NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.
ITIS Reports &#8212; ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6af7b47b706a421cbff7d45ac370e984&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.971j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Cicek Minnow (Acanthorutilus handlirschi) is a species of concern belonging in the species group &#8220;fishes&#8221; and found in the following area (s): Turkey. This species is also known by the following name (s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi. Source: Federal Register, U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service (various authors), series (version undefined) Acquired: 1996 : Notes: Various listings from the Federal Register on the legal status of species : Reference for: Acanthorutilus handlirschi, cicek [English] Source: NODC Taxonomic Code, database (
FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.This species is also known by the following name(s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi.

Acanthorutilus handlirschi

Cosmologists have known for decades that only a sliver of the universe is made of the same stuff as people, planets, and pets. Analyses of the cosmic microwave background by the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.06209">Planck</a> satellite pinned ordinary matter to just under five percent of everything that exists.



Surveys of nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-energy-cosmic-rays-could-arise-from-the-magnetic-chaos-during-black-hole-formation/">galaxies</a>, however, kept coming up one‑third short, a quandary dubbed the missing‑baryon problem. 



The latest <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/06/aa54944-25/aa54944-25.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effort</a> to plug the gap comes from lead researcher <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/staffmembers/konstantinos-migkas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konstantinos Migkas</a> of <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/science/astronomy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden Observatory</a>, whose team has spotted part of the unseen stockpile running through the Shapley Supercluster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-ordinary-matter-hides">Where the ordinary matter hides</h2>



Large‑scale simulations predict that most of the uncounted atoms sit in vast strands of gently glowing gas that lace together clusters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cozmic-simulations-of-milky-way-use-strange-physics-laws-to-study-alternate-universes-cozmic/">galaxies</a>. 



This reticulated structure, known as the warm‑hot intergalactic medium or <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.15139" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHIM</a>, should reach temperatures of one to ten million degrees yet remain so tenuous that it barely glimmers against the X‑ray sky.



Observations using <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2300-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fast radio bursts</a> recently confirmed that missing ions float between galaxies, but they could not show where the plasma lives. Astronomers therefore still needed a map that links the mass to the cosmic web sketched by theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-a-hidden-cosmic-filament">Finding a hidden cosmic filament</h2>



Migkas and colleagues aimed their study at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/publications/messenger/archive/no.124-jun06/messenger-no124-30-31.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shapley Supercluster</a>, a behemoth containing more than 8,000 galaxies about 650 million light‑years away. 



They focused on a diagonal bridge that links four of Shapley’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-twist-the-entire-universe-might-be-spinning/">galaxy</a> clusters along a span of 23 million light‑years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cosmic-filament_four-galaxy-clusters_missing-matter_ESA_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cosmic-filament_four-galaxy-clusters_missing-matter_no-labels_ESA_1s.webp" alt="This image shows the new filament, which connects four galaxy clusters: two on one end, two on the other. These clusters are visible as bright spots at the bottom and top of the filament (four white dots encircled by color). A mottled band of purple stretches between these bright dots, standing out brightly against the black surrounding sky; this is the filament of X-ray-emitting hot gas that had not been seen before, and contains a chunk of 'missing' matter. Credit: ESA/XMM-Newton and ISAS/JAXA" class="wp-image-1975172"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows the new filament, which connects four galaxy clusters: two on one end, two on the other. These clusters are visible as bright spots at the bottom and top of the filament (four white dots encircled by color). A mottled band of purple stretches between these bright dots, standing out brightly against the black surrounding sky; this is the filament of X-ray-emitting hot gas that had not been seen before, and contains a chunk of 'missing' matter. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA/XMM-Newton and ISAS/JAXA</figcaption></figure>



“For the first time, our results closely match what we see in our leading model of the cosmos,  something that’s not happened before,” exclaimed Migkas. 



Two ends of the bridge lie at cluster pair <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...767...91L/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A3532–A3530</a>, the other at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mass-profiles-of-A3528-N-and-A3528-S-points-from-hydrostatic-equation-applied-to-the_fig4_1932801" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A3528‑N/S</a>, while the middle floats in inter‑cluster space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-filaments-and-x-rays">Cosmic filaments and X-rays</h2>



To separate the slender glow from brighter background clutter, the team combined the broad <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/sas/astro_e2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Suzaku X‑ray</a> view with the sharper eyesight of <a href="https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/xmm-newton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">XMM‑Newton</a>. 



Suzaku measured the diffuse haze, and XMM‑Newton peeled away pointlike sources so that black holes and star‑forming galaxies could not masquerade as filament light.



“Thanks to XMM‑Newton we could identify and remove these cosmic contaminants, so we knew we were looking at the gas in the filament and nothing else,” added <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/research-and-teaching/research-profile/transdisciplinary-research-areas/tra-matter/members-directory/florian-pacaud" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florian Pacaud</a>, University of Bonn. 



After cleaning, the filament still shone about twenty percent brighter than the cosmic X‑ray background across a width of nearly 750,000 light‑years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-no-pun-intended">Why this matters (no pun intended)</h2>



Spectra reveal that the bridge gas sits near 0.9 keV, roughly 10 million degrees, squarely in the WHIM regime but cooler than the clusters it links. 



Number‑crunching shows an electron density close to ten millionths per cubic centimeter, giving a baryon overdensity around 36, almost exactly the value simulations forecast for short filaments.



Those figures align with estimates from <a href="https://www.tng-project.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IllustrisTNG</a>, which predicts that the densest filaments hover at thirty to forty times the mean cosmic density while staying too hot for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/ultraviolet-telescopes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet telescopes</a>. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.science.gov/topicpages/n/nasa+chandra+x-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X‑ray campaigns</a> hinted at WHIM but often found higher densities, likely because unresolved black holes muddied the data; the new study’s meticulous source removal tackles that pitfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-cosmic-filament-stacks-up">How this cosmic filament stacks up</h2>



Unlike superclusters or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/">galaxy</a> walls that stretch across hundreds of millions of light‑years, this filament spans a modest 23 million light‑years. 



Still, with a gas mass of roughly twelve trillion suns, it carries more than enough baryons to rival much larger structures in its local region.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cosmic-web_filaments_galaxy-threads_Illustris_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cosmic-web_filaments_galaxy-threads_Illustris_1s.webp" alt="A simulation of the 'cosmic web', the vast network of threads and filaments that extends throughout the universe. Stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters spring to life in the densest knots of this web, and remain connected by vast threads that stretch out for many millions of light-years. These threads are invisible to the eye, but can be uncovered by telescopes such as ESA's XMM-Newton. Credit: Illustris Collaboration" class="wp-image-1975174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A simulation of the 'cosmic web', the vast network of threads and filaments that extends throughout the universe. Stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters spring to life in the densest knots of this web, and remain connected by vast threads that stretch out for many millions of light-years. These threads are invisible to the eye, but can be uncovered by telescopes such as ESA's XMM-Newton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Illustris Collaboration</figcaption></figure>



Other studies using <a href="https://erosita.mpe.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eROSITA data</a> detected filaments with five times the density, but those results likely included contamination from nearby halos and unresolved sources. 



The new filament stands out not just for its size but for how closely its properties match the clean predictions from large-scale simulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-we-go-from-here">Where we go from here</h2>



By weighing the filament, researchers calculate a gas mass of about twelve trillion suns, comparable to the combined hot atmospheres of the four clusters it connects. 



That haul chips away at the missing‑baryon ledger and underscores that intergalactic strands cannot be ignored when balancing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/threads-of-the-universe-cosmic-web-revealed-in-unprecedented-detail/">cosmic budget</a>.



Future X‑ray missions will widen the search, yet optical and radio surveys also help. 



Fast‑radio‑burst researchers show that roughly half of normal matter floats outside galaxies and the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency’s Euclid</a> spacecraft is building a three‑dimensional map of the cosmic web to trace where that plasma gathers.



