the ISS</h2>



The centerpiece of this sky-watching mission is the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/Atmosphere_Space_Interactions_Monitor">Atmosphere–Space Interactions Monitor</a>. ASIM, built by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a>, has clung to an external ISS platform since 2018. Its job: watch Earth and record flashes smaller than a fingernail and shorter than a heartbeat.



The monitor’s high-speed cameras and photometers have already delivered more than scientists hoped. Data show that certain lightning-like discharges at the crest of a thundercloud can pump <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-sparks-the-discovery-of-a-new-electromagnetic-wave/">electromagnetic energy</a> into the ionosphere and ignite an enormous ring of ultraviolet light called an ELVES.



These rings can boost ionospheric charge for hundreds of miles, potentially disrupting long-distance radio signals.



ASIM has also catalogued ultra-brief corona discharges - bursts so short that ground-based instruments often miss them. By timing and analyzing these coronas, researchers are beginning to understand how a cloud’s upper regions prime the pump for full-blown lightning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-red-sprites-phenomenon">Strange "red sprites" phenomenon</h2>



A mysterious phenomenon known as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-red-sprite-lightning-strikes-seen-above-the-himalayas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red sprites</a>" randomly occur in the mesosphere, hanging like upside-down jellyfish for a scant ten milliseconds. Blue jets spear from cloud tops toward the stratosphere with eerie, silent urgency.



Both events happen so fast and high that capturing their details was nearly impossible. Yet ASIM can spot them from orbit.



One study used its footage and ground instruments to pinpoint the altitude of a single blue jet. This confirmed that these upward bolts really do punch beyond the weather layer we know.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/earth-storms_red-sprites_study-from-space_iss_NASA_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/earth-storms_red-sprites_study-from-space_iss_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Red SPRITES are visible above a line of thunderstorms off the coast of South Africa. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1974829"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Red SPRITES are visible above a line of thunderstorms off the coast of South Africa. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Those measurements feed directly into storm-charging models, which in turn inform aviation guidelines about where dangerous electrical fields might lurk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iss-films-storms-and-lightning-in-detail">ISS films storms and lightning in detail</h2>



The ISS cupola - the seven-window observation dome often featured in astronaut selfies - has become part of the scientific toolkit.



Through ESA’s <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023EGUGA..2515873C/abstract">Thor-Davis</a> experiment, ISS crewmembers attach a state-of-the-art camera behind the glass and capture distant storms at up to one hundred thousand frames per second. 



The resulting slow-motion movies reveal electrical filaments proliferating in ways textbooks never predicted.



By capturing lightning’s split-second branching in vivid detail, Thor-Davis helps scientists validate laboratory plasma tests against real-world events.



 More practically, the footage might one day improve the algorithms that warn power-grid operators when severe lightning threatens transmission lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-invisible-lightning-pulses">Catching invisible lightning pulses</h2>



Lightning’s hidden drama is not limited to visible colors. Some strikes trigger terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/integral-gamma-ray-telescope-mission-was-a-brilliant-success/">gamma-ray</a> flashes, pulses of radiation energetic enough to dowse an airliner in a brief surge equivalent to a chest X-ray.



To map these invisible hazards, the <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</a> worked with university partners to release <a href="https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/light-1#performance-specifications">Light-1</a> from the ISS. 



Though no larger than a loaf of bread, the CubeSat carries detectors fine-tuned to high-energy photons.



As Light-1 records flashes over equatorial storm systems, researchers plan to line up its timestamps with global lightning networks on the ground. 



Over time, this will help build a three-dimensional atlas of where gamma-ray flashes fire most often.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storms-mess-with-signals">Storms mess with signals</h2>



At first glance, a sprite or ELVES ring might seem like nothing more than meteorological curiosity - a sky-high cousin of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-captured-on-neptune-for-the-first-time-thanks-to-the-webb-telescope/">aurora</a>. 



Yet these flashes erupt in the same charged layers that carry radio waves and relay signals to submarines. Disturb those layers and communications can fade or fail without warning.



For airlines, understanding when and where blue jets or gamma-ray flashes appear adds another layer of safety planning on polar or equatorial routes.



Scientists also care about climate. TLEs and corona discharges shuffle nitrogen oxides and other chemicals between atmospheric strata, altering ozone chemistry and radiative balance. Incorporating this vertical mixing into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> can tighten predictions of future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-trackers-get-upgrades">Lightning trackers get upgrades</h2>



With the ISS likely to operate through the decade, ASIM and its successors will continue collecting a library of once-invisible storm events.



Engineers envision next-gen detectors that trigger automatically, record faster, and span a broader spectrum- from radio to hard X-ray. 



CubeSats like Light-1 could multiply into a fleet, feeding real-time alerts to weather agencies and satellite operators whenever a gamma flash or mega-sprite erupts.



Above all, the space station shows that to grasp Earth’s weather, one must sometimes look down from above. Each orbit adds a few more frames to lightning’s hidden movie reel. 



Those frames bring us closer to predicting - and perhaps mitigating - the electrical surprises that storms fling toward the edge of space.



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Astronauts study storms and red sprites from the International Space Station

While most people witness only the familiar crack of thunder...

Viruses have no life of their own. They survive only by entering living cells and stealing what they need. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is no different. 



Known mostly for causing cold sores, this virus is silent in most people. But inside of our cells, the herpes virus does something extraordinary to DNA.



A new study published in the journal Nature Communications&nbsp;shows that HSV-1 does more than hijack the host’s machinery. It reshapes the 3D layout of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-entire-human-genome-is-stored-on-this-disk-could-aliens-build-a-human-with-this-data-if-they-found-it/">human genome</a>. This gives the virus access to specific human genes useful for its own replication.



“HSV-1 is an opportunistic interior designer, reshaping the human genome with great precision and choosing which bits it comes into contact with,” explained Dr. Esther González Almela.



This reshaping is not a side effect; it is intentional. The virus rewires DNA contacts within hours of infection. These changes let HSV-1 build the perfect space to multiply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-herpes-hsv-1-the-basics">Understanding herpes HSV-1 - the basics</h2>



Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infects a vast portion of the global population, with estimates suggesting that over two-thirds of people under 50 carry the virus. 



Most individuals acquire HSV-1 during childhood through nonsexual contact, such as sharing utensils or close personal interactions.



In many cases, it remains dormant in nerve cells, reactivating sporadically due to stress, illness, or immune suppression. 



Although the physical symptoms are often mild, the social stigma surrounding herpes can lead to anxiety, embarrassment, and emotional distress, particularly when outbreaks become visible.



Beyond its common association with oral lesions, HSV-1 can have more severe consequences in rare cases. The virus occasionally causes genital herpes through oral-genital contact, contributing to sexual health concerns. 



Even more seriously, HSV-1 may lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-changes-give-a-virus-the-ability-to-infect-humans/">encephalitis</a> - a potentially fatal inflammation of the brain - especially in infants or individuals with weakened immune systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-herpes-virus-controls-dna">How the herpes virus controls DNA</h2>



Within one hour of entering the cell, HSV-1 hijacks the host’s RNA polymerase II (RNAP II). This enzyme normally makes RNA from human DNA. The virus redirects it to copy its own genes.



Topoisomerase I (TOP1), which snips DNA to relieve strain, joins the viral effort. Cohesin, which helps fold DNA, also moves toward the viral genome. Together, these enzymes help HSV-1 build viral replication compartments (VRCs).



In these compartments, human transcription slows dramatically. RNAP II and TOP1 abandon host DNA. As a result, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/">chromatin</a> - the tightly packed form of DNA - collapses into a shell just 30% of its normal volume.



VRCs grow quickly. Host DNA is pushed to the edges of the nucleus. Human gene activity plummets. Viral RNA floods the cell within a few hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-turns-in-genome-folding">Surprising turns in genome folding</h2>



Cohesin partially joins the virus party and forms short loops near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-the-next-pandemic-lessons-about-viral-transmission/">viral</a> DNA. But much of its usual function is lost. Some host DNA loops vanish, while others stay intact. The virus rewires specific loops to boost genes it benefits from.



Despite this damage, parts of the human genome resist. A/B compartments - large regions of active or inactive DNA - stay largely intact. This shows that chromatin can keep its broad structure, even under viral attack.



Another twist: HSV-1 does not rely on altering chemical markers like H3K27me3 or H3K9me3. It leaves these epigenetic marks unchanged. Instead, it changes the physical shape and positioning of DNA.



“We always thought dense chromatin shut genes down but here we see the opposite: stop enough transcription first and the DNA compacts afterwards. The relationship between activity and structure might be a two-way street,” noted Dr. Álvaro Castells García from <a href="http://portal.smu.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Medical University</a> in Guangzhou, China.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-enzyme-blocks-the-virus">One enzyme blocks the virus</h2>



The researchers found a key weakness in the viral plan. Blocking just one host enzyme, TOP1, completely halted HSV-1’s genome reshaping. Without this enzyme, VRCs failed to form. The virus could not make a single new particle.



“In cell culture, inhibiting this enzyme stopped the infection before the virus could make a single new particle,” noted Professor Pia Cosma.



TOP1 is now a potential target for new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/computer-model-can-identify-tumor-fighting-immune-cells/">therapies</a>. Since nearly two-thirds of people under 50 carry HSV-1, a treatment like this could have a huge impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-herpes-virus-rewires-dna">The herpes virus rewires DNA</h2>



The researchers used advanced tools to uncover HSV-1’s tactics. Super-resolution microscopy let them see features just 20 nanometers wide. Hi-C showed which parts of DNA were in contact.



The virus genome tends to associate with active, gene-rich regions in human DNA. These contacts likely help the virus turn on the genes it needs.



Throughout infection, HSV-1 genome clusters remain stable in size. RNAP II binds closely to them. Cohesin binds loosely. This balance supports ongoing replication.



The findings show that HSV-1 does not just invade. It rewires and reorganizes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/">human cells</a> with precision. Right now, there is no cure for HSV-1. People can treat symptoms, but the virus stays in the body for life. This study shows a new way to fight it.



If we stop the virus from reshaping human DNA early in the infection, we might stop it from spreading which could lead to new treatments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60534-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Herpes virus reshapes human DNA within one hour of infection

Viruses have no life of their own. They survive only...

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of darkness where light fades fast. They stay oriented by sending out quick clicks and reading the echoes, a process known as echolocation. 



Each click acts like a tap on the water, letting their brains “feel” distant objects and fish through sound alone.



In a new study, a team of scientists led by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) traced how this talent shows up inside the brain.



The study compares the neural wiring of echolocating dolphins to that of a species of non-echolocating baleen whale called a sei whale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-echolocation-the-basics">Understanding echolocation - the basics</h2>



Echolocation in marine mammals is a sophisticated biological sonar system that allows animals like dolphins, whales, and porpoises to navigate, hunt, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-must-shout-over-underwater-noise-to-communicate/">communicate</a> in dark or murky underwater environments. 



These mammals emit a series of high-frequency clicks that travel through the water and bounce off objects. By listening to the returning echoes, they can determine the size, shape, distance, speed, and even internal structure of their targets. 



This process gives them an incredibly detailed picture of their surroundings, often surpassing what sight alone could provide in deep or cloudy waters.



This adaptation is especially critical for species that live in environments where visibility is limited. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowhead-whales-dive-in-synchrony-even-when-out-of-acoustic-range/">deep-diving whales</a> rely on echolocation to locate prey thousands of feet below the surface, where light cannot penetrate. 



Echolocation also plays a key role in social behavior, helping individuals coordinate movements or avoid collisions while swimming in pods. 



Remarkably, some species can even adjust the frequency and intensity of their clicks to focus on specific tasks, much like humans adjusting the lens on a camera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-echolocation-in-dolphins">Studying echolocation in dolphins</h2>



Brain tissue from deceased, stranded animals is hard to obtain and even harder to scan. By partnering with the International Fund for Animal Welfare (<a href="https://www.ifaw.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFAW</a>), the team secured enough samples to begin charting auditory circuits in detail.



“Our research sought to understand how the pathways for auditory information differed between echolocating and non-echolocating whales," said lead author Sophie Flem. 



"In humans, primates, rodents, and dogs, we have well-established maps of what parts of the brain contribute to what kind of processing. We don't yet have those in dolphin brains, which are strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-smart-how-are-dolphins-intelligent/">unusual</a> compared to terrestrial animal brains," she added.



Researchers traced signals leaving the inferior colliculus, a mid-brain hub that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-sharks-and-whales-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> share. 



In dolphins, this region is oversized, making it an ideal place to follow sound information as it travels into the cortex.



The team found more cortical targets in dolphins than in the sei whale, yet the strength of those links was similar. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cerebellum-s-role-in-dolphin-echolocation">Cerebellum's role in dolphin echolocation</h2>



The biggest surprise lay in the pathways heading the other way - down toward the cerebellum.



“While neuroscientists used to think of the cerebellum largely as a center for balance and motor (muscle/movement) control, newer evidence strongly suggests that it serves as an integration center for sensory and motor information and, importantly, a rapid prediction center," explained co-author Peter Tyack, emeritus research scholar in biology at WHOI.



“Dolphins use echolocation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-amazon-river-dolphins-can-help-us-save-them/">interact with their world</a> and, unlike hearing and vision, they must produce the energy that then returns to their sensory receptors - echolocation is part hearing and part vocalization," explained Tyack.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1s.webp" alt="Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Credit: PLOS One" class="wp-image-1974812"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLOS One</figcaption></figure>



He likened the process to a person using a hand to produce the touch sense feedback that lets him or her find the light switch. 



In a similar manner, dolphins move around their echolocation beam to get the feedback they need to function in a dark, underwater environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imaging-brains-the-size-of-suitcases">Imaging brains the size of suitcases</h2>



Scanning a sei whale brain - nearly three times heavier than a human brain - posed technical challenges.



Oxford’s Karla Miller developed high-signal diffusion sequences, while UC Berkeley’s Ben Inglis optimized collection protocols. 



The result is some of the clearest diffusion imagery ever captured from large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammal</a> brains.



"Comparative neurobiologists have longed to examine the patterns of connections within dolphin and whale brains for years, believing that the unique evolutionary history of these species will provide new insights into how brains evolve," said senior author Peter Cook of <a href="https://www.ncf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New College of Florida</a>.



The technology is now available to begin tackling these mysterious nervous systems and finding out how they work. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-dolphin-echolocation-regions">Mapping dolphin echolocation regions</h2>



Cook and colleagues already have more baleen and toothed whale brains queued for study. 



"It's believed that neural control of vocal output has totally shifted in dolphins as they evolved their unique nasal vocal apparatus. We can now map out vocal control in dolphins and how it differs from baleen whales," remarked Cook.



Both groups of animals have the rare ability to learn new vocal behavior, and dolphin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-smile-at-each-other-when-they-are-feeling-playful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal systems</a> are some of the strangest in the animal kingdom. 



"Now that we can opportunistically and ethically look inside these animals' brains, they're just getting started teaching us," Cook concluded.



The team hopes that future maps of vocal pathways will reveal how sound production and perception blend together in one of nature’s most sophisticated sonar systems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323617" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Scientists learn how dolphin brains evolved to 'see' underwater by using sound

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of...

Many people fire off rapid‑fire queries at the latest AI chatbots without a second thought. Each answer taps electricity, and a new study shows that some replies raise the meter by a factor of fifty.



The analysis covered 14 large language models (<a href="https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/glossary/large-language-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLMs</a>). The researchers found that the most verbose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-ai-can-balance-climate-goals-and-economic-progress/">engines</a> release as much heat‑trapping gas per answer as running a midsize laptop for an hour, while concise models sip power.



The study was led by Maximilian Dauner at the <a href="https://hm.edu/en/index.en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hochschule München University of Applied Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-answers-carry-a-carbon-cost">AI answers carry a carbon cost</h2>



Every interaction begins with tokens, the word fragments a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-disrupting-jobs-but-countries-are-learning-to-adapt/">model</a> turns into numbers so its circuits can reason. More tokens mean more processor cycles and, ultimately, more electricity. 



The link between long output and higher emissions is not new. A 2019 <a href="https://aclanthology.org/P19-1355/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> estimated that training one <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58620-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural‑language model</a> could emit as much carbon as five cross‑country flights.



Recent <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351%2823%2900365-3">projections</a> suggest generative AI as a whole could consume 29.3 terawatt‑hours per year, rivaling Ireland’s entire grid use. 



Power plants that supply that demand release hundreds of grams of carbon dioxide equivalent for every kilowatt‑hour they generate, with the <a href="https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/emissions-factors-2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Energy Agency</a> placing the world average at about 480 g.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-shows-big-emission-differences">Testing shows big emission differences</h2>



Dauner’s team put seven‑ to 72‑billion‑parameter systems through 1,000 standardized questions across philosophy, history, law, abstract algebra, and mathematics. The researchers counted the electricity drawn by an <a href="https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NVIDIA A100 GPU</a> during each run.



Models designed to “think out loud” produced an average of 543.5 thinking tokens before answering, compared with 37.7 tokens for brisk responders. That extra chatter translated into as much as 50 times more emissions per question.



“The environmental impact of questioning trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-proposes-using-ai-to-improve-tsunami-warnings-in-tourist-areas/">LLMs</a> is strongly determined by their reasoning approach, with explicit reasoning processes significantly driving up energy consumption and carbon emissions,” said Dauner. 



