A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders. They play an important role in regulating Earth's climate. 



New research shows that climate change may be weakening one of the Arctic’s most important defenses - the ability of its fjords to capture and store carbon.



Scientists from the <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iC3 Polar Research Hub</a> have been studying these changes closely. Their work focuses on Kongsfjorden in Svalbard, one of the Arctic’s dynamic fjord ecosystems. 



The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-can-speed-up-continental-drift-and-fuel-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting ice</a> is not just altering the local environment. It is also affecting the balance of life that helps keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-heroes-of-the-arctic">Microscopic heroes of the Arctic</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a>, tiny microscopic plants, are the backbone of Arctic food webs. They are not just food for fish and marine animals. They also play a key part in cycling carbon and regulating the climate.



When ice retreats, more sunlight reaches the ocean's surface. This encourages phytoplankton to grow. Life flourishes, with fish and other animals gathering around these rich patches of productivity.



“The changes we observe suggest that the future of these fjord ecosystems will depend heavily on how well they adapt to a warmer climate," explained Jochen Knies, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-ocean-temperatures">Rising ocean temperatures</h2>



Warmer water can fuel phytoplankton growth during bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic summers</a>. At first glance, this sounds like good news. However, it comes with hidden problems. 



As surface waters warm, they become more layered and stable. This prevents nutrients from reaching the surface where phytoplankton live.



While more phytoplankton might bloom at first, their ability to capture and lock away carbon could shrink over time.



“While we anticipate greater primary production, the reality is that warmer, stratified waters could hinder the fjords' ability to serve as effective carbon sinks,” said Jochen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-disappearing-nutrient-lifeline">The disappearing nutrient lifeline</h2>



Glacial meltwater brings crucial nutrients to Arctic fjords. These nutrients support the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food chain</a>. 



As glaciers retreat, the flow of meltwater becomes unpredictable. Without a steady supply, fjord ecosystems could lose their ability to support rich marine life.



This would not only affect fish and marine mammals. It could also weaken the Arctic’s ability to capture carbon, shifting the balance of life and climate regulation in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arctic-s-warning-to-the-world">The Arctic’s warning to the world</h2>



The Arctic acts as a global climate barometer. Changes here are often early signs of bigger challenges ahead. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrinking ice</a> caps are more than a symbol of loss - they are a warning.



“The future of Arctic fjords reflects the broader climate challenges we face globally,” Jochen warns.



What happens in the Arctic does not stay in the Arctic. These fjords are sending a message. Whether we listen could shape the future of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-touching-everything">Climate change is touching everything</h2>



The effects of climate change are no longer limited to remote areas like the Arctic. They are penetrating into almost every corner of the globe, transforming weather patterns, ecosystems, and even lifestyles.



Rising temperatures are causing more severe storms, increased durations of drought, and volatile growing seasons for crops. Ocean currents are changing. Animals are moving into new ranges. Whole industries, from agriculture to tourism, are being compelled to adjust to a new normal.



What is unfolding in Arctic fjords is just one part of a far larger puzzle. Melting glaciers might be far away from the concerns of most individuals, yet they are linked with rising sea levels that pose a threat to coastal metropolises thousands of miles distant.



Shifts in phytoplankton blooms may also seem like a minor thing. But they are indicative of a broader disruption in the natural systems of the planet, with effects that can ripple across food webs and economies globally.



Scientists emphasize that these changes are happening at an accelerating rate than many models previously estimated. Every degree of warming counts. 



Each choice, from cutting emissions to preserving natural reserves, might make difference toward a more stable future. The tale of the Arctic fjords is an indication of the global challenge facing us all.



The full study was published in the journal Communications Earth &amp; Environment.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Arctic fjords show signs of struggle in a warming world

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders....

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few years to whales that sail through life for more than a century, raising questions about how aging shapes such differences and what forces keep some animals healthy for so long.



Experts have long suspected that variations in the microscopic machinery inside cells might be at play. An emerging study now suggests that certain tiny adjustments in our proteins could hold the secret to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living better</a>, not just longer.



