Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Malaspina Glacier in southeastern Alaska. With a size of approximately 1,680 square miles, Malaspina is the world’s largest piedmont glacier. It covers an area larger than the state of Rhode Island.&nbsp;



"To human eyes, glacial ice typically looks white tinged with blue. But in this false-color satellite image, the rippled ice of Alaska’s Malaspina Glacier appears more fiery than frosty," said NASA.



"In this configuration, watery features are displayed in reds, oranges, and yellows; vegetation appears green; and rock is shown in shades of blue."



A piedmont glacier forms when steep valley glaciers spill into flat plains, where they spread out into bulbous, lobate shapes. Malaspina is fed by the Seward Ice Field and other smaller glaciers.&nbsp;



Despite its size, it's relatively thin for a glacier of its magnitude, averaging only about 600 meters (2,000 feet) in thickness.



The Malaspina Glacier is a classic example of a glacier experiencing significant retreat and thinning due to climate change. This has raised concerns about its long-term stability and the broader implications for sea-level rise.&nbsp;



The glacier's meltwater contributes to the Gulf of Alaska, and its changes are closely monitored by scientists.



Most of the Malaspina Glacier is located within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park. Its visually striking nature, including crevasses and moraines, makes it a subject of interest not only for scientists but also for photographers and nature enthusiasts.&nbsp;



The image was captured on October 27, 2023 by the OLI-2 (Operational Land Imager-2) on Landsat 9.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Malaspina Glacier in southeastern Alaska 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151929/indonesian-fires-return-in-2023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut photograph of the Moon peeking over Earth's horizon. The image was captured as the International Space Station was orbiting over Iraq. 



"Taken at an oblique angle from an altitude of 406 kilometers (252 miles), the photo has a perspective that highlights Earth’s atmospheric limb, or the edge of the atmosphere," says NASA.



"The blue-toned haze that fades into the darkness of space is the mesosphere, which reaches an altitude of about 80 kilometers (50 miles). Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. Although this layer is part of Earth’s atmosphere, it is commonly considered part of outer space."



According to NASA, the Moon is about 405,500 kilometers (251,000 miles) away from Earth at its furthest point, or apogee.



"Below the wispy clouds in the middle of the view is Lake Assad, a Euphrates River reservoir in northern Syria," notes NASA.



"Lake Assad is Syria’s largest lake and a primary source of the region’s drinking and irrigation water. The Tabqa Dam, which created the lake, is the largest hydroelectric dam in the country."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Moon peeks over Earth's horizon

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features a rare view of Elephant Island off the coast of Antarctica. The photo was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission in February 2023.



Elephant Island is an ice-covered, mountainous island in the Southern Ocean. It is located in the outer reaches of the South Shetland Islands.



"The highest peaks are Mount Pendragon, which reaches around 970 meters, visible on the southern end, and, moving northeast, Mount Elder, which reaches around 945 meters," said ESA.



"North of Mount Elder, the wide Endurance Glacier can be seen in the centre of the image. It is the main discharge glacier on the island and drains to the south and into the Weddel Sea. Thin sea ice, visible in light blue in front of the calving front, separates the glacier terminus from the open ocean waters."



Elephant Island holds a special place in polar exploration history because of its role in the Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914-1917). After their ship, the Endurance, was trapped and then crushed by ice in the Weddell Sea, Shackleton and his crew sailed lifeboats over treacherous seas to reach Elephant Island. It was an inhospitable place with no sources of food or shelter, but it was land.



Realizing that there was no chance of rescue from Elephant Island, Shackleton and a few crew members set out in a small lifeboat, the James Caird, to sail 800 miles to South Georgia Island where they hoped to find help. This journey is considered one of the greatest boat journeys ever accomplished. They did eventually reach South Georgia, and Shackleton was able to return to Elephant Island and rescue the remaining crew members.



Though it's largely ice-covered, Elephant Island is home to various wildlife, particularly seals, penguins, and seabirds. The island is uninhabited by humans, but it is a popular destination for expedition cruises and is often visited by those interested in polar exploration history.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Elephant Island off the coast of Antarctica

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Tunulliarfik Fjord, which is located along the southern perimeter of Greenland.



"On March 13, 2023, the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 acquired these natural-color images of Tunulliarfik Fjord. The images have been pan-sharpened to bring out more detail," says NASA.



"At the time, the fjord’s waters were capped with a layer of sea ice. Atop the ice there are several long, straight lines connecting the towns of Narsarsuaq and Qassiarsuk, and running the length of the fjord. Though cracks and ridges can form naturally in the ice, there are indications that people were likely involved with producing some of the tracks pictured here."