Long answers in algebra caused six times more emissions than short history replies. It was the symbolic reasoning in AI’s long answers, not just length, that raised energy use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-accuracy-means-more-emissions">Greater accuracy means more emissions</h2>



The 70‑billion‑parameter Cogito model hit 84.9 percent accuracy but released three times more carbon than similarly sized concise systems. 



No model that stayed below 500 g of emissions cracked the 80 percent accuracy ceiling. That ceiling also shifted by topic. History questions were easy wins, while algebra stumped nearly every contestant despite burning far more power.&nbsp;



“Currently, we see a clear accuracy‑sustainability trade‑off inherent in LLM <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-ai-has-free-will-whos-responsible-when-things-go-wrong/">technologies</a>,” Dauner noted. 



Size alone was not destiny. <a href="https://huggingface.co/collections/Qwen/qwen25-66e81a666513e518adb90d9e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qwen 2.5</a>, a 72‑billion model that keeps its answers short, handled almost two million questions for the same emissions budget that <a href="https://api-docs.deepseek.com/news/news250120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DeepSeek R1</a> burned on 600,000, with only a small accuracy gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-burden-of-ai-use">Environmental burden of AI use </h2>



To put the numbers in context, generating answers with some reasoning-heavy AI models emits as much CO₂ as driving a car for several miles. 



For example, DeepSeek R1 (70B) emits over 2,000 grams of CO₂ to answer 1,000 questions, which is roughly the same as burning a quarter of a gallon of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/greenhouse-gas-emissions-typical-passenger-vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gasoline</a>.



Over time, those numbers multiply. Running a reasoning-enabled model to answer questions non-stop over a full day could produce as much carbon as running a refrigerator for two weeks. 



This comparison helps highlight the hidden but accumulating environmental <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/estimating-appliance-and-home-electronic-energy-use" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burden</a> of everyday AI use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoiding-long-ai-answers">Avoiding long AI answers</h2>



Individual habits matter. A quick setting that asks for a concise answer slices token counts dramatically. 



Saving the heavyweight models for code reviews or legal briefs and using lighter variants for trivia cuts emissions further.



Cloud providers can help by surfacing real‑time energy dashboards so users see the carbon cost of every query. Transparent metrics nudge people toward greener defaults without sacrificing capability when it truly counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ai-must-limit-long-answers">Future AI must limit long answers</h2>



Engineers are racing to squeeze more work from fewer tokens, trimming redundant reasoning steps and caching intermediate thoughts. Hardware makers also chase efficiency, but clean grids remain essential. 



Data‑center growth is already prompting utilities to burn more fossil fuel, with a recent <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ai-runs-dirty-power-and-the-public-pays-the-price-2025-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> warning of billions of dollars in public‑health impacts tied to AI power demand.



Policy teams are weighing disclosure rules, minimum efficiency standards, and incentives for renewable‑powered compute zones. Without them, the next wave of models could push the sector’s footprint beyond that of entire mid‑size nations. 



Incremental gains in software design, smarter user choices, and cleaner electricity can bend the curve. The challenge is aligning all three before the growth of digital brains outpaces the planet’s patience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/communication/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1572947/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Communication</a>.



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AI chatbots consume 50 times more energy for long answers

Many people fire off rapid‑fire queries at the latest AI...

Rust eats away at iron in bridges, ships, and garage tools. It turns strong metal into flaky, reddish-brown dust. If left unchecked, this corrosion costs the global economy around <a href="https://inspectioneering.com/news/2016-03-08/5202/nace-study-estimates-global-cost-of-corrosion-at-25-trillion-ann" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$2.5 trillion</a> each year. Professor Elad Gross and his team at the <a href="https://www.studyinjerusalem.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=US%20ALO%20Google%20Search&amp;utm_content=Brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21498753725&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw097CBhDIARIsAJ3-nxdh8hG35m15XlYauLeFiKVEP5YIWdcJotvnBO5b3VViQjWGqO6T_LAaAlf5EALw_wcB">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> have now developed a coating that sticks - and protects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-iron-ore-deposits-reveal-a-1-3-billion-year-old-secret/">iron</a> for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rust-weakens-iron-and-costs-billions">Rust weakens iron and costs billions</h2>



When a gate creaks or a car panel bubbles, we see the surface trouble, yet industries feel the deeper sting through unplanned shutdowns and heavier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-found-the-worlds-largest-iron-ore-deposit/">designs</a>. 



Builders and ship owners pour money into maintenance crews and thicker steel plates, just to buy safety margins.



Iron anchors modern infrastructure because it is strong, workable, and cheap. Unfortunately, oxygen and moisture turn its skin into brittle oxide, exposing the fresh metal beneath.



Protective paints, <a href="https://galvanizeit.org/hot-dip-galvanizing/what-is-zinc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zinc galvanizing</a>, and polymer wraps slow the cycle. Even so, salt spray, ultraviolet light, and thermal swings open pinholes that let water creep in. 



A single weak spot starts an electrochemical cell that accelerates decay. Inspections, sandblasting, and repainting follow, adding cost and downtime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-coatings-don-t-stick-well-to-iron">Old coatings don’t stick well to iron</h2>



Traditional primers hinge on sulfur‑based molecules that bond firmly to noble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-was-lifes-first-essential-metal-and-shaped-early-evolution/">metals</a> yet break down on iron. Organic polymers form thick films but rarely achieve the chemical grip needed to survive abrasion and flexing.



Ceramic layers, sol‑gels, and graphene sheets each solve one piece of the problem, yet introduce production hurdles such as high heat conditions or exotic precursors.&nbsp;



A 2024 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214785324004851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> of polymer barriers called poor adhesion the main bottleneck for long service. Gross’s team approached the problem from the bottom up by giving the polymer something to hold onto.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-iron-coating-sticks-better-lasts-longer">New iron coating sticks better, lasts longer </h2>



The new recipe begins with a one‑molecule‑thick primer of <a href="https://baranlab.org//images/grpmtgpdf/Eastman_May_07.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">N‑heterocyclic carbene (NHC)</a>, a species that bonds strongly to metals. Crudden and coworkers showed in 2014 that NHC films on gold shrug off boiling water and strong acids far better than do thiols.&nbsp;



The process developed by Gross and colleagues involves electrodepositing a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24755592/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self‑assembled monolayer</a> of <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/80662" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benzNHC</a> across the iron surface. Next comes a spin‑coated layer of bisphenol‑A ethoxylate diacrylate that locks into a cross‑linked polymer network (<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.3c09042" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPN</a>) under ultraviolet light.



“This discovery offers a major leap forward in protecting iron from corrosion,” said Professor Gross, the study’s senior author. He stressed that the primer’s chemistry is what keeps the overcoat anchored in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-tests-show-strong-rust-protection">Salt tests show strong rust protection</h2>



Engineers test anti‑rust films in 3.5 wt % sodium chloride, a seawater mimic recommended by <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/12/3/344" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASTM G44</a>. Gross compared bare iron, iron with only CPN, iron with only NHC, and iron with the duplex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/">system</a>.



Bare substrates corroded fast, and the single‑layer samples offered modest relief. The NHC + CPN combo, however, slashed corrosion current by more than two orders of magnitude and shifted the corrosion potential 475 mV toward the noble side. 



That translates to 99.6 % rust protection after a full day in saltwater. Importantly, the film did not blister, peel, or crack during electrochemical cycling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-inside-with-focused-beams">Peeking inside with focused beams</h2>



The group turned to focused ion beam–scanning electron microscopy (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0300944017301182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FIB‑SEM</a>) to expose the hidden interface, a technique valued for its precision cross‑sections. Images showed an 11.8‑micron polymer layer clinging to NHC‑primed iron, even after testing.



A control sample lacking the primer lost nearly half its polymer and displayed voids where salt had invaded. 



X‑ray photoelectron and Raman spectra still carried NHC and ester signatures, confirming covalent bonding rather than weak physical contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-iron-coating-has-many-benefits">New iron coating has many benefits</h2>



Shipyards schedule dry‑dock visits years ahead because a three‑day coating job costs more than a transoceanic fuel bill. Extending intervals by even one season could save operators millions. 



Bridges and concrete rebar stand to gain as well. Coated bars resist chloride attack for longer, delaying cracking and spalling that demand disruptive repairs.



The primer deposits at room temperature and flows with electric field lines, so odd‑shaped parts and internal channels are within reach.&nbsp;



The polymer uses commercial monomers and standard UV lamps, which eases adoption on existing production lines. Environmental gains stack on top of the economic ones. Fewer recoating cycles mean less abrasive grit, solvent fumes, and steel scrap heading to landfills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-upgrades-could-expand-its-uses">Future upgrades could expand its uses</h2>



Gross thinks tweaking the polymer recipe could adjust flexibility, tint, or conductivity for specific sectors. Early trials hint that low‑alloy steels and cast iron accept the primer as well, though each will need its own optimization.



Future studies will probe scratch healing, antifouling additives, and accelerated weathering under UV‑ozone lamps. The team also plans to explore varied electrolyte chemistries for chemical plants.



If those efforts pan out, the humble nail might one day rival stainless steel for staying power, without the nickel price tag.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.202422879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angewandte Chemie International Edition</a>.



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New coating makes iron almost completely rust resistant

Rust eats away at iron in bridges, ships, and garage...

Today, nearly all non-Africans descend from a group of people who left Africa around 50,000 years ago. But other human groups attempted this migration out of Africa long before.



Fossil records show that earlier waves moved into Eurasia, yet they vanished without leaving a genetic legacy. Why did only one expansion succeed?



A new study led by Professor Eleanor Scerri of the <a href="https://www.gea.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology</a> and Professor Andrea Manica of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, offers a detailed explanation. 



The research combines archaeology with climate models, and it introduces a fresh parameter: ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">adaptability</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-used-by-humans-in-africa">Habitats used by humans in Africa</h2>



Before the successful exit, humans in Africa began using new types of environments. According to study co-author Dr. Emily Hallett, the team assembled a dataset of archaeological sites and environmental information covering the last 120,000 years in Africa. 



"We used methods developed in ecology to understand changes in human environmental niches, the habitats humans can use and thrive in, during this time," said Dr. Hallett.



The researchers used a continent-wide database of 479 dated archaeological layers and bioclimatic reconstructions. 



The analysis tracked five environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/">variables</a>: leaf area index, temperature and rainfall during the wettest and warmest quarters, and annual temperature range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-the-human-niche">Expansion of the human niche</h2>



The research team created a time-series model to analyze ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/">changes</a>. These generalized additive models (GAMs) showed a clear result: around 70,000 years ago, humans began expanding into new habitats.



This expansion wasn't just driven by climate change. The study showed that even when forest and desert areas remained constant, humans began settling in them more frequently. 



“Our results showed that the human niche began to expand significantly from 70,000 years ago, and that this expansion was driven by humans increasing their use of diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prediction-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-next-mass-extinction/">habitat</a> types, from forests to arid deserts,” noted Dr. Michela Leonardi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-adapted-to-africa-s-changing-climate">Humans adapted to Africa’s changing climate</h2>



“Previous dispersals seem to have happened during particularly favourable windows of increased rainfall in the Saharo-Arabian desert belt," explained Professor Manica. 



"However, around 70,000-50,000 years ago, the easiest route out of Africa would have been more challenging than during previous periods, and yet this expansion was sizeable and ultimately successful."



The shift to more stable desert use marked a turning point. Even during arid periods, humans continued to occupy deserts and forests. This reflects a growing resilience to climate variation, not just opportunistic movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-shifts-supported-human-expansion">Cultural shifts supported human expansion</h2>



Between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago, several behavioral changes occurred human populations. These included wider diets, water storage, landscape burning, and increased long-distance social ties.



The archaeological record shows signs of territoriality and group identity emerging during this period.



Around 29,000 years ago, a second major niche expansion occurred. By then, humans occupied nearly all ecosystems across Africa. This wide habitat usage became the baseline for the start of their global spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-africa-to-the-world">From Africa to the world</h2>



Earlier hypotheses credited tools or symbolic behavior for the successful human migration out of Africa. But many of these traits existed at much earlier times. The experts concluded that success rested instead on a gradual build-up of ecological flexibility.



“Unlike previous humans dispersing out of Africa, those human groups moving into Eurasia after ~60-50 thousand years ago were equipped with a distinctive ecological flexibility as a result of coping with climatically challenging habitats," said Professor Scerri.



"This likely provided a key mechanism for the adaptive success of our species beyond their African homeland.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-shaped-modern-human-success">Africa shaped modern human success</h2>



This was not a sudden revolution. It was a long African process shaped by regional adaptations. The forests in West and Central Africa, the deserts of the Sahel, and the savannas all played roles. 



The researchers avoided attributing the shift to a single cultural driver, pointing instead to overlapping local innovations.



Climate instability may have helped, not hindered. Dry and wet spells forced humans to adapt constantly. Over time, these pressures helped shape a species that could survive nearly anywhere.



The study reframes the question of human expansion by showing it began with changes in Africa. 



Successful human migration out of Africa wasn't just about tools or genes. It was about being able to survive in more places than ever before. That transformation started inside Africa, and it paved the way for global colonization.



Supported by the&nbsp;Max Planck Society, the&nbsp;<a href="https://erc.europa.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Research Council</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.leverhulme.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leverhulme Trust</a>, this work builds a strong case that ecological readiness, not technology, explains the success of our species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09154-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Why early human migrations out of Africa failed to take hold

Today, nearly all non-Africans descend from a group of people...

When Earth was locked in ice, where did life hide out? New research suggests that shallow, sunlit meltwater ponds - small pools on top of ancient ice sheets - may have given early complex life forms a place to survive. 



These above-ice pockets could have acted as safe zones during one of the coldest, harshest chapters in our planet’s history.



The study was conducted by an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT). The research was focused on a time known as "Snowball Earth," when much of the planet was encased in ice between 635 and 720 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meltwater-ponds-sheltered-life">Meltwater ponds sheltered life </h2>



During <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowball-earth-event-set-the-stage-for-complex-life/">Snowball Earth</a>, temperatures dropped to minus 50 degrees Celsius. Ice sheets likely covered land and sea - possibly even near the equator. Still, life managed to survive.



The question of how life persisted has challenged scientists for years. Some have suggested that organisms could have survived in places like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents-provide-clues-about-the-origin-of-life/">hydrothermal vents</a> deep in the ocean, under the ice, or even in small areas of open water. 



But the MIT-led team wanted to explore a different idea: what if meltwater ponds on the surface of the ice were key?



Fatima Husain, lead author of the study, is a graduate student in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences.



“We’ve shown that meltwater ponds are valid candidates for where early eukaryotes could have sheltered during these planet-wide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-earth-global-glaciation-event-lasted-4-million-years/">glaciation events</a>,” said Husain. "This shows us that diversity is present and possible in these sorts of settings. It’s really a story of life’s resilience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-found-in-antarctica">Clues found in Antarctica</h2>



To test this theory, the researchers turned to modern Antarctica. Today, you can find shallow <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/scientists-are-spotting-meltwater-lakes-more-frequently-in-greenland/">meltwater</a> ponds scattered along the McMurdo Ice Shelf. 



The ponds form when sunlight warms dust-laden patches of ice, melting the surface just enough to create small pools. These conditions are likely similar to what existed near the equator during Snowball Earth.



In 2018, MIT’s Roger Summons and colleagues collected samples from several of these ponds, first described over a century ago as “dirty ice.” 



The team found thick microbial mats lining the pond bottoms - sticky layers built up over years, made mostly of photosynthetic cyanobacteria. But that wasn’t all they found.



The researchers also uncovered signs of more complex life. Not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/">bacteria</a>, but eukaryotes - organisms with a cell nucleus - were present in every pond they studied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-life-in-meltwater-ponds">Hidden life in meltwater ponds</h2>



To confirm the presence of eukaryotes, the scientists used two techniques. First, they looked for sterols, lipid molecules that only eukaryotes produce. Then, they analyzed ribosomal RNA, which acts as a genetic fingerprint. 



These tools helped them identify not just single types of organisms, but entire communities - algae, protists, microscopic animals - thriving in each pond.



“No two ponds were alike,” said Husain. “There are repeating casts of characters, but they’re present in different abundances. And we found diverse assemblages of eukaryotes from all the major groups in all the ponds studied. These eukaryotes are the descendants of the eukaryotes that survived the Snowball Earth.”



One surprising finding: the salinity of a pond had a major impact on what lived there. Saltier ponds hosted similar communities, while fresher ponds had more variation.



“This really highlights that meltwater ponds during Snowball Earth could have served as above-ice oases that nurtured the eukaryotic life that enabled the diversification and proliferation of complex life - including us - later on,” said Husain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meltwater-ponds-hold-clues-to-ancient-life">Meltwater ponds hold clues to ancient life</h2>



There’s still debate about what Snowball Earth was really like - whether it was a completely frozen ball or more of a "slushball" with thin patches of open ocean. But the evidence from Antarctica shows that today’s meltwater ponds can serve as useful analogs for ancient environments.



“We’re interested in understanding the foundations of complex life on Earth. We see evidence for eukaryotes before and after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/">Cryogenian</a> in the fossil record, but we largely lack direct evidence of where they may have lived during,” explained Husain. 



“The great part of this mystery is, we know life survived. We’re just trying to understand how and where.” And meltwater ponds, it turns out, might be a big part of that answer.



“There are many hypotheses for where life could have survived and sheltered during the Cryogenian, but we don’t have excellent analogs for all of them,” noted Husain. 



