Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the largest man-made reservoir in California, Lake Shasta, which filled to nearly 100 percent capacity in May 2023. This is the highest level that Shasta has reached in four years.&nbsp;



"Since 2019, a prolonged period of extreme drought resulted in dwindling reservoir levels. In the early months of 2023, heavy rains and meltwater from an above-average mountain snowpack caused a notable turnaround," said NASA.



"Lake Oroville, the state’s second-largest reservoir, was also near capacity on May 29, at 97 percent full. Both Lake Oroville and Shasta Lake are critical not only for water storage, but also for flood control, recreation, irrigating cropland in the Central Valley, and preventing saltwater intrusion into the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta."



NASA noted that full reservoirs do not ensure plentiful water for years into the future, and that the past four years are a testament to how drastically reservoirs can change in a short amount of time.&nbsp;



"The California DWR is collaborating with other agencies to incorporate better forecasting and observation technologies in order to optimize water releases."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Lake Shasta reaches nearly 100 percent capacity

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Quebec, where about 160,000 hectares have burned since the start of the year.



"An unusually intense start to Canada’s wildfire season filled skies with smoke in May 2023. Then, at the beginning of June, scores of new fires raged in the central Canadian province of Quebec, some of which were ignited by lightning," says NASA.



"The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this view of smoke billowing from the fires on June 3. Shortly after the fires started, about 5,000 residents were ordered to evacuate near the city of Sept-Îles in the province’s east."&nbsp;



"As the fires grew, evacuations were extended to an additional 9,000 people in surrounding communities and in western Quebec’s Val-d’Or and Normétal municipalities. As of June 5, more than 150 wildfires were active in Quebec."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Forest fires rage in Quebec

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the west coast of South America. The photo was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station while orbiting over the Atacama Desert and Central Andes Mountains near the border of Bolivia, Peru, and Chile.



"Over the Pacific Ocean, marine stratocumulus clouds develop over cold water that rises from the ocean depths as the Peru current (Humboldt current) flows north along the west coast of South America," says NASA. "The coastline is marked by low mountains that are dissected by canyons carved by rivers that flow down the western side of the Andes."



The Atacama Desert receives less than 0.2 inches of rain per year on average. According to NASA, this dry environment provides an ideal setting to conduct Mars analog studies.



"Active and inactive volcanoes comprise the Central Andean Volcanic Arc within the Atacama Desert and Andes Mountains. One of the inactive volcanoes visible in this photo is Bolivia’s Nevado Sajama, which has a maximum elevation of 6,542 meters (21,463 feet). Nevado Sajama and other volcanoes in the region often have glaciers and snow cover due to their high elevation."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The west coast of South America

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut photograph of the Cape Cod peninsula, located in the easternmost portion of Massachusetts. The peninsula extends into the Atlantic Ocean and is a significant feature of the East Coast of the United States.



Cape Cod peninsula is characterized by its beaches, villages, and seafood. It's a popular tourist destination, particularly in the summer months, with people visiting for its beautiful landscapes and unique culture.



Cape Cod consists of 15 towns, including Provincetown, Hyannis, Falmouth, and Chatham. Each town has its own distinctive character and attractions. For example, Provincetown, located at the tip of the peninsula, is known for its vibrant LGBTQ+ scene, while Hyannis is famous as a ferry gateway to the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket.



The Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park covering much of the Outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, provides opportunities for hiking, biking, and beachgoing.



Historically, Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers of the Americas. It was among the first places settled by the English in North America in the Pilgrim Fathers' era, and it played a key role in the early history and development of the United States.&nbsp;



Today, the Cape's history is preserved in numerous museums, historic sites, and lighthouses. In addition, a variety of wildlife can be found in the region, such as whales, seals, and many species of birds.



"The variety of ecosystems within Cape Cod National Seashore sustain over 450 species of amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals, including 32 species that are rare or endangered," says NASA. "One of those species is the American oystercatcher, a large shorebird that uses a knife-like bill to eat shellfish."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Cape Cod peninsula in the northeastern United States

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Amundsen Gulf in northern Canada, where ice is typically covered with ice that is fastened to surrounding coastlines. According to NASA, the breakup of this ice tends to be rapid when the melting season arrives in spring.



"Patches of fast ice remained in the eastern part of the gulf in late May, but summer weather will ultimately clear it away as well. The Amundsen Gulf, the western entrance to the Northwest Passage, is usually ice-free by August," says NASA.



