NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.
ITIS Reports &#8212; ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6af7b47b706a421cbff7d45ac370e984&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.971j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Cicek Minnow (Acanthorutilus handlirschi) is a species of concern belonging in the species group &#8220;fishes&#8221; and found in the following area (s): Turkey. This species is also known by the following name (s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi. Source: Federal Register, U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service (various authors), series (version undefined) Acquired: 1996 : Notes: Various listings from the Federal Register on the legal status of species : Reference for: Acanthorutilus handlirschi, cicek [English] Source: NODC Taxonomic Code, database (
FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.This species is also known by the following name(s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi.

Acanthorutilus handlirschi

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-natural-carbon-storage/">Microplastics</a> are tiny plastic pieces measuring less than five millimeters that are becoming a ubiquitous ecological contaminant. While many previous studies have argued that, on their own, these plastic particles are potentially harmful, until recently it has been unclear what effect they could have on pollutants that latch onto them.&nbsp;



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.polyu.edu.hk/tc/">Hong Kong Polytechnic University</a> and the <a href="https://www.hkbu.edu.hk/">Hong Kong Baptist University</a> have found that microplastics could make other pollutants significantly more harmful. For instance, when attached to microplastics, UV filters used in products such as sunscreens can make chromium metal more toxic.



Since microplastics can accumulate other environmental pollutants on their surfaces – such as heavy metals or organic molecules – they could pose an even greater threat to plants, animals, and humans than previously thought. Besides just sticking to other contaminants, microplastics and the cocktail of substances on them could also combine with each other, altering their chemical properties. For example, metals such as chromium (Cr) could take on different oxidation states while attached to the surfaces of microplastics, and become more toxic.



To test how to oxidation state of Cr could change when bound to microplastics, and how this could be affected by UV filter molecules (a widespread organic contaminant), the researchers created combinations of Cr and polystyrene microplastic particles both with and without benzophenone-type UV filters. The analysis revealed not only that, in the presence of UV filters, microplastics could aggregate even more Cr, but also that the oxidation state of Cr was higher in the mixtures containing the UV filters.



In a second step, the experts investigated whether this increased oxidation state translated to environmental toxicity for microalgae, and discovered that the microalgae’s growth was inhibited when exposed to the mixture, suggesting that Cr was now indeed in a more toxic form.



“Our results shed light on the complex role of microplastics ─ not just accumulating, but also transforming pollutants ─ in a true cocktail of chemicals,” the authors wrote. “More comprehensive assessments of how microplastic-bound metal complexes affect human health should be conducted, particularly as microplastics continue to accumulate in our drinking water sources and tap water.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00689">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Microplastics can make other pollutants more toxic

Microplastics are tiny plastic pieces measuring less than five millimeters...

As climate change drives hotter temperatures worldwide, spring is arriving earlier than ever in parts of North America. According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www2.uottawa.ca/en">University of Ottawa</a>, the shift to an early spring may have serious consequences for bumblebees and the crops that depend on them for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-pollination-discovered-between-red-seaweed-and-crustaceans/">pollination</a>.&nbsp;



The experts report that bumblebees are not shifting their activity to earlier in the year, which threatens their ability to find food sources or causes the bees to miss out on food altogether. The study is one of the first to examine the effect of seasonal weather changes in relation to bumblebees.



“This study represents crucial groundwork for understanding that climate can impact the seasonal timing of biological events,” said lead author and PhD student Olga Koppel.



“Bumblebee survival is strongly in our best interest, as we rely heavily on bee-pollinated agricultural crops, including vegetables, fruits, and even clothing fibres such as cotton. The over 40 bumblebee species that are native to North America provide this invaluable economic service.”



For bumblebees who emerge from winter hibernation before the arrival of spring flowers, survival is not likely. As a result,&nbsp; smaller colonies will appear the following year.&nbsp;



In collaboration with Professor Jeremy Kerr, Koppel examined the relationship between climate and the spring emergence of bumblebees. The researchers analyzed a database of specimens from museum collections across North America, which included 17,000 individuals of 21 species.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis confirmed that climate strongly explained variation in spring emergence timing in 15 of the 21 bumblebee species.



“This research has demonstrated that bumblebee emergence timing can be biased heavily in the direction of climate changes, which has implications for similar research on other species, as well as for the urgent conservation of these valuable pollinator species,” said Koppel. “This study provides a roadmap for evaluating large-scale temporal responses to climate change for many insects and other animals.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bumblebees are waking up too early from hibernation

As climate change drives hotter temperatures worldwide, spring is arriving...