“Above-ice meltwater ponds occur on Earth today and are accessible, giving us the opportunity to really focus in on the eukaryotes which live in these environments.”



By studying one of the coldest places on Earth today, scientists are piecing together how life managed to hang on through one of the planet’s darkest and coldest times.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60713-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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Life survived when Earth was covered in ice - but how?

When Earth was locked in ice, where did life hide...

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World Giraffe Day. Chosen deliberately for its distinction as the longest day of the year, the date honors the world’s tallest land mammal. The symbolism is compelling, but the message is urgent. 



Giraffes are undergoing a rapid and largely unrecognized population decline. While often admired for their appearance, their ecological importance and conservation status remain overlooked by the global public.



The <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a> emphasizes that celebrating giraffes must go hand-in-hand with acknowledging the threats they face. Current trends suggest that without widespread intervention, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/">animals</a> could disappear within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roles-of-giraffes">Ecological roles of giraffes </h2>



Giraffes may be quiet and unassuming, but they play a vital role in nature. They perform key ecological functions that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-world-giraffe-day-celebrate-the-worlds-tallest-animal-on-the-earths-longest-day/">biodiversity</a> in savanna ecosystems.



While feeding, giraffes naturally trim tree canopies, allowing more sunlight to reach the plants below. This promotes understory growth and enhances the structural diversity of the ecosystem.



As giraffes move across landscapes, they disperse seeds, contributing to forest regeneration.



Giraffes help many other animals by changing their surroundings. Birds, insects, and mammals all benefit. Yet, much like their silent presence, the decline of giraffes has largely gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-giraffe-day-a-quiet-decline">World Giraffe Day: A quiet decline</h2>



Over the past three decades, giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/">populations</a> have declined by nearly one third. They have been extirpated from at least seven African countries. Despite this, their situation has received minimal public attention. Conservationists have described this phenomenon as a “silent extinction,” noting the contrast between the giraffe’s visibility in tourism and media, and its invisibility in conservation policy.



In comparison to elephants and rhinos, which receive considerable international focus, giraffes rarely appear in global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/">conservation</a> discourse. Their quiet presence may be contributing to their neglect. Yet, the threats they face are no less severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drivers-of-population-loss">Drivers of population loss</h2>



Habitat fragmentation is a primary driver of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-have-gut-bacteria-that-are-unaffected-by-their-diet/">population</a> decline. Human expansion through agriculture, infrastructure, and urban development has significantly reduced the land available to giraffes. 



Poaching also persists. Some giraffes are killed for meat; others for tails, which are used as charms or tools.



Climate change compounds these pressures. Droughts force giraffes to approach farmlands, leading to human-wildlife conflict. In these cases, crop protection often results in giraffe fatalities. 



The cumulative effect of these stressors is a gradual erosion of giraffe populations across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-scientific-urgency">Emerging scientific urgency</h2>



Recent genetic studies have shifted scientific understanding of giraffe taxonomy. What was once considered a single species with subspecies is now recognized as four distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/">species</a>. 



This taxonomic clarification carries conservation implications. Protection strategies must now be tailored to individual species, as threats and habitat needs vary. 



With improved clarity comes a renewed obligation to act swiftly. Several giraffe species are critically endangered, with populations below 2,000 individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-active-conservation-efforts">Supporting active conservation efforts</h2>



The Giraffe Conservation Foundation leads key interventions across Africa. One major strategy involves tracking giraffes using GPS collars to map their movement patterns and identify ecological corridors. These insights inform landscape-level protection strategies.



Translocation efforts have also proven successful. In areas where populations are especially vulnerable, small herds have been moved to protected zones with favorable conditions. 



Though resource-intensive, this approach has led to successful breeding and the birth of new calves, offering cautious optimism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-action-on-world-giraffe-day">Public action on World Giraffe Day </h2>



Public involvement remains essential. While direct participation in fieldwork is not feasible for most individuals, awareness-raising remains powerful. 



Sharing verified information, supporting conservation organizations, and advocating for sustainable tourism all contribute to broader efforts.



Educators can also play a key role by integrating giraffe conservation into curricula. Artists, writers, and communicators can amplify messages that connect people emotionally and intellectually with the issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-giraffes">Cultural significance of giraffes</h2>



Beyond biology, giraffes hold symbolic importance in many African cultures. Their image appears in rock art, oral traditions, and modern storytelling. 



Often associated with grace, patience, and heightened vision, giraffes represent qualities that humans value deeply.



In this sense, their disappearance would constitute not only an ecological loss but also a cultural one. Preserving giraffes means preserving shared human heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-celebration">More than a celebration </h2>



This observance offers more than celebration. It invites reflection. Why has the decline of such an iconic animal gone largely unnoticed? What assumptions have shaped our collective inaction? And more importantly, how do we shift from admiration to responsibility?



The extra daylight on June 21 becomes a metaphor for awareness. The question is whether we will use it wisely. We already have the tools and science is catching up. 



Protecting giraffes isn’t just about saving a species - it’s about preserving the wild itself. We can’t afford to wait. What stands tall today could disappear tomorrow.



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World Giraffe Day 2025 calls for urgent action to save giraffes

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World...

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been discovered by scientists at East Tennessee State University. 



Millions of years ago, this 16-inch salamander with a powerful bite threaded its way through the soft earth of what is now northeastern Tennessee.



The salamander tunnels criss-crossed ancient forests, and its appetite likely shaped the mix of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/">amphibians</a> in the surrounding ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-may-explain-salamander-diversity">Fossil may explain salamander diversity </h2>



Today, the fossil of this new species may help explain how the region's salamanders became so diverse. The specimen surfaced at the Gray Fossil Site &amp; Museum, a dig next door to <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a> (ETSU).



After careful study, researchers described the animal - Dynamognathus robertsoni - in a publication in the journal Historical Biology.



The work comes from a team that includes assistant collections manager Davis Gunnin, professor of geosciences Dr. Blaine Schubert, head curator Dr. Joshua Samuels, museum specialist Keila Bredehoeft, and assistant collections manager Shay Maden.



“Our researchers are not only uncovering ancient life, they are modeling the kind of collaboration and curiosity that define ETSU,” said Dr. Joe Bidwell, dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. 



“This exciting find underscores the vital role our university plays in preserving and exploring Appalachia’s deep natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-named-for-its-powerful-jaw">Species named for its powerful jaw</h2>



Dynamognathus robertsoni ranks among the largest of the lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. It exchanged gases through its skin and the lining of its mouth, rather than by means of lungs. 



The jaw anatomy of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-can-adapt-better-to-climate-change-than-previously-thought/">ancient salamander</a> suggests a striking bite force, which would have made it a formidable predator.



“This group of salamanders has unusual cranial anatomy that gives them a strong bite force, so the genus name, Dynamognathus – Greek for ‘powerful jaw,’ is given to highlight the great size and power of the salamander compared to its living relatives,” explained Maden.



The species name honors Wayne Robertson, a longtime volunteer who spotted the first bone and has sifted through more than 50 tons of sediment since 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appalachia-s-surprising-salamander-legacy">Appalachia’s surprising salamander legacy</h2>



Today, the Southern Appalachian forests host more than 50 salamander species - about one-eighth of all known salamanders on Earth. 



Many of them are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/plethodontidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plethodonts</a> like the new fossil species. Scientists have long wondered how so many species could have arisen in this small corner of the world.



“Finding something that looks like a Red Hills salamander here in East Tennessee was a bit of a surprise,” Gunnin said. 



“Today they’re only found in a few counties in southern Alabama, and researchers thought of them as a highly specialized dead-end lineage, not particularly relevant to the evolution of the dusky salamanders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-salamander-communities">Evolution of salamander communities </h2>



The discovery of Dynamognathus robertsoni in Southern Appalachia indicates that this type of relatively large, burrowing salamander was once more widespread in eastern North America, explained Gunnin.



He noted that this may have had a profound impact on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-black-bellied-salamanders-were-hidden-in-plain-sight/">Appalachian</a> salamander communities.



Modern dusky salamanders max out at about seven inches (18 centimeters) - less than half the length of the fossil giant. The research team suspects that predators like D. robertsoni drove smaller stream-dwellers to diversify rapidly, setting the stage for today’s variety.



“The warmer climate in Tennessee 5 million years ago, followed by cooling during the Pleistocene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">Ice Ages</a>, may have restricted large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-backed-salamanders-will-struggle-to-adapt-to-climate-warming/">burrowing salamanders</a> to lower latitudes, like southern Alabama, where the Red Hills salamander lives today,” said Samuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-salamander-fossil">Significance of the salamander fossil</h2>



“The latest salamander publication is a testament to this teamwork and search for answers,” said Schubert. 



“When Davis Gunnin, the lead author, began volunteering at the museum as a teenager with an interest in fossil salamanders, I was thrilled because this region is known for its salamander diversity today, and we know so little about their fossil record."



From high-school volunteers to seasoned faculty, the Gray Fossil Site team keeps uncovering stories buried beneath Appalachian soil.



The stories explain why a walk through a modern Tennessee stream still reveals more salamander shapes and colors than almost anywhere else on Earth.



This shared effort blends curiosity, dedication, and local pride in a way that brings science to life. With each new find, the team adds another piece to the puzzle of Appalachia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">ancient ecosystems</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2501332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Giant salamander fossil reveals deep roots of Appalachian diversity

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been...

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried the faint whisper of wings. Billions of Bogong moths rise from the dry inland plains. Their destination is a handful of icy caves high in the Snowy Mountains, up to 600 miles away.



How these brief-lived insects - each one making the journey only once - find their way across such vast, feature-poor landscapes has long been one of biology’s quiet mysteries.



Now, an international research team has discovered the key: Bogong moths navigate by reading the constellations and the Milky Way, switching to Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic field</a> when clouds blot out the stars.



The findings make the species the first known invertebrate to use a stellar compass for long-distance migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unseen-nightly-moth-migration">An unseen nightly moth migration</h2>



Bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) hatch on parched farmland and grasslands across southeastern Australia. Triggered by spring warmth, each insect embarks on a marathon flight toward cool alpine refuges.



When they arrive - sometimes only weeks after leaving birth sites - they wedge themselves into narrow rock cracks. There, they lower their body temperature and remain torpid through the scorching summer months.



Come autumn, they reverse course, return to the lowlands, breed once and die, leaving offspring to repeat the cycle.



Although the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">migrat</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">on</a> is centuries old, its navigational underpinning has been elusive. Earlier work hinted that moths might sense Earth’s magnetic field. But that alone seemed too crude to guide them to specific caves occupying only a few square miles in the vast Australian Alps.



The new study shows the insects wield a two-part navigation toolkit every bit as sophisticated as that of migratory birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-use-celestial-landmarks">Moths use celestial landmarks </h2>



Led by Professor Eric Warrant of <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, the research team built a custom flight simulator: a circular arena whose inner surface could project a perfectly realistic night sky, complete with Zodiac constellations and the luminous smear of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/">Milky Way</a>.



By rotating or scrambling the projection, the team could test what cues the moths use. They also enclosed the device in coils that canceled Earth’s magnetic field, allowing independent manipulation of magnetic and visual information.



When moths collected during spring migrations were placed in the simulator under a natural star map, they reliably flew south-southeast - the direction to the Snowy Mountains from their capture location.



Autumn migrants, tested months later, flew north-northwest toward their breeding grounds. Rotating the star map 180 degrees caused the insects instantly to flip their direction of flight. 



Scrambling the star pattern left them disoriented, proving they were not just chasing the brightest point but reading specific celestial landmarks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-have-a-backup-migration-plan">Moths have a backup migration plan</h2>



Night skies are not always clear. The researchers next obscured the stars while reintroducing a controlled magnetic field.



Deprived of visual cues, the moths still flew along the correct migratory bearing, guided only by magnetism. When both stars and magnetic information were eliminated, the moths lost orientation entirely.



The results reveal a dual-compass strategy: starlight when available, magnetism when not. Such redundancy ensures reliability amid Australia’s famously changeable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/">spring weather</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-to-stars">Brains tuned to stars</h2>



The team also ventured inside the moth’s brain. Using microelectrodes thinner than a human hair, they recorded from neurons in the central complex - an insect brain hub for spatial processing.



Certain neurons fired maximally when the simulated starry sky aligned with the migratory heading. Rotating the sky shifted each cell’s peak activity by an equivalent angle, confirming that these neurons encode celestial direction.



That sophisticated computation, packed into a brain weighing a fraction of a gram, rivals the navigational circuitry found in far larger animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-moths-to-machines">From moths to machines</h2>



The discovery joins earlier breakthroughs revealing that South African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/">dung beetles</a> use the Milky Way to roll dung balls in straight lines.



Study co-author Javaan Chahl, a remote-sensing engineer at the University of South Australia, has already translated beetle astronomy into an AI sensor that allows robots to orient in low light.



He believes Bogong moths could inspire next-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/">drones</a> capable of navigating long distances at night without GPS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moth-migration-needs-dark-skies">Moth migration needs dark skies</h2>



Bogong moth numbers have crashed due to drought, pesticides, land use changes, and climate-driven shifts in vegetation. The species is now listed as vulnerable.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">Light pollution</a> compounds the threat by washing out the night-sky cues the moths rely on. Losing dark skies could push the migratory system past a point of no return. 



This would trigger ripple effects across alpine ecosystems that rely on the moths as a seasonal food bonanza for birds and mammals.



“This is not just about a moth,” said Warrant, who also holds appointments at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> and the <a href="https://online.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>.



The findings help recognize that the night sky is a public commons, critical for countless species - humans included - that have used it to orient, to tell time, to wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigation-by-starlight">Navigation by starlight</h2>



For millennia, Polynesian navigators steered canoes by starlight, and mariners followed the Southern Cross across oceans. 



Now we know that a creature no larger than a paper clip can do the same, threading a path across an entire continent by reading the celestial vault.



Safeguarding the Bogong moth’s migration means protecting the dark, starlit corridors overhead - an essential step if we are to keep both the insect’s ancient journey and our shared cosmic heritage alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09135-3">Nature</a>.



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Moths read the stars to complete an epic migration

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Two prehistoric sea monsters found after 325 million years in the world’s largest cave

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable, and its European range has never stayed still for long. 



New research shows that the bear’s wanderings are tied less to temperature than to where its food grows or grazes - an important detail with big conservation consequences.



Pablo M. Lucas and colleagues at the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Seville</a> analyzed more than three million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-brown-bears-have-a-genetic-weak-spot/">bear</a> locations and the energy yield of 276 food species to find the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bears-follow-food-with-most-energy">Bears follow food with most energy</h2>



“We detected 276 species in their diet. Bears occupy those places where the most energy from the species in their diet is available,” explained Lucas. 



Brown bears consume anything from acorns to red deer, shifting diet with local supply. Lucas’s team confirms that bears settle where the most calories are packed into the landscape, a principle ecologists call <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/12/10/1928" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic energy optimization</a>.&nbsp;



Europe holds about 17,000 free‑ranging brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untangling-the-history-of-polar-bears-and-brown-bears/">bears</a> spread over 22 countries, yet the population is fragmented into 14 sub‑populations, from the Cantabrian Mountains to Karelia. 



The <a href="http://www.bearconservation.org.uk/eurasian-brown-bear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> classifies the species as “Least Concern” globally, but several regional groups remain vulnerable. Fragmentation matters because food landscapes vary sharply across short distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-food-sources-for-bears">Climate shifts food sources for bears </h2>



Climate change is already nudging thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/">species</a> poleward and uphill, some three times faster than biologists once estimated. As fruiting plants, insects and ungulates relocate, bears face a moving target.&nbsp;



In warmer regions such as Greece and Türkiye, the study found bears behaving almost like herbivores, with nuts and berries dominating the diet. 



Farther north in Scandinavia and Finland, meat from wild boar or moose supplies over half of a bear’s annual calories.



American grizzlies offer a parallel: on Alaska’s Kodiak Island, warmer summers now ripen elderberries during salmon runs, and many bears abandon fish for fruit. 



The European analysis suggests similar switches are likely whenever plant and animal phenology collide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-energy-landscape">Mapping the energy landscape</h2>



To quantify edible energy, the team combined scat and stomach studies with remote‑sensing models of plant and prey habitat. 



A key variable was <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/691/ds691.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isothermality</a>, the ratio of day‑to‑night temperature range to annual range, which influences plant productivity.



Areas rich in reproductive plants such as oak and beech mast scored high for bears in Spain, while regions with dense roe‑deer populations pulled bears east of the Carpathians.



The researchers then layered these food maps onto climate and land‑use projections for 2050. Where forests shrink or heat stress pushes oaks uphill, the calories disappear and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/">bear</a>’s probability of presence drops with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bear-food-zones-may-shrink">Bear food zones may shrink</h2>



Under a mid‑range emissions pathway, suitable bear habitat could contract by one‑third if both abiotic (climate, land use) and biotic (food availability) changes unfold as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forecast</a>. 



Losses are steepest in the East Balkan and Türkiye groups, where warming outpaces plant adaptation. In contrast, the Scandinavian and Karelian sub‑populations may gain ground as forests march north, provided prey species keep pace.



A separate Swedish <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296319593_Seasonal_and_annual_variation_in_the_diet_of_brown_bears_Ursus_arctos_in_the_boreal_forest_of_southcentral_Sweden" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of 527 bear scats showed similar north-south dietary splits and underlines that bears quickly alter foraging tactics when new options arise. 