The images were reviewed by Nathan Kurtz and several other scientists in the Cryospheric Sciences Laboratory at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. The experts determined that many of the tracks were produced by vehicles like snowmobiles. 



“It seems likely that residents from the town or nearby were out on the ice, possibly hunting or traveling,“ said Kurtz.



Tunulliarfik Fjord, also known as Erik's Fjord, is historically significant because it's close to the site where Erik the Red, the Norse explorer, established the first Norse settlements in Greenland around the year 985 AD. These Norse settlements, particularly Brattahlíð, were key starting points for the Norse exploration of the region and are the reason Greenland has its name.



The fjord offers picturesque landscapes typical of Greenland, with steep cliffs, icebergs, and vast open waters. The region is rich in history, and there have been numerous archaeological digs uncovering remnants of the old Norse settlements.



Today, the nearby town of Qaqortoq is one of the primary settlements in the area, providing modern amenities while retaining a deep connection to the region's historical and cultural significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tunulliarfik Fjord in southern Greenland 

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the west coast of South America. The photo was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station while orbiting over the Atacama Desert and Central Andes Mountains near the border of Bolivia, Peru, and Chile.



"Over the Pacific Ocean, marine stratocumulus clouds develop over cold water that rises from the ocean depths as the Peru current (Humboldt current) flows north along the west coast of South America," says NASA. "The coastline is marked by low mountains that are dissected by canyons carved by rivers that flow down the western side of the Andes."



The Atacama Desert receives less than 0.2 inches of rain per year on average. According to NASA, this dry environment provides an ideal setting to conduct Mars analog studies.



"Active and inactive volcanoes comprise the Central Andean Volcanic Arc within the Atacama Desert and Andes Mountains. One of the inactive volcanoes visible in this photo is Bolivia’s Nevado Sajama, which has a maximum elevation of 6,542 meters (21,463 feet). Nevado Sajama and other volcanoes in the region often have <a href="http://glaciers">glaciers</a> and snow cover due to their high elevation."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Atacama Desert on the west coast of South America

An important discovery in the study of the Sun's behavior was released today by researchers at the Center of Excellence in Space Sciences India (<a href="http://www.cessi.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CESSI</a>). Their work has unveiled a new relationship between the Sun’s magnetic field and its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspot</a> cycle. This discovery holds significant promise for predicting solar activities with greater accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-s-magnetic-field-and-sunspot-cycle">Sun’s magnetic field and sunspot cycle</h2>



The Sun, our nearest star, is a massive sphere of hot ionized gas, or plasma. Within it, immense plasma flows and convection currents interact to form magnetic fields. These fields surface as sunspots, dark patches comparable in size to Earth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> are centers of intense magnetism, possessing a magnetic strength about 10,000 times greater than Earth's.



Occasionally, these sunspot magnetic fields undergo violent disruptions, giving rise to solar magnetic storms such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-massive-solar-flare-struck-earth-on-monday-but-what-does-this-mean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronal mass ejections</a>. These phenomena emit high-energy radiation and expel vast amounts of magnetized plasma into space. The most intense of these storms can wreak havoc on satellites, power grids, and communication networks on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-predicting-solar-storms">Challenge of predicting solar storms</h2>



Sunspot observation, dating back to the early 1600s, reveals a cyclic pattern. Approximately every 11 years, the number of sunspots and the intensity of solar activity peak, leading to heightened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canyon-of-fire-solar-eruption-extended-more-than-60000-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather disturbances</a>. However, accurately predicting these peaks has been a longstanding challenge.



A dynamo mechanism, powered by plasma flows inside the Sun, drives the solar cycle. This mechanism involves two primary magnetic field components. 



One component manifests in sunspots. The other component is active in recycling the Sun's large-scale dipole field, similar to Earth's magnetic field. Every 11 years, this dipole field also reverses its poles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-on-waldmeier-s-discovery">Expanding on Waldmeier’s discovery</h2>



In 1935, Swiss astronomer Max Waldmeier discovered a relationship known as the Waldmeier effect. Waldmeier found that the faster a sunspot cycle rises, the stronger the strength of the solar storms. This relationship has been pivotal in forecasting the strength of sunspot cycles based on early observations.



Priyansh Jaswal, Chitradeep Saha, and Dibyendu Nandy of <a href="https://www.iiserkol.ac.in/web/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IISER Kolkata</a> have discovered a complementary relationship. They found that the rate of decrease in the Sun’s dipole magnetic field correlates with the rate of rise of the ongoing sunspot cycle. 



