<p>Bufo superciliaris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.</p>
<p>ITIS Reports &#8212; Bufo superciliaris ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=ea95add9042842ff81e58101c387ff83&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.460j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Cameroon Toad<strong> (Bufo superciliaris)</strong> is a species of concern belonging in the species group &#8220;amphibians&#8221; and found in the following area(s): Equatorial Africa.</p>
<p>FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The African giant toad, Congo toad, or Cameroon toad is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria, possibly Liberia, and possibly Sierra Leone. The toad&#8217;s natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, plantations, and heavily degraded former forest. While it is a &#8220;least concern&#8221; species, it is threatened by habitat loss.</p>


Bufo superciliaris

<p>Ever misplaced your keys or forgotten where you parked? Imagine if you had the remarkable memory of a mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chickadees-are-genetically-inclined-to-have-a-remarkable-memory/">chickadee</a>. Despite their small size, with brains just larger than a pea, these nimble birds masterfully remember the locations of tens of thousands of food caches.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mountain chickadees hide seeds in tree bark, under dead leaves, and within pine cones throughout mountainous terrains. Their ability to recall these locations during the harsh winter months is crucial for their survival amid the cold and snow.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-memory-of-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Remarkable memory of mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



<p>A research study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada, Reno</a> has identified nearly a hundred genes that are linked to the birds’ spatial memory, which is their ability to pinpoint and recall the locations of these hidden caches. </p>



<p>Furthermore, the experts suggest that there might be a trade-off between having robust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-memory-starts-at-age-2-study-finds/">long-term memory</a> and the ability to quickly forget old memories to make room for new ones. This discovery has the potential to deepen our understanding of how spatial memory evolves not just in animals, but also in humans.</p>



<p>“Chickadees are impressive birds,” said senior author Scott Taylor, the director of CU Boulder’s Mountain Research Station and an associate professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They can remember tens of thousands of locations where they cached food across an entire winter and a new set of those the next winter. Their spatial memory is much more developed than many other birds that don't have to have this strategy to survive cold winters.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To assess how these birds manage such a feat, Taylor’s colleagues at the University of Nevada, Reno, led by biologist professor Vladimir Pravosudov, put together a creative test. They set up multiple feeder arrays in California’s Sierra Nevada mountains, each consisting of eight bird feeders filled with seeds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Each feeder was equipped with a gate that had a radio frequency reader capable of detecting a tag placed on the chickadees. The setup required the mountain chickadees to remember which feeders they could access as each gate was programmed to open only for certain birds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-learning-among-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Spatial learning among mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Pravosudov’s team observed and recorded the number of times each bird visited the incorrect feeders before finding the right one. The underlying theory was that mountain chickadees with superior spatial memory capabilities would show a lower rate of errors.</p>



<p>Additionally, using blood samples, the scientists sequenced the genomes of 162 tagged chickadees, creating the largest dataset ever for exploring the genetic basis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive abilities</a> in chickadees.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-spatial-memory-in-birds">Genetics of spatial memory in birds</h2>



<p>By correlating the birds’ genetic information with their performance in the feeder test, the team identified 97 genes associated with the chickadees’ spatial learning and memory. Birds with specific genetic variants at these genes demonstrated fewer incorrect attempts before successfully locating their designated feeders.</p>



<p>According to co-author Sara Padula, a Ph.D. student in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, a large proportion of these variants are linked to neuron formation in the hippocampus, a part of the brain that plays a fundamental role in learning and memory. “Understanding the genetic basis of this trait will allow us to understand how the trait evolves,” said Taylor.</p>



<p>Moreover, he pointed out that the common ancestor of all North American chickadees cached food. However, among the seven species of chickadees found today, two do not.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They live in a milder environment where food is generally available year-round. Now that we know the gene regions that underlie spatial memory, we can look at what variation looks like in these species that have lost caching,” said Taylor.</p>



<p>“This study substantially advanced our understanding of the genetics of spatial memory in birds and behavioral genetics more broadly,” added co-author Georgy Semenov, a research associate in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-long-term-memory-may-have-a-disadvantage">Good long-term memory may have a disadvantage</h2>



<p>The research also highlighted a potential downside to having an excellent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-rely-on-an-autism-gene-for-memorization/">memory</a>. After a few days of the initial task, Pravosudov’s team reassigned new feeders to the birds. Surprisingly, mountain chickadees that excelled in the initial tests struggled with adapting to the new feeders. They found it challenging to discard old memories and form new ones.</p>



<p>“In a more variable environment, what our collaborators found suggests that chickadees with good long-term memory may have a disadvantage. For example, if there is an unexpected snowstorm, these birds may keep trying to visit caches that have been buried in the snow, rather than forgetting them and looking for other caches,” Padula said.</p>



<p>As climate conditions continue to change, birds that can adapt quickly by forming new memories might have a better chance of survival. “Because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-climate-change-happening-too-fast-for-birds-to-keep-up/">climate change</a>, we might expect these selective pressures that have been shaping chickadee’s special memory for thousands of years to shift significantly,” Taylor concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.058" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Mountain chickadees have an extraordinary memory

Ever misplaced your keys or forgotten where you parked? Imagine...

<p>Scientists have discovered a shocking new trait in some of the world's most common – and dangerous – <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. Turns out, bacteria like <em>Salmonella</em> and <em>E. coli</em> have a taste for human blood, and they'll hunt it down like vampires.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacterial-vampirism">Bacterial vampirism</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a> have given this newly observed behavior the term "bacterial vampirism." This term illuminates how certain bacteria have an unusual ability to migrate from the gut, where they cause illnesses like food poisoning, into the bloodstream where they pose a much more serious threat.</p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intestinal-bacteria-could-help-you-live-a-very-long-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> demonstrate a remarkable capacity to detect serum, the liquid component of blood. Serum is a rich source of nutrients that bacteria thrive on. Even the smallest injury within the digestive system acts as an invitation for these bacteria to swarm towards it, allowing them to infiltrate the bloodstream. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-senses-of-vampire-bacteria">Super senses of vampire bacteria</h2>



<p>The research team, led by Professor Arden Baylink, found that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/certain-gut-bacteria-lower-cholesterol-and-the-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> are like microscopic sharks. They can detect the tiniest trace of blood, even minuscule amounts. </p>



<p>"Bacteria infecting the bloodstream can be lethal," explained Professor Baylink. "We learned some of the bacteria that most commonly cause bloodstream infections actually sense a chemical in human blood and swim toward it."</p>



<p>Bacteria have ways to sense their environment. They have special proteins on their surfaces that act like tiny receptors. These receptors help bacteria detect various things, like chemicals in their surroundings that might signal sources of food or danger.</p>



<p>The bacteria analyzed in this study have a specific protein receptor that is designed to pick up on traces of blood (more specifically, serum, the liquid part of blood).</p>



<p>This receptor acts like a nose for the bacteria. It picks up the chemical signals from the blood and guides the bacteria toward the source. Think of it like a shark detecting a few drops of blood in the ocean and swimming towards it.</p>



<p>Imagine the chemicals in blood leaving a faint trail. The bacteria, using their specialized receptor, can follow that trail right to the injury where the blood is leaking into the gut.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-vampire-bacteria-for-new-cures">Using vampire bacteria for new cures</h2>



<p>By uncovering the mechanism behind how bacteria find their way into the bloodstream, scientists can now develop new strategies to prevent these infections.</p>



<p>"By learning how these bacteria are able to detect sources of blood, in the future we could develop new drugs that block this ability. These medicines could improve the lives and health of people with inflammatory bowel disease who are at high risk for bloodstream infections," noted study co-author and PhD student Siena Glenn.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-vampire-bacteria">Significance of vampire bacteria</h2>



<p>You might be wondering why it's particularly important that bacteria like <em>E. coli</em> and <em>Salmonella</em> can target blood for nutrients especially given that these bacteria are commonly found in the human gut. </p>



<p>Normally, when these bacteria cause food poisoning, the body's immune system is typically able to fight them off relatively efficiently. The symptoms, while unpleasant, are usually not life-threatening and tend to resolve with time.</p>



<p>However, the scenario changes drastically if these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/christensenella-minuta-gut-bacteria-linked-obesity-different-men-women/">bacteria</a> manage to enter the bloodstream. When <em>E. coli</em> and <em>Salmonella</em> transition from the gut to the bloodstream, they bypass many of the body's natural defense mechanisms. </p>