Such flexibility could buffer northern bears but offers little help to isolated southern populations hemmed in by farmland and roads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-people-and-policy">Implications for people and policy</h2>



Europe’s large carnivores have rebounded over the past two decades, sparking new debates about coexistence. Where wild prey declines, bears turn to orchards, beehives and livestock carcasses, raising conflict costs. 



Predicting hotspots of future food scarcity can guide compensation schemes and habitat corridors before tensions flare.



Forest managers also gain a roadmap: protecting seed‑producing trees in southern Europe may retain critical autumn fattening grounds, while maintaining continuous ungulate habitat in the north ensures carnivorous diets stay wild. 



The study argues that conservation targets should shift from static range maps to dynamic “energy maps” that track how calories, not just climate, flow across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-adapt-like-bears">Not all species adapt like bears</h2>



Brown bears are generalists, able to switch food sources as the landscape changes. But many species aren’t so lucky. 



Animals with a <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/generalist-and-specialist-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialist diet</a>, such as the Iberian lynx or alpine butterflies, may not adapt as quickly if their primary food vanishes or migrates beyond reach.



Species with limited mobility or narrow climate tolerance face a double threat: they can’t chase food, and even if they could, suitable shelter might not be there. 



Conservation strategies that work for flexible foragers like bears won’t always translate to more fragile species caught in tight ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-step-is-testing-other-predators">Next step is testing other predators</h2>



Lucas and co‑authors hope to expand the model to wolves and lynx, testing whether prey‑driven range forecasts improve planning for multiple predators at once. 



The researchers are also calling for finer‑scale monitoring of plant phenology so managers can spot mismatches early.



For now, the brown bear reminds us that protecting a species means protecting its pantry. Where acorns fall and deer graze today will shape where cubs are born tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Brown bears move where their food grows

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable,...

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape conservation efforts. From cartoons to fundraising campaigns, giving animals human emotions and faces makes them more relatable. But this seemingly harmless trick has deeper consequences. 



A new study in the journal iScience&nbsp;explores how cultural, personal, and social factors shape our willingness to see animals like ourselves. This impacts which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">species</a> we choose to protect.



“Unfortunately, anthropomorphism significantly influences conservation efforts... Species that appear more human-like or exhibit human-like behaviors usually tend to receive more attention, funding, and public support,” said Federica Amici of <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-responses-to-animals">Emotional responses to animals</h2>



The research team surveyed 741 adults from Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain. Each participant rated how much they agreed with statements about animals’ emotions, minds, intentions, and even their ability to distinguish good from evil. 



Respondents also reported their religious beliefs, education level, social networks, and personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/">animals</a>.



Participants with less education tended to assign more human-like free will to animals. In contrast, those with more structured scientific learning were more cautious. 



Interestingly, urban experiences like owning pets or seeing animals in media predicted more emotional connections. These people were more likely to believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/">animals</a> had minds, emotions, and intent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lonely-humans-humanize-animals">Lonely humans humanize animals</h2>



Social isolation played a powerful role. People with weaker social ties were more likely to see animals as emotionally complex and similar to humans. 



This tendency was even more pronounced in allocentric individuals, who see themselves as part of a group rather than independent. 



These individuals often attributed more free will and emotions to animals, perhaps to meet their own need for companionship



“People who feel lonely or aren’t well connected to others often try to meet their need for social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/">connection</a> by seeing human-like qualities in animals or other non-human things,” noted Amici. 



This helps explain why pet owners or animal lovers may assign deeper personalities to their pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anthropomorphism">Understanding anthropomorphism</h2>



The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to non-human entities, including animals, objects, deities, or abstract concepts, is known as anthropomorphism. 



This tendency is deeply ingrained in human cognition and language, often used to make the unfamiliar more relatable or comprehensible. 



From ancient myths where gods possess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> to modern cartoons where animals talk and act like people, anthropomorphism plays a key role in storytelling, religious belief, and even scientific interpretation. 



It serves as a cognitive shortcut, allowing individuals to empathize with and interpret the actions of non-human entities through a human lens.



In scientific and philosophical contexts, anthropomorphism can be both a useful heuristic and a source of bias. For instance, in animal behavior studies, attributing intentions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions to animals</a> can aid observational insight, but it also risks oversimplifying or misrepresenting their true nature. 



Similarly, in technology and artificial intelligence, people often perceive machines as having intentions or feelings, a phenomenon that shapes user experience and ethical concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-religion-shapes-human-view-of-animals">Religion shapes human view of animals</h2>



Religious belief had a noticeable effect. Participants from monotheistic traditions like Islam and Christianity were less likely to attribute free will, emotions, and pain to animals. 



In contrast, those from non-monotheistic faiths such as Hinduism and Buddhism were more open to the idea that animals could feel, think, and even deceive.



“Non-monotheistic religions appear to contribute more strongly to envisioning a space of coexistence between humans and other species,” said Amici. This supports the idea that religions emphasizing interconnection nurture deeper empathy toward non-human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-monkeys-as-moral-agents">Seeing monkeys as moral agents</h2>



The study included special focus on monkeys. People with greater exposure to monkeys were more likely to believe monkeys could deceive, plan, or act with intent but paradoxically, less likely to think monkeys felt pain.



Why the contradiction? The researchers suggest a possible reason. When animals are seen as threats, such as crop raiding monkeys, humans may still judge their behavior but downplay their suffering. 



This type of moral distancing may help humans justify their actions when conflicts arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-and-understanding-emotions">Feeling and understanding emotions</h2>



The survey measured traits like the ability to feel primary emotions such as anger or fear, secondary emotions like guilt or shame, and understand others’ intentions. 



Most people saw monkeys as capable of feeling basic emotions and having minds of their own.



However, beliefs about more complex traits like distinguishing good from evil were more variable. These attributions often reflected a blend of religion, social closeness, and urban experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assigning-human-traits-to-animals">Assigning human traits to animals</h2>



Assigning human traits to animals can help conservation efforts. It can boost empathy, raise funds, and build support. 



But it can also skew public concern toward cute or familiar species. That may leave less attractive yet ecologically vital creatures out of focus.



“I think anthropomorphizing species can be an effective approach, but it should be used with caution,” said Amici.



This study shows that conservationists must consider social context. Campaigns that resonate in one culture may fall flat in another. 



Customizing messaging based on local beliefs, education, and exposure to animals can make programs more effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-sympathy-to-strategy">From sympathy to strategy</h2>



This research uncovers how deeply our personal lives shape what we see in animals. By recognizing those patterns, conservation can become more inclusive and impactful. 



Instead of relying only on emotion or charisma, strategies can balance human connection with ecological urgency. When we see animals clearly, through both empathy and science, we might finally protect them wisely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00954-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Why we see some animals as more human than others

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape...

Echidna,In,The,Zoo

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like misfits, but the bigger oddity hides in their DNA. For most mammals, a gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22246/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY</a> flips the switch for testis formation and sets sex development in motion.



Researchers have now shown that these <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotremes</a> wield a completely different master key: a Y‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4654491/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a>). 



<a href="https://researchers.adelaide.edu.au/profile/linda.shearwin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Linda Shearwin</a> of the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences led the international team that cracked the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-sex-gene-in-monotremes">Different sex gene in monotremes</h2>



Platypuses carry five X and five Y <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2413164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> that line up in an alternating chain during male meiosis, a structure unlike anything in other mammals. 



Females hold five paired X chromosomes, yet the species thrives, proof that complicated does not always mean fragile.



Genomic clocks place the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/monotremes.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotreme split</a> from other mammals at roughly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081666/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">187 million years ago</a>, long before SRY arose in placental and marsupial lineages. 



Their last common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">ancestor</a> with us never carried SRY, so a different mechanism had to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-have-10-sex-chromosomes">Monotremes have 10 sex chromosomes</h2>



Monotreme males don’t just have an X and a Y. They juggle a system with up to 10 sex chromosomes, five Xs and five Ys in platypuses, and a slightly smaller set in echidnas. 



These chromosomes form a chain during sperm production, a configuration that looks more like a daisy chain than the standard X–Y pair mammals typically carry.



This odd setup baffled scientists for decades. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">therian mammals</a>, monotreme sex chromosomes share homology with bird Z chromosomes, not with the mammalian Y. 



That raised suspicions early on that monotremes must use a completely different trigger to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/">sex</a>, but proving it required access to rare developmental stages.



Anti‑Müllerian hormone normally turns off female tract development in male embryos and later guides <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2024.1468364/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ovarian follicle growth</a>. In people, doctors measure AMH to gauge fertility or predict menopause timing.



Most mammals keep AMH on an ordinary chromosome, far downstream of SRY and <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>. In echidnas and platypuses, evolution duplicated the gene, parked the copy on a Y chromosome, and rewired its control panel to switch on early in male gonads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-starts-outside-the-cell-s-nucleus">Sex starts outside the cell’s nucleus</h2>



“This new understanding fills a significant knowledge gap and ultimately can be used to support conservation of these iconic Australian mammals. AMHY would be the first known example of a growth factor playing a sex‑determining role in mammals,” said Dr. Shearwin. 



Her team tracked AMHY activity in developing echidna testes well before visible sex differences appeared. 



The protein works outside the nucleus, binding a surface receptor and relaying signals rather than directly steering DNA. 



That makes monotremes the only known mammals where a secreted factor, not a transcription factor, calls the first shot in sex development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-amhy-different-from-amhx">What makes AMHY different from AMHX</h2>



Although a X‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMHX) and AMHY both belong to the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4325469/">TGF-β protein family</a> and share key structural features, they diverged significantly after an ancient gene inversion. 



The two proteins are only 52% identical, with differences concentrated in regions that affect hormone cleavage and signaling.



Their promoter regions also diverge. AMHY lacks the usual <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA4</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=SF1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SF-1</a> binding sites seen in AMHX and other mammalian AMH genes. 



Instead, AMHY uses unique transcription factor sites, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2820524/%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DMRT1</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC548021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA1</a>, which are active only in male gonads, suggesting a custom regulatory setup designed for sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-view-of-sex-genes">Wider view of sex genes</h2>



AMH duplications have taken over sex determination more than once. A male‑specific <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5555456/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a> copy steers testis formation in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11907690/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patagonian pejerrey fish</a> and old‑world silversides. 



Some amphibians use the same trick, showing that hormones can win the evolutionary race against classic DNA‑binding proteins.



The discovery also underlines how fragile Y chromosomes can be. SRY itself did not appear until about 160 million years ago and was identified in humans only in <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sex-determining-region-y-mammals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1990</a>. 



If SRY could pop up late, there is no reason other genes cannot step in when needed, as monotremes demonstrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-monotreme-sex-matters">Why monotreme sex matters</h2>



Platypus populations face habitat loss and climate change, and captive breeding programs struggle because eggs are delicate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/">reproductive cycles</a> poorly understood. 



Knowing that AMHY, not SRY, dictates sex gives biologists a tool for early‑stage sexing of embryos in conservation labs.



The work also helps physicians dissect AMH’s many roles in humans. Because monotreme AMHY triggers an entire sex pathway on its own, comparing its sequence to human AMH may spotlight sites essential for receptor binding or signal strength. That insight could refine AMH‑based fertility tests or therapies.



To test AMHY's function, researchers tried introducing platypus AMHX and AMHY into developing chicken embryos, a model known to respond clearly to sex-determining signals. 



Overexpressing chicken AMH in females causes visible masculinization, so scientists hoped platypus versions might do the same.



But nothing changed. The monotreme proteins didn’t cause male traits in chickens, even when highly expressed. 



Structural analysis showed that key binding sites between mammalian AMH and the bird receptor don’t line up well. 



This mismatch confirms that early mammalian changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34155118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMH–AMHR2 interaction</a> likely limit cross-species functionality.



The full study is published in <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03546-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology</a>.



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Platypus and echidnas break mammal rules with weird sex system

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like...

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still leaving space for wildlife? A new proposal says they can.



By setting aside one-fifth of farmland for nature, and tweaking everyday practices on the rest, we can help wildlife recover without sacrificing the food on our tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-wildlife-in-mind">Farming with wildlife in mind</h2>



The plan comes from ecologists at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and the University of Alcalá in Spain. Study co-author Professor James Bullock elaborated on the importance of the research.



“Reversing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> and degradation of ecosystems is essential both for nature as well as long-term global food security. But there is no single silver bullet for nature recovery and so far it has been unclear how to integrate rewilding into agricultural landscapes," said Professor Bullock. 



“Our proposed approach moves beyond land sparing versus land sharing. We believe rewilding can be interwoven into agricultural landscapes and could be key to maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/">food production</a> in a way that is sustainable in the long term for people and the planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicating-land-to-nature-recovery">Dedicating land to nature recovery</h2>



According to the study, fostering rewilding approaches alongside farming could create agroecological landscapes that accommodate biodiversity while remaining resilient and functionally connected. Certain incentives would encourage farmers to adopt this approach.



“While setting aside land for nature recovery could potentially be made a legal requirement for farmers and landowners, there is more likely to be acceptance and success of rewilding if there are incentives in the form of payments for ecosystem services and tax deductions,” noted Professor José María Rey Benayas, lead author on the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-farming-needs-wildlife">Why farming needs wildlife</h2>



Modern farming has greatly increased food production since the 1940s. But this has often come at the expense of nature. 



Clearing land, using heavy fertilizers and pesticides, and removing natural features like hedgerows have pushed many plant and animal species to the edge.



This loss doesn’t just affect wildlife - it disrupts vital services that farms depend on, such as healthy soil, natural pest control, and water retention. As these services decline, the long-term productivity and resilience of farming systems are put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-declining-wildlife">The cost of declining wildlife</h2>



Across Europe and beyond, once-common species are disappearing from farmland. For example, the U.K. has lost over 40 million birds since 1970, and wild bee populations have declined in more than half of European countries, according to multiple long-term surveys.



These animals aren’t just part of the scenery - they’re key to food production. Birds eat crop pests. Bees and other insects pollinate the flowers that develop into fruits and vegetables. Their loss means greater reliance on artificial fertilisers, pesticides, and expensive manual labour.



Bringing wildlife back isn’t just a conservation goal - it’s a practical step toward more affordable and reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-farming-alongside-wildlife">Steps to farming alongside wildlife </h2>



The researchers suggest a four-part plan that links nature conservation with everyday farming. 



First, they recommend reserving at least 20% of farmland for nature. This space would include large patches of woodland, wetlands, and species-rich grassland to form strong core habitats. 



Second, these patches should be connected by green corridors - such as hedgerows, ponds, and strips of scrubland - that allow wildlife to move, feed, and reproduce.



Third, they propose protecting small hotspots within working fields. This would involve setting aside about 10% of cropped land for flower strips, beetle banks, and bird perches, bringing the total to the 30% global restoration goal. 



Finally, they call for small changes in daily farming practices, like reducing chemical use, planting flowers for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a>, and letting livestock graze more freely to help spread seeds and support healthy soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewilding-has-benefits-for-farmers">Rewilding has benefits for farmers</h2>



Many European regions cannot host bears or bison. However, smaller species such as lynx, wildcat, or European hare can still boost ecosystem health. Choosing the right mix depends on local conditions.



Helping wildlife can pay off in more ways than one. When farms support natural habitats, they often see practical benefits in return. 



Better soil retains more water and nutrients, which supports stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-help-make-crops-more-resilient/">crops</a>. Pollinators and natural predators of pests can help increase yields in nearby fields. 



Farmers may also spend less on fertilizers and pesticides, lowering overall input costs. In some places, governments might provide payments or tax breaks to reward efforts that support biodiversity and ecosystem services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-room-for-wildlife">Making room for wildlife</h2>



Reaching the 20% target may be challenging for small farms, but collective action can make it achievable. At the same time, each region will need to adapt the plan to fit its local conditions. 



Areas with heavily degraded farmland have the most to gain, while places with traditional, low-impact farming may require fewer changes. 



The researchers emphasize that this is just a starting point - but the message is clear: making room for wildlife alongside farming can help secure both indigenous species and food for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2860">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Farming for wildlife: How traditional practices can protect nature

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still...

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, and it has a story that spans nearly a million winters.



Researchers report that Akarotaxis gouldae (nicknamed the banded dragonfish) branched off from its nearest cousin some 780,000 years ago, surviving cycles of advancing and retreating ice in near‑total isolation, according to <a href="https://www.vims.edu/people/corso_ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew Corso</a> of the <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dragonfish-family-tree">Tracing the dragonfish family tree</h2>



Genetic work showed that A. gouldae separated from A. nudiceps after glaciers sealed much of the Southern Ocean, leaving a pocket of fish marooned in deep trenches.



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult A. gouldae that are not present on A. nudiceps,” said Corso, adding that the specimens had sat unrecognized in museum jars for decades.



Time‑calibrated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/phylogeny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phylogeny</a>, a technique that treats <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/">DNA mutations</a> as a molecular clock, supports the 780,000‑year split and hints that the ancestors of today’s banded dragonfish rode out the ice age beneath moving glaciers before re‑emerging when the ice pulled back.



The banded dragonfish joins the family Bathydraconidae, a group famed for its sparse sampling and for species that often turn up only as larval traces in plankton nets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-museum-collections">Importance of museum collections</h2>



Old jars, dusty shelves, and handwritten labels might not seem exciting, but they’ve become critical to discovering overlooked species like Akarotaxis gouldae. 