Walt Meier, a senior research scientist at the National Snow and Ice Data Center, said that winds play an important role in the breakup of the ice. He noted that an area of low pressure centered south of the gulf prior to the breakup fueled strong easterly winds and large waves that broke up the ice and sent chunks of it drifting west.&nbsp;



This year's spring breakup occurred earlier than usual, which aligns with the overall trend in the Beaufort Sea region in recent decades, noted NASA.



“Over a period of two decades, the Amundsen Gulf had the highest interannual variability of anywhere across the entire Northwest Canadian Arctic,” said Eleanor Wratten, a researcher at Northumbria University and the lead author of an analysis of decades of MODIS observations of fast ice in the Northwest Canadian Arctic.&nbsp;



“We saw the timing of breakup change considerably from one year to the next, but the general pattern looked similar to what you see here. Ice usually remains in the southern bays the longest, with breakup veering toward the strait in the southeastern portion of the gulf.”



The image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on May 30, 2023.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Spring ice breakup in the Amundsen Gulf

Closeup,Of,Bluebell,Flowers,Seen,Around,An,Unmarked,Grave,Stone.

Scientists have made an incredible <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/earliest-human-burial-homo-naledi-berger">discovery</a> that may challenge our understanding of human evolution - the world's oldest known burial site.&nbsp;



The find is located within a cave system in South Africa and is linked to an archaic species of human, Homo naledi. Remarkably, this extinct species was capable of not just burying their dead but also etching and painting symbols onto their graves.



Such behavior might sound familiar, as it's typical of us, Homo sapiens. However, the Homo naledi <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/differences-in-the-mammalian-and-reptilian-brain-revealed/">brain</a> is only the size of an orange - a dimension that previously led scientists to believe it was incapable of creating symbolic or "meaning-making" activities.



<h2 id="h-findings-predate-homo-sapiens-burial-rituals-by-100-000-years">Findings predate Homo sapiens burial rituals by 100,000 years</h2>



This discovery has potentially historic implications. Until now, the assumption has been that these sophisticated behaviors were unique to larger-brained ancient Homo sapiens. However, the recent findings predate our species by at least 100,000 years, suggesting a fundamental rewrite of our historical understanding.



Lee Berger, a leading paleoanthropologist collaborating with <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>, was at the helm of this breakthrough. He found the burial site 100 feet deep within the UNESCO world heritage site known as the Cradle of Humankind, near Johannesburg.



This is not the first time Homo naledi has made headlines. The first remnants of this species within the South African cave system were unearthed in 2013. The expedition revealed a trove of skeletal remains of adults and children under the earth, including a single body with 83 identifiable bone fragments and teeth.



<h2 id="h-homo-naledi-remains-mostly-a-mystery">Homo naledi remains mostly a mystery</h2>



Homo naledi is a primitive species positioned between apes and modern humans. This ancient relative has a brain size comparable to that of a chimpanzee and stands about five feet tall. Their curved fingers and toes, adept hands for wielding tools, and feet designed for walking, have already challenged the idea that human evolution followed a straight path.



Symbols marking the graves were identified by Berger and his team in July 2022 and have since been published. These deeply impressed cross-hatchings and other geometric shapes were found on surfaces that appeared to have been intentionally prepared and smoothed. Interestingly, they appeared thought out and were consistently repeated using some sharp tool. Even though some markings appear to have been made by mistake or left unfinished, a total of 46 non-natural engraved marks were discovered near one of the graves.



These findings draw parallels with our ancient Neanderthal relatives, who used similar symbols nearly 600,000 years ago, and Homo sapiens in South Africa about 80,000 years ago. According to Berger, the implications of the markings, along with evidence of intentional burials, suggest that Homo naledi engaged in meaningful activities associated with death.



Berger shared his observations with AFP, stating, "It seems an inevitable conclusion that in combination, they indicate that this small-brained species of ancient human relatives were performing complex practices related to death. That would mean not only are humans not unique in the development of symbolic practices, but may not have even invented such behaviors."



<h2 id="h-researchers-made-other-fascinating-discoveries-at-the-site">Researchers made other fascinating discoveries at the site</h2>



Further intriguing artifacts included engravings forming geometrical shapes on a cave pillar's purposefully smoothed surfaces. At the center of the latest studies were oval-shaped interments uncovered during 2018 excavations in the underground cave system. These holes, thought to have been deliberately dug, were filled to cover the bodies and contained at least five individuals.



"These discoveries show that mortuary practices were not limited to H. sapiens or other hominins with large brain sizes," noted the researchers.