<p>These defenses are primarily localized to the gastrointestinal tract. In the gut, the immune system is well-equipped to handle invaders through a combination of physical barriers, chemical secretions, and immune cells that target and eliminate pathogens. </p>



<p>Once bacteria enter the bloodstream, these localized defenses are no longer effective. This allows the bacteria to spread more freely and potentially cause more severe health issues.</p>



<p>In the bloodstream, these bacteria can spread throughout the body, potentially leading to systemic infections that are much more severe and difficult to treat.</p>



<p>This is particularly risky for individuals with chronic intestinal conditions like Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. These conditions are characterized by inflammation and sometimes ulceration of the gut lining, which can compromise the integrity of the intestinal barrier. </p>



<p>Small lesions or microscopic tears in the gut — which might be inconsequential in a healthy individual — can act as portals for bacteria to escape from the gut and enter the bloodstream.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-threatening-response">Life-threatening response </h2>



<p>For someone with Crohn's or ulcerative colitis, these microscopic breaches in the gut lining are far from benign. They provide potential entry points for opportunistic bacteria that otherwise remain confined to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a>. </p>



<p>Once in the bloodstream, these "bloodthirsty" bacteria can exploit the nutrient-rich environment to multiply and spread, leading to a dangerous condition known as sepsis. </p>



<p>Sepsis is a life-threatening response to infection that can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death if not promptly and effectively treated.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-protect-yourself">How to protect yourself</h2>



<p>While you can't stop these bacteria from living in your gut (and sometimes they're even helpful), here are some important tips:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cook-food-thoroughly">Cook food thoroughly</h3>



<p>Bacteria like <em>Salmonella</em> and <em>E. coli</em> often cause food poisoning. Proper cooking destroys these harmful bacteria.</p>



<p> Use a food thermometer to ensure meats, poultry, and eggs reach their recommended internal temperatures before eating. This is especially important to avoid getting these bacteria into your system.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-see-your-doctor">See your doctor</h3>



<p>If you have a chronic gut condition like Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, your gut lining may be more susceptible to small injuries or lesions. These create an opening for bacteria to enter your bloodstream, potentially leading to serious complications like sepsis. </p>



<p>Your doctor can help you understand your specific risks and provide guidance on managing your gut health to minimize potential complications.</p>



<p>While the idea of "vampire bacteria" might give you the creeps, this knowledge is power. Scientists are getting the upper hand, and that means new treatments and prevention strategies could be on the way. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/93178v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Common gut bacteria behave like vampires to target human blood

Scientists have discovered a shocking new trait in some of...

<p>The lush, green forests of West Virginia are a world away from the arid landscapes of the American West. But the effects of a devastating "megadrought" in the U.S. are a stark reminder of the complex ways our planet's ecosystems are connected. Researchers at <a href="http://www.wvu.edu/">West Virginia University</a> are studying this severe weather event to understand it better.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-u-s-megadrought">Persistent U.S. megadrought </h2>



<p>Typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/american-southwest-megadrought-is-the-worst-in-12-centuries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> might last for a season or a few years, causing hardship and stress. A megadrought extends its impact across multiple decades. The ongoing megadrought in the Western U.S. began in the year 2000. </p>



<p>Shockingly, it has been going on for 23 years. An entire generation has grown up with the constant pressures of water scarcity.</p>



<p>This crisis has far-reaching consequences:</p>



<ul>
<li>Plants and wildlife adapted to arid conditions reach their limits. Landscapes may change permanently, as some species die out and those better suited to the new conditions move in.</li>



<li>Farmers face difficult choices. Crops may fail, raising food prices. Land might need to be taken out of production entirely, affecting livelihoods and communities.</li>



<li>Reservoirs shrink to critical levels. Cities and towns might enforce water restrictions or face the possibility of their water supplies running out.</li>



<li>Wildfires become more frequent and intense due to dry conditions. Dust storms can increase, damaging crops and harming air quality. In some areas, the ground subsides (sinks) when too much groundwater is pumped out.</li>
</ul>



<p>Scientists are urgently working to gather the data needed to understand the megadrought's effects on the land, water resources, and communities that depend on them. This knowledge is the first vital step in identifying solutions, creating water management strategies, and building resilience for an uncertain future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-u-s-megadrought">Decoding the U.S. megadrought</h2>



<p>The landscape itself holds the key to understanding the severity and impact of the megadrought. Dr. Kannenberg from the <a href="http://eberly.wvu.edu/">WVU Eberly College of Arts and Sciences</a> and his team use a suite of scientific tools to uncover these hidden secrets:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-rings">Tree rings</h3>



<p>Each ring in a tree's trunk marks a year of growth. Wide rings signal plentiful water, whereas narrow rings speak of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-virtual-certainty-us-southwest-will-megadrought-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>. By analyzing tree rings from ancient trees, scientists can reconstruct a climate record extending back centuries. </p>



<p>The data reveals the current megadrought is the most severe the region has experienced in at least 1,200 years, a sobering benchmark for the challenges the West faces.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-tech-weather-stations">High-tech weather stations</h3>



<p>Eddy covariance flux towers are advanced instruments that go far beyond simple weather monitoring. These towers act like the ecosystem's stethoscope.</p>



<p>They measure how much water evaporates from the soil, how much is taken up by plants and released to the atmosphere, and how much comes down as rain. This detailed water budget reveals which areas are hardest hit by drought.</p>



<p>Moreover, these towers quantify the exchange of carbon dioxide between the land and the atmosphere. Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, reducing its concentration in the air. Tracking this "breathing" cycle helps scientists understand if drought is crippling plants' ability to act as carbon sinks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-and-groundwater">Soil and groundwater</h3>



<p>The land beneath our feet doesn't just hold clues, it paints a stark picture of the crisis happening below the surface:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Soil moisture:</strong>&nbsp;Sensors measure the water content of the soil, revealing how deep plants must send their roots to survive and which areas are becoming too parched to support life.</li>



<li><strong>Groundwater: </strong>Groundwater is a crucial water supply in times of drought. Wells act as windows into the dwindling aquifers, signaling when these vital reserves are dangerously low and highlighting the potential for long-term damage.</li>
</ul>



<p>This multifaceted approach allowed Dr. Kannenberg's team to build a clearer picture of the megadrought's effect on plants – from individual trees to entire ecosystems – and the precious water resources that support them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-megadrought-beyond-u-s">Impact of megadrought beyond U.S.</h2>



<p>"Globally, megadroughts are projected to increase in frequency and severity in the coming decades." explained Dr. Kannenberg. This is not a problem the West faces alone. </p>



<p>The data gathered in this research will help scientists understand what other regions, even those not currently considered dry, might face in the future.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-megadroughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drought</a> conditions limit a plant's ability to perform photosynthesis, the process of using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into energy. Adequate water is essential for plants to open their stomata (tiny pores on leaves) and access the CO2 they need. During drought, plants often close their stomata to conserve water, sacrificing their ability to "inhale" CO2.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-capture">Carbon capture</h2>



<p>This has a significant impact on carbon capture. With generally plentiful rainfall, trees in the East have a consistent water supply. This enables them to act as reliable carbon sinks, steadily removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it as wood and other plant tissues. This plays a role in mitigating climate change.</p>



<p>Arid landscapes naturally support less dense vegetation, meaning even without drought stress, they store less carbon overall. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-in-the-sahara-linked-to-a-megadrought-in-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> further reduces their already limited ability to photosynthesize and absorb CO2. In extreme drought years, carbon capture may cease almost entirely in some areas.</p>



<p>Even while droughts drastically limit their immediate carbon capture potential, desert and dryland plants do still play a role in the global carbon cycle, though the dynamics of this are less understood than in wetter regions.</p>



<p>"Dryland ecosystems in particular are really important for determining how much carbon gets taken up by the whole Earth's surface globally," Dr. Kannenberg explained. It's less about how much they store at once, and more about how unpredictable they are, making our ability to model future climate change harder.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



<p>As the Earth warms, dry areas will likely become drier, and droughts will be worse. "Historically, megadroughts are a rare, rare thing, but there have been a number of them throughout time, and they're going to get more frequent and more severe in the future," said Dr. Kannenberg.</p>



<p>While the scope of the problem is daunting, knowledge itself is a form of preparation. Understanding how the West's plants, soil, and precious water resources are responding to this megadrought creates a roadmap for what other regions may face. </p>



<p>This research has the potential to guide smarter land management, water use policies, and hopefully, ease the impact of future droughts worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Megadrought in the western U.S. is the worst in at least 1,200 years

The lush, green forests of West Virginia are a world...