The highly contagious and immune-evasive Omicron <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-variants-may-emerge-from-immunocompromised-patients/">variant</a> that swept through the world with incredible speed over the past year was first detected in South Africa in mid-November 2021 and spread to 87 countries in a matter of weeks, outcompeting the previously dominant Delta variant by the end of December.&nbsp;



Since then, speculations about the origin of this variant have centered around two main theories: while some scientists argued that the coronavirus jumped from a human to an animal host (presumably mice), where it evolved silently before spilling back into humans in November, others claimed that the virus survived in an immunocompromised patient for an extended period of time, acquiring the many mutations that made it so different from previous SARS-CoV-2 variants.



However, a new analysis of samples collected from Covid-19 patients in Africa before the first detection of Omicron casts doubt on both these theories. After developing a special PCR test to specifically detect the Omicron variant BA.1 (the first one that was identified), a team of international researchers led by <a href="https://www.charite.de/">Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin</a> analyzed over 13,000 respiratory samples from Covid patients that had been taken in 22 African countries between mid-2021 and early 2022.



The scientists detected viruses with Omicron-specific mutations in 25 people from six different countries who were infected with Covid in August and September 2021, more than two months before the variant was first detected in South Africa. To learn more about Omicron’s origins, the experts also sequenced the viral genome of about 670 samples, and discovered several viruses that showed varying degrees of similarity to Omicron, but they were not identical.



“Our data show that Omicron had different ancestors that interacted with each other and circulated in Africa, sometimes concurrently, for months,” said study senior author Jan Felix Drexler, a virologist at Charité. “This suggests that the BA.1 Omicron variant evolved gradually, during which time the virus increasingly adapted to existing human immunity.”



Moreover, the PCR data led the scientists to conclude that, although Omicron did not originate solely in South Africa, it first dominated infection rates there before spreading to the north across the entire African continent in a matter of weeks. “This means Omicron’s sudden rise cannot be attributed to a jump from the animal kingdom or the emergence in a single immunocompromised person, although these two scenarios may have also played a role in the evolution of the virus,” Professor Drexler explained.&nbsp;



“The fact that Omicron caught us by surprise is instead due to the diagnostic blind spot that exists in large parts of Africa, where presumably only a small fraction of SARS-CoV-2 infections are even recorded. Omicron’s gradual evolution was therefore simply overlooked. So it is important that we now significantly strengthen diagnostic surveillance systems on the African continent and in comparable regions of the Global South, while also facilitating global data sharing. Only good data can prevent policymakers from implementing potentially effective containment measures, such as travel restrictions, at the wrong time, which can end up causing more economic and social harm than good,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.add8737">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Where did the Omicron variant come from?

The highly contagious and immune-evasive Omicron variant that swept through...

According to two new studies led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a>, adding a daily ounce of peanuts or about a teaspoon of herbs and spices to one’s diet can positively affect the composition of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/">gut microbiome</a> – a collection of trillions of microorganisms living inside the intestinal tract – and lead to better health.



“Research has shown that people who have a lot of different microbes have better health, and a better diet, than those who don’t have much bacterial diversity,” explained Penny M. Kris-Etherton, a professor of Nutritional Sciences at Penn State who contributed to both articles.



For the peanut study - published in the journal <a href="https://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/article/S0261-5614(22)00290-4/fulltext">Clinical Nutrition</a> - the scientists compared the effects of snacking on 28 grams (approximately one ounce) of peanuts per day with those of eating a higher carbohydrate snack instead (such as crackers and cheese). The analysis revealed that, after six weeks, the participants who ate the peanut snack had a higher abundance of Ruminococcaceae, a type of bacteria associated with healthy liver metabolism and immune function.



In the herbs and spices study – published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/152/11/2461/6687807">The Journal of Nutrition</a> – the researchers analyzed the impact of adding blends of herbs and spices (including ginger, cinnamon, cumin, turmeric, oregano, rosemary, basil, and thyme) to the controlled diets of a cohort of participants at risk of cardiovascular disease. The experts examined three different doses: about 1/8 teaspoon per day, a bit more than 3/4 teaspoon per day, and about one and a half teaspoons per day. After four weeks, participants showed a marked increase in gut bacteria diversity (including, again, the Ruminococcaceae), most notably with the medium and high doses of herbs and spices.