This discovery, leveraging data from decades-old solar observatories, connects the two primary components of the Sun's magnetic field. In addition, it supports the notion that sunspots are integral to the solar dynamo process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictions-for-the-current-solar-cycle">Predictions for the current solar cycle</h2>



The IISER Kolkata team demonstrates how monitoring the Sun's dipole magnetic field's rate of decrease, combined with sunspot observations, can predict the peak of an ongoing cycle. Their analysis suggests that the peak of solar cycle 25 is likely to occur in early 2024, with a range of uncertainty extending to September 2024.



In summary, this new discovery opens a window for more accurate forecasting of solar cycle peaks. These are times when the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense solar activity</a> and space weather disturbances are expected. Such advancements in understanding the Sun's magnetic dynamics are not only pivotal for space weather prediction but also essential for protecting Earth's technological infrastructure.



The full study was published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article/528/1/L27/7441123">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters</a>



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Solar storms will intensify, then slow as the solar cycle peaks in early 2024

An important discovery in the study of the Sun's behavior...

In a recent study led by Dr. Shawn Olsen at the <a href="https://alleninstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allen Institute</a>, researchers have made significant strides in understanding how our brains perceive - or fail to perceive - visual stimuli.&nbsp;



The research, focusing on a phenomenon known as visual masking, reveals intriguing insights into the mechanisms of conscious perception in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/">brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-masking">Visual masking</h2>



Visual masking occurs when an individual fails to consciously perceive an image due to the rapid succession of another image.&nbsp;



For the effect to occur, the first image must appear and disappear swiftly, followed rapidly (within about 50 milliseconds) by the second image. The current study explores visual masking in mice for the first time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-phenomenon-nbsp">Puzzling phenomenon&nbsp;</h2>



Scientists discovered this puzzling phenomenon in the 19th century, but the underlying mechanisms remain a mystery.&nbsp;



From previous studies, the scientists knew that neurons in the retina and parts of the brain in that pathway are activated even when a person is not aware that they are seeing an image. This means that your brain can see things without your knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-awareness">Visual awareness</h2>



Dr. Olsen and his team, including Dr. Christof Koch and Dr. Sam Gale, trained mice to respond to visual stimuli. The mice were taught to turn a tiny LEGO wheel in the direction of a briefly flashed image to receive a treat.&nbsp;



When a masking image was introduced immediately after the target image, the mice failed to perform the task correctly, indicating a loss of conscious perception of the original image.



“This is an interesting observation, where what is present in the world is not accurately reflected in your perception,” said Dr. Olsen. “Like other visual illusions, we think that it tells us something about the way the visual system works and ultimately about the neural circuits that underlie visual awareness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conscious-perception">Conscious perception </h2>



Conscious perception refers to the awareness that one has of their surroundings and internal states through sensory experiences. It involves the recognition and interpretation of sensory inputs, such as sights, sounds, and tactile sensations, as well as internal stimuli like thoughts and emotions.



The researchers pinpointed a specific brain region that is necessary for visual masking illusion to work. They propose that the visual cortex or higher areas of the cortex are responsible for conscious perception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-and-mouse-perception-nbsp">Human and mouse perception&nbsp;</h2>



The experts wanted to confirm that the optical illusion they showed the rodents is relevant to humans. They tested 16 people using a keystroke instead of the wheel. The results showed that human and mouse perception - or lack thereof - is very similar.&nbsp;



The fact that human and mouse perceptions of this visual masking illusion were similar reinforces the theory that conscious perception resides in the cortex of mammals.



That fits with the general sentiment in the field that the cortex is the seat of conscious perception in mammals, including us, said Dr. Koch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The research offers profound insights into how our brains process visual information and what factors contribute to our conscious perception of the world.&nbsp;



It opens new avenues for understanding more about the visual system and the neural circuits that govern visual awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-visual-masking">More about visual masking</h2>



During visual masking, the perception of one visual stimulus (the target) is significantly impaired or entirely inhibited by the presence of another visual stimulus (the mask). This occurs when the mask is presented before, simultaneously with, or after the target.&nbsp;



The effect is a demonstration of how our visual system processes information over time and how certain stimuli can interfere with or alter the perception of others.



There are different types of visual masking, including backward masking (where the mask follows the target), forward masking (where the mask precedes the target), and simultaneous masking (where both target and mask are presented together).&nbsp;



The effectiveness of masking depends on various factors like the timing between target and mask, their spatial relationship, and their visual characteristics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01488-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;



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Visual masking: Your brain can see things without your knowledge

In a recent study led by Dr. Shawn Olsen at...

Scientists are raising alarms about the rapid and unpredictable behavior of Antarctic glaciers, with a focus on the Cadman Glacier, which has exhibited alarming changes in recent years. 