Recent work from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a> points to specific post-translational modifications in proteins that could be linked to a healthier lifespan. 



Led by Professor Haim Cohen of the Sagol Healthy Human Longevity Center at Bar-Ilan University’s Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, the team used a new computational tool to examine how these protein tweaks show up in species with impressive lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-aging-and-longevity">Clues to aging and longevity </h2>



Nature has been running a grand experiment for millions of years, offering clues about what helps certain species thrive. 



Researchers noticed that whales, elephants, and even some human populations seem to manage serious threats like cancer better than expected.



By comparing these animals to their shorter-lived counterparts, scientists discovered key patterns in the proteins responsible for cell maintenance. Each finding hints that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular changes</a> support a more resilient physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-patterns-linked-to-healthy-aging">Protein patterns linked to healthy aging</h2>



To uncover these patterns, the team developed a tool called PHARAOH, short for Positive posttranslational Modifications Regulator of Healthspan. It analyzed protein sequences in 107 different mammal species and looked for changes tied to lifespan.



By using evolutionary data, PHARAOH was able to pinpoint which protein tweaks stuck around in long-lived animals. This let scientists identify specific <a href="https://www.cellsignal.com/pathways/chromatin-acetylation-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOooAw_ZHb32yoec5mQmODkYrVWiqcwg8d-bk5wjwW8T4ndTyT8W8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylation sites</a> that might support healthier aging across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-protein-changes-matter">How do protein changes matter?</h2>



Proteins are the molecules that build tissues, run chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, and keep our bodies functional during aging. they undergo acetylation, a process that adds or removes small chemical tags, which is one example of a posttranslational modification.



These tags shape how proteins fold, interact, and support different parts of our metabolism. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9038119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that adjusting the function of proteins tied to DNA repair and energy production can extend life in model organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-reveal-secrets-to-long-life-nbsp">Whales reveal secrets to long life&nbsp;</h2>



Whales offer a fascinating case study in healthy longevity. Despite having trillions more cells than humans and living for over 100 years, they rarely develop cancer. This phenomenon, known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto’s Paradox</a>, has <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puzzled</a> researchers for decades.



The new study sheds light on this mystery. It found that whales and other long-lived mammals share unique patterns in protein modifications that likely help suppress tumor growth. 



These consistent tweaks in their molecular biology may act as built-in defenses against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related</a> disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-tweaks-may-prevent-diseases">Protein tweaks may prevent diseases</h2>



This new research suggests that tweaking proteins might explain why large mammals rarely suffer from runaway cancer despite having far more cells. 



A lower incidence of some cancers could emerge from strategic molecular shifts in the proteins that keep cell division under control.



“Our findings offer a promising path toward understanding how protein modifications can protect against age-related diseases and promote longer, healthier lives,” said Professor Cohen. 



We could see more methods for shielding humans from age-related conditions if these changes prove adaptable through future therapies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-aging-through-protein-changes">Fighting aging through protein changes</h2>



Scientists hope that tapping into these protein modifications will eventually curb conditions like diabetes and neurodegeneration. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7165364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> found that boosting the action of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/51548" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIRT6</a> helps mice live longer, pointing to a potential strategy for improving health in older age.



As more labs piece together how these modifications appear across species, new ideas for medicines may follow. Clarity on these processes might open ways to slow some effects of aging and give people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better years</a> later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-could-mean-for-medicine">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



If researchers can figure out how to mimic these protective protein changes in humans, it could change how we approach aging-related treatments. 



Instead of targeting single diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, doctors might one day adjust the body’s protein regulation to guard against multiple conditions at once.



Drugs that fine-tune acetylation - the specific type of protein modification linked to longevity in this study - are already being explored. But this research provides clearer targets and stronger biological backing, which could speed up progress in designing future therapies.



Experts believe that continued work in this field could lead to ways of delaying aging and several chronic conditions at once. looking deeper into these molecular changes may hold a key to not just extending life, but ensuring more vitality along the way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58762-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Protein tweaks may hold the secret to healthy aging

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few...