Spotting more pristine filaments will clarify how gas flows into clusters and feeds star formation over time. It may also extinguish the last doubts about whether today’s stocktake of ordinary matter really matches the five‑percent prediction.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/06/aa54944-25/aa54944-25.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Scientists found some of the "missing matter" in the universe after searching for decades

Cosmologists have known for decades that only a sliver of...

Many warming experiments may be painting an incomplete picture. Michigan State University researchers found that studies focusing only on summer heatwaves could be underestimate the effects of climate change. 



Plants live through winter too. Ignoring cold-season warming misses key processes like root growth and nutrient cycling.



Their latest global meta-analysis, published in Global Change Biology, analyzed 126 open-top chamber experiments. These covered 13 plant traits across varied ecosystems, from Antarctica to Michigan. 



The massive dataset helped identify how traits like biomass, nitrogen content, and flowering respond to warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-summer-only-experiments-fall-short">Summer-only experiments fall short</h2>



“This important global synthesis of warming effects on plants across many ecosystems can be used to inform models of future impacts,” said Phoebe Zarnetske, professor in MSU’s <a href="https://integrativebiology.natsci.msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Integrative Biology</a> department.



Year-round warming triggered stronger changes. Aboveground biomass, fruit weight, and leaf growth all showed greater increases. In contrast, seasonal (summer-only) warming produced muted effects. 



For instance, aboveground nitrogen content only dropped significantly under year-round warming.



Experiments that ignore winter might miss crucial ecological shifts. The study suggests that many past experiments may underpredict plant responses to climate warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-changes-plant-traits">Warming changes plant traits</h2>



The researchers categorized plant responses into growth, reproductive, chemical, and phenological traits. Some responses were predictable. 



Warming increased leaf growth (Hedges’ g = 0.54) and belowground biomass (g = 0.60). It also led to earlier spring phenophases, though the effect was marginal (g = −0.12).



However, not all changes were positive. Aboveground nitrogen content fell (g = −0.41), likely due to nutrient dilution effects. Fruit weight increased with latitude, showing stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">responses</a> at colder sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colder-areas-show-bigger-plant-changes">Colder areas show bigger plant changes</h2>



As latitude increased, reproductive traits became more sensitive. Number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/">fruits</a> and fruit weight rose significantly in higher latitudes. Spring timing advanced more sharply near the poles.



Plants near their northern range edges also grew more under warming. These range-edge plants likely experience more variable climates. 



That variability may help them adapt quickly. Species farther from the edge showed smaller or even negative changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-responses-stabilize-over-time">Warming responses stabilize over time</h2>



Short-term experiments produced stronger trait shifts. Over time, communities may adjust, leading to smaller visible effects. For example, flower lifespan and fruit number showed weaker changes in longer experiments.



This pattern suggests plastic responses may fade or stabilize. Year-round warming more accurately mimics future conditions, especially with expected winter temperature increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-react-alike">Not all species react alike</h2>



Growth forms made a big difference. Graminoids, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-lawn-plays-a-key-role-in-absorbing-urban-carbon-emissions/">grasses</a>, responded to 9 of 13 traits. Shrubs followed, showing warming-related boosts in percent cover and fruit output.



Bryophytes and lichens, on the other hand, declined under warming. Their percent cover dropped, while vascular plants thrived. This contrast could offset community-level trends, masking specific plant changes in smaller species.



“Non-native species may benefit from future climate conditions,” the study noted. Yet, research on these species remains limited. Data on non-native responses were often too sparse for solid conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-studies-need-more-plants">Warming studies need more plants</h2>



Phoebe Zarnetske’s SpaCE Lab contributed one of the 126 datasets. Their long-term warming plots at the Kellogg Biological Station captured seasonal changes often missed by others.



“This study is unique in terms of the size of the dataset we collected,” said Kara Dobson. “It brings together data from experiments across the globe and from all continents, including Antarctica.”



The team recommends a broader inclusion of species types. Non-native and non-vascular plants need more attention. Without them, predictions will remain skewed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-requires-better-models">Climate change requires better models</h2>



Many past warming studies looked only at one context, such as summer, certain species, or specific regions. This analysis shows that no single trait tells the whole story.



Warming affects plants differently depending on latitude, plant type, and experiment duration. The good news is that coordinated global efforts, like the LTER and WaRM networks, are beginning to close these gaps.



Plants are not passive players. They adapt, decline, or thrive, sometimes all at once. But to understand these shifts, we need to look through all seasons and across all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>. Not just when the sun shines brightest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Warming winters may reshape global plant communities

Many warming experiments may be painting an incomplete picture. Michigan...

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or nauseous - or when something just feels off. As summer heats up, it’s up to you to recognize the signs and act fast if your pet shows symptoms of heatstroke.



Heatstroke is a medical emergency. It occurs when a pet's body overheats and is unable to cool down on itself. If you even suspect your pet may have it, you need to get in touch with your usual vet or an emergency animal health service immediately.



Researchers have been studying the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5800390/">impacts of heatstroke</a> on animals, and their conclusions are definite: heatstroke can harm just about every system in your pet's body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-heatstroke">What exactly is heatstroke?</h2>



Heatstroke occurs when your dog's body temperature gets too high - over 105.8°F. This may be caused by heat, lack of ventilation, excessive exercise, or being left inside a hot area such as a car or garage.



Some of the earliest symptoms of heatstroke are excessive drooling, heavy panting, and vomiting or dry heaving. You may find that your pet's body is unusually hot, particularly around the head. 



They may begin to stumble, move in an uncoordinated manner, or collapse. In more severe cases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-detect-epileptic-seizures/">seizures</a> can happen, and some animals become unable to stand or walk at all.



If untreated, that the elevated temperature starts to disrupt essential functions such as circulation and digestion. It can spiral rapidly into organ damage - impacting the liver, kidneys, and digestive system - and can result in coma or death if left unaddressed in a timely manner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-act-fast-don-t-wait">Act fast, don't wait</h2>



Start by getting your pet out of the heat. Bring them inside or move them to a shady area. Then, get them to a veterinarian immediately. Every second counts.



While preparing to leave, you can begin to gently cool them down. Wet towels with room temperature or cool (not cold) water and place them over your pet’s head and body. 



Keep air circulating by placing them in front of a fan or under air conditioning if available. The goal is to gradually reduce their temperature - not to shock the system.



Do not let active cooling efforts delay travel to your nearest veterinary support. Never submerge your pet in ice or cold water, as this can lead to shock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vets-treat-heatstroke">How vets treat heatstroke</h2>



Once at the clinic, your vet will assess the situation and begin treatment right away. In many cases, they will administer oxygen and start actively cooling the pet. 



They may provide fluids either intravenously or under the skin, depending on the severity of dehydration.



Some pets need medications to support their heart or gastrointestinal function. Vets will also run lab work to evaluate internal damage and may need to hospitalize the animal for monitoring and recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pets-get-heatstroke">How pets get heatstroke</h2>



Heatstroke doesn’t necessarily occur in extreme situations. It’s usually a result of a combination of heat, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/">humidity</a>, poor ventilation, and insufficient shade or access to drinking water. 



Cars are particularly perilous - even when the weather is not hot. The temperature in a parked car can quickly rise, making it a deadly trap.



Even though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expert-tips-how-to-keep-your-dog-safe-from-heatstroke-this-summer/">dogs</a> are more commonly afflicted, cats are also vulnerable. Cats don’t cool themselves with panting like dogs, so when they begin to pant, it means they're in distress. Stress or heat might be the reason.



Some animals are more susceptible than others. Short-snouted dogs - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/english-bulldogs-are-suffering-from-poor-breeding-practices/">bulldogs</a> or pugs - will usually struggle more with body temperature control. Thickly coated pets, higher-weight pets, or pets who aren’t accustomed to warm temperatures are also at increased risk.