<p>Honey bees - those buzzing dynamos that pollinate our food - are in trouble. Despite decades of study, scientists couldn't quite crack the code of why bee colonies are <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Honey%20bees&amp;start=0">collapsing</a>. A new study is shedding light on this mystery by revealing multiple stressors that honey bees encouunter on a typical day in the field.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-network-of-honey-bee-stressors">Complex network of honey bee stressors</h2>



<p>New research from <a href="https://www.yorku.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a> indicates that honey bees are not afflicted by a lone stressor, but rather an interconnected web of threats.</p>



<p>"Our study is the first to apply systems level or network analyses to honey bee stressors at a massive scale. I think this represents a paradigm shift in the field because we have been so focussed on finding the one big thing, the smoking gun," said Professor Amro Zayed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relentless-barrage-of-stressors">Relentless barrage of stressors</h2>



<p>The study broadened its scope to expose the vast network of stressors confronting honey bees. Consider their work environment: fields bursting with apples, canola, blueberries, and other crops. </p>



<p>These bees encounter a relentless barrage of stressors, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-cannot-fly-straight-after-ingesting-pesticides/">pesticides</a>, viruses, parasites, and unpredictable environmental changes. The result of this exposure is a complex and harmful entanglement, where any single stressor has the potential to intensify the impact of others.</p>



<p>The researchers uncovered a startling reality: honey bees grapple with an average of 23 stressors simultaneously. This translates into a staggering 307 potential interactions, all with the capacity to undermine their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-virus-has-evolved-to-become-less-deadly-in-a-u-s-forest/">health</a>. Furthermore, certain stressors emerge as particularly influential, further compounding the damage.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influencer-stressors-for-honey-bees">Influencer stressors for honey bees</h2>



<p>The researchers call them "influencer stressors." Just like social media influencers, certain viruses and pesticides are the ringleaders, making other stressors even nastier.</p>



<p>"Understanding which stressors co-occur and are likely to interact is profoundly important to unraveling how they are impacting the health and mortality of honey bee colonies," noted study lead author Sarah French.</p>



<p>"There have been a lot of studies about major pesticides, but in this research, we also saw a lot of minor pesticides that we don’t usually think about or study. We also found a lot of viruses that beekeepers don’t typically test for or manage. Seeing the influencer stressors interact with all these other stressors, whether it be mites, other pesticides or viruses, was not only interesting, but surprising."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-identifying-honey-bee-stressors">Significance of identifying honey bee stressors</h2>



<p>Honey bees play an indispensable role in our food production and economy, making their protection a significant concern. These small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-pollination-produces-plant-offspring-vastly-inferior-to-plants-pollinated-by-other-species/">pollinators</a> are vital for the fertilization of many crop species, contributing to the diversity and availability of fruits, vegetables, and nuts. </p>



<p>Without honey bees, many of the foods we take for granted could become scarce and more expensive. The economic impact is profound; honey bees add billions of dollars to global economies through their pollination services. In the U.S. alone, they contribute over $15 billion to the value of crop production.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colony-collapse-disorder">Colony collapse disorder</h2>



<p>The urgency to understand and protect honey bees from their stressors is underscored by the troubling rates at which colonies are declining. This decline, often referred to as Colony Collapse Disorder, is marked by the mysterious and sudden disappearance of worker bees from a colony, leaving behind a queen, food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. </p>



<p>Despite extensive research, the precise causes of these die-offs remain elusive, complicating efforts to devise effective interventions.</p>



<p>The situation is dire; some regions report winter losses of up to 60 percent of their bee colonies. These losses are not just numbers; they represent a significant threat to biodiversity, food security, and agricultural economies. </p>



<p>The causes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-lifespans-are-mysteriously-declining/">bee decline</a> are believed to be multifaceted, involving a combination of environmental stressors such as pesticides, habitat loss, climate change, nutrition deficit, parasites, and pathogens like the Varroa mite and viral diseases. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



<p>Each of these stressors alone is a threat, but in combination, they can lead to devastating effects on honey bee populations.</p>



<p>Understanding the complex interactions between these stressors and developing strategies to mitigate them is crucial. It also maintains the health of natural ecosystems by supporting the growth of trees, flowers, and other plants. </p>



<p>Therefore, protecting honey bees is not merely an act of environmental stewardship—it is a critical necessity for sustaining our natural resources and agriculture.</p>



<p>Hope isn't lost. The study is part of a larger project called BEECSI, which uses 'omics' tools to help beekeepers assess bee health. The more we understand about these complex webs of stressors, the better we can protect these vital pollinators.</p>



<p>So, the next time you munch an apple or admire a field of wildflowers, remember the incredible hard workers behind them, and the fascinating (if somewhat stressful!) world they navigate.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)00379-8">Current Biology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Honey bees face a multitude of complex stressors in the field

Honey bees - those buzzing dynamos that pollinate our food...

<p>We all know that a mom's health and nutrition matter before and during pregnancy. But what about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-metabolic-health-advantages-kids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dads</a>? A new study suggests that a father's diet plays a surprisingly big role in the health of his future children. </p>



<p>Scientists are discovering that a father's diet can change his offspring's metabolism, health risks, and even emotional well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-father-s-diet">Father's diet</h2>



<p>The researchers used a mouse model to explore how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-life-experiences-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">father</a>'s diet may affect his future offspring. Here's what they discovered:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anxious-sons">Anxious sons</h3>



<p>Fathers who consumed a diet with less protein and more carbohydrates were more likely to have male offspring exhibiting increased signs of anxiety.</p>



<p>This anxiety was measured by researchers observing how much time these mice preferred to spend in the perceived "safer" areas of a maze.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-at-risk-daughters">At-risk daughters</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-dad-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fathers</a> whose diets were primarily composed of high amounts of fat were more likely to produce female offspring with a greater degree of body fat. Furthermore, these daughters displayed early indicators of metabolic disease, including conditions like diabetes.</p>



<p>The study confirms that a father's diet matters before a baby is even conceived. It's not just about the calories - but also where those calories come from. </p>



<p>"By [changing] mixtures of protein, fat, and carbs in the father's diet we could influence specific features of his sons and daughters health and behavior," said Professor Stephen Simpson, co-senior author and academic director of the Charles Perkins Centre at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-father-s-diet-at-molecular-level">Impact of father's diet at molecular level</h2>



<p>A father's diet can influence the development of sperm cells. Tiny molecules attached to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-ddt-alters-sperm-putting-children-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a>, influenced by the nutrients he consumes, may act like tiny flags. These flags can potentially alter how a child's genes are expressed, even though the DNA itself remains unchanged.</p>



<p>This means a father's dietary choices can influence how certain genes are "turned on" or "turned off" in his offspring, potentially impacting their health and development.</p>



<p>It's not simply about how much a father eats, but what he eats. The specific balance of macronutrients – protein, fat, and carbohydrates – appears to have a significant impact. </p>



<p>For example, the study suggests that low-protein, high-carb diets in fathers may be linked to increased anxiety in sons, while high-fat diets may be associated with increased body fat and metabolic disease risk in daughters.</p>



<p>Overall, this research highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach to family planning that considers the health of both the mother and the father. By focusing on a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients before conception, parents may be laying the groundwork for a healthier future generation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dads-to-be-take-note">Dads-to-be, take note</h2>



<p>While we can't directly apply mice studies to humans, these findings are huge. They imply that we need to take a closer look at the diet of both parents when thinking about family planning and the long-term health of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happy-childhood-health-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a>. </p>



<p>"Our study is a step towards establishing dietary guidelines for fathers-to-be, with the ultimate goal of lowering the risk of metabolic disease and mood disorders in the next generation," said co-author Professor Romain Barrès.</p>



<p>It might be time to pay extra attention to nutrition alongside your partner. A balanced diet rich in a variety of nutrients seems like the way to go. Ditching the junk food in favor of some home-cooked meals might benefit your own health as well as that of your future children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ideal-father-s-diet">Ideal father's diet</h2>