However, these findings may ruffle feathers within the paleontological community, where Berger has faced criticism in the past for jumping to conclusions and lacking scientific rigor. When he first suggested in 2015 that Homo naledi was capable of behavior beyond what its small brain size would suggest, many within the scientific community met his assertions with skepticism.



"That was too much for scientists to take at that time. We think it's all tied up with this big brain. We're about to tell the world that's not true," said Berger.



<h2 id="h-more-analysis-and-research-is-required">More analysis and research is required</h2>



While these latest discoveries still require additional analysis, the researchers involved believe they have made strides in our understanding of human evolution.



"Burial, meaning-making, even 'art' could have a much more complicated, dynamic, non-human history than we previously thought," said study co-author Professor Agustin Fuentes of Princeton University.



Carol Ward, an anthropologist from the University of Missouri who wasn't involved in the research, told AFP: "These findings, if confirmed, would be of considerable potential importance. I look forward to learning how the disposition of remains precludes other possible explanations than intentional burial and to seeing the results once they have been vetted by peer review."



Undoubtedly, the Homo naledi discoveries represent a fascinating chapter in our understanding of early human behaviors and the evolution of our species. While the narrative may need to be revised and there is still much to learn, the findings remind us that our evolution has been anything but a straight line.



<h2 id="h-more-about-homo-naledi">More about Homo naledi</h2>



Homo naledi is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which also includes modern humans, Homo sapiens. The species was announced to the world in 2015 after the discovery of its remains in the Rising Star cave system in South Africa in 2013.



One of the remarkable features of the Homo naledi discovery was the sheer number of fossils found. Over 1,500 individual pieces representing more than 15 individuals, from infants to elderly adults, were recovered in the initial excavation, making it one of the richest fossil sites in Africa.&nbsp;



The cave system is extremely difficult to access, which has led to the hypothesis that Homo naledi may have intentionally disposed of its dead - a behavior previously thought to be unique to Homo sapiens.



<h3 id="h-human-like-in-many-ways">Human-like in many ways</h3>



Homo naledi was small-brained but humanlike in many ways. The species' brain size is estimated to have been about 465 to 560 cubic centimeters, which is roughly one-third the size of the modern human brain. Despite this, their physical characteristics showed a fascinating mix of primitive and modern traits. They stood about five feet tall and had a slender body mass, similar to small-bodied human populations.



Homo naledi's feet were virtually indistinguishable from those of modern humans, suggesting that they were capable of long-distance walking and possibly running. Their hands had curved fingers, suggesting climbing abilities, but also featured a humanlike wrist and thumb, which indicates they may have been capable of making and using tools, although no tools have been found associated with the fossils.



The species also had relatively small teeth, more similar to those of modern humans than to earlier hominins, and features of the skull, particularly in the jaw, that are more similar to those of Homo genus than to australopithecines.



<h3 id="h-fossils-discovered-were-not-as-old-as-initially-believed">Fossils discovered were not as old as initially believed&nbsp;</h3>



The age of the Homo naledi fossils has been difficult to determine. Initially, because of the mix of primitive and modern traits, it was speculated that they might date from a very early period in the evolution of the Homo genus.&nbsp;



However, in 2017, the fossils were dated to between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago, which means that Homo naledi was contemporary with the earliest Homo sapiens. The relatively recent age of these fossils makes the mix of primitive and modern traits exhibited by Homo naledi even more intriguing.



The discovery of Homo naledi had added a rich new chapter to our understanding of hominin evolution, suggesting that the journey to modern humans was not a straight line but a tree with many branches.&nbsp;



Their small brains, yet humanlike behaviors (like potentially burying their dead), challenge traditional views of cognitive evolution. Further study and discovery of other fossil evidence will continue to refine our understanding of this fascinating species.



<h2 id="h-more-about-early-human-ancestors">More about early human ancestors</h2>



The evolution of humans has been a complex journey, and there are several known species of early human ancestors, known as hominins, that have played crucial roles in our lineage. Here are some of the more notable ones:



<h3 id="h-australopithecus-afarensis-lucy">Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)</h3>



This species lived between about 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago and is one of the older known species in our lineage. The most famous fossil of this species is "Lucy," a partial skeleton found in Ethiopia. Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal and walked upright, but also had adaptations for tree climbing.



<h3 id="h-homo-habilis">Homo habilis</h3>



Living between 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis is known as the "handy man" because this species was associated with the creation of stone tools. Homo habilis had a larger brain than the Australopithecines and showed more humanlike characteristics.