“It’s such a simple thing that people can do,” Kris-Etherton said. “The average American diet is far from ideal, so I think everyone could benefit by adding herbs and spices. It’s also a way of decreasing sodium in your diet but flavoring foods in a way that makes them palatable and, in fact, delicious! Taste is really a top criterion for why people choose the foods they do.”



However, more research is needed to better understand the role of the gut microbiome in human health, and the ways in which various diets impact its composition and functionality.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Peanuts and herbs positively impact our gut microbiome

According to two new studies led by Pennsylvania State University,...

A large number of mammals use scent marks, urine, or scats to communicate with each other. Through this method, they leave, receive, or exchange information about territory ownership, reproductive receptiveness, health status, or diet. However, whether and how this type of olfactory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conifer-communication-is-altered-by-air-pollution/" data-type="news" data-id="1911804">communication</a> is also used by other species than the one having placed the mark is still poorly understood.



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.izw-berlin.de/en/home.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a> (IZW) has observed nine cheetah marking trees and nine similarly looking control trees on farmland in Namibia with wildlife camera traps, and found that several other species visited and sniffed cheetah marking trees more often than control trees, suggesting that they likely gain important information from cheetah markings. Moreover, other species exchanged information at the same frequency at both cheetah marking trees and control trees, a behavior indicating that they use prominent trees for their own communication.



Over the 65-day survey period, 29 species of mammals visited the cheetah marking and the control trees. While there was a higher diversity of species at the cheetah trees, most species visited the trees just a few times. For the purposes of this study, the researchers focused only on species that visited, sniffed, or marked the trees at least 20 times. In this subset, 13 species visited, nine species sniffed, and one species left information at the trees.



The scientist found that African wild cats (Felis lybica lybica), black-backed jackals (Lupulella mesomelas), and warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) - two small carnivore species and one omnivore species rarely preyed by cheetahs - visited and sniffed the cheetah marking trees more often than the control trees.



“Small carnivore species might visit cheetah marking trees to assess when cheetahs last visited the area and/or to feed on undigested prey remains in cheetah scats,” said study lead author Sarah Edwards, a postdoctoral researcher in Wildlife Management at IZW. “Warthogs on the other hand are omnivores and opportunistic scavengers, so they might also feed on undigested prey remains in cheetah scats. Additionally, warthogs are the only species that left olfactory information and did this at the same frequency at cheetah marking and control trees. This suggests that warthogs use large trees as sites for their own communication.”



Until now, interspecific communication has mainly been described between predators and prey or between carnivorous species, and often involved prey animals sniffing at marking from predators. This study suggests that scent markings can have a wider variety of purposes and can be used by various mammalian species to gain important information from other species.



“Thus, it is likely that mammals maintain communication networks across species,” concluded study senior authors Bettina Wachter and Joerg Melzheimer, two experts in Evolutionary Ecology at IZW. “These networks might be laid out along cheetah marking trees and also along communication locations of other species, such as latrines of brown hyenas or spotted hyenas. Investigations on the interspecific communication of various species in different populations and ecosystems will likely uncover more details on the complexities of communication networks,” they concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42991-022-00284-w">Mammalian Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Cheetah marking sites are communication hotspots

A large number of mammals use scent marks, urine, or...

Lizards, snakes and worm lizards all belong to the reptilian order known as the Squamata, and are characterized by having scaly skins. This is the largest&nbsp;and most diverse order&nbsp;of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/">reptiles</a> today, with 10,900&nbsp;extant species. The evolutionary origin of the group is, however, contentious and not well supported by fossil evidence. There are only a few well-preserved fossil specimens dated to between the late Permian (260 million years ago) and the late Jurassic (150 mya), which is estimated to be the period of origin.&nbsp;



Significantly, there is a fossil gap of approximately 70 million years between the oldest known squamate fossils, and their estimated origin some 240 million years ago. By many standards, this represents of one of the biggest knowledge gaps in vertebrate evolution. However, the discovery of an unusual fossil stored in a cupboard in the Natural History Museum in London has gone some way to filling that gap.



The fossil was identified in a stored museum collection from the 1950s that included specimens from a quarry near Tortworth in Gloucestershire, South West England. It was in among other fossil lizards known as Clevosaurus, and was labelled in a misleading fashion, meaning that it lay hidden in the collection for decades without attracting any attention.



“I first spotted the specimen in a cupboard full of&nbsp;Clevosaurus&nbsp;fossils in the storerooms of the Natural History Museum in London where I am a Scientific Associate. This was a common enough fossil reptile, a close relative of the New Zealand Tuatara that is the only survivor of the group, the Rhynchocephalia, that split from the squamates over 240 million years ago," explained Dr. David Whiteside of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.