<p>An ideal father's diet is crucial not just for his own health but also for potentially influencing the health of his future children. The diet should be comprehensive, incorporating a variety of nutrients that contribute to good health and fertility. Here’s a detailed guide on what an ideal diet for a prospective father might include:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Balanced Macronutrients</h3>



<ol>
<li><strong>Proteins</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Proteins are the building blocks of the body, essential for the growth and repair of cells and for making hormones and enzymes.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Include both animal (chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish) and plant-based sources (beans, lentils, tofu, tempeh) to diversify amino acid intake.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Carbohydrates</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are the body's main energy source. Complex carbohydrates provide sustained energy and are rich in fiber, which aids digestion.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Whole grains (brown rice, whole wheat pasta, barley), legumes, fruits, and vegetables.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Fats</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Fats are vital for hormonal health, including the production of sex hormones necessary for reproductive health.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Focus on unsaturated fats found in olive oil, nuts, seeds, avocados, and fatty fish like salmon and mackerel.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Essential Micronutrients</h3>



<ol>
<li><strong>Zinc</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Zinc is critical for testosterone production and the development of healthy sperm.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Meat, shellfish (especially oysters), chickpeas, lentils, and seeds like pumpkin and sesame.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Folate (Vitamin B9)</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Folate is important for cellular division and is crucial in the production of DNA and RNA. It is also essential for sperm quality and count.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Dark leafy greens, fruits, nuts, beans, peas, and fortified grains.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Vitamin D</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Vitamin D is linked to higher levels of testosterone and overall reproductive health.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Exposure to sunlight is a primary source. Also found in fortified dairy products, fatty fish, and egg yolks.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Vitamin C</strong>:
<ul>
<li>This vitamin serves as an antioxidant protecting cells, including sperm, from damage. It also plays a role in collagen production and immune function.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Citrus fruits, strawberries, bell peppers, and broccoli.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Selenium</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Selenium is important for sperm motility and overall antioxidant defense systems in the body.</li>



<li><strong>Sources</strong>: Brazil nuts, fish, eggs, and grains.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Lifestyle considerations</h3>



<ol>
<li><strong>Hydration</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Drinking plenty of water is crucial for maintaining all bodily functions, including the health of sperm.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Limiting Harmful Substances</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Alcohol, tobacco, and recreational drugs can all detrimentally affect sperm quality and overall health. These should be minimized or avoided.</li>
</ul>
</li>



<li><strong>Eating Patterns</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Regular, balanced meals help stabilize blood sugar, manage weight, and provide a steady supply of energy and nutrients throughout the day.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>



<p>Following these guidelines can help prospective fathers optimize their health and potentially influence the health outcomes of their future children. While we still need more evidence in humans, this research is a wake-up call. </p>



<p>Your dad's choices mattered to you even before you were born. It's a humbling and exciting reminder of how interconnected we all are, down to what's on our plates.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46782-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

A father's diet impacts the health of his future children

We all know that a mom's health and nutrition matter...

Puya,Alpestris,,Sapphire,Tower,,Giant,Bromeliad,In,Bloom,Close-up,In

<p>Get ready to witness an incredibly rare and spectacular sight. A plant so extraordinary it's been nicknamed the Sapphire Tower is blooming for the first time in a decade at the <a href="https://bbgardens.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birmingham Botanical Gardens</a>. </p>



<p>This "otherworldly" beauty from the Chilean Andes is a must-see, but you'll have to hurry – these <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/sapphire-tower-plant-blooms_puya-alpestris_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breathtaking blooms</a> won't last long.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-sapphire-tower">What is the Sapphire Tower?</h2>



<p>The Sapphire Tower, or <a href="https://earthpedia.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/bromeliaceae/puya-alpestris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Puya alpestris</em></a>, is a fascinating and visually striking plant native to the Andean regions of Chile. </p>



<p>Part of the bromeliad family, which includes more familiar plants like pineapples and Spanish moss, <em>Puya alpestris</em> is particularly notable for its unique and vibrant characteristics.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Appearance and growth</h3>



<p>The Sapphire Tower is characterized by its rosettes of silver-green leaves that are long, narrow, and edged with sharp spines. </p>



<p>The plant can grow quite large, typically reaching heights of up to a meter or more. It's known for its dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-beautiful-flowering-trees-and-how-to-identify-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering</a> stalks, which can extend several meters high, far above the foliage.</p>



<p>The flowers themselves are what give the Sapphire Tower its name. They bloom in a striking metallic blue to turquoise color, and they are densely packed on the towering spikes. </p>



<p>These blooms are not only rare but also ephemeral, typically appearing only after many years of growth. The plant’s blooming cycle is particularly slow, often taking up to a decade to produce flowers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Pollination and ecological role</h3>



<p>In its native habitat in Chile, the <em><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/sapphire-tower-plant_puya-alpestris_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Puya alpestris</a></em> is adapted to being pollinated by birds, particularly hummingbirds. </p>



<p>The shape of the flowers and their arrangement on the tall spike are perfectly suited to facilitate bird pollination. </p>



<p>The coloration of the flowers is also believed to be an adaptation to attract these specific pollinators.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Sapphire Tower cultivation and care</h3>



<p>Outside of its native range, cultivating <em>Puya alpestris</em> can be challenging. It requires well-draining soil, as it is adapted to the rocky soils of mountainous regions. </p>



<p>The plant prefers full sun and tolerates drought well. This is due to its ability to store water in its thick leaves, similar to other bromeliads. </p>



<p>In regions outside of Chile, the <em>Puya alpestris</em> is often grown in botanical gardens. It is also grown as an ornamental plant by enthusiasts who appreciate its dramatic appearance and rare blooming.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinating-the-sapphire-tower">Pollinating the Sapphire Tower</h2>



<p>In their natural habitat, Sapphire Towers rely on hummingbirds for pollination. But in a botanical garden, dedicated horticulturists like Alberto Trinco step in to give nature a helping hand.</p>



<p>"Each flower only lasts a few days, giving us a limited window of time to give nature a helping hand," explains Trinco. "It is very slow-growing, so to witness its spectacular blooms is both exciting and rare."</p>



<p>Their job is to carefully transfer pollen from one <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/5-easiest-perennial-flowers-to-grow-in-your-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a> to another – a delicate process with a brief window for success.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollination-is-important-to-sapphire-tower-plants">Why pollination is important to Sapphire Tower plants</h2>



<p>Pollination plays a vital role in the life cycle of plants such as the Sapphire Tower. This process is essential because it leads to the production of seeds, which are crucial for the propagation and survival of the species. </p>



<p>By transferring pollen from the male structures of one <a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a> to the female structures of another, pollination initiates the development of seeds that will eventually grow into new plants.</p>



<p>For the Sapphire Tower, which blooms infrequently and only under specific conditions, successful pollination is particularly significant. </p>



<p>The seeds produced through this process ensure the continuation of the species, allowing it to thrive in its natural habitats. </p>



<p>These seeds carry the genetic blueprint of the plants, enhancing genetic diversity. This diversity is crucial for adapting to changing environmental conditions and resisting diseases and pests.</p>



<p>By preserving the species through natural reproductive processes like pollination, we ensure its survival. This allows future generations to enjoy and appreciate the extraordinary beauty of the Sapphire Tower.</p>



<p>The plant’s unique characteristics and striking appearance make it a valuable specimen for botanical gardens and plant enthusiasts. </p>



<p>Thus, effective pollination not only supports the ecological balance in the plant's native environment but also enhances human appreciation and understanding of biodiversity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-miss-this-exquisite-sapphire-tower-bloom">Don't miss this "exquisite" Sapphire Tower bloom</h2>



<p>If you're lucky enough to be near the Birmingham Botanical Gardens, you have a chance to witness this breathtaking sight for yourself. But don't wait too long! You might only have between 10 days to two weeks to experience it.</p>



<p>The Sapphire Tower serves as an incredible reminder of our planet's amazing biodiversity. Slow-growing marvels and fleeting, vibrant blooms fill the natural world with delicate and awe-inspiring wonders.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-facts-on-sapphire-towers">Interesting facts on Sapphire Towers</h2>



<p>Here are some other fascinating facts about the Sapphire Tower to amaze your friends and family:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distant-relatives">Distant relatives</h3>