<h3 id="h-homo-erectus">Homo erectus</h3>



This species emerged around 2 million years ago and lived until about 100,000 years ago. Homo erectus is the first known human ancestor to have body proportions similar to those of modern humans and is believed to have been the first hominin to have left Africa, with remains found in various parts of Asia and Europe.



<h3 id="h-neanderthals-homo-neanderthalensis">Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis)</h3>



Neanderthals lived in Europe and western Asia from about 400,000 until about 40,000 years ago. They were close relatives of modern humans and had a brain size comparable to ours. Neanderthals used sophisticated tools, wore clothing, controlled fire, and may have had language.



<h3 id="h-denisovans">Denisovans&nbsp;</h3>



Like Neanderthals, Denisovans are a relatively recent discovery, known mostly from DNA found in a single finger bone discovered in a Siberian cave. They lived at the same time as early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, and genetic evidence suggests they interbred with both.



<h3 id="h-homo-naledi">Homo naledi</h3>



As mentioned earlier, Homo naledi is a relatively recent addition to the human family tree, with a mix of primitive and modern features. The species, found in South Africa, is believed to have lived several hundred thousand years ago.



<h3 id="h-homo-floresiensis-the-hobbit">Homo floresiensis (The Hobbit)</h3>



This species was discovered in 2003 on the Indonesian island of Flores. The adults stood only about 3.5 feet tall, which led to the nickname "the Hobbit." They lived from about 100,000 to 50,000 years ago.



These are just a few of the many hominin species that have been discovered. Each new discovery, like Homo naledi, adds to the complex picture of human evolution, demonstrating that our evolutionary history is more of a branching tree with many dead ends, rather than a straightforward path leading directly to Homo sapiens.



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Homo naledi may have been the first to bury their dead 200,000 years ago

Scientists have made an incredible discovery that may challenge our...

Scientists have uncovered a newly discovered plant-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/">dinosaur</a>, Iani smithi, that appears to be a species' "last gasp." This dramatic event took place during a period when Earth's warming climate was forcing profound shifts in global dinosaur populations.



Unearthed from Utah's Cedar Mountain Formation, the majority of the juvenile dinosaur's skeleton - encompassing its skull, vertebrae, and limbs - was successfully retrieved.&nbsp;



The specimen is named after Janus, the two-faced Roman god of change. It serves as a tribute to its place as an early ornithopod, a group of dinosaurs that would eventually pave the way for well-known duckbill dinosaurs like Parasaurolophus and Edmontosaurus.



<h2 id="h-iani-smithi-lived-during-a-transformative-time-on-earth">Iani smithi lived during a transformative time on Earth</h2>



The striking feature of Iani smithi is its powerful jaw, specially equipped with teeth perfect for chomping through robust plant material. This creature roamed the region now known as Utah approximately 99 million years ago during the mid-Cretaceous period.



This era was one of significant transformation, affecting dinosaur populations considerably. Enhanced levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide caused the Earth's temperature to rise and sea levels to swell, leaving dinosaurs confined to increasingly smaller landmasses.&nbsp;



So intense was the warmth that rainforests flourished at the poles while flowering plant life began to dominate coastal regions, replacing the traditional food sources for herbivores.



<h2 id="h-most-dinosaur-species-were-vanishing-when-iani-smithi-arrived">Most dinosaur species were vanishing when Iani smithi arrived</h2>



As the mid-Cretaceous period unfolded, giant plant-eating sauropods, once the reigning titans of North American landscapes, were vanishing along with their allosaurian predators. Concurrently, smaller plant eaters like early duckbills and horned dinosaurs were arriving from Asia, accompanied by feathered theropods such as tyrannosaurs and enormous oviraptorosaurs.



The discovery of Iani smithi is momentous, not just for its novelty but also due to its infrequent appearance in the North American fossil record and its unique place in dinosaur history.



"We had a stroke of luck finding Iani," says Lindsay Zanno, head of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and associate research professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>.&nbsp;



"We knew something like it inhabited this ecosystem because we had come across isolated teeth, but we didn't anticipate finding such an impressive skeleton, particularly from this era. Having a nearly complete skull was crucial for piecing together the story."



Zanno and her team, employing the well-preserved skeleton, have been examining the evolutionary relationships of Iani, expressing surprise and slight doubt at their findings.