Exoplanet,With,A,Solid,Surface,And,An,Oxygen,Atmosphere,On

Astronomers have discovered a "super-Earth" - a planet about twice the size of Earth - orbiting its star at a distance greater than where Saturn sits in our solar system.



The discovery, led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a> (CfA), upends the long-held assumption that only hulking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-gas-planets-are-cosmic-wrecking-balls-that-wreak-havoc-in-habitable-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giants</a> form so far from their hosts.



“We found a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘super-Earth</a>’ - meaning it’s bigger than our home planet but smaller than Neptune - in a place where only planets thousands or hundreds of times more massive than Earth were found before,” said Weicheng Zang, a CfA fellow and the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microlensing-the-briefest-flash-of-light">Microlensing: The briefest flash of light</h2>



The newfound world emerged from the largest microlensing survey yet conducted. Microlensing exploits a quirk of general relativity: when a foreground planet and its star drift in front of a more distant background star, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> can bend and momentarily amplify the background star’s light. 



The resulting brightening, though fleeting and subtle, carries within it the fingerprints of the intervening planet. Because microlensing does not depend on the planet’s own light, it is uniquely suited to detecting worlds in wide, cold orbits that other techniques - such as the transit or radial-velocity methods - rarely reach.



The research team analyzed observations from the <a href="https://kmtnet.kasi.re.kr/~ulens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korea Microlensing Telescope Network</a> (KMTNet), a trio of identical 1.6-meter telescopes stationed in Chile, South Africa, and Australia. Together they keep near-continuous watch on the densely packed star fields of the Milky Way’s bulge, where microlensing events occur most often.



“The current data provided a hint of how cold planets form,” said Professor Shude Mao of <a href="https://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tsinghua University</a> and <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a>, who co-supervised the project. "In the next few years, the sample will be a factor of four larger, and thus we can constrain how these planets form and evolve even more stringently with KMTNet data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-census-of-far-flung-worlds"><a></a>A census of far-flung worlds</h2>



This latest catalog triples the number of microlensing-detected planets and lowers the minimum planet mass by a factor of eight compared with previous samples.



 By measuring planet-to-star mass ratios across the survey, the team constructed a statistical map of planetary populations occupying the chilly realm between Earth’s orbit and that of Saturn.



“This measurement of the planet population from planets somewhat larger than Earth all the way to the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiter-storms-form-icy-ammonia-mushballs-that-fall-deep-into-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and beyond shows us that planets, and especially super-Earths, in orbits outside the Earth’s orbit are abundant in the galaxy,” said co-author Jennifer Yee from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.



The findings suggest that super-Earths - planets one to several times Earth’s mass - populate the outer zones of many systems. These planets populate just as frequently as they do the inner zones, shattering the notion that our own arrangement of small inner worlds and large outer giants is a cosmic norm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-super-earth-matters"><a></a>Why this Super-Earth matters</h2>



The recently found planet orbits its parent star so distantly that a single year there might span more than a decade in Earth time. 



Previous surveys had turned up only massive, Jupiter-like bodies in such orbits, reinforcing theoretical models in which abundant, icy material at those distances rapidly coalesces to form large gas envelopes.



The presence of a comparatively lightweight super-Earth hints that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a> can follow additional pathways, perhaps involving slower accretion rates or later-stage migration.



“This result suggests that in Jupiter-like orbits, most planetary systems may not mirror our solar system,” said Youn Kil Jung of the <a href="https://www.kasi.re.kr/eng/index" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute</a> (KASI), the agency that operates KMTNet. 



In other words, having a small rocky world - or one with a modest gaseous envelope - well beyond the snow line may be the rule rather than the exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-effort-spanning-the-globe"><a></a>A collaborative effort spanning the globe</h2>



Along with Zang, the research roster includes several other CfA scientists: postdoctoral fellow In-Gu Shin; former Harvard undergraduate Hangyue Wang, now a graduate student at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>; and KASI scientist Sun-Ju Chung, who spent a sabbatical at the CfA from 2022 to 2023.