A group of scientists headed by Benjamin Wallis, a glaciologist from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>, released a report that underscores the significance of their findings for comprehending the behavior of glaciers and the potential impact on worldwide sea levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-cadman-glacier-melt">Studying the Cadman Glacier melt</h2>



The team utilized satellite data to monitor the Cadman Glacier, which flows into Beascochea Bay on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/west-antarctic-ice-sheet-melting-will-accelerate-regardless-of-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">west Antarctic peninsula</a>. Between November 2018 and May 2021, they observed an alarming eight-kilometer retreat of the glacier. 



This was precipitated by the collapse of the ice shelf at the glacier's end, which had previously acted as a buttress, slowing the glacier's seaward movement. The loss of this ice shelf, attributed to warmer ocean waters, led to a dramatic acceleration in the glacier's flow, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/cadman-glacier_ice-loss-diagram_European-commission_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doubling its speed</a> and increasing ice discharge through iceberg calving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-of-the-cadman-glacier">State of the Cadman Glacier</h2>



Benjamin Wallis expressed his team's surprise at the rapid transition of the Cadman Glacier from a state of apparent stability to one of significant deterioration and ice loss. He noted the unique response of this glacier compared to its neighbors, underscoring the complexity of predicting climate change impacts in polar regions. 



Wallis said: “We were surprised to see the speed at which Cadman went from being an apparently stable&nbsp;glacier to one where we see sudden deterioration and significant ice loss.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;



“What was also curious was that the neighboring glaciers on this part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-increases-snowfall-over-west-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">west Antarctic Peninsula</a> did not react in the same way, which may hold important lessons for the way we can better project how climate change will continue to affect this important and sensitive polar region.   



“Our study brought together data from three decades, nine different satellite missions, and in-situ oceanographic measurements to understand the changes happening in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-will-drive-more-sea-level-rise-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. This demonstrates how important it is to have long term monitoring of the Earth’s polar regions with a range of sensors which all tell us a different piece of the story.”  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



Their research, integrating data from multiple satellite missions and oceanographic measurements, stresses the importance of long-term, diverse monitoring of Earth's polar regions.



Currently, the Cadman Glacier is in a state of "substantial dynamic imbalance." The glacier is thinning at a rate of about 20 meters per year, equivalent to the height of a five-story building, and is shedding approximately 2.16 billion tons of ice annually into the ocean. 



This rapid change was triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/cadman-glacier_ice-loss-diagram_temperature-anomaly_European-commission_3medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusually high ocean temperatures</a> around the west Antarctic peninsula in early 2018/19, believed to have been impacting the glacier since the early 2000s or possibly even the 1970s.



The warmer ocean waters, present deep in the water column, may have reached and melted the ice shelf from the bottom up. In 2018/19, this melting was so extensive that the ice shelf broke free from its grounding zone, allowing the glacier to drain more ice into the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-remain">Unanswered questions remain</h2>



The research team is still investigating why the Cadman Glacier collapsed while neighboring glaciers like Funk and Lever remained relatively stable. They speculate that subsea rock structures, acting as barriers, might be deflecting warmer water away from these glaciers. However, increasing ocean temperatures could eventually overcome these natural defenses.



Professor Michael Meredith from the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, a co-author of the study, emphasized the rapid warming of the ocean around Antarctica and its threat to glaciers and ice sheets. He highlighted the need for comprehensive ocean monitoring, especially near hard-to-reach glaciers.



Meredith said, “We have known for some time that the ocean around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-was-more-dynamic-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> is heating up rapidly, and that this poses a significant threat to glaciers and the ice sheet, with consequences for sea level rise globally.  



“What this new research shows is that apparently stable glaciers can switch very rapidly, becoming unstable almost without warning, and then thinning and retreating very strongly. This emphasizes the need for a comprehensive ocean observing network around Antarctica, especially in regions close to glaciers that are especially hard to make measurements.”   



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-cadman-glacier-melt">Implications of Cadman Glacier melt</h2>



The researchers describe the Cadman Glacier's transformation as a "glaciological tipping point," a concept where a stable system can become unstable due to a change in environmental conditions. In this case, the arrival of warm ocean water caused the glacier's ice shelf to unground, leading to a 28% increase in ice discharge in just 13 months.



This study suggests that other glaciers on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-lost-3000-billion-tons-of-ice-in-25-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> might also be vulnerable to rapid changes due to subsea geology and environmental factors. These findings underscore the urgency of understanding and monitoring glacial dynamics to better predict and mitigate the impacts of climate change on global sea levels.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42970-4">Nature</a>.



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Cadman Glacier is losing 2.1 billion tons of ice melting into the ocean each year

Scientists are raising alarms about the rapid and unpredictable behavior...

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Protecting Reston Lakes and America&#8221;s Shorelines

Protecting America's Lake Shorelines