<p>Bromeliads are the same plant family as pineapples. It's hard to imagine the spiky, alien-like Sapphire Tower is related to our favorite tropical fruit, but it is. </p>



<p>This family, known for their rosette shape and central "tank" formed by their tightly overlapping leaf bases, showcases a wide variety of forms and adaptations, highlighting the diversity of the bromeliad family.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-home">High altitude home</h3>



<p>Sapphire Towers thrive in the harsh, mountainous regions of Chile. These plants perfectly adapt to the rocky, nutrient-poor soils and the drastic temperature shifts between day and night in high altitudes. Their resilience in these tough environments showcases their hardy nature and survival strategies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-fossils">Living fossils</h3>



<p>Some Puya species, including the Sapphire Tower, are incredibly old and have changed little for millions of years. These plants are living relics of ancient times, providing a glimpse into past ecosystems and the evolutionary history of flora.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-mastery">Adaptation mastery</h3>



<p>The Sapphire Tower’s ability to store water in its thick, waxy leaves enables it to survive the dry periods common in its native habitat. This water storage capability, along with their ability to absorb water directly from fog and mist, demonstrates their incredible adaptability to their environment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-significance">Conservation significance</h3>



<p>The unique characteristics and the rarity of the Sapphire Tower make it an important species for conservation efforts. Preserving such species helps maintain biodiversity and the health of ecosystems, which in turn supports overall environmental resilience and stability.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Rare 'Sapphire Tower' plant blooms for the first time in a decade

Get ready to witness an incredibly rare and spectacular sight....

<p>Psilocybin, the primary psychoactive component in “magic mushrooms” of the genus <em>Psilocybe</em>, has recently gained attention not only as a popular recreational drug but also in the realm of medicine for its potential therapeutic benefits.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-is-psilocybin-produced-by-magic-mushrooms">How is psilocybin produced by magic mushrooms?</h2>



<p>Notably, the psilocybin found in magic mushrooms has shown promise in treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-depression-brain/">depression</a>, addiction, and anxiety, reaching advanced stages of clinical trials as a potential pharmaceutical treatment. Now, a study led by the <a href="https://www.i-med.ac.at/universitaet/index.html.en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical University of Innsbruck</a> has comprehensively examined how psilocybin is produced by magic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-why-psilocybin-mushrooms-make-you-hallucinate/">mushrooms</a>.</p>



<p>Produced by a complex biochemical process from the amino acid L-tryptophan, psilocybin's synthesis involves critical enzymes, including PsiM, a methyltransferase.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There are many methyl transfer reactions in nature,” said co-author Dirk Hoffmeister, a professor of pharmaceutical microbiology at <a href="https://www.uni-jena.de/en">Friedrich Schiller University Jena</a> and leader of a research group at the <a href="https://www.leibniz-hki.de/en/">Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute</a> (Leibniz-HKI). “Here, we asked ourselves how exactly psilocybin production is accomplished.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psim-enzyme-s-role-in-psilocybin-production">PsiM enzyme's role in psilocybin production</h2>



<p>In&nbsp; a collaborative effort, experts from the Medical University of Innsbruck, led by crystallographer Bernhard Rupp, and Hoffmeister's team at Jena delved into the PsiM enzyme's role in psilocybin production using biochemical analysis and X-ray crystal structure analysis, which visualizes proteins at the atomic level.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their findings revealed that PsiM, crucial for the last two steps of psilocybin synthesis, bears significant structural similarities to enzymes typically involved in RNA modification. Despite some differences, these similarities suggest that PsiM evolved from an RNA methyltransferase, which originally could attach only one methyl group to its target.</p>



<p>The experts also found that a single amino acid change in PsiM enabled it to carry out two consecutive methylation reactions, crucial for converting the psilocybin precursor norbaeocystin into psilocybin. This precursor structurally mimics part of RNA but undergoes double methylation, a key step in psilocybin production.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-biotechnological-applications-in-creating-psilocybin">Future biotechnological applications in creating psilocybin</h2>



<p>Moreover, the researchers explored whether PsiM could add a third methyl group to convert psilocybin into aeruginascin, a naturally occurring psilocybin analog. The scientific community has long debated whether aeruginascin is a byproduct of psilocybin biosynthesis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This is clearly not the case. PsiM is not able to convert psilocybin to aeruginascin,” Hoffmeister said. While definitively ruling out PsiM's involvement in aeruginascin production, this finding highlights its potential for future biotechnological applications in creating psilocybin.</p>



<p>“Overall, our results can help to develop new variants of psilocybin with improved therapeutic properties and to produce them biotechnologically,” Hoffmeister concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-magic-mushrooms">More about magic mushrooms</h2>



<p>Magic mushrooms have been used for thousands of years in various cultural and religious rituals, primarily for their ability to induce profound changes in perception, mood, and thought. Upon ingestion, psilocybin is converted in the body to psilocin, which is responsible for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-offers-new-explanation-for-how-psychedelic-drugs-work/">psychedelic effects</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experience-of-magic-mushrooms-nbsp">Experience of magic mushrooms&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The experience of taking magic mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the dose, individual psychology, and environmental setting. </p>



<p>Common effects include visual and auditory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-why-psilocybin-mushrooms-make-you-hallucinate/">hallucinations</a>, an altered sense of time, euphoria, and a feeling of deep connection to others and the natural world. However, users can also experience negative effects such as anxiety, paranoia, and nausea.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-interest-nbsp">Scientific interest&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Scientific interest in psilocybin has grown in recent years, especially for its potential therapeutic benefits. Research suggests that psilocybin may help treat depression, anxiety, PTSD, and addiction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These studies have shown that psilocybin can create lasting changes in personality and attitude towards life, often characterized by increased openness and a greater sense of peace.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legal-landscape-nbsp">Legal landscape&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Despite their potential benefits, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/">magic</a> mushrooms are classified as Schedule I substances in the United States and are illegal in many other countries. This classification is due to their high potential for abuse and lack of recognized medical value under current laws.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the legal landscape is slowly changing as more research highlights the therapeutic potential of psilocybin, leading some regions to reconsider their stance on these substances.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46997-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

How did magic mushrooms evolve to contain psilocybin?

Psilocybin, the primary psychoactive component in “magic mushrooms” of the...

<p>Have you ever wondered what secrets lie hidden in the Sun's atmosphere? Scientists have been puzzled by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/sun-moss_nasa-TRACE-mission_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peculiar structure</a> on the Sun that they've dubbed "moss" due to its resemblance to the earthly plants. </p>



<p>This bright, patchy plasma formation has been a mystery for decades, but recent research is shedding light on its superheating mechanism.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-sun-s-moss">Discovering the Sun's moss</h2>



<p>Souvik Bose, a research scientist at Lockheed Martin <a href="https://www.lmsal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory</a> and <a href="https://baeri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay Area Environmental Institute</a>, NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/ames/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ames Research Center</a> in California's Silicon Valley, and his team have made significant progress in understanding the "moss" on the Sun.</p>



<p>First identified in 1999 by NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/trace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRACE mission</a>, this structure is found around the center of sunspot groups, where magnetic conditions are strong. It spans two atmospheric layers, the chromosphere and corona, and lies beneath the feathery ropes of plasma known as coronal loops.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspot-groups-dark-regions-on-the-sun-s-surface">Sunspot groups: Dark regions on the Sun's surface</h2>



<p>Sunspot groups are areas on the Sun's surface that appear darker than their surroundings due to their lower temperatures. These fascinating features have captivated astronomers for centuries and play a crucial role in our understanding of solar activity and its impact on Earth.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-and-structure">Formation and structure</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sunspots</a> form when intense magnetic fields emerge from the Sun's interior and pierce through its surface. These magnetic fields inhibit the upward flow of hot gases from below, causing the affected areas to cool down and appear darker. Sunspots typically develop in pairs or groups, with each spot having opposite magnetic polarities.</p>



<p>Within a sunspot group, the largest and most dominant spot is called the "leader," while the smaller spots are known as "followers." The leader spot usually appears first and is located closer to the Sun's equator, while the followers trail behind and are positioned at higher latitudes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-and-the-sunspot-cycle">Sun moss and the sunspot cycle</h3>



<p>Sunspot groups are not static features; they evolve and change over time. The number and size of sunspot groups on the Sun's surface vary in a periodic manner known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspot cycle</a>, which lasts approximately 11 years. </p>