In a few situations, exertional heatstroke can occur in dogs from exercise, even on a cool day, if they have not acclimatized to the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-starts-with-you">Prevention starts with you</h2>



Prevention of heatstroke is the simplest way to guard your pet. Always ensure your pet can get to shade and loads of fresh water if outside. Never leave them in a parked car for even a few minutes. 



If you’re walking your dog, try to do so early in the morning or later in the evening when the sun is less intense. When the weather is warm, keep things physically light and try to stay away from heavy exercise, particularly with pets that are most susceptible.



Our pets rely on us to protect them. Understanding how heatstroke occurs, how to recognize it, and what to do can be the difference between life and death.



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What every pet owner needs to know about heatstroke

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or...

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs, left behind many fossil traces across North America. Among these remnants, a remarkable discovery has emerged from what is now Big Bend National Park in Texas. 



Paleontologists from the University of Kansas (<a href="https://www.ku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KU</a>) have identified and named a previously unknown species of ancient near-marsupial, calling it Swaindelphys solastella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marsupial-relative-in-texas">Marsupial relative in Texas</h2>



This small but significant creature lived millions of years ago during a time when the region was far different from today - lush, tropical, and covered with flowing rivers. 



Despite the richness of the fossil record from that era, Swaindelphys solastella stood out due to its unusual size and unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">features</a>.



While most Swaindelphys were small, this one was the size of a modern hedgehog - giant for its kind. The research team, led by doctoral student Kristen Miller, analyzed old fossil collections to reach this conclusion. 



The fossils were gathered decades ago by Judith Schiebout from Louisiana State University (<a href="https://www.lsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSU</a>) but had never been fully examined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-marsupial-mystery">Solving a marsupial mystery</h2>



Miller focused on molars that caught her attention, comparing them to those of many metatherian species - extinct relatives of marsupials. 



The researchers initially thought the fossils were either leftovers from Cretaceous-era survivors or early members of a later Eocene group. Miller’s deep analysis proved both theories wrong.



“Not only are they the largest metatherians from this time period, but they’re also the youngest and located at the most southern latitude,” Miller said.



Her adviser Chris Beard, a senior curator at KU, highlighted the importance of this find. He said that while Big Bend’s Paleocene mammals have been known for decades, this discovery sheds light on the larger ones often overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-primate-evolution">Insights into primate evolution</h2>



Beard also connected this marsupial’s story to early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">primates</a>. The Leakey Foundation, which supported the research, saw the relevance. 



“These marsupials are probably ecological analogues of early primates,” Beard said. That connection might help scientists better understand how early primates behaved and spread.



<a href="https://leakeyfoundation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Leakey Foundation</a> usually funds research in Africa but found this project compelling. 



“When the Leakey Foundation found out we wanted to do this kind of research, they said, ‘This sounds interesting,’” Beard explained. That led to a deeper look into fossils held by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a> and LSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-from-a-warmer-texas">Fossils from a warmer Texas</h2>



Miller noted the climate differences. “It would have been warmer than it is now - probably more on the tropical side,” she said. 



Unlike today’s desert terrain, Paleocene Texas had vegetation, streams, and rivers. The fossils were found in fluvial deposits, left behind by ancient river systems.



The team compared fossils from other places like Wyoming and Alberta, Canada. Some species found in Texas didn’t quite fit the timeline. Miller called them “anachronistic.” 



That made them question the accuracy of fossil dating in southern regions, compared to places like the Bighorn Basin in Wyoming, where the fossil record is much clearer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-animals-could-live">Where animals could live</h2>



To explain this, the KU researchers studied the region’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/">ancient</a> topography. With help from the Department of Geology, they proposed that a high point in southern Wyoming might have divided marsupial species.



“North of that ancient divide, we see the classic Bighorn Basin taxa in their expected time periods,” Miller said. “But south of that, in river drainages that originate in the central Rockies and areas farther to the south, things start to go a little wacky.”



This divide might explain why some species stayed north while others lived only in the south. Physical features like rivers or mountains may have acted as barriers to migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-texas-marsupial-and-mammal-evolution">Texas marsupial and mammal evolution</h2>



Miller plans to continue testing this idea. She’s looking to confirm whether species differences on either side of the divide are statistically significant. 



“That’s our working hypothesis, and it’s something I’ll be looking into later in my dissertation,” she said.



Through careful fossil analysis, unexpected connections, and geological insights, the story of&nbsp;Swaindelphys solastella offers a fresh glimpse into mammal evolution. 



And true to Texas style, this ancient creature proved that even marsupials could go big.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



Image Credit: Kristen Tietjen



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Surprising marsupial relative lived in ancient Texas

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs,...

The machinery inside of each human cell usually behaves like a dimmer, turning genes up or down as needed. A new analysis shows that hundreds of human genes shun the dimmer and act more like a light switch, clicking fully on or off depending on the person. 



The study was led by geneticist Omer Gokcumen at the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/">University at Buffalo</a>. His research reveals that this switch-like behavior may influence everything from fertility to cancer risk, depending on which genes are on or off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-light-switch-gene-mystery">The light-switch gene mystery</h2>



Early <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26872/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/lac-operon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lac operon</a> in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Escherichia coli</a> proved that a gene can be either silent or roaring, nothing in between. 



Researchers long assumed that such binary behavior was rare in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-raised-mouse-born-from-two-male-parents-to-adulthood-imprinting-genes/">humans</a> because most traits need finer control. Yet the new report argues the opposite, showing that on‑off genes are widespread and often tied to illness.



Gene expression is simply the act of reading DNA and making proteins; most genes rise and fall smoothly. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60513-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Switch‑like genes</a>, by contrast, settle into either high or low camps, with few residents in the middle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-switch-genes-discovered">Hundreds of switch genes discovered</h2>



The team mined the <a href="https://www.gtexportal.org/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genotype‑Tissue Expression Project</a>, a public atlas of 943 volunteers covering 27 tissues. 



They applied a statistical “dip test” to 516,267 gene–tissue pairs and flagged 473 genes whose activity followed a crisp bimodal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-flowers-grow-perfectly-despite-chaotic-gene-activity/">pattern</a>.



“We believe switch‑like genes could one day be used to diagnose and perhaps even treat diseases,” said Gokcumen. 



Only 40 of those genes showed on‑off states everywhere, implying <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X1630066X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hard‑wired DNA control</a>, while the rest flipped only in certain organs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switch-gene-linked-to-health">Switch gene linked to health</h2>



Many of the 473 toggling genes sit at the heart of immune defense, metabolism, and cancer pathways. 



Low expression of <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=USP32P2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USP32P2</a>, for instance, has been associated with male infertility, while off‑states in <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=FAM106A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAM106A</a> may blunt the body’s response to COVID‑19.



Seven switch‑like genes in vaginal tissue, including <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=ALOX12" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALOX12</a> and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=KRT1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KRT1</a>, shut down together in some women and correlate with <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/vaginal-atrophy-atrophic-vaginitis-a-to-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaginal atrophy</a>, a postmenopausal thinning of the mucosa. 



“This coordinated silencing hints at master switches we could eventually toggle therapeutically,” noted first author <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Ns4R9VQAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alber Aqil</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-switch-genes-on-or-off">Hormones switch genes on or off</h2>



The pattern of tissue‑specific switching pointed to hormones. In breast tissue, 157 of 158 switch‑like genes were far more active in women than in men, matching the estrogen-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/">environment</a>.



When systemic <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559297/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estrogen</a> falls after menopause, the seven atrophy‑linked genes often flip off in the vagina, leaving the epithelium fragile. 



About half of postmenopausal women experience symptoms of vaginal atrophy, yet most never seek help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epigenetics-plays-a-role">Epigenetics plays a role</h2>



Some switch-like genes are influenced not just by DNA or hormones but by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2012112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA methylation</a>, a chemical tag that turns genes off by altering how DNA is read. 



In tissues like the breast and prostate, researchers found a strong negative correlation between gene expression and methylation at nearby <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/cpg-site" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CpG sites</a>, which are common control points in the genome.