Data from the <a href="https://ogle.astrouw.edu.pl/main/general.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Optical Gravitational Lens Experiment</a> (OGLE) and the <a href="https://www2.phys.canterbury.ac.nz/moa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics</a> (MOA) surveys added crucial coverage, demonstrating how microlensing science thrives on international cooperation. 



As KMTNet and companion programs continue to monitor our galaxy and beyond, astronomers expect the census of distant super-Earths to swell. Each new data point will tighten estimates of how frequently such planets occur and refine theories of how icy, outer regions of planetary systems assemble their worlds. 



Ultimately, these results underscore that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> is teeming with planetary diversity. Our solar system - with its tidy inner terrestrials and hulking outer giants - may be only one of many possible configurations. 



As microlensing surveys push to detect ever smaller planets and combine their statistics with those from transit and radial-velocity missions, a fuller portrait of planetary architecture throughout the galaxy is finally coming into view.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn6088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Super-Earth' planets are more common than previously thought

Astronomers have discovered a "super-Earth" - a planet about twice...

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back millions of years. Deep within Earth’s mantle, shifting rock and molten heat have nudged continents, created barriers, and shaped migration paths for creatures across the planet.



The link between these buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> and species of ancient wanderers has captured the attention of researchers.



Among them is Thorsten Becker, a professor at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin, who has helped piece together new insights about the deeper forces that affected how species were able to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-forces-reshaped-continents">Mantle forces reshaped continents</h2>



Earth’s mantle churns with slow but significant motion that can alter the planet’s surface. Gradual sinking of cooler rock and rising of hotter material create a convection system that fuels changes in crustal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elevation</a> and shapes coastlines.



Scientists have found that a towering plume of heated rock may have reached the surface around 30 million years after it began brewing in the depths. 



By 20 million years ago, the upward push on land in what is now the Arabian Peninsula had reorganized seas and formed a passage between Africa and Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-uplift-created-a-land-bridge">Mantle uplift created a land bridge</h2>



This arc of dry ground broke a 75-million-year pattern of isolation for the African continent. Animals such as elephants, giraffes, and cheetahs made use of the open route, traversing miles of emerging terrain to explore and settle new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



“The shallow seaway closed several million years before it otherwise likely would have due to these specific processes - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mantle-convection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle convection</a> and corresponding changes in dynamic topography,” said Eivind Straume, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NORCE Norwegian Research Centre and The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research.



Once mantle uplift had created the land bridge, entire groups of mammals made journeys that altered the genetic paths of today’s species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-human-ancestors">Impact on human ancestors</h2>



Long before modern times, primates roamed Asia. A branch of these primates moved into Africa before returning when the land bridge fully emerged. That dual migration shaped the fate of the lineages that survived and evolved in later epochs.



“It’s an example of how the long-term convective evolution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> talks to the evolution of life,” said Straume. Many researchers believe this timing allowed certain primates in Africa to flourish while their relatives died out elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-shifts-altered-earth-s-climate-patterns">Mantle shifts altered Earth's climate patterns</h2>



Closure of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-70652-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tethys Sea</a> transformed ocean currents and sparked broader shifts in temperature patterns. 



The disappearance of marine passageways altered how water circulated between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific, changing conditions across northern Africa and central Asia.



Warming ocean waters also set the stage for more significant seasonal temperature swings. Some <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/386788a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have linked these shifts to intensified monsoon patterns that brought heavier rains to parts of Asia while promoting dryness in the Sahara.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-uplift-and-the-sahara">Earth's mantle uplift and the Sahara</h2>



As landmasses rose and air circulation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> evolved, the Sahara grew drier. The shift from lush zones to desert terrain introduced a new barrier to animal movement. This drying also encouraged adaptation and migration in species seeking water sources or cooler climes.



Over time, the Sahara came to dominate much of north Africa. The new upland surfaces of Arabia, shaped by rising rock, channeled wind and moisture patterns away from former coastal areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives-from-geological-models">New perspectives from geological models</h2>



Scientists are working with advanced simulations to connect deep Earth processes to events at the surface. These models help illustrate how flows of hot rock influence crustal uplift and seafloor changes. They also provide details on how ocean basins, deserts, and mountain ranges evolved.