“Our specimen was simply labeled ‘Clevosaurus&nbsp;and one other reptile.’ As we continued to investigate the specimen, we became more and more convinced that [the ‘other reptile’] was actually more closely related to modern day lizards than to the Tuatara group. We made X-ray scans of the fossils at the University, and this enabled us to reconstruct the fossil in three dimensions, and to see all the tiny bones that were hidden inside the rock.”



The researchers used the morphological and anatomical details of the skeleton to identify that the lizard was indeed more closely related to modern squamates than to the ancient tuatara group. They named it Cryptovaranoides microlanius, with the genus name reflecting the fact that it had remained hidden for so long. The species name, microlanius, means ‘small butcher,’ and highlights the fact that its jaws were filled with sharp-edged slicing teeth. Details of the research are published in the journal Science Advances.



Cryptovaranoides&nbsp;has a mixture of primitive and modern features. It is clearly a squamate as it differs from the Rhynchocephalia in the braincase, the neck vertebrae, the shoulder region, the presence of a median upper tooth in the front of the mouth, the way the teeth are set on a shelf in the jaws (rather than fused to the crest of the jaws), and in aspects of the skull architecture, such as the lack of a lower temporal bar. There is only one major primitive feature not found in modern squamates, an opening on one side of the end of the upper arm bone, the humerus, where an artery and nerve pass through.&nbsp;



The new species does have some other, apparently primitive characteristics such as a few rows of teeth on the bones of the roof of the mouth, but experts have observed the same feature in the living European Glass lizard, and many snakes such as Boas and Pythons have multiple rows of large teeth in the same area. Despite this, it is advanced in its braincase, like most living lizards, and the bone connections in the skull suggest that it was flexible.&nbsp;



What is also significant is that this fossil was preserved in rock dated to the Late Triassic period, meaning that Cryptovaranoides was around on Earth some 35 million years earlier than the species previously thought to be the oldest example of modern lizards. The analysis was also aided by up-to-date CT scanning technology, which was not available in the 1950s, when the fossil was first recovered.



“In terms of significance, our fossil shifts the origin and diversification of squamates back from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Triassic,” said study co-author&nbsp;<a href="about:blank">Professor Mike Benton</a>. “This was a time of major restructuring of ecosystems on land, with origins of new plant groups, especially modern-type conifers, as well as new kinds of insects, and some of the first of modern groups such as turtles, crocodilians, dinosaurs, and mammals.”



“Adding the oldest modern squamates then completes the picture. It seems these new plants and animals came on the scene as part of a major rebuilding of life on Earth after the end-Permian mass extinction 252 million years ago, and especially the Carnian Pluvial Episode, 232 million years ago when climates fluctuated between wet and dry and caused great perturbation to life."



“The name of the new animal,&nbsp;Cryptovaranoides microlanius,&nbsp;reflects the hidden nature of the beast in a drawer but also in its likely lifestyle, living in cracks in the limestone on small islands that existed around Bristol at the time," said PhD student student&nbsp;<a href="about:blank">Sofia Chambi-Trowell</a>. "The species name, meaning ‘small butcher,’ refers to its jaws that were filled with sharp-edged slicing teeth and it would have preyed on arthropods and small vertebrates.”



“This is a very special fossil and likely to become one of the most important found in the last few decades. It is fortunate to be held in a National Collection, in this case the Natural History Museum, London," said Dr. Whiteside. "We would like to thank the late Pamela L. Robinson who recovered the fossils from the quarry and did a lot of preparation work on the type specimen and associated bones. It was such a pity she did not have access to CT scanning technology to help her observe all the detail of the specimen.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fossil pushes lizard origins back 35 million years

Lizards, snakes and worm lizards all belong to the reptilian...

In the animal kingdom, males and females often take on different roles when it comes to reproduction. Most animals take on “conventional” sex roles, where males compete for access to females, females can afford to be choosy about a partner, and then take on the majority of the parental duties in raising offspring. However, there are also many examples of animals with “reversed” sex roles, where females compete for males, often mating with many males and then leaving them with the job of rearing the young.&nbsp;



Scientists have long debated the reasons for these radically different sex roles and several hypotheses exist that attempt to explain this phenomenon. With each hypothesis there is some supporting evidence, but also some criticism. Now, a new review of the published literature has been conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/deutsches-primatenzentrum-leibniz-institut-fuer-primatenforschung">Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a>, the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) , the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, and other institutes, to assess the relevance of adult sex ratios in the various sex roles observed in animal species. The paper is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12915">Biological Reviews</a>.