In the breast, for example, 71 switch-like genes showed this pattern, suggesting that <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-642-16483-5_1944" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic silencing</a> explains why some people have these genes off. 



That means two people with the same DNA sequence might express the gene differently depending on their epigenetic landscape, which can change over time due to age, stress, or environmental exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-switches-are-tissue-specific">Most switches are tissue‑specific</h2>



Out of the 473 switch-like genes identified, only a small group flipped on or off in every tissue. Most behaved like switches in just one or two types of tissue, such as the breast, colon, or vagina. 



This tissue-specific pattern suggests that local conditions - like hormone levels or tissue-specific master regulators, control whether the switch flips.



Within each tissue, multiple switch-like genes tend to flip together, showing strong <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/gene-co-expression-network" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene-to-gene co-expression</a>. This clustering means they may be controlled by the same upstream signal. 



For instance, in the breast, several genes turned on together in females and remained off in many males, reflecting the influence of estrogen on the tissue’s gene activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switch-genes-aid-diagnosis">Switch genes aid diagnosis</h2>



On‑off states make ideal biomarkers because a simple assay can sort patients into yes‑or‑no categories. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9580661/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Topical estradiol</a>, already used for atrophy, restores vaginal pH and thickens the lining by turning many of the same genes back on.



Universal switch‑like genes, often governed by structural variants, suggest another route: DNA testing could flag individuals whose deleted or silenced <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6175939/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USP32P2 allele</a> raises infertility risk. 



The study argues that long‑read sequencing will uncover the missing structural variants and complete the binary map.



Beyond hormones, environmental exposures may tilt genetic switches, creating a fertile ground for gene‑environment studies. 



Cataloging on‑off genes, the authors say, brings us closer to personalized medicine that treats the cause, not the symptom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60513-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Some genes may predict infertility and disease by flipping like a light switch

The machinery inside of each human cell usually behaves like...

Every fleeting glance you take of your surroundings sets off a chain reaction inside your skull, shuttling retinal signals to a tiny midbrain hub. New findings show that this relay does more than position your eyes; it also helps you decide what those eyes are seeing.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> have now traced high‑level judgment back to the same circuit that pilots a reflexive gaze. 



<a href="https://neurobiology.uchicago.edu/faculty/david-freedman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Freedman</a>, professor of neurobiology at the university, says the discovery redraws some of the most familiar maps of the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collicular-midbrain-hub-is-ancient">Collicular midbrain hub is ancient</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10115501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superior colliculus</a> sits just above the brainstem and appears in fish, birds, and mammals alike, hinting at an ancestry stretching half a billion years. 



Its layered tissue forms a two‑dimensional grid that rapidly transforms flashes of light into head and eye movements.



For decades, textbooks described the structure as a simple switchboard for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saccades</a>, the rapid jumps that refresh a scene several times a second. The cortex, by contrast, was said to handle every higher act, from object recognition to chess.



Growing evidence counters that neat divide. A 2017 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752317/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> chronicled how collicular neurons encode attention and decision signals once thought exclusive to the cerebral mantle.



Those hints set the stage for a closer look at the midbrain in real time. Freedman’s group answered with electrodes and a clever behavioral trick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gazing-and-judging">Gazing and judging</h2>



They trained two <a href="https://neprimateconservancy.org/rhesus-macaque/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macaca mulatta monkeys</a> to hold their eyes on a central point while labeling drifting dot patterns as belonging to one of two learned categories. Fruit‑juice rewards encouraged fast, accurate button presses rather than eye shifts.



During the task, arrays of fine wires captured spikes in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/posterior-parietal-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">posterior parietal cortex</a>, a well‑known decision center, and simultaneously inside the colliculus. 



Timing analysis revealed that category information emerged in both places at almost the same moment.



More surprising, the midbrain signal was stronger and more consistent than the cortical one, indexing the upcoming choice with remarkable fidelity. That meant the ancient hub was not just echoing the cortex but <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01744-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leading</a> the conversation.



“This is a really surprising place to find these kinds of cognitive signals because this area of the brain is traditionally associated with simpler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-brains-are-wired-completely-differently/">spatial orienting behaviors</a> and even reflexive functions,” said Freedman. He notes that the finding challenges a long‑held hierarchy that placed the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/neocortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neocortex</a> firmly on top.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-off-the-collicular-midbrain">Switching off the collicular midbrain</h2>



Correlation, however, does not guarantee causation. To probe necessity, the team injected minute doses of muscimol to silence collicular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebooting-the-brain-experts-can-transform-cells-into-neurons/">neurons</a> for about 30 minutes.



The monkeys still stared at the fixation point and pushed buttons with normal speed, showing that motor paths remained largely intact. Even so, their category judgments slipped toward chance until normal firing returned.



A 2021 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8338902/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Michele Basso and colleagues had already shown that damping the same region biases simpler motion decisions in primates. The new work extends that causal role to abstract rules untied to any spatial cue.



“Our results show us that this area is really important for the task,” Freedman added. Without its input, the cortex alone could not salvage performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collicular-neurons-and-spatial-maps">Collicular neurons and spatial maps</h2>



The collicular sheet represents space in a neat polar grid, each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-division-discovery-challenges-a-century-of-textbook-biology/">cell</a> preferring a particular direction and eccentricity. Such organization may offer high‑speed scaffolding for loftier computations.



Freedman suspects that the brain projects non‑spatial information onto that grid to exploit wiring already optimized for rapid competition among options. 



Spatial coding could act as a common currency, letting disparate sensory and memory traces jostle under a single rulebook.



Separate teams have found midbrain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627324004124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> that single out faces mere milliseconds after stimulus onset, bypassing the slower ventral stream. 



Others report <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37352857/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collicular bursts</a> that end deliberations once evidence reaches a threshold, acting like an internal referee.



“Some of this data might be telling us that the spatial parts of the brain are getting recruited into helping us perform these non-spatial cognitive functions,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=em1qF1AAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barbara Peysakhovich</a>, first author of the study. Her remark underscores how evolution can co‑opt one circuit for many jobs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midbrain-collicular-circuits-and-perception">Midbrain collicular circuits and perception</h2>



Functional MRI supports the idea in humans. Activity flares in the colliculus when volunteers search <a href="https://bmcneurosci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2202-8-66" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cluttered scenes</a> or shift attention without moving their eyes.



A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4949391/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> that probed eye‑driven Go/No‑Go decisions in progressive supranuclear palsy linked slow saccades to impaired evidence accumulation, implicating the same midbrain route. 



Such overlap suggests that eye‑movement disorders and cognitive decline may share a single lesion site.



Computational neuroscientists are now modeling collicular circuits to design cameras that spot hazards before full scene analysis is complete. The Chicago data offer a fresh template for those algorithms.



Ultimately, the study blurs a tidy border between perception and reflection. It invites a broader search for additional double‑duty nodes throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-changes-in-the-brain-between-the-ages-of-11-25-and-how-it-influence-our-decisions/">brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-implications">Next steps and implications</h2>



Freedman plans to test whether similar signals appear in people using magnetoencephalography combined with deep‑brain electrical recordings during surgery. Such work could clarify how much of the primate finding generalizes to everyday human reasoning.



Another priority is mapping the pathways that carry the category code into and out of the midbrain. Anatomical <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10115501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already show dense links from frontal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/">eye</a> field to colliculus as well as ascending fibers that reach the cortex via the thalamus.



Untangling those loops may reveal how a single decision circulates between brainstem and cortex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/action-observation-network-human-brain-perception-see-what-we-expect-to-see-mind-eye/">before reaching awareness</a>. The results could also help clinicians fine‑tune deep‑brain stimulators aimed at restoring gaze and cognition in movement disorders.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01744-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Humans use the same ancient midbrain circuits for both seeing and thinking, says a new study

Every fleeting glance you take of your surroundings sets off...

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an invisible threat: bacteria equipped with genes that can disarm a high-priority, critically important antibiotic called colistin.