The adult fish had been sitting in museum <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/vertebrate-zoology/fishes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ichthyology</a> collections for years, misidentified as their more common relatives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1s.webp" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1974442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



By cross-checking DNA samples with these physical specimens, scientists were able to link the genetic evidence to real-world morphology. Without access to these archives, the banded dragonfish might still be hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfish-species-in-isolation">Dragonfish species in isolation</h2>



Living cut off for hundreds of thousands of years forces species to adapt in unique ways. In the case of Akarotaxis gouldae, the isolation beneath glaciers may have shaped not only its body but also its behaviors and genetic resilience.



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/">species</a> like this helps scientists understand how evolution works over long timescales when environments are extreme and gene flow is limited. It also gives clues about how animals might respond to rapid environmental changes happening today.



To persist in water that hovers around 28 °F, notothenioid fishes such as A. gouldae make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14515019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antifreeze glycoproteins</a>, tiny molecules that latch onto ice crystals and halt their growth.



Adults likely spend most of the year hundreds of feet down, yet come inshore to guard nests, a behavior documented in related dragonfishes, while their larvae drift near the surface, where food is richer but fishing gear lurks. 



Dissections reveal ovaries holding surprisingly few eggs, suggesting a slow‑growing population that cannot quickly rebound from losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-peninsula-matters">Why the peninsula matters</h2>



All confirmed records of A. gouldae fall inside a roughly 250‑mile swath along the western Antarctic Peninsula, giving the fish one of the narrowest ranges of any Antarctic vertebrate. 



That strip is also among the fastest‑warming places south of the equator; Esperanza Station <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-023-00529-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logged</a> an air temperature of 64.9 °F in 2020, part of a trend of record heat events that are increasing in frequency.



As the water warms and sea ice shrinks, prey dynamics shift. A 25‑year survey shows that larvae of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03042-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic silverfish</a>, an important forage species for penguins and seals, drop sharply when sea ice duration falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-nets-and-collateral-damage">Krill nets and collateral damage</h2>



Commercial vessels net <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/krill-fisheries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> throughout the Peninsula in mid‑water trawls that work from the surface to about 820 ft, directly overlapping the depths where larval dragonfish ride the currents.



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggests that this is a vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly-discovered-in-the-u-s-had-gone-unnoticed-by-scientists/">species</a> that could be impacted by the krill fishery,” said Corso. 



Observers note that juvenile finfish bycatch is poorly documented; a few hundred missed larvae could erase a year‑class of banded dragonfish before scientists even know it existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-ship-s-legacy">Honoring a ship's legacy</h2>



The species honors the research vessel <a href="https://www.usap.gov/vesselscienceandoperations/1626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laurence M. Gould</a>, retired in 2024 after decades ferrying scientists through treacherous seas. Its departure leaves only one U.S. supply ship to cover a coastline the size of the continental United States.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-poop-helps-form-clouds-that-could-slow-antarctic-warming/">Penguin colonies</a> already illustrate what slips through gaps in monitoring: satellite and drone surveys reveal that many chinstrap penguin rookeries around the Peninsula have fallen by more than 50 % since the 1980s.



Corso and colleagues hope the banded dragonfish will become a flagship for hidden Antarctic biodiversity, spurring tighter catch limits and fresh investment in field campaigns before climate and commerce push the deep‑sea relic past a tipping point.



The full study is published in <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/52879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New dragonfish species discovered in Antarctica has survived in isolation for 780,000 years

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly...

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species, yet the planet’s first large animal‑built reefs tell a quieter story. New work on fossils from Nevada shows that early Cambrian seas looked nothing like the bustling coral gardens we know today.



Graduate researcher Casey Bennett of the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> and colleagues spent weeks among dusty outcrops, chipping out blocks packed with shells no bigger than grains of sand.



The analysis reveals surprising patterns of life around those ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">structures</a>, offering a fresh window onto evolution half a billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-reefs-spanned-ancient-nevada">Animal reefs spanned ancient Nevada</h2>



More than 514 million years ago, sponge‑like <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/archaeo.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeocyathids</a> built the planet's earliest animal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3514525.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> in shallow seas stretching from Siberia to what is now Nevada.



The Harkless Formation near modern Death Valley hosts dozens of these patch reefs, some only a few yards across yet stacked through hundreds of feet of limestone.



Packed between the stone cups of the sponges are fragments of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342184591_Small_shelly_fossils_and_carbon_isotopes_from_the_early_Cambrian_Stages_3-4_Mural_Formation_of_western_Laurentia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small shelly fauna</a>, the quirky menagerie of early mineralized animals that heralded the Cambrian explosion. These fossils, most under a tenth of an inch long, include baby <a href="https://home.wgnhs.wisc.edu/wisconsin-geology/fossils/brachiopods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brachiopods</a>, snail‑like mollusks, and bristly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699524000214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chancelloriids</a>.



Bennett’s team measured fossil assemblages in multiple vertical sections and compared them to the distance from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/">reef</a> walls.



The researchers logged grain size and chemistry of nearby layers to study how sediment influenced fossil preservation. The approach marries classic field mapping with CT scanning that can spot skeletal bits hidden in uncut rock.



That toolbox let the team count tiny creatures that earlier surveys missed, pushing sample sizes into the thousands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fossils-trace-ancient-reefs">Tiny fossils trace ancient reefs</h2>



Small shelly fauna crop up worldwide in rocks dating to the first 25 million years after animals evolved skeletons, making them key markers for global correlation. 



Because many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> lived fast and died young, their remains provide fine‑scale time stamps that help synchronize distant stratigraphic sections.



The specimens also capture evolutionary experiments that never made it into the later fossil record, such as slug‑like <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1995.0029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">halkieriids</a> that wore chain‑mail armor of overlapping plates. Linking these animals to specific habitats can explain why some lineages thrived while others fizzled.



Modern coral reefs often harbor dense banks of filter feeders and crustaceans whose larvae settle preferentially on hard walls. If early reefs played a similar ecological role, small shelly species should cluster close to archaeocyathid mounds. 



That prediction has floated in textbooks for decades but rested on scant quantitative data. Bennett’s dataset provided the first rigorous test at meter‑scale resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-didn-t-increase-nearby-species">Ancient reefs didn’t increase nearby species</h2>



“With modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reefs</a>, biodiversity is expected to decrease as you move away from the reef structure due to reduced shelter and food access,” said Bennett. Yet her counts showed no clear pattern - some distant fossil layers were as species-poor as those near the mounds.



Instead, a few hardy taxa dominate whole <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336585971_Palaeoecology_of_the_archaeocyathan_reefs_from_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_Formation_southern_Nevada_western_United_States_and_carbon_isotopic_evidence_for_their_demise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a>, suggesting that early oceans sorted communities by environmental filters rather than by proximity to the reef.



That pattern echoes observations from later Cambrian sections in Mongolia and Labrador, where reefs also failed to boost local diversity.



“Potentially, this happened by preferentially removing or keeping certain faunas, rather than the reef serving as a major food source for surrounding organisms,” added Assistant Professor Sarah Jacquet.



The remark points fingers at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrodynamics</a> - the way water flow scours or blankets parts of the seafloor. Models show gentle currents around low-relief reefs can form eddies that trap shells or carry them away. Those physics could produce patchy fossil carpets without invoking biological competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sediment-dictated-fossil-survival">Sediment dictated fossil survival</h2>



The team noticed that changes in <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/blog/2023/08/18/science-lithology-dating-seafloors-movements-over-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithology</a>, whether the rock was a grainy packstone or a micritic mud-governed which shells survived. Coarse beds preserved robust hyoliths, while fine muds favored delicate sponge spicules.



Taphonomic quirks can therefore mask true ecological signals, a warning for paleontologists who chase diversity curves through deep time. By pairing sedimentology with fossil tallies, Bennett shows how to tease apart the preservational filter.



The study also strengthens a growing view that archaeocyath reefs were short‑lived “experiments” rather than foundational keystones. 



Similar conclusions emerged from carbon‑isotope <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390526423_Small_shelly_fauna_biodiversity_from_reef-adjacent_facies_of_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_formation_Nevada" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that tracked the rise and crash of reef communities through Cambrian Stage 4.



Those geochemical shifts hint that global changes in seawater chemistry, perhaps tied to oxygen pulses, played a bigger role than local reef architecture. If true, the early oceans were less a patchwork of hotspots and more a landscape ruled by large‑scale physical drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-warn-us-about-today">Ancient reefs warn us about today</h2>



Coral ecologists <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225405507_Rapid_phase-shift_reversal_on_a_Jamaican_coral_reef">note</a> that today’s reefs often act as biodiversity magnets, with fish and invertebrate richness peaking on the reef and falling away into open sand. But those gradients may depend on the vertical relief and nutrient flow that Cambrian reefs lacked.



Understanding that difference matters because climate change is flattening many living reefs, slicing away the very architecture that supports complex food webs. 



Ancient analogues show that low-relief carbonate banks can persist without the riot of life we associate with reefs. This hints at future ocean floors that remain structurally intact but are ecologically simplified.



“Just because we know how the world works today doesn’t mean it worked the same way back then,” noted Professor Jacquet. Recognizing that flex in nature’s playbook can help scientists design conservation targets that account for multiple evolutionary baselines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-reef-loss-risk">Fossils show reef loss risk</h2>



Bennett plans to sample neighboring formations to see whether diversity patterns change in deeper water or in reefs built by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-sponges-play-a-critical-role-in-the-ocean-and-they-are-rapidly-vanishing/">sponge</a> species. 



Coupling those data with fluid‑dynamic models could finally pin down how current speed and direction sculpted early animal neighborhoods.



The Nevada hills still hold miles of limestone from ancient animal reefs, awaiting fresh eyes and new technology. Every chip of shale reminds us that even the smallest fossils can rewrite big chapters in Earth history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101822500207X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



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Ancient reefs were surprisingly empty compared to today

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species,...

Diseño sin título - 1

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small slab of rust‑colored rock from a newly discovered exceptional fossil site in central New South Wales, Australia until a curious researcher split the stone in early March. 



“It was a complete fluke,” exclaimed <a href="https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/people/professor-jochen-j-brocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Jochen Brocks</a> of the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> after realizing what he had found. 



That single break exposed a two‑inch fish so complete that even its stomach contents and color cells were still visible.



During the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene epoch</a>, central New South Wales was covered by temperate rainforest and freshwater oxbow lakes rather than today’s dusty paddocks. 



The new species belongs to the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49887-Osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes order</a>, a group better known for modern graylings and smelts but never before recorded in Australia’s fossil record.



Researchers led by <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a> at the Australian Museum and <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/michael-frese" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michael Frese</a> at the University of Canberra compared dozens of specimens ranging from 2.1 to 3 inches long, confirming a healthy resident population rather than scattered migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforest-lake-that-turned-to-rust">Rainforest lake that turned to rust</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-like-rainbow-trout-suffer-extreme-pain-when-killed-by-air/">fish</a> and many plants and insects were entombed in <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Goethite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goethite</a>, an <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron‑oxide</a> mineral that precipitated rapidly in the stagnant lake water. 



Iron’s ability to lock soft tissue in place is now recognized as a key factor in deep‑time preservation of cells and proteins. 



Geochemists <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825223000569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that goethite’s fine crystals can replicate sub‑micron features before decay destroys the originals, explaining why pigment cells survived here while bones often did not.



McGraths Flat is classed as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/konservatlagerstatten-cause-and-classification/40A5D354B2DB79EFB6D654BC77421A33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konservat‑Lagerstätte</a>, a sedimentary deposit famous for extraordinary detail, and its ferric layers sit just three feet below the surface near Gulgong. 



The discovery encourages field crews to re‑examine iron‑rich outcrops worldwide that were once dismissed as fossil‑poor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-fossil-was-a-two-inch-hunter">Fish fossil was a two‑inch hunter</h2>



Under a scanning electron microscope, the team identified packed groups of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanosomes</a> that once sat inside pigment cells called melanophores. 



Their distribution shows a dark back, pale belly, and two lateral racing stripes, classic countershading that helps living fish blend into sunlit water.



“It pushed the boundaries of what can be preserved,” noted Dr. Frese. Similar spherical and rod‑shaped melanosomes had been recorded earlier in an Eocene fish eye from Denmark, providing a useful comparison for the Australian material. 



The stripes also hint at schooling behavior, because bold horizontal bands are common in small modern smelts that rely on group camouflage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-a-final-snack-reveals">What a final snack reveals</h2>



Each fossil gut contained antennae from <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1990.35.7.1631" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaoborus larvae</a>, better known as phantom midge young, along with fragments of insect wings and an occasional bivalve shell. 



Modern Chaoborus sink into mud by day and rise at night to avoid fish, a strategy documented in laboratory and field studies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1s.webp" alt="Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Credit: Australian National University" class="wp-image-1974319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Australian National University</figcaption></figure>



The heavy reliance on pelagic prey suggests F. brocksi hunted in open water after dusk rather than picking along the bottom. 



Because several size classes died together, scientists infer the lake provided year‑round habitat, unlike many living smelts that migrate between rivers and the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parasite-hitchhiker">A parasite hitchhiker</h2>



One specimen shows a juvenile freshwater mussel, or glochidium, clamped to its tail fin. This is the oldest direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossil record</a> of such parasitism and implies the lake was periodically connected to a river where adult unionid mussels spawned.



Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/">fish</a> swallowed a similar mussel, meaning it likely ventured near the river mouth shortly before dying. 



These clues help reconstruct seasonal flooding patterns in Miocene Australia without relying solely on sedimentology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-iron-fish-fossils-matter">Why iron fish fossils matter</h2>



Palaeontologist <a href="https://staffportal.curtin.edu.au/staff/profile/view/kate-trinajstic-f0dcf6b1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kate Trinajstic</a>, Curtin University, observed that iron deposits “open up a new area for people to investigate.” 



Her point is underscored by experimental decay work showing that early iron infiltration can arrest bacterial breakdown within days.



Goethite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-euarthropod-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-insect-evolution/">fossils</a> therefore extend the window for studying fragile tissues like eyes, muscles, and even viral particles that normally vanish. 



They also capture ecological interactions, predation, parasitism, pigmentation, that skeletons alone cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-australia-s-fossil-record">Rethinking Australia's fossil record</h2>



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi challenges the long-held notion that Australia’s freshwater fish fossil record is too sparse for meaningful evolutionary study. 



Until now, no complete body fossils of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes</a> had been found on the continent, leaving major gaps in understanding their arrival and development.



With dozens of specimens at a single site, paleontologists now have a rare opportunity to study not just anatomy, but behavior, ecology, and population structure. 



This level of detail is nearly unheard of in Miocene freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> fossils from the Southern Hemisphere.



The team’s phylogenetic analysis places F. brocksi near the base of the southern Osmeriformes radiation, pushing the group’s Australian arrival to at least 15 million years ago. 



That timeline aligns with molecular studies indicating a mid‑Miocene split between Australian and New Zealand graylings. Fieldwork will resume next dry season, targeting deeper layers that may hold older relatives or their predators.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossilized fish that lived 15 million years ago still has preserved food in its stomach

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small...

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones in the night are more than cinematic symbols of death - they are the planet’s front-line sanitation crew. By devouring carcasses quickly and completely, large scavengers deny dangerous microbes a foothold.



A wide-ranging study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that these underappreciated scavengers are declining at an alarming pace.



The work draws on population assessments for more than 1,300 vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavenger</a> species and reveals a worrisome pattern.



The steepest rates of scavenger decline were found among the biggest, most specialized carrion eaters, while adaptable opportunists such as rats and feral dogs surge in their absence.



“The evidence we found is very clear,” said senior author Rodolfo Dirzo, a professor of biology and environmental science at Stanford. "Scavengers are in decline, but it’s not homogeneous. It is particularly the large and specialized ones.”



“At the same time, this allows space for the smaller scavengers, which are problematic because they are themselves sources of zoonotic diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cleaners-to-contaminators">From cleaners to contaminators</h2>



The researchers cataloged everything from famous scavengers - Old World <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vultures</a>, spotted hyenas, condors - to less obvious diners such as pond turtles, catfish, even great white sharks.



Cross-referencing each species against the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List</a> and regional studies, they found that 36 percent of the world’s scavenger populations are threatened or already shrinking.



When those dominant consumers disappear, their ecological niche is rapidly filled by smaller generalists in a process ecologists label “ecological release.” In temperate suburbs, that might mean raccoons and crows; in tropical villages, perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> and village dogs.



These newcomers rarely match the efficiency of an eagle or a vulture, leaving more rotting flesh on the landscape. Worse, many thrive near humans, turning carcasses into pathways for diseases to jump from wildlife to people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-scavenger-decline-in-india">Effects of scavenger decline in India</h2>



Few episodes capture the stakes so vividly as India’s vulture crisis in the 1990s. Veterinary use of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac proved fatal to vultures that scavenged treated cattle. Populations plummeted, opening a niche for free-roaming dogs.



With vultures gone, feral dog populations surged, leading to an estimated 39 million extra dog bites and 48,000 human deaths from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rabies-is-spreading-among-marine-animals-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabies</a> between 1992 and 2006.



Once India banned diclofenac in 2006, vulture numbers began to inch upward. This reminded scientists and policymakers that timely intervention can halt or even reverse a downward spiral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-quietly-protect-health">Scavengers quietly protect health</h2>



The study emphasizes that these issues are not confined to the Global South. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of the United States, eagles and ravens consume elk carcasses and even aborted fetuses.



