Ancient societies used mixed strategies to survive climate change

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s ancient past reveals societies already grappling with climate instability, using various coping strategies to adapt.

During the Holocene Epoch, which began around 11,000 years ago, ecosystems transformed drastically.

A wet phase known as the African Humid Period brought widespread rains for millennia. It was followed by increasing aridity, shrinking lakes, and expanding deserts.

Ancient climate strategies were flexible

Faced with these upheavals, ancient African societies responded not with uniformity but flexibility.

The communities crafted livelihoods that mixed herding, cultivation, fishing, and foraging. These combinations helped them survive long-term environmental change.

“What we see is not a linear story of progress but a complex mosaic of strategies that helped people stay resilient. That has real lessons for food systems today,” said Leanne N. Phelps, the study’s lead author.

Bones show climate-driven changes

The research team analyzed isotopes from human and animal remains across Africa. These isotopes carry the chemical signature of consumed foods. For instance, C3 plants like wheat grow in cooler, wetter areas. C4 plants such as millet and sorghum thrive in hot, dry regions.

By grouping individuals with similar isotope profiles, the team identified isotopic niches. These niches matched unique livelihood strategies. Then, researchers linked these strategies with archaeological and ecological data.

One key finding: pastoral-based diets had the widest range of carbon values. That suggests livestock-based lifestyles adapted to diverse conditions. C3 crop-based strategies, on the other hand, were more limited in range and geography.

The role of pastoralism

Pastoralism was the most common livelihood in the archaeological record, appearing at 61% of studied sites.

Pastoral systems showed high variation in diet and environmental setting, from dry savannas to elevated plateaus. Some involved cattle or camel specialization. Others blended livestock with foraged or aquatic foods.

By contrast, ancient cultivation based on C3 plants like wheat and barley appeared in fewer locations and narrower climate zones.

These farming systems depended more on stable water sources, such as those in the Nile Valley or Ethiopian highlands.

Fishing, foraging, and blended strategies

Aquatic-based diets showed strong enrichment in nitrogen isotopes, indicating heavy fish consumption. These strategies were especially common near coastal zones or large lakes, including in South Africa and around Lake Chad.

Some communities combined foraging and farming or practiced mixed herding-hunting-fishing strategies.

In the Zambezi Basin, such blending appeared around 2,000 years ago. It may reflect social contact between Bantu-speaking farmers moving south and San hunter-gatherers moving north.

Distinct climate strategies across regions

Different regions across the African continent developed distinct strategies in response to their unique environmental conditions.

In East Africa, the presence of elevated terrain combined with highly seasonal rainfall created favorable conditions for the development of specialized pastoral systems.

These highland areas offered varied microclimates that could support livestock grazing even during challenging periods, allowing herding communities to flourish.

On the other hand, West Africa experienced a slower progression toward intensive food production. This delay may have been influenced by several factors.

One key challenge was the prevalence of livestock diseases, particularly trypanosomiasis, which is spread by tsetse flies and affects cattle health.

Additionally, the region’s flatter landscapes and relatively uniform ecological zones may have limited the range of adaptable subsistence strategies.

Dietary patterns and climate adaptation

Isotopic evidence from human and animal remains reveals how dietary patterns shifted over time. In the northern parts of Africa, declining rainfall led to increased reliance on C3 plants, which grow better in cooler, wetter environments.

Meanwhile, in southern regions, rising rainfall levels were associated with greater consumption of C4 plants and expanded use of livestock, signaling a growing emphasis on pastoralism.

These dietary shifts reflect broader trends in ecological adaptation and livelihood restructuring across millennia.

Learning from ancient climate strategies

Ancient Africa’s response to climate instability shows that survival came from adaptability. The research concludes that no single solution worked across the continent. Instead, resilience emerged from flexible strategies that reflected local conditions.

“If we want climate solutions and global environmental change solutions to work, they need to be rooted in an understanding of the way that people have been using available resources throughout time,” said Phelps.

This deep-time perspective reveals a crucial insight: durable strategies come from local knowledge, ecological awareness, and diversified livelihoods. Past success stories may yet help shape tomorrow’s responses to a changing climate.

The study is published in the journal One Earth.

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