Colistin is reserved for life-threatening infections that have outwitted every other drug. When it fails, clinicians have nowhere left to turn.



In research presented at <a href="https://asm.org/events/asm-microbe/home">ASM Microbe 2025</a>, scientists at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> found colistin-resistance genes - known as mcr - in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> and scallops purchased from eight Atlanta-area grocery stores.



It is the first evidence that U.S. seafood shoppers are unknowingly buying products harboring bacteria capable of shrugging off one of medicine’s last lines of defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafood-s-global-supply-chain">Seafood's global supply chain</h2>



Lead investigator Issmat Kassem has spent two decades tracing the global spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genes-for-antibiotic-resistance-lurk-in-our-wastewater-and-streams/">antimicrobial resistance</a>.



Sampling from local supermarkets, his team ran genetic screens on bacteria living in the imported seafood including shellfish and uncovered multiple plasmids - circular snippets of DNA - that carry mcr.



These plasmids make resistance “mobile,” because the genes can hop from one bacterium to another.



When Kassem talks about the popular appeal of shellfish, he puts it simply: “We love our seafood.”



And most Americans do: about 90 percent of the shrimp consumed in the United States are raised overseas. Many exporting nations still rely on antibiotics, including colistin, to treat or fatten farmed animals.



That practice creates selective pressure for resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a>, which can end up in packing plants, shipping containers, and ultimately U.S. kitchens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-last-resort-antibiotic">The last-resort antibiotic</h2>



Colistin debuted in the 1950s, then largely disappeared from U.S. hospitals because it can scar kidneys and nerves. Its toxic profile forced doctors to shelve it in favor of safer drugs.



That calculus reversed when so-called “superbugs” evolved resistance to nearly every other antibiotic. Colistin returned as a last resort, but its revival was overshadowed by news in 2016 of the first plasmid-borne mcr gene.



Until then, many scientists assumed colistin resistance evolved only through slow, vertical inheritance. The plasmid discovery rewrote that script, proving resistance could not jump between different bacteria - an assumption Kassem now calls dangerously outdated.



Today, at least ten mcr variants have been catalogued worldwide, and Kassem’s new findings reveal a pathway for them to enter U.S. ecosystems.



In earlier work, his lab found the same plasmids and bacterial hosts in Georgia wastewater. The match confirms that agricultural practices abroad can shape microbial landscapes at home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-supply-chain-problem"><a></a>A supply chain problem</h2>



Although federal inspectors test imported seafood for chemical residues and visible pathogens, they do not routinely test for resistance genes.



“The bacteria that were carrying colistin resistance genes are not normally screened,” Kassem warned. Standard checks, designed decades ago, fail to catch this genomic stowaway.



“Our food is sourced from different places,” he said. “If you go out to lunch today, your plate might have ingredients from six, seven, eight countries.” These complex supply chains enable a hidden circulation of microbes.



“Some countries do not have strict regulations for using antibiotics in food animal production, so imported food can be a vehicle for transmission of resistance.”



Domestic aquaculture operations appear free of mcr for now, suggesting U.S. oversight can be effective when consistently applied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-borders-for-seafood-superbugs">No borders for seafood "superbugs"</h2>



Resistance that travels by plasmid does not respect borders. “We live in a very connected world,” Kassem emphasized.



“We move a lot, we travel a lot, our food travels, and we are going to spread whatever emerges, even across national borders.” In other words, the United States cannot isolate itself from a problem embedded in international trade.



That reality underscores the need for better surveillance. “It’s important to invest in monitoring systems and expand them and collaborate, especially on the global level, on the issue of antimicrobial resistance,” Kassem said.



Enhanced screening at ports of entry could catch resistant bacteria before they enter the consumer market. Equally critical is global cooperation to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in aquaculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/">livestock</a> production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-risks-in-the-kitchen">Hidden risks in the kitchen</h2>



Cooking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-waste-can-be-used-for-fresher-safer-produce/">shellfish</a> thoroughly destroys live bacteria, but plasmid DNA may survive and flow into wastewater systems.



Consumers should handle raw imported seafood with the same caution they would raw poultry. This includes washing hands, sanitizing cutting boards, and avoiding cross-contamination with ready-to-eat foods. Yet individual diligence cannot solve a systemic problem.



The study shows that antimicrobial resistance is no longer confined to hospitals or far-off farms - it can ride quietly into suburban kitchens on ice. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-health-warning">A global health warning</h2>



If policymakers act swiftly, the United States can reinforce its defenses by updating import regulations and requiring genetic testing for high-risk resistance genes. It can also partner with exporting nations to curb antibiotic misuse.



For now, Kassem’s message is a wake-up call. Colistin remains a critical, if imperfect, guardian against multidrug-resistant infections.



Allowing its defenses to erode - even incrementally - brings the world closer to a post-antibiotic era where routine surgeries and minor wounds become life-threatening. 



The microbes in our seafood are sending a warning. Whether we heed it will shape the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/">global health</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/journal/msphere">mSphere</a>.



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Imported seafood is spreading antibiotic resistance genes

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an...

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of teeth can reveal whether someone is a current or former smoker. 



This breakthrough came from a team at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>, working alongside scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>. Their findings could offer powerful tools for both forensic science and archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-teeth-can-tell-us">What teeth can tell us</h2>



Your teeth aren’t just for chewing. They carry a hidden timeline of your life. Teeth are made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-holds-a-record-of-human-health/">enamel</a>, dentine, and cementum. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/cementum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cementum</a> is the hard tissue that coats the tooth’s root, and it grows in layers - similar to the way trees deposit annual growth rings. Every year, a new layer forms.



The research team originally set out to use these cementum rings to estimate a person’s age. That kind of analysis can help identify victims of disasters when DNA samples aren’t available.



“By looking at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/">growth rings</a> in the teeth, we can also estimate a person’s age when the tooth was removed, or when they died,” said Dr. Ed Schwalbe, coauthor and professor in the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences at Northumbria University.



“Together, this information could help identify unknown individuals - such as disaster victims or those buried in mass graves - and offer new tools for forensic and historical investigations,” he confirmed.



But they also found something unexpected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-marks-teeth-as-well">Smoking marks teeth as well</h2>



They examined 88 teeth from both living dental patients and archaeological remains. In many cases, the cementum rings weren’t smooth and regular. Some had disruptions - changes in thickness or shape that didn’t line up with the typical growth pattern.



They looked more closely. These disruptions weren’t random. They were consistently found in the teeth of people who smoked or used to smoke.



“Our research shows that it’s possible to tell if someone was a smoker just by examining their teeth,” said Dr. Schwalbe. 



“We found that the regular annual deposition of rings was disrupted for some individuals and realised that these disruptions were associated with current or ex-smokers, but were very rare in non-smokers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-s-undeniable-signature-in-teeth">Smoking's undeniable signature in teeth</h2>



In teeth from former <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/">smokers</a>, the team saw thick layers of cementum built up over disrupted rings. They believe that when someone quits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/">smoking</a>, the cementum begins to return to a normal growth pattern, forming denser layers on top of the older, damaged ones. 



That may explain why ex-smokers’ teeth showed thicker cementum than was found in the teeth of current smokers.



The numbers were striking. Disrupted cementum appeared in 70% of ex-smokers and 33% of current smokers - but in only 3% of people who had never smoked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1s.webp" alt="Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Credit: Northumbria University" class="wp-image-1975125"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Northumbria University</figcaption></figure>



“We compared the cemental deposition of smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers visually and statistically to identify irregularities that were potentially connected to smoking activity,” said Dr. Valentina Perrone, lead author on the study. 



“We found that individuals with a history of smoking - whether as a current or former smoker – were significantly more likely to have disruption to their cementum than those who did not."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quitting-doesn-t-remove-smoking-markers">Quitting doesn't remove smoking markers</h2>



The study included 46 living participants who needed teeth extracted as part of routine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brushing-your-teeth-regularly-can-prevent-deadly-liver-disease/">dental care</a>. In one standout case, a participant’s tooth showed damage estimated to have occurred between the ages of 22 and 41.