By removing potential bacterial incubators within hours, scavengers help curb brucellosis, a livestock disease that can spill over to ranchers. A drop in scavengers there could raise veterinary costs and public-health risks despite the region’s strong infrastructure.



Lead author Chinmay Sonawane, a doctoral student in Dirzo’s lab, underscored humanity’s reliance on species most of us rarely notice: “We’re starting to understand exactly how we depend on each individual species.”



“As we become more aware of these connections, we're going to be more inclined to protect these species, because we are ultimately protecting our health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-driving-scavenger-decline">Factors driving scavenger decline</h2>



Three forces repeatedly surfaced in the team’s analysis. Expanding agriculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> fragment habitats, making it harder for wide-ranging birds and mammals to find carcasses or safe nesting sites.



Intensive livestock production brings direct conflict when ranchers poison or shoot scavengers they suspect of killing calves. At the same time, wildlife trade and trophy hunting remove lions, eagles, and other predators that double as high-capacity scavengers.



These pressures often overlap. Clearing forest for pasture, for instance, strips vultures of roosting trees while putting them nearer cattle treated with toxic veterinary drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-function-and-human-well-being">Ecosystem function and human well-being </h2>



Public suspicion of scavengers compounds their plight. “There is this prejudice that these scavengers are nasty animals and that we should get rid of them, but they are important for the functioning of ecosystems, also for human well-being,” Dirzo said.



The authors call for multi-layered solutions. Conservationists must protect nesting cliffs and den sites and enforce tighter regulation of pharmaceuticals known to poison birds.



Outreach programs can dispel myths, showing local communities how vultures actually protect livestock by removing disease hotspots. Financial incentives or livestock-guarding measures could reduce retaliatory killings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> and jackals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-are-public-health-allies">Scavengers are public health allies</h2>



Rather than tracking a handful of charismatic species, the Stanford team focused on a functional group - animals bound by what they do rather than by taxonomic labels.



That lens, they argue, reveals how losing one slice of biodiversity can disrupt entire healthcare networks in nature. If carcasses linger, fly populations balloon, dog packs expand, and viruses gain new hosts.



Scavengers may lack the appeal of pandas or coral reefs, yet their economic and public-health value is immense. The world’s oldest waste-management system runs on wings, paws, and powerful stomach acids.



Letting it collapse means footing a growing medical bill - one paid in outbreaks, veterinary losses, and human lives. Protecting vultures in India reduced rabies deaths; hyenas curb anthrax in Africa; condors help keep Americas’ pastures cleaner.



Ultimately, the study offers a simple equation: conserve the big eaters of the dead, and you safeguard the living. Ignore them, and the costs arrive on hospital ledgers and in destabilized ecosystems. The choice is clear - and action is urgently needed to halt scavenger decline. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417328122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scavenger decline is a threat to ecosystems  - and human health

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones...

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects...

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at least 112 million years. When blue light hits their skin, these animals absorb it and re-emit it as green, yellow, orange, or red.



Fish biofluorescence is invisible to us in daylight, but under the right light it turns reefs into underwater neon signs. It is a natural light show that has evolved silently beneath the waves, largely unnoticed by human eyes until recently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-glowing-fish">Tracing the origins of glowing fish </h2>



Two new studies by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a> trace how and when this glow took hold.



The research maps biofluorescence across 459 species and shows just how varied the colors have become.



The team combed through every known case of glowing bony fish, then added 48 previously unreported species. The analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">biofluorescence</a> first showed up in ancient eels and has evolved on its own more than 100 times since.



“Researchers have known for a while that biofluorescence is quite widespread in marine animals, from sea turtles to corals, and especially among fishes,” said Emily Carr, lead author of both studies. 



“But to really get to the root of why and how these species use this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapta</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion</a> - whether for camouflage, predation, or reproduction - we need to understand the underlying evolutionary story as well as the scope of biofluorescence as it currently exists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-speed-up-the-glow">Coral reefs speed up the glow</h2>



Life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral reef</a> seems to speed up this evolutionary trick. Reef-dwelling fish acquire biofluorescence about ten times faster than species that stay in open water. 



After the mass extinction 66 million years ago, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> vanished and reefs rebounded, glowing species multiplied quickly, taking advantage of newly available habitats and ecological niches.



“This trend coincides with the rise of modern coral-dominated reefs and the rapid colonization of reefs by fishes, which occurred following a significant loss of coral diversity in the K-Pg extinction,” Carr said. 



"These correlations suggest that the emergence of modern coral reefs could have facilitated the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fishes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-spectrum-widens">The color spectrum widens</h2>



In a second set of experiments, the team photographed museum specimens under special lights. Some families flashed at least six distinct peaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/">fluorescence</a> - far more variety than scientists had documented.



“The remarkable variation we observed across a wide array of these fluorescent fishes could mean that these animals use incredibly diverse and elaborate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns,” said study co-author John Sparks.



“As these studies show, biofluorescence is both pervasive and incredibly phenotypically variable among marine fishes. What we would really like to understand better is how fluorescence functions in these highly variable marine lineages, as well as its role in diversification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-fish-could-help-medicine">How glowing fish could help medicine</h2>



Fluorescent proteins borrowed from jellyfish transformed molecular biology. The many new hues found in fish could lead to the next generation of imaging tools, helping doctors spot tumors or guide surgery with light.



For now, the ocean keeps many of its secrets hidden in plain sight. But every flash of color brings us closer to understanding how fish communicate, hide, hunt, and find mates - turning a midnight reef into a silent conversation of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-fish-biofluorescence">Future research on fish biofluorescence </h2>



While these findings shed light on the deep history and diversity of glowing fish, there is still a lot more to uncover.



Scientists are now working to understand how different species actually see and use these colors in their everyday lives. Do they glow to blend in, to attract mates, or to send messages we can’t decode yet? 



The answers could not only explain how these fish thrive in their underwater environments but also help us develop new tools in optics, communication, and even biotechnology.



Each discovery adds a small piece to a much bigger puzzle - one where light doesn’t just brighten the ocean, but also points the way to future innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316789">PLOS One</a>.



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How fish started glowing over 100 million years ago

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at...

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This morning ritual, known as the dawn chorus, can drown out every other sound. A new study from India reveals that some species dominate that pre‑sunrise concert, while others stay quiet.



The researchers recorded 69 species in the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a>, a mountain chain recognized for exceptional biodiversity. They <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> that 20 of the species sing far more at dawn than dusk, while only one shows the opposite pattern, pointing to social traits as the primary drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-dawn-chorus">Decoding the dawn chorus</h2>



Vijay Ramesh, a postdoctoral biologist at Cornell University’s <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>, led the microphone‑array campaign that captured months of continuous audio in the Ghats.



Past theories claimed that cool, still air at sunrise lets high‑pitched songs travel farther, giving early risers an acoustic advantage.



 A 2019 <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-019-0328-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> showed that song timing is remarkably consistent within individuals, suggesting a behavioral cause rather than improved sound transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-birds-sing-first">Predicting which birds sing first</h2>



Sound scientists once assumed that humid morning air slows high frequencies less than dry mid‑day air, effectively lengthening a whistle’s reach. 



Field <a href="https://malagr.de/hutch/hutchpub/anbe3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> with playback speakers, however, show that vegetation scatter and competing insects erase most of the theoretical gain by breakfast time. 



The new Indian dataset supports the behavioral view by showing no correlation between dawn singing and light level, wind speed, or transmission quality. Instead, two traits (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/territoriality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">territoriality</a> and broad diets) predict which birds sing first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-territories-matter-at-sunrise">Why territories matter at sunrise</h2>



Territorial birds declare their claims at sunrise when rivals and potential mates are alert but still hidden by shadow. Acoustic contests at that hour reduce the risk of physical fights, a pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337589/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in banded wrens and other songbirds.&nbsp;



The idea fits evolutionary logic: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> that joins the dawn chorus before foraging advertises overnight survival, discourages trespass, frees daylight hours for feeding young, and reduces exposure to midday heat that hampers long songs. 



In the Ghats study, species ranked as highly territorial were 1.2 times more likely to sing in the dawn chorus than their less combative relatives - a statistically robust edge.



“We found that highly territorial birds and omnivorous species were much more likely to be active singers during dawn hours,” said Ramesh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-tells-another-story">Diet tells another story</h2>



Diet adds another clue because omnivores that split meals between fruit and insects also dominated the early soundscape. Ramesh suggests that their flexible menu keeps them in mixed‑species foraging flocks that rely on constant chatter to coordinate movement. 



Omnivory also widens the calendar window for feeding because fruit crops peak at different times than insect hatches, giving versatile foragers an incentive to keep group members updated on shifting resources across seasons or plantations.



“Omnivores might sing more at dawn because these species are often members of mixed‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> foraging flocks where vocal communication is essential,” explained Ramesh. 



<a href="https://www.macaulaylibrary.org/2019/01/09/mixed-species-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of such mobile flocks show that vocal leaders broadcast frequent contact and alarm calls, letting dozens of companions share information about food and predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dawn-chorus-was-recorded">How dawn chorus was recorded</h2>



All those insights rest on <a href="https://bou.org.uk/blog-metcalf-pass-acou-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passive acoustic monitoring</a>, a technique that stations weather‑proof recorders in the canopy and lets algorithms sort every chirp. The Ghats project collected simultaneous tracks from 43 forest sites, multiplying human survey capacity.



Each recorder about the size of a paperback ran on rechargeable batteries and captured 20‑kHz audio files that later fed into machine‑learning software trained to identify species from their calls, trimming weeks of manual listening into automated minutes, an advance highlighted by open‑source projects like <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.17.613451v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdNET</a>.



“Passive acoustic monitoring allowed us to collect simultaneous acoustic data for 43 locations, over several months. We could not have done this study without it because we needed a lot of data to answer our questions,” said Ramesh.



Other researchers echo that enthusiasm. “Passive acoustic monitoring allows us to continuously take the pulse of bird populations without having to be physically present in the field,” explained Jorge Velásquez, Director of Science for Audubon Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-voices-and-ecosystem-health">Bird voices and ecosystem health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/western-ghats-and-sri-lanka/species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a> stretch nearly 1,000 miles along India’s west coast and rank among the planet’s eight biodiversity hotspots, hosting hundreds of globally threatened animals and plants. Mountaintop forests there funnel monsoon rains and sustain thousands of endemic species.



Acoustic surveys give conservationists a low‑cost way to track those communities in real time. A dawn chorus rich in specialist voices flags healthy habitat, while a shift toward generalists may warn of logging or climate stress.



The Ghats data will now feed into regional monitoring dashboards that guide reserve boundaries and restoration priorities. Managers can rerun the same code next year and instantly see whether bird territories are shrinking or expanding.



Climate <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2019/01/changing-monsoonal-rainfall-patterns-in-the-western-ghats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> predict that monsoon timing in the Ghats could shift by several weeks this century, and long acoustic time series will let ecologists see whether dawn song calendars move in lockstep or resist the change across altitudinal gradients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-bird-breaks-the-dawn-chorus-rule">One bird breaks the dawn chorus rule</h2>



One puzzle remains: the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/dafbab1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark‑fronted Babbler</a> sang more at dusk than dawn, bucking every social rule observed. Future studies that pair microphones with visual tracking may reveal whether its roosting ecology or predator pressure flips the timetable.



Answering that question would help determine whether birds tailor song schedules to evade particular predators, mirror daily light cycles, or coordinate with insect emergence.



Ramesh hopes to repeat the approach on other continents to see whether territoriality and diet steer the chorus in temperate woodlots as strongly as they do in tropical forests. The answer could turn dawn song into a global barometer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">ecosystem</a> change.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Territorial birds rule the dawn chorus in tropical forests

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This...

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups tend to follow the majority. But biologists and social scientists have found that a vocal minority - sometimes just 5 to 10 percent - can sway the final decision if they’re persuasive, energized, or well-connected. This effect is known as “minority influence.”



A new study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-ants-can-teach-us-how-to-create-stronger-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire ants</a> offer a dramatic, gene-driven version of the same principle. A handful of workers carrying a particular stretch of&nbsp;“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selfish DNA</a>” can push their nest-mates to welcome extra queens, transforming the colony’s entire social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-and-ant-colony-structure">Selfish DNA and ant colony structure</h2>



The invasive red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, dominates swaths of the southeastern United States and is spreading on multiple continents. 



Ecologically and economically, it is one of the most impactful insects on Earth. It also comes in two distinct social forms.



Single-queen colonies (monogyne) recognize and defend one egg-laying monarch. Workers in these nests are intensely territorial, killing any foreign queen that dares enter.



Multiple-queen colonies (polygyne) tolerate several unrelated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">queens</a> and spread by budding - new queens and escorts walk a short distance and start satellite nests.



The social form matters: monogyne nests are aggressive but slower to spread; polygyne nests can carpet landscapes with interconnected supercolonies.



A single gene complex, dubbed Gp-9, largely decides whether a colony embraces one queen or many. The variant known as Gp-9 B promotes single-queen structure; the variant Gp-9 b pushes toward multiple queens.



Only workers with the b allele accept extra royalty - and that gene acts in strikingly “selfish” fashion, ensuring its own propagation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-roots-of-ant-behavior">Genetic roots of ant behavior</h2>



Takao Sasaki, now an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.sas.rochester.edu/bcs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a>, teamed with postdoctoral researcher Haolin Zeng and Professor Kenneth Ross at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>. Together, they tested how small a minority of b-bearing workers could tip an entire colony.



Most previous work had examined stable nests already committed to one form or the other. The new experiments created mixed groups from scratch, mirroring the early stages of an invasion when different ant lineages collide.



“Our research may help us understand how other animals make consensus decisions,” Sasaki said.



Using DNA markers, the team first verified each ant’s social-genotype - B B for single-queen preference or B b for multiple-queen preference. They then built experimental colonies of 3,000 workers and a single B-type queen.



Into these colonies they introduced B b workers in varying proportions, from zero to 30 percent, along with test queens carrying either genotype. Continuous video monitored how workers treated potential newcomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-can-shift-the-ant-colony">DNA can shift the ant colony </h2>



With no B b workers present, resident ants killed any stranger queen in the colony within hours, matching monogyne behavior in the wild. But once the minority of B b workers reached roughly 10 percent, the colony’s stance softened.



Those few workers began grooming and feeding extra queens that carried the same b allele, escorting them safely into the brood chambers. 



Over the following days, B B workers joined the caretaking - even though the shift ultimately lowers their own inclusive fitness. The single-queen colony had morphed into a multi-queen society, simply because a genetic minority rewrote the ground rules.



“By looking at their genes, we know their preferences for having one queen versus multiple queens,” Sasaki said. “By manipulating the proportion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">workers</a> with certain genes, we can test if and how a minority can convince the rest of the group members.”



Chemical communication is the likely mechanism. Fire ants rely on pheromones to tell friend from foe and to decide which queens belong.



Additional tests showed b-bearing workers alter queen pheromones or change how nest-mates respond to those chemical signals. Whichever the pathway, the outcome favors any queen - and thus any gene - matching the minority’s genotype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-shapes-behavior">Selfish DNA shapes behavior</h2>



The study highlights an evolutionary twist known as an indirect genetic effect: one individual’s traits are molded not just by its own DNA and environment, but by the genes carried by its social partners.



Here, the selfish DNA in roughly a tenth of the ants drives an outcome (polygyne structure) that benefits copies of that same element, even though it may not help the colony at large.



“This knowledge is important not only for understanding the biology of social insects like fire ants but also for broader insights into the evolution of cooperation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sociality</a> in animals, including humans,” Zeng said.



Because multi-queen colonies bud readily and thus expand invasion fronts, the ability of a genetic minority to flip nest behavior could accelerate the spread of fire ants worldwide. Evolutionary models will need to account for such feedback between genes and group dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-think-like-neurons">Ants think like neurons</h2>



Sasaki frames the findings in terms of “collective cognition,” his broader research focus. Just as neurons exchange signals to create unified thoughts, social insects exchange chemical and tactile cues to make group decisions.



If a small cluster of neurons can trigger a mental state, why not a small cluster of genetically distinct ants triggering a social state?



“The brain is a good example,” Sasaki explained. “Each neuron talks to other neurons. A brain is a cognitive unit. Ants as colonies make collective decisions like brains do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-help-outvote-majority-rule">Genes help outvote majority rule</h2>



The fire-ant case suggests that minority influence may have a deeper biological foundation than previously realized. In some cases, it’s encoded in selfish stretches of DNA that manipulate social systems like ant colonies from within.



Whether similar elements lurk in other species, subtly guiding flock movements, pack hierarchies, or even aspects of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-social-lives-pandas-have-their-own-version-of-facebook/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a>, remains an open question.



What is clear is that in complex societies, majority rule is never absolute: under the right genetic and social conditions, the few can still lead the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Selfish DNA' can result in minority influence in social animal groups, including humans

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups...

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent.



A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction.



An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline.



Using microscopic wear patterns, chemical fingerprints locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth</a> enamel, and residues trapped in dental calculus, they pieced together the animal’s menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-fruit-diet">Fossil traces reveal fruit diet</h2>



Florent Rivals is a researcher at the Catalan Institute for Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://cerca.cat/en/centres-cerca/iphes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES-CERCA</a>).



“We found starch residues and plant tissues typical of fleshy fruits, such as those of the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” he said.