“This study has relevance to the question of ‘How did our planet change, in general? What are the connections between life and tectonics?’” noted Becker.



By stitching together multiple lines of evidence, teams can outline how events far below the surface have rippled through layers of geological and biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-routes-and-biodiversity">Animal routes and biodiversity</h2>



Large mammals that migrated between continents not only diversified their habitats but also interacted in ways that drove evolutionary shifts. 



Elephants, for instance, faced new landscapes and climates that challenged them to adapt. Giraffes and rhinoceroses found novel feeding grounds and survived despite new predators and competition.



Such exchanges left imprints on the genetic makeup of today’s mammal populations. Species that once had limited ranges across Africa or Asia soon encountered new ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-consequences-for-life">Lasting consequences for life</h2>



The land bridge created by mantle-driven uplift gave early primates and other animals opportunities to branch out. Over millions of years, these varied lineages left evidence in fossils and modern DNA.



Researchers continue to uncover how changing geography shaped not just migrations but also the survival strategies of multiple species.



Those pathways often ran in tandem with major climatic shifts. The interplay of plate collisions, mantle upwelling, and fluctuating sea levels set the stage for both expansions and extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-exploration-of-hidden-dynamics">Further exploration of hidden dynamics</h2>



Cutting-edge technology, from seismic imaging to deep-sea drilling, supports the study of how hidden geological processes link to surface environments. 



By incorporating detailed uplift models into paleoclimate reconstructions, geoscientists can refine their understanding of ocean currents and rainfall patterns.



With each new discovery, puzzle pieces fall into place. The uplift that once closed ancient seaways still influences today’s wind and precipitation cycles, reminding us that Earth’s lower layers remain busy behind the scenes.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00653-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Activity in Earth's mantle created a land bridge that animals traversed

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back...

trabajar granja mesia xanceda sueldo 1666 euros - 1

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France. Experts say this is a rare find that sheds light on how Stone Age humans interacted with dogs at a time when both species were figuring out how to live together.



This animal’s remains, first discovered in 2021 by a group of spelunkers in the Baume Traucade cave, offer a window into a past where trust and conflict might have existed in the same breath. 



The lead author, <a href="https://naturalsciences-be.academia.edu/MietjeGermonpr%C3%A9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Mietje Germonpré</a> from the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, has studied early canid remains for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-ancient-bonds">Uncovering ancient bonds</h2>



The nearly complete skeleton belonged to a type known as Palaeolithic dogs. Researchers determined it was about 24 inches (61 centimeters) tall at the shoulder and weighed an estimated 57 pounds (26 kilograms).



This size, along with other skeletal measurements, indicates that the animal was an adult female that was old enough to have experienced at least one year of maturity. The physical traits of the animal were closer to those of ancient dogs than to wolves. 



Experts analyzing these bones suspect the animal was part of a growing connection between humans and canids, which may have involved shared shelter, food sources, or protection. 



Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440314000478" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> from other sites in Western Europe hint that these creatures may have provided practical help, including hunting assistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-of-injuries">A puzzle of injuries</h2>



Evidence of trauma is written on the skeleton in the form of impact marks. Researchers say this indicates human involvement shortly before the dog’s death. 



“It is feasible that the individual obtained [its] injuries from being beaten or struck by people,” said Loukas Koungoulos from the University of Western Australia, who was not part of this analysis.



There is also evidence that humans might have cared for the dog during its life, as the skeleton’s condition suggests it may not have been fending for itself outdoors. This would indicate a possible early attempt at domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-cave">Clues from the cave</h2>



Baume Traucade is located about 525 feet (160 meters) below the surface on a slope shaped by rocky cliffs. This cave is in a region with numerous archaeological sites that show a long history of human use. 



The canid skeleton’s position in the cave implies it wasn’t dragged in by large predators or moved by floodwaters.



The dog’s remains were buried under layers of sediment that preserved the bones for millennia. Researchers believe it died inside the cave, though they remain unsure whether it was led there intentionally or wandered in. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-domestication">Implications for domestication</h2>



This discovery holds significance for our understanding of how early dogs might have been welcomed into human groups. 