<p>During the peak of the cycle, known as the solar maximum, the Sun exhibits a higher number of sunspot groups and increased solar activity. Conversely, during the solar minimum, sunspot groups are less frequent, and the Sun is relatively calm.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-solar-activity">Impact on solar activity</h3>



<p>Sunspot groups are often associated with intense solar activity, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMEs</a>). These events occur when the magnetic fields in and around sunspots become entangled and release a tremendous amount of energy. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-disturbances-throw-nocturnal-birds-off-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar flares</a> and CMEs can have significant impacts on Earth, including disrupting satellite communications, affecting power grids, and triggering beautiful auroral displays.</p>



<p>Astronomers monitor sunspot groups using various ground-based and space-based observatories. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (<a href="https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOHO</a>), a joint mission between <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, provides continuous observations of the Sun and helps scientists track the development and evolution of sunspot groups.</p>



<p>Ground-based solar telescopes, such as the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/kitt-peak-national-observatory/mcmath-pierce-solar-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope</a> in Arizona and the <a href="https://www.iac.es/en/observatorios-de-canarias/telescopes-and-experiments/swedish-solar-telescope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Solar Telescope</a> in La Palma, offer detailed views of sunspot groups and their intricate structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-heating-enigma">Sun moss heating enigma</h2>



<p>One of the biggest challenges scientists have faced is understanding how the mossy region is connected to the Sun's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-very-first-time-a-spacecraft-has-touched-the-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric layers</a>. </p>



<p>In addition, how is the material there heated from 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit to nearly 1 million degrees Fahrenheit -- a staggering 100 times hotter than the bright surface below? This heating mechanism has been a puzzle for the past quarter of a century.</p>



<p>Thanks to observations from NASA's High Resolution Coronal Imager (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/soundingrockets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hi-C</a>) sounding rocket and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/iris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IRIS</a>) mission, combined with complex 3D simulations, scientists have gained new insights into the superheating mechanism at play in the moss.</p>



<p>"Thanks to the high-resolution observations and our advanced numerical simulations, we're able to figure out part of this mystery that's stumped us for the past quarter of a century," said Bose. "However, this is just a piece of the puzzle; it doesn't solve the whole problem."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-electrical-currents">Role of electrical currents</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that electrical currents may contribute to heating the moss. Throughout this region, there is a tangle of magnetic field lines, like invisible spaghetti. </p>



<p>This mess of magnetic spaghetti creates electrical currents that can help heat material to a wide range of temperatures, from 10,000 to 1 million degrees Fahrenheit. </p>



<p>The local heating in the moss appears to occur in addition to heat flowing from the hot, multi-million-degree overlying corona.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-understanding-the-sun-s-corona">Implications for understanding the Sun's corona</h2>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <em>Nature Astronom</em>y, can help scientists understand the larger question of why the Sun's entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/total-solar-eclipse-captured-from-one-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corona</a> is so much hotter than the surface. However, to fully address how the corona and moss are heated, more observations are needed.</p>



<p>Hi-C is scheduled to launch again this month to capture a solar flare and possibly another moss region together with IRIS. </p>



<p>Scientists and engineers are also working on developing new instruments onboard the future MUlti-slit Solar Explorer (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/muse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MUSE</a>) mission to further investigate this fascinating phenomenon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-and-the-future-of-solar-research">Sun moss and the future of solar research</h2>



<p>In summary, as scientists continue to unravel the mysteries of the Sun's atmosphere, the discovery of electrical currents contributing to the superheating of solar moss marks a significant milestone. </p>



<p>This breakthrough, made possible by advanced observations and complex simulations, brings us one step closer to understanding the perplexing heating mechanism of the Sun's corona. </p>



<p>With upcoming missions like Hi-C and MUSE, researchers are poised to delve deeper into the secrets of the solar moss and its role in the larger puzzle of the Sun's atmospheric heating. </p>



<p>As we eagerly await further revelations, this fascinating cosmic garden reminds us that even the most familiar celestial object still holds countless mysteries waiting to be explored.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02241-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

The Sun is covered with moss, though not the kind you’re thinking

Have you ever wondered what secrets lie hidden in the...

Spirobranchus,Giganteus,,Christmas,Tree,Worms,Extended,On,Caribbean,Coral,Reef

<p>Individual behaviors and rhythms in even the simplest marine creatures, like the polychaete worm <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em>, have been captivatingly showcased in a recent study. </p>



<p>Published in the journal <em>PLOS Biology</em>, this research was carried out by an international team from the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (<a href="https://www.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AWI</a>), and various universities.</p>



<p>The findings offer profound implications for our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circadian-rhythms-persist-during-bear-hibernation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological rhythms</a> and their applications in both medicine and ecology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-platynereis-dumerilii"><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em></h2>



<p><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em>, often referred to as a ragworm or clam worm, is a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Platynereis-dumerilii-worms_Alfred-Wegener-Institute_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine polychaete worm</a> found in temperate and tropical coastal waters worldwide. </p>



<p>This worm is particularly interesting to scientists because of its well-defined life cycle and relatively simple nervous system, making it an excellent model organism for biological studies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics">Key characteristics</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Size and Appearance:</strong> <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> is typically a few centimeters long, with a segmented body and a pair of distinctive, paddle-like parapodia on most segments, which aid in swimming.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Habitat:</strong> These worms thrive in shallow marine environments, often burying themselves in sediments or hiding in crevices during the day and becoming more active at night.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Reproduction:</strong> They have a fascinating reproductive behavior known as "swarming," where mature individuals synchronously release eggs and sperm into the water column, often influenced by the lunar cycle.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-importance">Scientific importance</h3>



<p><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> is widely used in research related to developmental biology, neurobiology, and evolutionary biology. </p>



<p>Studies on this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-teenage-worms-angsty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms</a> help scientists understand basic biological processes such as circadian and lunar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-moonlight-affects-the-circadian-clocks-of-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhythms</a>, which are applicable to other species, including humans. </p>



<p>This research can have implications for medicine, particularly in understanding body clocks and their effects on health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-platynereis-dumerilii-biological-timing"><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> biological timing</h2>



<p>Kristin Tessmar-Raible, a biologist at AWI, explains the importance of timing in biology. She states, "Biological timing is crucial across multiple levels, from the ecological interactions between species to cellular biochemical processes."</p>



<p>This study primarily focused on understanding how these worms' internal clocks help them adapt daily. It examined their responses to changing conditions such as temperature, light, and food availability.</p>



<p>The implications are vast, as Sören Häfker, the study's lead author, points out. This is especially true as marine organisms face challenges from human-induced changes such as global warming and light pollution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-behaviors">A spectrum of behaviors</h2>



<p>During the experiments, researchers observed distinct patterns in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunger-alters-the-behavior-of-worms-and-perhaps-humans-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms' activity</a>. Some were consistently active at the same time each night, while others showed sporadic activity, akin to "couch potatoes," with many variations in between. </p>



<p>What was particularly striking was the consistency of these patterns over time, suggesting ingrained biological rhythms. </p>



<p>"We were very surprised to see how reproducible the individual behavioral rhythms were," Tessmar-Raible remarks. "This shows us that even worms have tiny, rhythmic personalities, so to speak."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-rhythms-of-platynereis-dumerilii">Genetic rhythms of <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em></h2>



<p>The study went further to compare the genetic activity in the heads of both rhythmic and arrhythmic worms. Results showed that all worms maintained a robust internal clock, regardless of their activity pattern.</p>



<p>This finding suggests a diverse range of survival strategies among the worms. These strategies potentially offer evolutionary advantages in their fluctuating coastal environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-and-medicine">Implications for conservation and medicine</h2>



<p>This diversity not only speaks to the resilience of <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> but also has broader implications for how we understand the adaptability of all species to environmental changes. </p>



<p>It suggests that individual variability might be a key factor in the survival of species under the pressures of climate change and other anthropogenic impacts.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the study's findings resonate beyond marine biology into human medicine. The concept of individual biological rhythms plays a significant role in chronomedicine, which considers patients' natural rhythms in treatment plans. </p>



<p>Tessmar-Raible elaborates, "That's why such findings are also exciting for fields like chronomedicine," indicating that the variability seen in worms could mirror the human condition, impacting how treatments are tailored for different individuals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



<p>This research not only broadens our understanding of marine life but also reinforces the significance of individual biological rhythms in both ecology and medicine. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore the intricate dance of life's timings, from the smallest worm to human beings, embracing these natural variations could be crucial to future biomedical advances and conservation efforts.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002572" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a></em></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Even the simplest organisms, like worms, have unique personalities

Individual behaviors and rhythms in even the simplest marine creatures,...