When the researchers reviewed the patient’s history, they found that the individual, who was aged 58 at the time, had smoked between the ages of 28 and 38.



That matched the evidence exactly.



“Smoking is known to have a systemic impact on the body and numerous studies have highlighted the correlation between smoking, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/periodontitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">periodontitis</a> and tooth loss,” Dr Perrone added. 



“This study shows, for the first time, the biological record of smoking-related oral health damage within the dental structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-from-past-centuries">Echoes from past centuries</h2>



To test whether these markers of smoking could be found in much older remains, the team worked with Dr. Sarah Inskip, UKRI Fellow at the University of Leicester’s School of Archaeology and Ancient History. They examined 18 archaeological teeth dating from between 1776 and 1890.



Some of these teeth came from individuals known to have smoked. Signs included discoloration and even physical notches worn into the teeth by clay pipes.



Even after centuries underground, the cementum in those teeth still bore the same disruption patterns as found in the teeth of modern smokers.



“This could help us learn more about people’s lifestyles in the past, especially in archaeological studies where patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/">tobacco</a> use can reveal important cultural insights,” said Dr. Schwalbe.



“The identification of 'smoking damage' in archaeological teeth opens up further avenues to understand how the long-term consumption of tobacco in populations has affected our health through time,” Dr. Inskip added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-teeth-don-t-lie">Your teeth don’t lie</h2>



These findings show that even if someone quits smoking, their teeth may carry the evidence for life. 



That insight has major implications - not just for understanding personal health histories, but for reconstructing the lives of people long gone.



The next time you smile, remember that your teeth are holding a history of some of your lifestyle choices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Smoking leaves permanent traces in teeth deep below the surface - a new forensic

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of...

A potential single-dose vaccine might be closer than we think. Scientists say it could one day protect against viruses like HIV or COVID-19 without the need for repeat shots. 



The secret? Pairing two immune-boosting ingredients - called adjuvants - in the same formula.



In a recent study with mice, researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) and the <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research Institute</a> showed how this dual-adjuvant strategy triggered a much broader immune response than standard vaccines. 



The mix helped the body produce a wider variety of antibodies, offering stronger, longer-lasting protection from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mild-obesity-linked-to-greater-risk-of-severe-covid-19-infection/">infection</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjuvants-matter-in-single-dose-vaccines">Adjuvants matter in single-dose vaccines</h2>



Adjuvants are added to many vaccines to help fire up the immune system. They don’t act on the virus directly, but they do help your body learn to recognize and fight it. 



One common adjuvant is alum (aluminum hydroxide), and it is used in vaccines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-cases-of-hepatitis-detected-in-the-us-and-europe/">hepatitis</a> A and B. It boosts the immune system by activating the body’s first line of defense.



Years ago, scientists at Scripps created another adjuvant using saponin, a compound from the bark of the Chilean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soap-bark-tree-discovery-could-revolutionize-vaccine-production/">soapbark tree</a>. 



This adjuvant, when packaged into tiny particles, along with another immune stimulator (MPLA), showed even better results.



That combo, known as SMNP, is already being tested in an HIV vaccine in human trials.



The team decided to test what would happen if they combined alum and SMNP in a single-dose vaccine. The result? An even more powerful immune response against both HIV and SARS-CoV-2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-dose-vaccine-sticks-around">Single-dose vaccine sticks around</h2>



For the new study, researchers focused on how these two adjuvants work together. They used a protein from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a> called MD39 as their target and stuck dozens of these proteins to alum particles, along with SMNP.



When injected into mice, this enhanced vaccine headed straight for the lymph nodes. These small structures are where immune cells, like B cells, train to recognize invaders. 



Inside the lymph nodes, B cells mutate rapidly to make stronger, more precise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-antibodies-are-adapting-to-fight-emerging-covid-variants/">antibodies</a>. This training happens in special clusters called germinal centers.



The scientists found that their vaccine was able to slip through the protective shell around the lymph nodes and stay intact. It remained inside for almost a month - a long time in immune system terms. That allowed B cells to keep working and improving their antibody response.



“As a result, the B cells that are cycling in the lymph nodes are constantly being exposed to the antigen over that time period, and they get the chance to refine their solution to the antigen,” said J. Christopher Love,&nbsp;the Raymond A. and Helen E. St. Laurent Professor of Chemical Engineering at MIT. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-arsenal-of-antibodies">Wider arsenal of antibodies</h2>



To understand the impact, the team used single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the B cells from the vaccinated mice. 



The group that received both adjuvants in a single-dose vaccine showed a much more diverse set of B cells and antibodies.



They had two to three times more unique B cells than mice that got just one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-covid-vaccine-is-safe-and-effective/">adjuvant</a>.



That matters. The more diverse the antibodies, the better the chances of being effective against different strains of a virus, like HIV, that mutates constantly.



“When you think about the immune system sampling all of the possible solutions, the more chances we give it to identify an effective solution, the better,” Love explained. 



“Generating broadly neutralizing antibodies is something that likely requires both the kind of approach that we showed here, to get that strong and diversified response, as well as antigen design to get the right part of the immunogen shown,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-one-and-done-vaccine">Toward a one-and-done vaccine</h2>



This approach could simplify vaccine schedules. Instead of needing multiple doses, a single shot might be enough.



“What’s potentially powerful about this approach is that you can achieve long-term exposures based on a combination of adjuvants that are already reasonably well-understood, so it doesn’t require a different technology. It’s just combining features of these adjuvants to enable low-dose or potentially even single-dose treatments,” Love concluded.



The research points to a future of smarter vaccines - and fewer needles.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adw7499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>.



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A smarter shot: Scientists explore single-dose vaccine power

A potential single-dose vaccine might be closer than we think....

Queuosine may sound like a niche detail in a biochemistry textbook, yet this tiny compound touches nearly every corner of human physiology. Scientists have now identified how our cells grab it, opening new paths for research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-map-of-the-brains-mitochondria-may-explain-cognitive-decline/">memory</a>, learning, and cancer resistance.



The work centers on queuosine, a vitamin‑like micronutrient we must borrow from food or friendly gut bacteria. 



A reseearch team led by Valérie de Crécy‑Lagard of the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> traced the entry point of queuosine into the cell, the transporter gene SLC35F2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-queuosine">What is queuosine?</h2>



Queuosine is not built into proteins or DNA. Instead, it slots into transfer RNA (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39600051/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tRNA</a>), the molecular interpreters that read genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/action-observation-network-human-brain-perception-see-what-we-expect-to-see-mind-eye/">codes</a>. 



By modifying the wobble position of tRNAs for histidine, tyrosine, aspartate, and asparagine, queuosine helps ribosomes choose the correct amino acid more quickly and accurately. That fine‑tuning keeps translation errors and oxidative stress in check.



Laboratory <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-83451-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that supplementing queuosine reverses translation chaos and steadies protein production in stressed cells. Because humans cannot manufacture queuosine, diet and microbes must deliver a steady supply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrient-and-cancer-connection">Nutrient and cancer connection</h2>



Experiments from the <a href="https://www.dkfz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Cancer Research Center</a> uncovered a curious twist. Removing tRNA queuosine weakened context‑based memory in female mice but left males mostly unscathed.



The result hints that queuosine’s control over translation interacts with hormone‑sensitive neural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">circuits</a>. Cancer biologists track the nutrient for another reason.



Tumor tissues often show steep drops in queuosine modification, a change that encourages the rapid, glycolysis‑heavy metabolism called the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7146442/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warburg effect</a>. In cultured cells, adding the precursor queuine slows growth in colon, liver, and breast cancer lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-queuosine-gets-in">How queuosine gets in</h2>



“For over 30 years, scientists have suspected that there had to be a transporter for this nutrient, but no one could find it. We’ve been hunting for it for a long time,” said de Crécy-Lagard. 