One assumes that the ratio of adult males to females in a species or population is in the vicinity of 1:1, because sexual reproduction is predicted to give rise to equal numbers of male and female offspring. However, adult sex ratios (ASRs) can vary considerably, for examples if one sex migrates away or experiences higher mortality. In previous research, only 35 percent of 183 bird species had equal numbers of adult males and females, while ASR varied from strong female bias in isopods (only 1 percent males) to strong male bias (90 percent males) in some bird species. Mammal species frequently have a female-biased ASR while birds are more often male biased.



Evidence from theoretical and experimental studies has shown that ASR is linked to processes of mate acquisition, breeding systems, patterns of parental care and sexual conflict, but the role of ASR in generating variation in sex roles has not been systematically reviewed before. In the current paper, the authors have collected data to illustrate the potential role of adult sex ratio in driving different sex roles in a variety of animal taxa. They also identify unanswered questions and propose research that can lead to a better understanding of sexual selection and the evolution of sex roles.



For example, shorebird species with excess males in the adult population are more likely to be polyandrous (a female has several male mates in one breeding season) and leave the care of offspring to the males. Where there is a preponderance of adult females in a shorebird species, however, the mating system is more likely to be polygynous (a male has several female mates at the same time), and females make greater contributions to nestling care. This is even seen between closely related species that live in the same habitat and eat the same food.&nbsp;



Black coucals (Centropus grillii) and white-browed coucals (C.&nbsp;superciliosus) are both types of cuckoos (but do not nest parasites) that occur in the same habitat in the same area of southern Tanzania. White-browed coucals have a roughly equal number of adult males and females in the population, and they form monogamous pairs that raise the chicks together. However, black coucals have a preponderance of males in the adult population and they are polyandrous, with females having several mates and taking no part in parental duties.&nbsp;



Interestingly though, in some instances where male white-browed coucals are more numerous than females, the females tend to become polyandrous, mating with several males and leaving these males to raise the chicks. This indicates that mating systems may not always be fixed and that they may be driven by ASR.&nbsp;



The review also finds instances where different ASRs are associated with different sex roles within the same species. For example, long-term studies have reported large differences in the ASR between groups of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). “We previously showed that the sex bias in social dominance, a trait directly related to sex roles, is driven by the composition of the group in spotted hyenas, but we have yet to establish whether the ASR is the main driver of the competitive regimes of females and males,” said study co-author Oliver Höner.



“It would also be interesting to find out if changes in the ASR of hyena groups affect the performance of these groups and the overall population,” said study co-author Sarah Benhaiem, who leads the Serengeti spotted hyena project at the Leibniz-IZW.



ASR will not necessarily be the same for the species as a whole, as it is within individual populations or groups. For example, elephants, sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), and several temperate-zone bat species form complex matrilineal societies, where groups consist of females only, with males being either solitary or forming all-male groups. And ASR within a group can vary significantly over time as well, be it over years or over the course of one breeding season. The significance of these fluctuations will depend on the life history and generation time of a particular species, but the key point is that the local ASR in a given habitat is not necessarily stable.



Although experiments on the effects of manipulating ASR have not been conducted on mammals, the authors find many publications where changing the ASR can affect characteristics related to sexual physiology and behavior. Many of these studies focus on insects because of their short generation time and the ease with which they can be kept in a laboratory. For example, fruit flies (Drosophila&nbsp;spp.) exposed to male bias showed increased testis size and changes in behavioral responses to other males; and sperm size increased in male-biased populations of flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum). The authors state that hormonal levels may be affected by the ASR and this could have effects on sexual behavior.&nbsp;



“In fact, we provide the first systematic review of the consequences of ASR biases on mate choice, sexual conflict, parental care, mating systems, social behavior, hormone physiology and fitness,” said study co-author Wolfgang Goymann. Take hormones, for example. They play a key role in shaping competition with rivals of the same sex, interactions with mating partners, and parental behavior; and hormone levels themselves are affected during such interactions. One of the best pieces of evidence for a link comes from a study on humans: in a Frisbee tournament, the ratio of male to female observers influenced testosterone levels of players of both sexes.



Beyond these relationships between the ASR and sex roles, variation in the number of females and males may also be relevant in a conservation context. In many species, the sex of an individual is not determined genetically, but by abiotic environmental factors such as the ambient temperature. In these species, the effects of climate change can lead to extreme biases in sex ratios and threaten population demography and genetics.