<p>A study led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has provided a fresh perspective on evolutionary processes, particularly in how species intermingle and evolve. The experts have found compelling evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-evolution-life/">hybridization</a> can lead to the formation of entirely new species, challenging traditional views of evolution as a neatly branching tree.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-heliconius-butterflies-nbsp">Evolution of Heliconius butterflies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Revisiting a fascinating observation first made by naturalist Henry Walter Bates in 1861 and shared with Charles Darwin, the scientists examined the evolution of the Heliconius <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heliconius-butterflies-have-a-surprising-aptitude-for-learning-and-remembering/">butterflies</a> of the Amazon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bates famously described these butterflies as a peek into nature's workshop for creating new species. Now, the researchers provided direct evidence of this phenomenon by documenting the evolution of a new butterfly species through hybridization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-and-new-species">Hybridization and new species</h2>



<p>The study focused on Heliconius butterflies, shedding new light on how a hybridization event from 180,000 years ago between <em>Heliconius melpomene</em> and an ancestor of today’s <em>Heliconius pardalinus</em> gave rise to a third species, <em>Heliconius elevatus</em>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This new species is not just a blend of its progenitors but has distinct ecological and physiological traits, such as unique preferences for caterpillar host plants and specific adult characteristics like male sex pheromones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-wing-colors/">wing color</a> patterns, and mate selection.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-and-evolution">Hybridization and evolution</h2>



<p>“Historically hybridization was thought of as a bad thing that was not particularly important when it came to evolution,” said Neil Rosser, an associate in entomology at the <a href="https://mcz.harvard.edu/">Museum of Comparative Zoology</a> and a former postdoctoral fellow at Harvard. “But what genomic data have shown is that in fact hybridization among species is widespread.”</p>



<p>This discovery not only challenges the traditional concept that species are distinct, non-overlapping units, but also highlights the fluidity with which genetic material is exchanged in nature. “A lot of species are not intact units,” Rosser said. “They're quite leaky, and they’re exchanging genetic material.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-completely-new-lineages-nbsp">Evolution of completely new lineages&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research also raises important questions about how new species emerge from the intermingling of existing ones. “So the species that are evolving are constantly exchanging genes, and the consequence of this is that it can actually trigger the evolution of completely new lineages,” Rosser explained.</p>



<p>“Normally, species are thought to be reproductively isolated. They can’t produce hybrids that are reproductively fertile,” added co-author James Mallet, a professor of organismic and evolutionary biology at Harvard. Thus, although there is now evidence of hybridization between species, it was still difficult to confirm that this hybridization is, in some way, involved in speciation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-nature-of-species-boundaries-nbsp">Fluid nature of species boundaries&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The implications of this study extend beyond academic circles. Understanding the fluid nature of species boundaries is crucial for conservation efforts, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity hotspots</a> like the Amazon. It also has potential applications in studying disease vectors, such as mosquitoes that carry malaria, and their inter-species interactions.</p>



<p>This paradigm shift in understanding hybridization and evolution marks a significant advance, suggesting that the interplay of genetic material across species boundaries can play a pivotal role in the emergence of new species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-heliconius-butterflies-nbsp">More about Heliconius butterflies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Heliconius butterflies, also known as longwing butterflies, are a diverse and colorful group found primarily in tropical regions, particularly in Central and South America. They are notable for their striking patterns and vibrant colors, which serve as a form of defense through mimicry and warning signals. Heliconius butterflies exhibit a variety of interesting behaviors and adaptations:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mullerian-mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</h3>



<p>Heliconius butterflies are famous for their participation in Müllerian mimicry, where multiple species share similar warning coloration to protect against predators, as the colors signal toxicity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-lifespan-of-heliconius-butterflies">Diet and lifespan of Heliconius butterflies </h3>



<p>Unlike most butterflies that sip nectar, Heliconius butterflies also feed on pollen, which is rich in proteins and extends their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-autumns-reduce-the-life-expectancy-of-butterflies/">lifespan</a> significantly, often living several months rather than the usual weeks that most butterflies survive.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-habitat">Reproduction and habitat</h3>



<p>They have unique reproductive behaviors, including the use of pheromones and lekking (males display in groups). They often return to the same spot each night, showing high site fidelity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>While some species are abundant and widespread, others are endangered and face threats from habitat destruction due to logging and agriculture.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-in-ecosystems">Role in ecosystems</h3>



<p>Heliconius butterflies are important pollinators in their ecosystems, helping to maintain the health and diversity of tropical forests.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07263-w"><em>Nature</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Butterflies show that new species can evolve from hybridization

A study led by Harvard University has provided a fresh...

Teddy,Bear,With,Bandages,And,Broken,Hand,On,Wood,Background,copy

<p>Experiencing trauma during childhood can have a lasting impact on muscle health in people of both sexes, according to a recent study.</p>



<p>The research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/support-in-childhood-linked-to-better-heart-health-in-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood</a> trauma can impair the muscle function of people as they age, essentially getting "under the skin" and affecting their well-being in the long term.</p>



<p>The study, led by Kate Duchowny, a scientist at the University of Michigan <a href="https://isr.umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Social Research</a>, examined the skeletal muscle function of older adults in conjunction with surveys about adverse events they had experienced during their childhood. </p>



<p>The findings revealed that individuals who reported one or more adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adverse-childhood-experiences-lead-to-lifelong-health-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood events</a> had poorer muscle metabolism later in life compared to those who experienced fewer or no adverse events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-muscle-function-and-childhood-trauma">Examining muscle function and childhood trauma</h2>



<p>The researchers utilized muscle tissue samples from 879 participants over the age of 70 who were part of the Study of Muscle, Mobility and Aging (<a href="https://sommaonline.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOMMA</a>). </p>



<p>In addition to providing muscle and fat samples, as well as other biospecimens, the participants completed questionnaires, physical and cognitive assessments, and other tests.</p>



<p>The muscle biopsies were analyzed to determine two crucial aspects of muscular function: the production of adenosine triphosphate (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATP</a>) and oxidative phosphorylation, a process that contributes to ATP production. </p>



<p>ATP, produced by organelles called mitochondria within cells, provides the chemical energy necessary for cellular function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-adverse-childhood-experiences">Assessing adverse childhood experiences</h2>



<p>To gather data on adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-childhood-stress-changes-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood experiences</a>, the researchers used questionnaires that included questions such as:</p>



<ul>
<li>"Did a close family member use drugs or alcohol in a way that caused you to worry?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Did an adult or parent in your household insult you or put you down?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Were you physically abused by a parent or adult in your household?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Did you feel loved, important or special in your family?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Were either of your parents absent for a portion of your life?"</li>
</ul>



<p>Approximately 45% of the sample reported experiencing one or more adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-could-triple-the-risk-of-headache-disorders-later-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood events</a>. Duchowny discovered that both males and females who reported these adverse experiences had poorer ATP max production. This indicated they were not producing as much ATP as those who had fewer or no adverse events in their childhood.</p>



<p>"What these results suggest is that these early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/picky-eating-habits-in-childhood-have-lingering-effects-in-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formative childhood</a> experiences have the ability to get under the skin and influence skeletal muscle mitochondria, which is important because mitochondrial function is related to a host of aging-related outcomes," Duchowny emphasized. </p>



<p>"If you have compromised mitochondrial function, that doesn't bode well for a range of health outcomes, including everything from chronic conditions to physical function and disability limitations," she noted.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-muscle-bioenergetics">Analyzing muscle bioenergetics</h2>



<p>Study co-author Anthony Molina, professor of medicine at the <a href="https://www.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a>, contributed his expertise in muscle bioenergetics to the research. The team examined images of participants' muscles taken during exercise and rest inside an MRI machine. </p>



<p>Using a technique called 31 PMR spectroscopy, they determined the rate of ATP synthesis by observing how quickly the muscle synthesized ATP after being depleted by exercise.</p>