Those tiny traces, preserved since the Pleistocene, provide the first direct evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/student-discovers-a-34000-year-old-mastodon-fossil-by-accident-while-walking-around-a-farm/">mastodon</a> routinely swallowed whole fruit - and by extension the seeds buried inside.



Stable-isotope signatures reinforced the picture. “Through stable isotope analysis, we were able to reconstruct the animals’ environment and diet with great precision,” said Iván Ramírez-Pedraza, a researcher at IPHES-CERCA who helped chart the chemical trail.



The pattern points to a mixed woodland rich in fruit resources, the kind of landscape where a multi-ton mammal could feast while roaming long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-a-forty-year-old-idea"><a></a>Testing a forty-year-old idea</h2>



Back in 1982, biologist Daniel Janzen and paleontologist Paul Martin suggested that many tropical trees evolved oversized, sugary fruits specifically to lure now-extinct megafauna.



These included mastodons, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-of-giant-sloths-why-did-they-shrink-and-when-did-it-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and native horses - animals capable of gulping down the bounty and depositing viable seeds far from the parent plant.



Their “neotropical anachronism” hypothesis was ingenious but largely speculative. The new study supplies the hard proof those pioneers lacked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974219"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



Lead author Erwin González-Guarda of the <a href="https://www.uoh.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of O’Higgins</a> argued that the multi-proxy approach was crucial.



Conventional wear studies alone cannot distinguish leaves from soft fruit, while isotopes reveal diet breadth but not specific ingredients. Residual microfibers in dental plaque filled that gap, confirming that fruit made up a regular part of the mastodon’s meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-spread-forest-seeds">Mastodons spread forest seeds</h2>



“Dental chemistry gives us a direct window into the past,” said co-author Carlos Tornero, an isotope specialist at IPHES-CERCA.



The team concludes Notiomastodon was a key long-distance seed disperser in late Pleistocene South America.



When the animals died out - probably under combined pressure from rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a> and expanding human hunting - no substitute of equal size and wanderlust remained.



Tapirs, peccaries, and monkeys still disperse some fruit in tropical zones, but across central Chile, the ecological courier service is effectively bankrupt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-feel-the-absence">Forests feel the absence</h2>



The researchers ran a machine-learning analysis to gauge present-day risk for plants once dependent on megafaunal dispersers.



In central Chile, forty percent of those trees now sit on threatened or endangered lists - four times the proportion in regions where alternative animal carriers survive.



“Where that ecological relationship between plants and animals has been entirely severed, the consequences remain visible even thousands of years later,” said co-author Andrea P. Loayza, paleontologist at the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://ieb-chile.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEB</a>) in Chile.



Today the Chilean palm endures in a few fragmented groves. The monkey-puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana, iconic yet genetically impoverished, clings to high Andean ridges.



The gomortega, Gomortega keule, known locally as queule, hangs on in scattered coastal valleys. Its plum-sized fruit now mostly drops beneath the parent canopy, rather than being hauled kilometers away inside a mastodon’s gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-seeds-and-mastodons">Forests, seeds, and mastodons</h2>



Beyond its detective work, the paper carries a cautionary message. Ecosystems retain the impact of lost species for millennia, and restoring their roles will be a major challenge.



Rewilding with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> has been floated as one possibility, and the fresh Chilean data offer a benchmark for choosing modern analogues based on diet and ranging behavior, not just body mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974221"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



“By combining different lines of evidence, we’ve been able to robustly confirm their frugivory and the key role they played in these ecosystems,” Tornero emphasized.



Conservation managers might use such findings to prioritize corridors that allow surviving mammals to move seeds. They could also experiment with human-mediated dispersal for tree species marooned by the mastodon’s absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-bones-new-purpose">Old bones, new purpose</h2>



“Paleontology isn’t just about telling old stories,” Rivals concluded. “It helps us recognize what we’ve lost - and what we still have a chance to save.”



With climate change and habitat fragmentation tightening their grip, lessons from deep time may guide present-day action.



Protecting and, where possible, mimicking the ancient partnership between fruit-bearing trees and their gigantic gardeners could give endangered South American forests a second shot at resilience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02713-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Mastodon extinction is still causing problems with South American ecosystems

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago...

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals, and penguins - sit at the heart of the Southern Ocean food web. Yet these tiny animals are also the target of a fast-growing commercial fishery.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> (AWI) and the <a href="https://www.hi.no/hi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Marine Research</a> used more than 30,000 hours of sonar recordings from krill-trawling vessels. 



The analysis pinpointed when and where fishing fleets overlap with natural krill predators. The results highlight seasonal hotspots of competition that managers can no longer afford to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sonar-for-krill-clues">Using sonar for krill clues</h2>



Fishing vessels routinely run powerful echo sounders to locate krill swarms. By repurposing those same acoustic logs, scientists gained an unprecedented view of the submarine “traffic” beneath the ships.



The team analyzed over 30,000 hours of sonar data from three krill fishing vessels, gathered over six years in the Southern Ocean. Machine learning algorithms filtered the files for the distinctive signatures produced when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, penguins, or seals dive under a vessel.



“During such encounters, ships and krill predators pursue the same krill swarms," said lead author Dominik Bahlburg, a scientist at AWI. 



"This allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of this competition in order to identify locations and time periods where the interaction between the two groups is particularly intensive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-penguins-seals-and-trawlers-converge"><a></a>Where penguins, seals, and trawlers converge</h2>



Patterns emerged once the detections were mapped. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penguins</a> and fur seals appeared alongside fishing gear in both summer and winter, especially around the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia. 



Whales appeared most near the Antarctic Peninsula in autumn, when they fatten for their long migration north.



“The South Orkney Islands seem to be a real hotspot for encounters with penguins,” Bahlburg said. “Compared to the Antarctic Peninsula, they have received far less attention in the debate on the impact of krill fishing and many of the colonies affected there are currently not regularly monitored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-competition-with-penguins">Direct competition with penguins</h2>



The overlap is worrisome as trawlers fish near breeding colonies when adult birds must feed their chicks. Voluntary buffer zones aimed to ease this conflict, but sonar evidence reveals an unintended side effect.



This also suggests that fishing vessels continue to encounter penguins despite the voluntary restriction zones around the Antarctic Peninsula. 



The vessels also continue to compete directly with penguins for krill during the breeding season. Instead, the pressure appears to have shifted to the South Orkney Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-overlaps-persist-in-winter">Fishing overlaps persist in winter</h2>



One assumption had been that moving effort into winter - when breeding pressures ease - would spare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-noise-is-disrupting-wildlife-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. The new data challenge that view.



“We were able to show that fisheries and penguins as well as fur seals encounter each other just as frequently in the winter as in the summer season,” Bahlburg said.



Since animals roam farther from colonies in winter, the persistence of close encounters surprised the authors and may require a reassessment.



While penguins and seals were encountered less often near the Peninsula, autumn fishing there overlapped heavily with whales. These whales depend on krill to build blubber reserves before migrating to equatorial calving grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-fleet-data-goes-public">Krill fleet data goes public</h2>



The team found little year-to-year fluctuation in their maps. “Remarkably, these patterns were quite stable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, penguins and whales over a six-year period,” noted study co-author Sebastian Menze, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute.



Such consistency implies the method can deliver rapid, reliable diagnostics as fishing tactics or quotas change.



“Consequently, our results show that acoustic data from fishing vessels and machine learning can act as a reliable foundation for rapid and convenient assessments of fisheries' interaction with the ecosystem,” Menze added.



Collecting those data costs almost nothing extra; crews already archive echo-sounder files as part of normal operations. The largest krill harvester, <a href="https://www.akerbiomarine.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aker Biomarine</a>, even makes its records public through the <a href="https://www.hubocean.earth/platform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUBOcean platform</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-krill-management">Positive changes in krill management </h2>



Until now, scientists mainly used fishery sonar to estimate krill biomass. The study’s broader ecological application opens fresh possibilities.



Bettina Meyer of AWI represents Germany on the <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/home-page" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> (CCAMLR).



“We are expanding the potential uses for ecological questions and demonstrating new, cost-effective ways in which fishing vessels can contribute to krill fishery management,” said Meyer, who's also a senior author of the study. 



“Acoustic data make it possible to quickly draw an initial picture of how changes in fishery management or fleet behavior impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.”



Supported by Germany’s <a href="https://www.bmel.de/EN/Home/home_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture</a>, the project feeds directly into CCAMLR deliberations on updated catch limits and dynamic closure zones.



By revealing when and where krill fishing most conflicts with wildlife, the acoustic approach offers a blueprint for fine-tuned regulations. This could help ensure that the Southern Ocean’s keystone crustacean can sustain both its natural predators and the fishery that now depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417203122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sonar reveals how krill fishing is hurting Antarctic wildlife

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals,...

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most are killed for supper, not for overseas trade in their scales. A new field survey shows that nearly every pangolin taken from the wild ends up in a cooking pot.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> spent three years talking with more than 800 hunters and traders across 33 villages. 



The team estimates that about 21,000 pangolins die each year in the region. Hunters rarely set out to look for them. They pick the animals up by hand while checking snares or working in farm plots. 



Almost three-quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-meat-paradox-people-care-about-animals-but-still-eat-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a> is eaten by the hunters’ own families, and the rest is sold locally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-is-the-motive-for-killing-pangolins">Meat is the motive for killing pangolins </h2>



Study lead author Dr. Charles Emogor conducted the research while pursuing his PhD in the Department of Zoology at Cambridge.



“Thousands of kilos of pangolin scales are seized at Nigeria’s ports, creating the impression that the international demand for scales is behind pangolin exploitation in West Africa,” said Dr. Emogor.



"When we spoke to hunters and traders on the ground around the Cross River forest, the largest stronghold for Nigeria’s pangolins, it was obvious that meat was the motivation for almost all of the pangolin killings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangolin-scales-often-hit-the-bin">Pangolin scales often hit the bin</h2>



Less than a third of the scales from those animals ever reach a trader. Most are tossed aside. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hunters</a> said meat earns three to four times more money per animal than scales do in local markets.



“We found that dedicated pangolin hunts are virtually non-existent. Most pangolins are killed by hunters out for any type of game,” said Dr. Emogor. 



"Around a third of pangolins are caught opportunistically, often while people are working in the fields. Pangolins curl into a ball when threatened, which sadly makes them easy to catch.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prized-taste-and-old-beliefs">A prized taste and old beliefs</h2>



Pangolin meat is considered more flavorful than beef, chicken, or even antelope in many villages. It’s sometimes prepared for pregnant women, based on the belief that it promotes strong, healthy babies. 



This cultural value, combined with the species’ slow reproductive rate, puts intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-mammals-show-how-humans-influence-animal-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> on the animal's survival.



“Pangolins face a lethal combination of threats,” said Dr. Emogor. “Pangolins are easy to hunt, breed slowly, taste good to humans, and are falsely believed to have curative properties in traditional medicines. In addition, their forest habitat is being destroyed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-solutions-to-save-pangolins">Local solutions to save pangolins </h2>



Because food is the real pull, the researchers argue that local solutions - better patrols, new bylaws, and help with food security - may cost less and work faster than trying to police international trafficking alone.



“Clearly in designing any intervention we need good information on what’s motivating the hunters,” said study co-author Professor Andrew Balmford. “That’s why studies such as this are vital for effective conservation of endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-80-million-years-of-evolution">Losing 80 million years of evolution</h2>



Dr. Emogor now runs Pangolino, a volunteer network that helps villages write and enforce pangolin-friendly rules. His motivation is personal as well as scientific.



"If we lose the pangolin, we lose 80 million years of evolution,” said Emogor. “Pangolins are the only mammals with scales, and their ancestors existed when dinosaurs still roamed the planet."



Cameroon, Gabon, and other nations show similar habits: people value pangolins mainly for food. Until diets change or enforcement improves, Africa’s only scaly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> will keep slipping toward extinction - one meal at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-pangolins-and-forest-life">Protecting pangolins and forest life</h2>



Efforts to save pangolins must go beyond curbing international trade. Protecting these animals - and the ecosystems they live in - means addressing the local drivers of hunting. 



That includes improving food security, offering economic alternatives to bushmeat, and increasing public awareness about the role pangolins play in forest health.



Education and outreach are key. Many hunters don’t realize pangolins are at risk. Some may not know the animals help control insect populations and support ecological balance. 



Wildlife conservation groups are working to spread this knowledge, while local governments and partners explore ways to boost law enforcement in remote areas.



Ultimately, protecting pangolins also helps safeguard other species that share their shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-mammals-are-seeking-refuge-in-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>. When forests are preserved and hunting is managed sustainably, entire ecosystems stand a better chance of survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02734-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Disturbing study finds the true reason this amazing creature is on the verge of extinction

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most...

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have emerged as a crucial conservation strategy. These regions are set aside to limit human interference and provide wildlife with a safe space. 



Conservationists often focus on species counts when measuring success. But are these protected zones doing enough to preserve the entire structure of ecosystems?



This question is at the heart of a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. Instead of focusing only on species richness, the researchers examined how protected areas affect the complex interactions between species. 



These species interactions - especially predator-prey relationships - build the food webs that make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-by-design-should-we-genetically-erase-harmful-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> stable and functional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-count-is-not-enough-nbsp">Species count is not enough&nbsp;</h2>



Species richness is important. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are more than a list of species. The relationships between organisms play a key role in ecological balance. A hawk hunting smaller birds or a songbird feeding on insects reflects interactions that keep ecosystems working.



The Swansea team wanted to understand if protected areas help maintain this ecological balance. They examined the structure of food webs rather than just counting how many species lived in each location. 



A food web includes all the feeding relationships between animals in a region. It shows who eats whom and how energy flows through the environment.



To conduct this study, the researchers turned to citizen science. They used data from platforms like eBird, where volunteers record bird sightings. This allowed the experts to track 509 bird species across 45 ecological networks from Spain to Finland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-inside-and-outside-reserves">Food webs inside and outside reserves</h2>



Using this large database, the team combined observational bird records with known predator-prey links. For example, if a particular raptor feeds on smaller birds, that relationship was mapped. Each network captured the structure of a local bird community and its food web.



The team compared food webs inside protected areas to those in surrounding, non-protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscapes</a>. These comparisons were not simple. 



The researchers controlled for many variables. They looked at habitat diversity, the percentage of forest and agricultural land, and levels of human pressure.



The experts also considered the designation status of the protected areas. Some zones were part of the European Bird Directives, which provide stronger conservation measures. Others had more general protections. 



These different conservation levels allowed the team to ask whether clearer goals led to better ecological outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-help-in-some-places">Protected areas help in some places</h2>



So, what did the researchers find? In some cases, protected areas improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of food webs. The networks inside protected zones tended to have more species overall. Intermediate-level species - those neither top predators nor at the bottom - were more common. 



Also, predators inside protected areas tended to be larger in body size, both at the top and middle levels of the food web.



However, not all of the results were encouraging. The length of food chains and the connectivity of species within the web did not show consistent improvement. In other words, simply having more species did not guarantee a healthier or more connected ecosystem.



The effects varied across Europe. Food webs in Spain responded differently from those in Finland or central Europe. This suggests that local conditions still matter greatly. Protection alone cannot guarantee the same results everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-food-web-differences">Factors behind food web differences</h2>



What caused the variation in results? Several environmental factors played a role. Areas that were more remote generally had healthier food webs. Places with higher habitat diversity also performed better. Human pressure and the amount of nearby farmland had a strong influence too.



Interestingly, areas under the European Bird Directives showed stronger positive trends. This suggests that clearer conservation planning makes a real difference. Just designating a region as "protected" is not enough. What matters is how that protection is implemented.



Study co-author Dr. Miguel Lurgi, who leads the Computational Ecology Lab, emphasized the significance of the research. 



“Studies like ours highlight the complexity of conservation action and the importance of considering key aspects of biodiversity beyond species richness, such as ecological interactions and the tangled networks that they form, into biodiversity assessments,” noted Dr. Lurgi.



“These networks not only structure communities and enable their persistence, but they also play important roles in the functions that ecosystems fulfil in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-protect-species-and-their-roles-nbsp">We must protect species and their roles&nbsp;</h2>



This study challenges a common assumption in conservation planning. Many projects measure success by the number of species saved. The research shows that relationships between species are equally vital. 



Protecting one bird species is good. Ensuring that it still plays its ecological role - as predator, prey, or pollinator - is better.



Protected areas clearly help in some ways. They offer space for species to live and grow. But without active planning, their impact on food webs may fall short. Conservation needs to think about networks, not just numbers.



By looking at predator-prey relationships, this research opens a path to more holistic conservation strategies. It also highlights the value of citizen science. 



Platforms like eBird make this kind of large-scale ecological work possible. Every birdwatcher’s observation helps build a clearer picture of how our ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-need-better-plans">Protected areas need better plans</h2>



Europe's protected areas are not failing, but they are not universally succeeding either. They need tailored strategies, grounded in ecological data. Simple protection does not always support complex ecosystems.



This study gives policymakers a reason to refine their approaches. If the goal is to protect ecosystems, not just individual species, then conservation must shift. It must include ecological interactions, food web structures, and the subtle forces that hold nature together.



As this research shows, conservation cannot afford to stay simple. Nature is complex. Our strategies must match that complexity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Protected areas don't always protect food webs

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have...