Hints about a queuosine gateway surfaced in the early 1990s when growth‑factor stimulation boosted uptake. Screens of known solute carrier proteins drew blanks, sending researchers back to the drawing board.



The investigators ran cross‑species genomics and <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> knockouts in <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/henrietta-lacks/importance-of-hela-cells" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human HeLa cells</a>. Only one gene, SLC35F2, consistently blocked uptake when deleted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-nutrient-s-pathway">Confirming the nutrient's pathway</h2>



Restoring SLC35F2 rescued transport, confirming it as the primary, high‑affinity channel for queuosine and its nucleobase form, queuine. 



Radiolabeled assays measured a Michaelis constant of 174 nanomoles, and competing nucleosides failed to displace queuosine from the transporter.



Fluorescence imaging placed SLC35F2 on the plasma membrane and inside the <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/golgi-body" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Golgi</a>, a hint that queuosine may cycle through secretory routes before reaching cytosolic tRNA pools. 



The study also revealed a second, low‑affinity pathway that kicks in when dietary levels spike.



“We don’t think we could have cracked it without the full team,” said Vincent Kelly of <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a>, joint senior author and professor of biochemistry and immunology, highlighting the collaborative push.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-brain-health">Implications for brain health</h2>



Neurons fire thousands of times per second, and any slowdown in protein synthesis can scramble that rhythm. 



In mice lacking tRNA queuosine, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128131466000059" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampal neurons</a> mis‑translate codons, depressing long‑term potentiation, a cellular marker of learning.



Restoring dietary queuine fixed the translation lag and improved maze performance within days. With SLC35F2 in hand, neuroscientists can now ask whether genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">variants</a> of the transporter align with neurodevelopmental disorders.



Public databases list rare point mutations in SLC35F2 in fewer than one percent of the population. Their functional impact remains untested, but the data set gives clinicians a starting point for genotype‑phenotype studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-this-nutrient-help-fight-cancer">Could this nutrient help fight cancer?</h2>



SLC35F2 carries an intriguing label as an oncogene. High expression predicts poor prognosis in some <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4365-leukemia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leukemias</a> and solid tumors.



Researchers once assumed the protein simply imported chemotherapy drugs. Yet new data suggest that tumors may hijack SLC35F2 to starve cells of queuosine and rewire translation. Therapies could exploit the system in two ways.



Selective inhibitors might deprive cancer cells of the nutrient, pushing their error‑prone translation machinery past a lethal threshold. 



Alternatively, stabilized queuosine analogs could flood normal tissues that preserve SLC35F2, tamping down oxidative stress and inflammation. Early animal trials are already underway at several labs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-sources-of-queuosine">Dietary sources of queuosine </h2>



Queuosine comes mainly from meat, dairy, and fermented foods, while some gut bacteria, especially members of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/bacteroides" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacteroides</a> genus, synthesize it from scratch. 



Vegans often show slightly lower circulating levels than omnivores, though the difference disappears when microbial producers are abundant.



Antibiotic courses can wipe out those producers for weeks. <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/medicine/psychiatry/research/neuropsychiatric-genetics-research-group/study-volunteers-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> in Ireland are now tracking whether short‑term queuosine drops after antibiotics correlate with slower reaction times or mood changes in healthy volunteers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-drug-rides-along">Cancer drug rides along</h2>



SLC35F2 already had a reputation in oncology circles because it escorts the experimental anticancer drug <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7281096/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">YM155</a> into cells. 



Knowing that the protein’s day job is moving queuosine gives pharmacologists a fresh angle: they can tweak YM155’s structure to ride the same pathway more efficiently.



Conversely, blocking SLC35F2 might protect healthy neurons during chemotherapy by keeping YM155 out while allowing other nucleosides through alternative transporters. 



That strategy would echo the way cardiologists use dexrazoxane to shield the heart from doxorubicin, targeting transporter specificity rather than the drug itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-and-queuosine-boost-health">Gut microbes and queuosine boost health</h2>



The discovery also tightens the link between diet, microbes, and host gene expression. If intestinal bacteria ramp up queuosine output, plasma levels rise, SLC35F2 activity increases, and translation fidelity improves.



Better fidelity reduces misfolded proteins that would otherwise inflame the gut, creating a positive feedback loop. 



Disrupt the loop with a high‑fat, low‑fiber <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-diets-offer-health-benefits-and-lower-carbon-footprint/">diet</a>, and queuosine production plummets. Misfolded proteins accumulate, triggering oxidative stress that further damages the gut barrier. Restoring queuosine, through supplements or fermented foods, could break the cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The team wants to chart how queuosine levels rise and fall across organs and over the human lifespan. 



High‑throughput mass spectrometry, paired with SLC35F2 genotyping, should reveal whether deficiencies track with cognitive decline or chemotherapy resistance.



“This discovery opens up a whole new chapter in understanding how the microbiome and our diet can influence the translation of our genes,” said Kelly. Diagnostic kits could follow.



A simple blood test measuring queuosine might guide personalized nutrition plans, especially for patients with gut dysbiosis or limited dietary variety.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425364122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Little-known nutrient can boost your brain and fight cancer

Queuosine may sound like a niche detail in a biochemistry...

If you logged onto your bank account this morning, the security protocols still seem secure - but things are changing quickly in the tech world. A team in China just showed that the math behind RSA encryption is starting to bend to the will of the quantum realm. 



Using a <a href="https://docs.dwavequantum.com/en/latest/quantum_research/quantum_annealing_intro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum annealing processor</a> built by D‑Wave Systems, the researchers say they factored a 22‑bit RSA integer that had resisted earlier attempts on the same class of hardware. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Chao-Wang-2171190355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wang Chao</a> and colleagues at Shanghai University carried out the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rsa-s-reputation-for-toughness">RSA's reputation for toughness</h2>



When <a href="https://65610.csail.mit.edu/2023/lec/l13-rsa.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RSA encryption</a> debuted in 1977 it was lauded for tying security to the difficulty of splitting a large semiprime into its two prime factors . 



Classic computers still need sub‑exponential time to break today’s 2048‑bit keys, and the largest key so far cracked with conventional methods is only 829 bits (RSA‑250) after weeks on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-framework-dimon-turning-any-laptop-into-a-supercomputer/">supercomputer</a>.



“Using the D‑Wave Advantage, we successfully factored a 22‑bit RSA integer, demonstrating the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">quantum machines</a> to tackle cryptographic problems,” the authors wrote. 



The group translated factorization into a Quadratic Unconstrained Binary Optimization problem, which the D‑Wave Advantage system solves by letting qubits tunnel through energy barriers seeking the lowest energy state. 



They also applied the same method to <a href="https://how.dev/answers/what-are-substitution-permutation-networks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Substitution–Permutation Network ciphers</a> such as <a href="https://www.iacr.org/archive/ches2007/47270450/47270450.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Present</a> and <a href="https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/084.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rectangle</a>, calling it “the first time that a real quantum computer has posed a substantial threat to multiple full‑scale SPN structured algorithms in use today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twenty-two-bits-still-matter">Twenty‑two bits still matter</h2>



A 22‑bit key is trivially small compared with production‑grade RSA, yet the test matters because the approach scaled beyond past demonstrations that stopped at 19 bits and required more qubits per variable. 



Reducing the local‑field and coupling coefficients in the Ising model cut noise, letting the annealer reach correct factors more often and hinting at paths to bigger keys, according to the paper.



“The advancement of quantum computers can seriously threaten data security and privacy for various enterprises,” warned <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/prabhjyot-kaur-b7a006222/?originalSubdomain=in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prabhjyot Kaur</a> of analyst firm <a href="https://www.everestgrp.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Everest Group</a>, who was not involved in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-annealing-vs-shor-s-promise">Annealing vs. Shor’s promise</h2>



Universal, gate‑based quantum machines run <a href="https://www.quera.com/glossary/shors-algorithm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shor’s algorithm</a>, which in principle can shred RSA by finding the period of modular exponentiation in polynomial time. 