<p>Additionally, the researchers analyzed muscle biopsies from the participants. They separated the fiber bundles that make up the muscle and examined them using high-resolution mitochondrial respirometry. </p>



<p>This technique allowed them to measure the oxygen consumption rate in the muscle fiber bundle and generate a precise readout of muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cause-of-fatigue-in-long-covid-patients-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondrial function</a>.</p>



<p>"You can think about oxygen consumption rate as a way to measure the flow of electrons that's going through the electron transport train, and it's these electrons that generate the membrane potential that drives the synthesis of ATP. It's a really precise way of assessing mitochondrial bioenergetic capacity," Molina explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childhood-trauma-and-healthy-muscle-aging">Childhood trauma and healthy muscle aging</h2>



<p>Previous studies have demonstrated that these measures of muscle function are closely related to the physical abilities of older adults. </p>



<p>The researchers emphasize that the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-inactivity-during-childhood-linked-to-heart-damage-in-early-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood</a> adverse events remained significant even after controlling for other factors that could potentially impact muscle function, such as age, gender, educational attainment, parental education, body mass index, number of depressive symptoms, smoking status, and physical activity.</p>



<p>"All of my previous studies have been focused on contemporaneous measures: mitochondria and physical function, mitochondria and cognitive function. These studies have shown that these measures are strongly related to our strength, fitness and numerous conditions that impact physical ability," Molina said, highlighting the novelty of the study. </p>



<p>"I've also shown that these measures are related to cognitive ability and dementia. But here's the first time we're looking backwards, at what kinds of things that could lead to those differences in mitochondrial function that we know can drive differences in healthy aging outcomes among older adults," she concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-and-preventing-adverse-childhood-experiences">Addressing and preventing adverse childhood experiences</h2>



<p>In summary, this important study unveils the long-lasting impact of childhood trauma on physical health, particularly muscle function, in later life. </p>



<p>By examining the muscle tissue of older adults and analyzing their experiences of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kindergarten-conduct-childhood-behavioral-problems-will-cost-society-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood adversity</a>, the study establishes a clear link between early life experiences and the cellular processes that influence healthy aging. </p>



<p>The findings emphasize the critical importance of addressing and preventing adverse childhood experiences to promote better health outcomes in older age. </p>



<p>This research provides new pathways for understanding the complex interplay between early life events and the biological mechanisms that shape our well-being throughout life, ultimately paving the way for interventions that can mitigate the long-term effects of childhood trauma and foster healthier aging for all.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.adj6411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Childhood trauma can cause muscle decline in adult life

Experiencing trauma during childhood can have a lasting impact on...

<p>Think a stroll through the neighborhood park does wonders for your mood? Sure, any kind of nature is better for physical and mental health than being stuck indoors, but according to new research, it's the <em>type</em> of natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-time-machine-reveals-a-century-of-biological-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that makes a huge difference in how your brain feels afterward. </p>



<p>The scientists found that spending time with a diverse range of trees, plants, water features, and wildlife can make us feel significantly happier and calmer than manicured green spaces.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-mind">Urban mind</h2>



<p>A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a> tackled this question with the help of nearly 2,000 people and a cool smartphone app called Urban Mind. </p>



<p>In the study, participants logged their surroundings and their mental state several times a day for two weeks, making this the first study to look at "in-the-moment" reactions to nature.</p>



<p>Ryan Hammoud, lead author of the study, sums up the importance: "To our knowledge, this is the first study examining the mental health impact of everyday encounters with different levels of natural diversity in real-life contexts. Our results highlight that by protecting and promoting natural diversity we can maximize the benefits of nature for mental well-being."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-biodiversity-and-mental-well-being">Natural biodiversity and mental well-being</h2>



<p>The researchers didn't simply compare time spent in nature versus indoors. Instead, they carefully analyzed how the <em>variety</em> of natural elements influenced people's well-being. Here's how they categorized this diversity:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Trees:</strong> This included a wide range of species, from tall and sturdy oaks to slender, swaying palms – each with its own unique shape and texture.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Plants:</strong> Everything from soft grasses and vibrant flowers to leafy bushes and shrubs filled the spaces. This variety provided different colors, scents, and textures for the participants to experience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Birds:</strong> The study observed common birds like sparrows and pigeons, but also the excitement of spotting a less frequent visitor like a hawk. The variety in their size, color, and calls likely enhanced the experience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Water:</strong> Natural bodies of water like lakes, ponds, streams, and rivers were included as well as smaller water features like fountains. These offer unique visual appeal and sounds.</li>
</ul>



<p>Surprisingly, the scientists discovered a clear pattern: the more biodiverse a person's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural surroundings</a> -- meaning they included a higher number of these different elements -- the more positive and relaxed that person felt mentally.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-with-natural-biodiversity-boost-mental-health">Cities with natural biodiversity boost mental health</h2>



<p>"In the context of climate change, we are witnessing a rapid decline in biodiversity in the UK as well as globally," explains senior author Andrea Mechelli. </p>



<p>"Our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-patterns-of-biodiversity-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is critical not only for the health of our natural environments but also for the mental well-being of the people who live in these environments," she continued.</p>



<p>This research sends a clear message to city planners and officials around the world. If you aim to genuinely enhance the mental health of your residents, you must not overlook the importance of biodiversity. Emphasizing diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environments</a> is crucial for fostering healthier urban living.</p>



<p>For too long, cities might think they've addressed mental health needs by adding a few parks or greenbelts. However, this research shows that simply having&nbsp;<em>some</em>&nbsp;nature isn't enough. It's the rich variety within those spaces that makes the real difference.</p>



<p>Urban planning needs to move away from the idea of nature as decoration or an afterthought. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity</a> needs to become a central design principle, where every new development is carefully assessed for how it contributes to – or detracts from – the existing natural ecosystem.</p>



<p>Investing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-could-promote-the-spread-of-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiverse</a> urban environments isn't just about making people feel good in the moment. Research suggests that exposure to nature can have lasting positive effects on mental health, reducing stress, and potentially lowering the risk of conditions like depression and anxiety.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embracing-nature-s-biodiversity-for-better-mental-health">Embracing nature's biodiversity for better mental health</h2>



<p>Okay, so what does this mean for the average person?</p>



<p>"In practice, this means moving away from heavily curated monocultural pockets and parks of mown grass, which are typically associated with low biodiversity, towards spaces which mirror the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-biodiversity-wildlife-habitats-delicate-balancing-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> of natural ecosystems. By showing how natural diversity boosts our mental wellbeing, we provide a compelling basis for how to create greener and healthier urban spaces,” Hammoud explained.</p>



<p>It's time to rethink what a "nature outing" means. Instead of that same old park with manicured grass and a handful of predictable trees, seek out wilder, more diverse places. </p>



<p>Here are a few ideas to start:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explore-a-local-forest-preserve">Explore a local forest preserve</h3>



<p>Lose yourself among the trails of a protected natural area. Pay attention to the variety of plant life around you. Notice the different shapes of leaves, textures of bark, and any wildflowers sprouting between tree roots. </p>



<p>Also, keep an eye out for signs of animal life. Look for tiny insects, animal tracks in the mud, and listen for the calls of birds echoing through the trees.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-find-a-rambling-garden">Find a rambling garden</h3>



<p>Many cities have community gardens or arboretums that intentionally cultivate a wide range of plants. </p>



<p>These places provide a feast for the senses, showcasing different colors, textures, and scents. Plus, they create an ideal home for butterflies, bees, and other fascinating insects.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-walk-along-a-river-or-lake">Walk along a river or lake</h3>



<p>Opt for shorelines that haven't been overly landscaped. Look for natural biodiversity like fallen logs, reeds, and a variety of rocks near the water's edge. </p>



<p>You might spot unique birds like herons, see turtles basking in the sun, or even discover interesting frogs or fish if you peer into the water.</p>



<p>After all, nature at its most vibrant and diverse offers a richer, more engaging experience than perfectly manicured lawns and predictable plantings.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-55940-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Areas with natural biodiversity have greater mental health impact

Think a stroll through the neighborhood park does wonders for...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/14/1976	41 FR 24062 24067	Endangered Status for 159 Taxa of Animals; 41 FR 24062 24067
09/26/1975	40 FR 44392 44333	CITES: Proposed Endangered Status for 216 Species on Convention Appendix I; 40 FR 44392 44333