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are at the very heart of it, surviving where most cannot. On June 22, we observe World Camel Day. It’s a moment to honor their resilience, importance, and the vital role they play in sustaining communities across some of the world’s harshest landscapes.



In dry regions, the camel is extremely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">crucial</a>. Whether the task is carrying loads, providing milk, or helping people travel, camels are reliable. With growing climate challenges, that reliability matters more than ever.



Camels have supported people for thousands of years. This day helps us remember and recognize that service.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-celebrate-world-camel-day">Why we celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day started in 2009 to raise awareness about the importance of camels. <a href="https://arkbiodiv.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Abdul Raziq Kakar</a> picked June 22 because it usually falls during the hottest days of the year. 



Camels are known for their ability to handle extreme heat, so this date fits the message. It symbolically connects the celebration to the kind of environment camels thrive in.



Since then, the event has grown. It is no longer just a scientist’s idea. Now, people from many backgrounds get involved. Camel farmers, students exploring desert ecosystems, climate scientists, and the herders who depend on camels every day all take part.



These groups organize events like camel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">rides</a>, educational workshops, fun photo contests, and zoo visits where people can interact with camels and learn more. What began as a simple awareness campaign has turned into a global effort. 



The goal is clear. Remind everyone that camels are not just useful, but essential in many regions, especially in a changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-camels-support-daily-life">How camels support daily life</h2>



Camels can travel for hours without drinking water. They eat tough, dry plants that other animals avoid. They do not show signs of stress. They keep going and get the job done.



Camel milk is becoming more popular around the world. It contains more iron and vitamin C than cow milk. Many people who can't tolerate regular milk can drink camel milk without issues. Some health experts refer to it as a superfood because of its nutrients.



Camels also support daily life in many places. In India, they help farmers by pulling carts and plows. In African countries, they provide meat, milk, and financial support. In the Middle East, camels appear in cultural festivals and special events.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/">animals</a> are not limited to one role. Camels adapt to different needs and situations and work wherever people need them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-are-built-for-extremes">Camels are built for extremes</h2>



A camel’s body is built for survival. Its wide, padded feet keep it steady on loose sand. Thick eyelashes shield its eyes from dust, and its nostrils can close to block out blowing sand during storms. 



The hump stores fat, which the camel uses when food is scarce. Every part serves a clear purpose.



Even when water is hard to find and food is limited, a camel keeps going. It continues to produce milk during drought and remains steady in extreme heat where other animals struggle.



Because of this, many farmers now choose camels instead of cows. Camels require fewer resources, cost less to maintain, and live longer in dry regions.



In today’s unpredictable climate, camels are proving to be a practical and dependable choice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-in-a-warming-world">Camels in a warming world</h2>



Climate change has made weather more extreme. Rainfall patterns have become harder to predict. Crops fail more often. Many animals cannot cope with these changes. But the camel continues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">adapt</a> and survive.



In countries like Kenya and Somalia, more families are choosing to raise camels instead of cattle. This change helps them stay food secure during long dry periods. Camels also produce less methane than cows, which makes them a better option for the environment.



They need very little to survive. Yet they continue to provide milk, meat, and labor. That makes them ideal for regions dealing with rising temperatures and shrinking water supplies.



World Camel Day is not only about culture or tradition. It is also about recognizing the camel’s growing role in modern food systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-people-celebrate-world-camel-day">How people celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day is celebrated in many parts of the world. In London, zoos hold sessions where visitors learn how to care for camels. In Rajasthan, herders come together for fairs that highlight camel traditions. In New York, urban farms give children their first experience of meeting a camel.



Online, the celebration continues through photo contests and awareness campaigns. Hashtags like #WorldCamelDay help share stories, facts, and personal experiences. Educational groups upload videos, quizzes, and interviews to reach more people.



These events show something important. The camel is not only a symbol of the desert. It is also a part of the future.



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World Camel Day 2025: Celebrating a desert lifeline

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are...

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green water teems with microscopic life, while ultramarine blue usually signals relative scarcity.



A fresh analysis of two decades of satellite images suggests that the dividing line between those hues is on the move. 



Scientists have determined that open-ocean waters are steadily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/">greening</a> at high latitudes and becoming bluer in the tropics and subtropics.



Because the tint of seawater tracks chlorophyll - the pigment that phytoplankton use for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> - the trend hints at a large-scale rearrangement of life at the base of marine food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-oceans-shifting-color-code">Our oceans' shifting color code</h2>



The research team, led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> post-doctoral scholar Haipeng Zhao, sifted through global data captured from 2003 to 2022. The data came from <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/modis">NASA’s MODIS-Aqua</a> instrument, which scans the planet every two days.



Each pass measures subtle shifts in reflected light that reveal chlorophyll concentration right at the surface. To avoid the optical noise of sediment-rich coastlines, the researchers focused exclusively on the open ocean.



“In the ocean, what we see based on satellite measurements is that the tropics and the subtropics are generally losing chlorophyll, whereas the polar regions - the high-latitude regions - are greening,” Zhao said.



In practical terms, that means less plankton in warm, blue waters flanking the equator and a rising abundance in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inventive-math-for-a-noisy-planet"><a></a>Inventive math for a noisy planet</h2>



Working with satellite imagery always involves gaps - patches of cloud, sensor dropouts, differences in daylight.



To tease out a coherent story, Zhao and colleagues borrowed a pair of statistical tools more often used to study household incomes: the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.



Lead investigator Nicolas Cassar, a scientist at Duke, explained the leap from economics to oceanography: “We borrowed concepts from economics called the Lorenz curve and the Gini index, which together show how wealth is distributed in a society.



“We thought, let’s apply these to see whether the proportion of the ocean that holds the most chlorophyll has changed over time.”



The result? Over twenty years, the ‘chlorophyll rich’ zones - already green - grew greener, particularly in the northern hemisphere, while blue regions lost even more pigment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-climate-connections"><a></a>Testing the climate connections</h2>



Greener poles and bluer tropics might sound like a straightforward fingerprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>. However, the study stops short of that conclusion.



The authors compared chlorophyll shifts with four environmental variables: sea-surface water temperature, wind speed, light availability, and mixed-layer depth. 



Only warming tracked consistently with the observed color change; the others showed no strong association.



Even so, co-author Susan Lozier of <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a> cautioned against a rush to label climate change the culprit. “The study period was too short to rule out the influence of recurring climate phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>,” Lozier said.



“Having measurements for the next several decades will be important for determining influences beyond climate oscillations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-plankton-big-impact">Changing plankton, big impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">Phytoplankton</a> do more than tint the waves. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and convert it to organic matter, sequestering carbon when dead cells sink.



A poleward migration of productivity could rearrange that natural pump. Cassar notes that the geographic shift may decide how long that captured carbon remains out of circulation.



“If carbon sinks deeper or in places where water doesn’t resurface for a long time, it stays stored much longer. In contrast, shallow carbon can return to the atmosphere more quickly, reducing the effect of phytoplankton on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon storage</a>,” he said.



Food security is another concern. Many equatorial nations rely on rich fisheries sustained by plankton blooms. A steady drop in primary producers could disrupt the food web, reducing fish stocks vital to diets and economies.



“Phytoplankton are at the base of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chain</a>. If they are reduced, then the upper levels of the food chain could also be impacted, which could mean a potential redistribution of fisheries,” Cassar warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-shift-continues">Ocean color shift continues</h2>



The study adds the open ocean to a list of Earth systems already showing poleward ecological drift. On land, satellite records have documented expanding forests in high latitudes and stressed vegetation in the subtropics. 



Now, with the ocean’s own chlorophyll belt shifting, researchers see a consistent planetary story unfolding.



Still, the authors emphasize that two decades are only an opening chapter. Longer records, deeper observations, and improved models of phytoplankton physiology are needed to predict the full ecological impact.



The ocean’s color shift signals change - green in high latitudes, blue near the equator - as ecosystems quietly reorganize. It silently tracks a significant re-ordering of marine life that could reshape climate feedbacks and global fisheries alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adr9715" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Ocean waters are changing colors and pushing marine life toward the poles

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green...

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down.



Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pan_paniscus/">Pan paniscus</a> (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/">showing</a> that 22 stem from specific muscles.



Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of <a href="https://www.lw.uni-leipzig.de/institut-fuer-biologie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology</a> leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 



The team borrowed the Facial Action Coding System, a 1978 catalog that labels every visible muscle shift with a numeric action unit, then upgraded the scheme for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/">bonobos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-expressions-to-communicate">Bonobos use expressions to communicate</h2>



“This adaptation of <a href="https://www.animalfacs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChimpFACS</a> for bonobos fills an important gap in our ability to study facial expressions across different primate species,” said Dr. Correia‑Caeiro, who is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 



The new manual lets scientists compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/">bonobo</a>, chimpanzee, and human faces move for move.



Humans can muster about 30 action units, yet bonobos rival their chimpanzee cousins with 22, demonstrating the social weight of facial cues rather than sheer anatomical range. 



The catalog even adds a rarely recorded brow‑lowering move, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7790396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU41</a>, that deepens the <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/glabella-1536895880#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glabella</a> without the human‑exclusive corrugation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-mirror-spoken-language">Bonobo expressions mirror spoken language </h2>



The team sifted through roughly 55 hours of high‑definition <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12169169/#supplemental-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> featuring 241 bonobos in zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild, coding each frame by hand.



The footage revealed three independent ear gestures, ears forward, ears elevated, ears flattened, expanding the expressive palette beyond eyes and mouth. 



The researchers also spotted brief lid‑tightening blinks that accompany nose wrinkles, hinting at graded intensity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/">bonobo</a> signals.



The experts noticed that some action units, such as cheek‑raisers and glabella‑lowerers, often fire in rapid succession - suggesting combination rules that mirror syllables in spoken language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bonobos-needed-their-own-system">Why bonobos needed their own system</h2>



Despite their similarities to chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/">bonobos</a> have distinct facial features that complicate direct comparison. 



Subtle traits, like lighter lip coloration, reduced brow-ridge prominence, and more flexible lower lips, affect how facial movements appear and are perceived. These differences can confuse coders if using chimpanzee references alone.



Without a dedicated coding system, earlier studies on bonobos varied wildly in the number of described expressions, from just 5 to as many as 46. 



That inconsistency made it hard to compare results or identify patterns. A tailored toolkit ensures more reliable tracking and opens the door to rigorous, reproducible analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-expressions-helps-bonobo-care">Decoding expressions helps bonobo care</h2>



“By better understanding their facial expressions, we can more accurately evaluate their emotional states and overall well‑being,” Correia‑Caeiro explained. Caretakers can now read those signals with new confidence.&nbsp;



Bonobos are endangered, with population estimates hovering between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals according to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15932/102331567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>.



Knowing when a captive ape is tense or relaxed helps zoos tweak enrichment schedules, separate clashing individuals sooner, and design habitats that cut social friction before it spirals into injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-and-social-units">Bonobo expressions and social units</h2>



Shared action units let scientists trace which facial abilities pre‑date the split between humans and the Pan lineage six million years ago. 



A 2020 multi‑species <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/19273293/Measuring_the_evolution.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> argues that facial mobility scales with social complexity, placing bonobos near the top of the primate scale.



Bonobos live in female‑bonded, relatively tolerant groups, so extra facial nuance may diffuse conflicts without resorting to violence, offering a living model for hypotheses on early human cooperation.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-021-01692-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NetFACS project</a> applies network analysis to thousands of coded faces, revealing that great‑ape expressions form dense interaction graphs where muscle combos shift with context. 



In bonobos, preliminary graphs show tighter clustering of play‑related units than threat units, hinting that relaxed social atmospheres encourage richer facial “vocabularies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-complexity-and-social-evolution">Facial complexity and social evolution</h2>



Computer‑vision engineers are training algorithms on the new bonobo library, aiming for real‑time welfare dashboards that flag stress before keepers can see it. 



The advanced systems could eventually watch forest camera traps, letting conservationists gauge mood across remote populations without intrusive tagging.



Comparative biologists plan to pit bonobo, chimpanzee, and human FACS data against group size, food‑sharing rates, and dominance styles. 



If facial complexity tracks tolerance as predicted, the findings could rewrite textbooks on primate social evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Facial expressions of bonobos offer a window into their lives

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge,...

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades, even in areas with meadows. Across the United States, managed hives have dropped from about five million in the 1940s to 2.7 million in <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/threats" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023</a>.



Pollination keeps the produce aisle stocked, and honey bees alone add roughly <a href="https://www.usda.gov/about-usda/general-information/initiatives-and-highlighted-programs/peoples-garden/importance-pollinators/honey-bees" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$15 billion</a> to the value of U.S. crops every year. 



Kathrin Czechofsky of the University of Göttingen says the latest <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fieldwork</a> shows there is still room for optimism when farms and conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">habitats</a> are planned together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-are-disappearing-despite-meadows">Bees are disappearing despite meadows</h2>



Habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and disease form a triple threat, yet land conversion remains the clearest driver of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">bee</a> decline. 



Climate stress adds another layer, and recent work warns that many bumblebee broods fail when nest temperatures top 96 °F, a threshold that rising heat waves frequently exceed.



Fields blanketed in a single commodity crop create long floral dry spells that leave solitary bees hungry between brief bloom windows. 



Even well‑intended local actions, such as installing small flower strips, often struggle to reverse losses because bees forage across landscapes, not single fields.



Without a coordinated plan, conservation patches can cancel one another out or fail to meet nesting needs over an entire season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-different-farm-types-were-tested">How different farm types were tested</h2>



To explore what really works, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/">University of Göttingen</a> mapped 32 German farm landscapes roughly 0.6 mile across.



Each circular site combined different shares of organic cropland, annual flower strips, and <a href="https://xerces.org/sites/default/files/publications/23-028_01_Creating-Perennial-Habitat-Using-Plugs-FS_web.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perennial habitat</a> dominated by long‑lived plants such as meadow knapweed.



Transects criss‑crossed wheat, clover, hedgerows, and the open lanes where <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/learn-about-bumblebees/species-guide/red-tailed-bumblebee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus lapidarius</a> and dozens of lesser‑known species feed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlapping-support-for-bees">Overlapping support for bees</h2>



Over three summer runs, the team recorded more than 4,500 individual bees, and then scaled those counts to the full landscape for a big‑picture view.



The design allowed the researchers to test whether habitats simply add, work together in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/synergistic-effect" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synergistic effect</a>, or cancel each other out.



The analysis leaned on the same statistical muscle used in crop‑yield forecasting, but here the harvest metric was buzz and diversity. 



Organic acreage, flower strips, and perennial pockets each lifted flower cover, yet the payoff for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-highly-concerned-that-so-many-bee-hives-have-disappeared/">bees</a> hinged on how those elements overlapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-thrive-when-farms-meet-meadows">Bees thrive when farms meet meadows</h2>



Organic fields, managed without synthetic pesticides, proved especially valuable when at least five percent of the surrounding land also held perennial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/">habitat</a>. 



Densities of non‑bumblebee wild species climbed steeply under that mix, evidence of a synergy between pesticide‑free forage and nearby nesting ground.



“This study offers important guidance for shaping future measures for agriculture and the environment. It highlights the value of coordinated, landscape‑scale planning,” noted Dr. Annika Haß, a lead scientist on <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/646422.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the ComBee project</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-meadow-edges-support-bees">Stable meadow edges support bees </h2>



Organic plots alone boosted bumblebee numbers too, yet the gains were additive rather than synergistic. 



Many common Bombus species nest flexibly in grass margins or old rodent burrows, so they profit from pesticide‑free blossoms even without extra meadows. 



For orchard managers in the United States pondering organic transitions, the message is clear: pesticide reduction helps, but pairing it with stable meadow edges helps even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-strips-meadows-and-mixed-signals">Flower strips, meadows, and mixed signals</h2>



Annual flower fields, those bright strips tilled and reseeded every spring, sound perfect on paper but told a more tangled story in practice. 



When large flower strips were paired with broad organic acreage, overall bee numbers often plateaued rather than doubled because both habitats bloom at similar times. Redundancy in food, without added nesting sites, meant no bonus for pollinators.



Perennial meadows, by contrast, flower in staggered waves and offer bare or lightly vegetated soil where ground‑nesting bees dig. Their long-lived stems survive winter, protecting larvae and overwintering adults. 



That structural difference explains why meadows completed the resource puzzle alongside organic crops, while annual strips sometimes crowded it.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/">Bumblebees</a>, with their social colonies and bigger flight ranges, took advantage of annual strips only in simple landscapes that lacked meadows. For solitary bees with shorter foraging ranges, perennial patches again tipped the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-diversified-landscapes">Benefits of diversified landscapes</h2>



The ComBee team calculated practical thresholds: organic farming starts to raise species richness when annual strips cover less than five acres inside a 500‑acre landscape. 



Synergy with perennial meadows kicks in once those meadows reach about 12 acres. These numbers translate neatly to many Midwestern farm sections or European parish blocks, giving planners concrete targets instead of guesswork.



Because budgets are limited, the authors argue for steering organic incentives toward places where annual flower strips are scarce, while investing separate funds to create long‑term meadows in regions already rich in organic acreage.



Such mixing of functionally different habitats promises the biggest biological return per dollar. Beyond bees, diversified landscapes cushion farms against drought, improve soil structure, and harbor predators that curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-assist-farmers-by-consuming-harmful-pests/">crop pests</a>.



Policies that reward cooperation among neighboring landowners, rather than isolated actions, could therefore yield multiple wins.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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