For instance, an excess of males in common lizards (Lacerta vivipara) led to increased sexual aggression against females, whose survival rate and fertility subsequently dropped, leading to even more extreme male bias. Ultimately this caused the overall population size to decline dramatically.&nbsp;



“We provide the first systematic review of the relationships between ASR and sex roles, but also social behavior, physiology and fitness," wrote the researchers. "We conclude that considering ASR in future studies of sexual selection and sex roles is an important aspect that deserves closer attention in empirical and theoretical research.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sex roles among animals are driven by gender ratios

In the animal kingdom, males and females often take on...

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00643-3">Nature Food</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fish-coral-reefs-thrive/">tiny fish</a> could play a crucial part in tackling malnutrition and the food insecurity crisis across the globe. According to the scientists, small species of fish, such as herring, sardines, and anchovies, are the cheapest source of nutritious fish found in a large number of low- and middle-income countries, and are frequently caught in large quantities in the waters of nations that currently experience malnutrition.&nbsp;



Malnutrition is rising in sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated ten million children suffering from wasting and 55 million children being stunted by inadequate diets. However, these new findings show that just 20 percent of small pelagic fish caught locally could provide all children under five years of age living near the sea or lakes with a daily portion of highly nutritious food.



“Our findings show that nutrients critical to tackling malnutrition are within the reach of vulnerable people living nearby coastal and freshwater ecosystems across the globe,” said study lead author James Robinson, an expert in coral reef fisheries and climate change at the <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a>.



“These small locally-caught fish are packed with nutrients key for sustaining healthy diets, are already caught in sufficient numbers, and are affordable. Small pelagic fisheries must be fished sustainably, and catches must reach vulnerable local populations.”



Scientists have long known that these species of fish – which are widespread in the poor regions of the Global South - are rich in iron, zinc, calcium, omega-3 fatty acids, and selenium. Now, this study provides evidence that they are also much more affordable than other fish, and can thus offer a local and cheap source of micronutrients for people threatened with poverty and malnutrition. Unfortunately, the researchers warn that there are threats to the supply of these tiny fish from overfishing, as well as competing demand from industries dealing with fish oils or animal feeds.



“The need for locally accessible, cheap, and nutritious food sources has never been greater. Our study helps to shine a light on the ‘hidden’ environmental, social, economic and governance contributions of small-scale fisheries, focusing attention on the importance of policy making for sustainable and equitable management of small-scale fisheries,” concluded study co-author Godfred Asiedu, a fisheries policy and enforcement advisor at the Ghana Fisheries Recovery Activity.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tiny fish could help tackle global malnutrition

A new study published in the journal Nature Food has...

As glaciers melt under the influence of global warming, scientists are beginning to wonder what will become of the microbes that inhabit the surface and subsurface layers of these glaciers. Typically, these microbes include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-bacteria-could-help-rejuvenate-livers/">bacteria</a>, viruses, fungi and algae that colonize the ice and make use of the porous surface that develops during the melt season. With the flow of meltwater set to increase in the warming world, large quantities of microbes, nutrients, sediment and organic carbon will be discharged into aquatic environments from glaciers around the world.&nbsp;



A research team headed by Ian Stevens, postdoc student at the Department of Environmental Science at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a>, Denmark, spent two years between July 2014 and July 2016 collecting meltwater samples from the surfaces of eight glaciers across Europe and North America, and from two sites on the Greenland ice cap. They counted the concentration of microbial cells present in the samples, and quantified the amount of carbon that would be transferred when these microbes flowed away into surrounding water bodies.&nbsp;



“The study focuses on the number of microorganisms living on glacier surfaces in the Northern Hemisphere, and what happens with them when the glaciers melt. We collected around 1,000 samples from glaciers from Arctic Canada, Svalbard, Sweden, the European Alps and Greenland, and we counted the microorganisms in the samples,” said Stevens.



The results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00609-0">Nature Communications</a>, indicate that the meltwaters contain an average of around 10,000 microbial cells per milliliter, which equates to a mass of 650,000 tons of carbon entering aquatic habitats in the Northern Hemisphere each year for the following 80 years (by which time the glaciers will be gone). If carbon emissions are cut, slowing global heating and ice melting, the mass of microbes released would be reduced by about a third.