Those devices still struggle with error correction, while <a href="https://docs.dwavequantum.com/en/latest/quantum_research/quantum_annealing_intro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">D‑Wave’s annealers</a>, though not universal, already pack more than 5000 qubits and avoid deep circuits by using a chilling 15 mK environment and analog evolution.



Annealing excels at combinatorial optimization, so the Shanghai team reframed factoring as that type of search problem instead of using Shor’s period‑finding route. 



The strategy sidesteps current qubit‑count limits of gate machines but pays a price in exponential scaling, which is why only a 22‑bit modulus fell this time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-policy-clock-keeps-ticking">The policy clock keeps ticking</h2>



Standards bodies are not waiting. In August 2024 NIST released FIPS 203, 204 and 205, the first federal standards for post‑quantum cryptography based on lattice problems, and in March 2025 it selected HQC for the next wave.&nbsp;



A White House event framing the publication urged <a href="https://www.axios.com/2024/08/13/nist-post-quantum-cryptography-encryption" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. agencies</a> to begin swapping vulnerable keys because adversaries may already be hoarding encrypted data for “hack now, decrypt later” attacks.



“Businesses must treat cryptographic renewal like a multi‑year infrastructure project,” the <a href="https://deloitte.wsj.com/cio/nists-postquantum-cryptography-standards-this-is-the-start-of-the-race-6e279b49" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wall Street Journal’s CIO briefing</a> noted when the final standards neared release last year. Corporate technology leaders echoed that sense of urgency.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rsa-vs-quantum-cracking">RSA vs. quantum cracking</h2>



Most businesses haven’t yet updated their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baffling-quantum-entanglement-statistics-puzzle-finally-solved-advanced-technologies/">cryptography</a> inventories, and many don’t even know which algorithms their systems depend on. 



Security experts recommend starting with an internal audit to identify all uses of RSA, ECC, and other vulnerable algorithms before building a replacement plan.



While full migration may take years, organizations can begin by testing quantum-safe libraries such as <a href="https://openquantumsafe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Quantum Safe</a>, deploying hybrid key exchange methods.



Integrating crypto-agility - the ability to swap <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/escaping-dead-zones-in-the-barren-plateau-of-quantum-computing/">cryptographic algorithms</a> without reengineering entire systems - is also a good option. This makes future upgrades less painful as new standards arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-and-what-to-watch">What comes next and what to watch</h2>



Large‑key RSA is still safe today, yet the study shows that hardware improvements and smarter embeddings keep shaving away at the gap. 



D‑Wave plans a <a href="https://support.dwavesys.com/hc/en-us/articles/6820989477911-What-Is-the-Zephyr-Topology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zephyr‑topology processor</a> with more than 7000 qubits later this year, and each topology upgrade improves connectivity, which in turn reduces the number of physical qubits needed per logical variable.



Cryptographers, meanwhile, recommend adopting hybrid schemes that wrap lattice‑based algorithms such as <a href="https://eprint.iacr.org/2017/634.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRYSTALS‑Kyber</a> around classical RSA signatures to provide forward secrecy during the transition period. 



Organizations holding sensitive data for decades, health records, genomic files, diplomatic cables, have the most to lose if they wait until a full‑scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">quantum</a> computer arrives.



Some observers point out that the Shanghai result relied on heavy classical pre‑ and post‑processing, and that the annealer still required many runs to locate the right factors. 



Even so, history shows that cryptanalytic proofs of concept rarely stay small: DES fell to a $250,000 machine in 1998 only four years after the first partial cracks surfaced.



The study is published in the <a href="https://cirics.uqo.ca/chinese-researchers-break-rsa-encryption-with-a-quantum-computer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Journal of Computers</a>.



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China breaks RSA encryption with a quantum computer, threatening global data security

If you logged onto your bank account this morning, the...

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what started it? You’re not alone. This common habit reflects our natural social curiosity, a deeply rooted instinct we share with chimpanzees.



A new cross-species study shows both children and chimpanzees enjoy watching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-pressure-alters-how-you-make-decisions/">social</a> scenes more than solo performances, even when there’s something to lose.



Researchers found that curiosity about social life isn’t uniquely human. It likely helped our species build trust, choose allies, and survive in group settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-minds-and-social-curiosity">Young minds and social curiosity</h2>



The study tested 94 children aged 4 to 6 and 27 chimpanzees living at the Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary. 



The researchers used two boxes, each showing a video: one with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/">social</a> interaction (like grooming, playing, or arguing), and another with an individual acting alone. Both kids and chimps spent more time with the social videos.



Statistical models showed strong effects. Chimpanzees watched social videos an average of 6.97 seconds, compared to 4.19 seconds for nonsocial ones. 



Kids showed an even stronger pattern, watching social videos for about 14 seconds versus just under 10 for the nonsocial ones.



Study lead author Dr. Laura Simone Lewis is an expert in developmental and evolutionary psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California in Santa Barbara</a>.



“After years of observing both children and chimpanzees sometimes jumping up in the middle of research games to observe their peers, the research team was inspired to pursue a new social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/">avenue</a> in the blossoming field of curiosity research,” noted Dr. Lewis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-info-over-rewards">Social info over rewards</h2>



The second experiment tested if participants would pay a cost for curiosity. For chimps, that meant giving up jackfruit seeds. For kids, it meant skipping a chance to earn marbles. Some, especially younger kids and male chimps, chose the social videos over the rewards.



The study showed 4-year-old children stayed longer at the video box in the social condition, while older children preferred the reward. Male chimps spent over 7.6 seconds watching the social video, significantly more than in the no-info condition.



“These findings mean social curiosity emerges early in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/">development</a> and is shared with one of our closest living cousins, the chimpanzees,” said Dr. Lewis. 



“Our strong interest in the lives of others, think gossip magazines and celebrity shows, seems to have deep evolutionary roots in our great ape lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-or-positive-age-and-gender-matter">Negative or positive? Age and gender matter</h2>



In the third experiment, researchers tested interest in positive versus negative social content. Positive videos showed playing and grooming. Negative ones featured arguments or crying.



Chimpanzees didn’t care much either way. But in children, patterns emerged with age and gender. 



Younger boys watched more positive interactions. Older boys preferred negative ones. Girls, by contrast, leaned more toward positive content as they aged.



“This study tells us that curiosity about what others are doing, what you might call being a bit nosey, starts young and runs deep," noted study co-author Dr. Esther Herrmann.



"It’s probably something that helps not only us but also our closest living relatives to survive and thrive in complex social groups."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-curiosity-helps-us-survive">Social curiosity helps us survive</h2>



Social curiosity has clear benefits. It helps identify allies, threats, and opportunities without risk. Watching others helps us learn who to trust, what behaviors lead to success, and how relationships shift.



Children and chimps weren’t just seeking stimulation. They were seeking information. One possible reason is that a video with two agents contains more data than a solo video. Observers learn about both individuals and their relationship.



The study also suggests that male chimps may be more attentive to conflicts because they initiate the majority of them in the wild. Female chimps, who generally avoid conflict, showed less interest in aggressive videos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next?</h2>



The researchers suggest testing curiosity across different cultures, ages, and other great apes like bonobos or orangutans. 



Future work could explore how social roles, friendships, or dominance influence curiosity. Larger samples of young chimpanzees could also help compare developmental trajectories.



Curiosity is a tool that helps us build friendships, avoid danger, and understand the social web we live in. Whether at a zoo or on a playground, curiosity serves the same goal: making sense of the world through others.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2242" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Social curiosity starts young and helps us survive

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/02/1970	35 FR 8491 8498	Part 17 - Conservation of Endangered Species and Other Fish or Wildlife (First List of Endangered Foreign Fish and Wildlife as Appendix A)
04/14/1970	35 FR 6069	Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (Endangered Species Conservation); 35 FR 6069

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