"Upon analysis, we identified Iani as an early rhabdodontomorph, an ornithopod lineage primarily known from Europe," explained Professor Zanno. "Lately, paleontologists have suggested that Tenontosaurus, a North American dinosaur as prevalent as cattle in the Early Cretaceous, along with some Australian dinosaurs, belong to this group. If Iani is indeed a rhabdodontomorph, it poses several fascinating questions."



<h2 id="h-iani-smithi-may-have-been-the-last-in-a-successful-dinosaur-lineage">Iani smithi may have been the last in a successful dinosaur lineage</h2>



One of the central questions raised is whether Iani smithi could represent the final gasp, a final witness to the demise of a once successful lineage. Zanno believes that examining this fossil in light of environmental and biodiversity shifts during the mid-Cretaceous will yield further insights into our planet's history.



"Iani might be the last surviving member of a lineage of dinosaurs that once thrived here in North America but were eventually supplanted by duckbill dinosaurs. Iani was alive during this transition - so this dinosaur really does symbolize a changing planet," said Professor Zanno.



"This dinosaur stood on the precipice, able to look back at the way North American ecosystems were in the past, but close enough to see the future coming like a bullet train. I think we can all relate to that."



As this dinosaur signifies a significant transition, it is fittingly named after Janus, the two-faced god symbolizing transitions.



<h2 id="h-glimpse-into-a-critical-period-in-earth-s-history">Glimpse into a critical period in Earth’s history</h2>



The discovery of Iani smithi and the ensuing research offers a unique glimpse into a critical period in Earth's history, when rapid climatic changes transformed landscapes, ecosystems, and the organisms that lived in them.&nbsp;



Studying these ancient creatures provides scientists with a powerful tool for understanding how life on Earth has evolved in response to such changes, and perhaps how it may continue to do so in the face of modern-day climate change.



This landmark research has been published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a> and received support from the National Science Foundation.



As scientists continue to unearth and examine fossils like Iani smithi, we are gifted with a deeper understanding of our planet's history. In the face of today's environmental challenges, this knowledge proves invaluable.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-mid-cretaceous-period">More about the mid-Cretaceous period&nbsp;</h2>



The mid-Cretaceous period, dating from around 125 to 90 million years ago, was a time of significant change for life on Earth.



This era, part of the larger Cretaceous period that spanned from about 145 to 66 million years ago, saw significant shifts in global climates, landmasses, and ecosystems, resulting in the evolution of new species and the extinction of others. It's best known for being the last era in which dinosaurs roamed the Earth, culminating in a mass extinction event at the end of the period.



<h3 id="h-much-warmer-climate">Much warmer climate</h3>



From an environmental perspective, the mid-Cretaceous period was marked by a significantly warmer climate than we have today. This climate change was due in large part to high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, likely resulting from increased volcanic activity.&nbsp;



During this time, there was no polar ice, and even the polar regions enjoyed a tropical or subtropical climate. This warmth led to higher sea levels, with shallow seas covering parts of the continents.



<h3 id="h-plants-began-to-flourish">Plants began to flourish</h3>



The mid-Cretaceous was also a time of flourishing plant life. It witnessed the rise of the angiosperms, or flowering plants, which rapidly diversified and spread across the globe, significantly altering ecosystems and providing new food sources for various herbivorous dinosaurs.&nbsp;



The first bees appeared during this period too, likely evolving alongside these flowering plants in a mutual relationship of pollination.



<h3 id="h-new-types-of-dinosaurs-emerged">New types of dinosaurs emerged</h3>



As for animal life, the mid-Cretaceous was a time of significant shifts. While dinosaur groups like the large, long-necked sauropods were beginning to decline, new kinds of dinosaurs were on the rise.&nbsp;



This period saw the emergence of new types of theropods like tyrannosaurs, which would later give rise to the iconic Tyrannosaurus rex near the end of the Cretaceous. Meanwhile, feathered dinosaurs and early birds continued to evolve and diversify.



In the oceans, the mid-Cretaceous period saw the rise of large marine reptiles like mosasaurs and pliosaurs, along with an increased diversity of ammonites and mollusks. At the same time, the first true birds began to appear, and mammals, although still small and largely nocturnal, started to diversify into a wider array of forms.



Overall, the mid-Cretaceous was a time of considerable global change, with fluctuating climates, shifting landmasses, and evolving ecosystems setting the stage for the world we know today. It provides a fascinating lens through which to study how life on Earth responds to large-scale environmental changes over time.



Image Credit: Jorge Gonzalez



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Dinosaur named "Iani smithi" lived during a time of major transition

Scientists have uncovered a newly discovered plant-eating dinosaur, Iani smithi,...