“In the study, we found that, with a medium climate change scenario with an average temperature rise of around 2.7oC in 2100, we can expect up to 0.65 million tons of carbon to be released from the glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere every year,” said Stevens.



The researchers did not study the microbes individually, and cannot comment on whether any of the species or strains will be dangerous for human health. Although alarming claims may be doing the rounds that a virus or&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/strain+of+bacteria/">strain of bacteria</a>&nbsp;will emerge from the ancient ice that is able to evade the human immune system, this does not have any scientific backing. It is true, however, that very little is known about the thousands of microbial species inhabiting the surface of ice, many of which are new to science.



“We are seeing the glaciers die before our eyes, affecting the microbes that are there, with implications for us locally and globally,” said Dr. Arwyn Edwards, who is from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/aberystwythuniversity">Aberystwyth University</a>&nbsp;in Wales, and was part of the study team. “The mass of microbes released is vast even with moderate warming.”



“We don’t have enough data to understand the value and the threat of these organisms. I routinely get inquiries about whether there is going to be a doomsday pathogen melting out of the glaciers. I think that’s a very minor risk, but it’s not a zero risk, so we need risk assessment of these microbes.”



The researchers do state that most of the bacteria were killed by the sun soon after exposure, suggesting that even if a human pathogen is among them, the chance of infection is slight.&nbsp;



In terms of the major purpose of the study, to quantify movements of carbon into aquatic environments, “Much of the carbon released from the melting glaciers will end up in the rivers supplied by the glaciers, or in the sea. However, we do not yet know whether the microorganisms can be harmful or beneficial, or what consequences the changes in the carbon supply could have for agriculture using the water from glaciers," said Stevens.&nbsp;



In the coming period, the researchers will continue to study meltwater from glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere to learn more about what microorganisms the meltwater contains and how many of them can survive transport onwards into the aquatic environment.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Melting glaciers release vast quantities of unknown microbes

As glaciers melt under the influence of global warming, scientists...

For young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-exposure-is-worsening-the-issue-of-malnourished-children/">children</a>, a lack of sleep has detrimental effects on brain development, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.medschool.umaryland.edu/">University of Maryland School of Medicine</a>. 



"Because early adolescence is a crucial period for neurocognitive development, we aimed to investigate how insufficient sleep affects children's mental health, cognition, brain function, and brain structure over 2 years," wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



The study revealed that a lack of sleep among elementary school-age children leads to significant differences in brain regions that are responsible for memory, intelligence and well-being.&nbsp;



These developmental changes correlated with greater mental health problems, such as anxiety and depression. Sleep deprivation among children was also linked to difficulties with problem solving and decision making.&nbsp;



The American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends that children between the ages of six and 12 years of age should get nine to 12 hours of sleep per night for optimal health.&nbsp;



The study was focused on data from more than 8,300 who were enrolled in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The researchers analyzed MRI images, medical records, and surveys completed by the participants and their parents at the time of enrollment and during a two-year follow-up.



“We found that children who had insufficient sleep, less than nine hours per night, at the beginning of the study had less grey matter or smaller volume in certain areas of the brain responsible for attention, memory and inhibition control compared to those with healthy sleep habits,” said study co-author Dr. Ze Wang. “These differences persisted after two years, a concerning finding that suggests long term harm for those who do not get enough sleep.”



According to Dr. Wang and his colleagues, this is one of the first studies to demonstrate the potential long-term impact of lack of sleep on neurocognitive development in children.



“This is a crucial study finding that points to the importance of doing long-term studies on the developing child’s brain,” said Dr. E. Albert Reece. "Sleep can often be overlooked during busy childhood days filled with homework and extracurricular activities. Now we see how detrimental that can be to a child’s development.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanchi/home">The Lancet Child &amp; Adolescent Health</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lack of sleep impacts brain development in children

For young children, a lack of sleep has detrimental effects...

According to a new analysis of over 20,000 trees from five continents, old-growth trees appear to be more drought tolerant than younger ones in the forest canopy, and may be consequently able to better withstand future climate extremes. These findings highlight the importance of preserving the world’s remaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/">old-growth forests</a>, which are not only strongholds of biodiversity, but also store vast amounts of carbon.



“The number of old-growth forests on the planet is declining, while drought is predicted to be more frequent and more intense in the future,” said study lead author Tsun Fung Au, an expert in Global Change Biology and Forest Ecology at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. “Given their high resistance to drought and their exceptional carbon storage capacity, conservation of older trees in the upper canopy should be the top priority from a climate mitigation perspective.”



However, the scientists have also found that younger trees in the upper canopy, if they managed to survive droughts, showed greater resilience - or the ability to rapidly and efficiently return to pre-drought growth rates – than older trees.



Since deforestation, selective logging, and similar threats have led to a massive global decline of old-growth forests, subsequent reforestation has led many of the world’s forests to be dominated by younger trees. As such forest demographics continues to change, scientists expect younger trees to play an increasingly important role in ecosystem functioning and carbon sequestration.



“Our findings - that older trees in the upper canopy are more drought tolerant, while younger trees in the upper canopy are more drought resilient - have important implications for future carbon storage in forests,” Au explained.



“These results imply that in the short term, drought’s impact on forests may be severe due to the prevalence of younger trees and their greater sensitivity to drought. But in the long run, those younger trees have a greater ability to recover from drought, which could be beneficial to the carbon stock.”



“Our findings suggest that managing forests for their ability to store carbon and to be resilient to drought could be an important tool in responding to climate change, and thinking about the age of the forest is an important aspect of how the forest will respond to drought,” concluded senior author Justin Maxwell, an associate professor of Geography at <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01528-w">Nature Climate Change</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Old-growth trees more tolerant to drought

According to a new analysis of over 20,000 trees from...

Bumble,Bee,On,A,Bluebell

Carbon dioxide is commonly used by beekeepers and researchers to sedate bees and other species of insects. However, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a>, in addition to inducing a calming effect, this substance can also trigger a range of other physiological responses. 



For instance, since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">bumblebee</a> queens usually enter diapause – a phase similar to hibernation – during the winter months before starting a new colony in the spring, bee farmers and scientists frequently use CO2 to trigger the queens’ reproductive process earlier than it would happen on its own. Yet, while previous studies argued that this substance can directly affect reproduction, the Penn State experts have now found that, in fact, it first induces a change in metabolism, which only afterwards triggers secondary effects on reproduction.



“Previously, it was believed that CO2 directly affected reproduction, but this study is some of the first evidence showing this is likely not the case,” said study senior author Etya Amsalem, an associate professor of Entomology at Penn State. “We found that CO2 changes the way macronutrients are stored and reallocated in the body. The fact that the reproductive process is then kickstarted is just an artifact of these processes.”



The scientists conducted two series of experiments. In the first one, they wanted to acquire a more accurate baseline understanding of the physiological effects of CO2 on bumblebee queens. They split the queens into two groups – one treated and the other untreated with CO2 – and examined the bees at three different timepoints: immediately after the treatment, and then three days and ten days later. At each of these timepoints, the scientists examined the ovaries and measured micronutrient concentrations in several tissues, in order to assess how exposure to CO2 change metabolic function.



“The queens treated with CO2 exhibited higher levels of ovarian activation than untreated ones,” Amsalem reported. “Treated queens also experienced a shift in macronutrient allocation, with fewer lipids in the organ known as the ‘fat body’ and greater glycogen [a stored form of glucose] and protein in their ovaries.”



Afterwards, the researchers used CO2 to treat two other groups of bees: one in which the queens had their ovaries removed, and another in which they were treated with a juvenile hormone antagonist – a compound that reduces the levels of juvenile hormone, which regulates reproduction and accelerates metabolism, while also potentially playing an important role in the way carbon dioxide affects insects’ physiology.&nbsp;



This time, they found that the bees that had their ovaries removed experienced a similar change in macronutrients as the ones in the control group, suggesting that CO2 affects the metabolism first. In addition, the bees treated with the juvenile hormone inhibitor did not exhibit these metabolic effects, confirming the fundamental role of this hormone in mediating the effects of carbon dioxide.



These findings are important for understanding how CO2 affects not only the behavior of bumblebees, but also of other insects. 



“CO2 has many different impacts on insects, so as scientists we’re trying to find an effect they all have in common so we can find the precise process or mechanism that is creating these effects. For example, it positively affects reproduction in bees but might inhibit it in other insects. It’s not consistent in the way it affects reproduction. But we think it is consistent in the way it affects metabolism,” Amsalem concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibmb.2022.103831">Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does carbon dioxide affect bumblebee reproduction?

Carbon dioxide is commonly used by beekeepers and researchers to...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/02/1970	35 FR 8491 8498	Part 17 - Conservation of Endangered Species and Other Fish or Wildlife (First List of Endangered Foreign Fish and Wildlife as Appendix A)
04/14/1970	35 FR 6069	Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (Endangered Species Conservation); 35 FR 6069