Shallow lakes and ponds might seem innocuous in our landscape, but they have been found to emit substantial volumes of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Our understanding of the emissions from these water bodies, however, has been muddled due to significant variations in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epa-plans-to-eliminate-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-power-plants-by-2040/">emissions</a>.



A recently conducted study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> offers fresh insights into this issue. This study aimed to quantify methane and carbon dioxide emissions from 30 small lakes and ponds, each less than an acre in size. These bodies of water were situated in temperate regions across Europe and North America. Intriguingly, the team found that it was the smallest and shallowest of these bodies of water that demonstrated the greatest emission variability over time.



"These small and shallow bodies of water, though often overlooked, are now gaining prominence in the larger climate change narrative," said study senior author Professor Meredith Holgerson.



The findings of this research have critical implications for the calibration of climate models. "The paper points to patterns across a broad geographic range, such that we can actually get in and predict which water bodies are going to vary and will be most variable," noted Nicholas Ray, a postdoctoral researcher in Holgerson’s lab. Furthermore, the study underscores the urgent need to study these smaller bodies of water more meticulously.



Earlier research led by Holgerson's team suggested that these shallow lakes and ponds could contribute about five percent of global methane emissions to the atmosphere. However, without precise measurements from a multitude of water bodies, the actual contribution could fluctuate between half to twice this figure.



Understanding the emission dynamics from these water bodies is crucial since both carbon dioxide and methane act as greenhouse gases. Notably, methane is 25 times more effective than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in our atmosphere.



For the study, each water body was sampled three times during the summers of 2018 and 2019. Sampling was done at three different locations, including the deepest point and two spots on opposite ends, while ensuring that these were not too close to the shoreline.



Ray revealed a key finding that "the smaller the system is, in regard to surface area, the higher emissions are likely to be." For carbon dioxide, the samples were consistent across the entire water body. This indicated that just one sample could accurately predict the carbon dioxide emissions for the whole body of water. However, for methane, multiple samples from different locations were required to measure emissions accurately.



Additionally, the variability in carbon dioxide emissions seemed to be influenced heavily by the amount of plant life in the water. Meanwhile, the variability in methane emissions was more driven by the water depth, which could be linked to stratification in the water column.



Among other applications, this study paves the way for building more ponds as a part of New York State's climate mitigation strategy. These ponds could also aid farmers in better managing droughts.



"We’re working to identify how ponds can be built, or if there are simple management strategies people can employ, to minimize emissions," Ray said, revealing the proactive approach taken to utilize this new information.



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-models">More about climate models</h2>



Creating climate models is an intricate and fascinating process. These models are computer programs that simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. They are used by scientists to better understand the Earth's climate and how it might change in the future.



Climate models work by dividing the planet into a 3D grid, which can focus on a specific area or cover the globe. Each grid box, and the layers above and below it, represents a chunk of the atmosphere, ocean, or land.&nbsp;



The model then solves equations that describe the fluid motion and thermodynamics of the atmosphere and oceans, the transmission of sunlight through the atmosphere and oceans, the exchange of heat with the land and ice surface, and many other physical processes.



<h3 id="h-types-of-climate-models">Types of climate models</h3>



There are several types of climate models, each serving a different purpose. For instance, simple climate models can be used to look at the Earth's energy balance. These models can give a broad-brush view of the climate system and are useful for providing a rough idea of how changes in the Earth's energy budget can affect global temperatures.



At the other end of the scale are complex climate models, also known as general circulation models (GCMs). These split the atmosphere, oceans, and land into many layers and boxes, allowing for the detailed study of individual climate processes and their interactions.



Some GCMs include a detailed representation of the carbon cycle, atmospheric chemistry, ice flow dynamics, and vegetation dynamics, which make them coupled climate-carbon-chemistry models. These models can investigate not just how climate change influences the carbon cycle and other biogeochemical cycles, but also how feedbacks from these cycles may impact the climate system.



<h3 id="h-improving-accuracy-by-incorporating-more-data">Improving accuracy by incorporating more data</h3>



These models have become increasingly sophisticated, even incorporating elements such as cloud formation, vegetation cover changes, and the impact of volcanic emissions. However, climate models are not perfect and have limitations.&nbsp;



For instance, there are uncertainties around how to accurately represent processes like cloud formation and precipitation at the scale of a grid box, and how to represent the indirect effects of aerosols.



Nevertheless, despite their limitations, climate models are essential tools for scientists, providing our best means of projecting future climate change scenarios based on different greenhouse gas emission pathways.



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