Ancient people could have been exploring ways to benefit from these animals’ natural instincts. Some dogs may have earned a spot near the fire, while others might have ended up in conflict with their keepers.



Researchers have long debated when and how grey wolves began evolving into domestic companions. Genetic <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> suggest that dog domestication might have begun during or before the Last Glacial Maximum, though not all lineages survived to the present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-care-and-aggression">Balancing care and aggression</h2>



Further examination points to a complicated picture of cooperation and aggression. This canid may have been nurtured for certain tasks before meeting a violent end. It’s possible that humans valued the dog’s loyalty but also resorted to lethal force if they viewed it as a threat.



Such complexities are not surprising given the harsh environment of the late Pleistocene. Food shortages, harsh weather, and competition from other predators might have influenced how people treated animals. 



These dynamics represent the start of a long and varied journey for the species we now see snoozing on our couches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparisons-with-other-sites">Comparisons with other sites</h2>



Similar Palaeolithic dogs have emerged at sites in Germany, Spain, and Belgium. The 14,000-year-old remains at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284720121_Street_M_Napierala_H_Janssens_L_2015_The_late_Palaeolithic_dog_from_Bonn-Oberkassel_in_context_In_The_Late_Glacial_Burial_from_Oberkassel_Revisited_L_Giemsch_R_W_Schmitz_eds_Rheinische_Ausgrabungen_72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonn-Oberkassel</a>, for instance, included a partial skeleton that was buried with humans. Each find contributes fresh details about the earliest efforts to shape wolf-like creatures into domestic dogs.



Though many remains are incomplete fragments, the Baume Traucade skeleton is almost intact. This allowed for thorough measurements of skull, jaw, and limbs. The bones were then compared to fossil wolves, modern canids, and other prehistoric samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions">Lingering questions</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is pinpointing when domestication began. Some researchers argue that earlier finds might represent wolves with slight shifts in size or shape, and not true dogs. 



<a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135813" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Others</a> maintain that selective breeding and human cohabitation can alter an animal’s features much faster than we realize.



These debates will continue as new discoveries surface. Each site reveals small pieces of a larger puzzle about how humans shaped, and were shaped by, the dogs they invited into their encampments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Researchers plan to conduct further genetic work on the remains. This may confirm ancestral connections or illuminate distinct lineages that have subsequently vanished. Understanding those lineages can help unravel the broader story of dog evolution.



As more ancient skeletons come to light, knowledge of their wounds, diets, and living patterns may reveal how people managed these animals. Over thousands of years, our relationship with dogs has become more peaceful and rewarding, but the road to this point might have been rocky.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379125001088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

A 16,000-year-old dog skeleton has been found, showing the first link between humans and dogs

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France....

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but few realize just how much the health of our immune system shapes that journey. 



Recent findings reveal that a our immune defenses need to be well-tuned before we reach our late 60's if we wish to remain strong against infections and chronic diseases as we age further.



At age 40, individuals with poor immune resilience face a 9.7-fold higher risk of dying prematurely than those who maintain a robust defense. This gap is just one alarming finding from new research that focuses on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK435854/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salutogenesis</a>, or the active process of promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>.&nbsp;



Led by Dr. Sunil K. Ahuja of <a href="https://uthscsa.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Health San Antonio</a> and the <a href="https://www.va.gov/south-texas-health-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Texas Veterans Health Care System</a>, the study shines a spotlight on a protective mechanism that appears to keep the immune system vital across much of adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-resilience-is-key-to-healthy-aging">Immune resilience is key to healthy aging</h2>



Aging isn’t simply about adding more candles to the birthday cake. It also involves increasing susceptibility to disease, driven by three major factors: chronic inflammation, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosenescence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunosenescence</a> (gradual immune decline), and cell death.



Experts say each factor plays a part in undermining health as time goes on, but there is also a positive force known as immune <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-38238-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> that helps curb these threats.



“While most aging research focuses on disease mechanisms and the biology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, our work highlights how immune resilience sustains salutogenesis - actively promoting health,” said Dr. Ahuja. 



The research team found that one gene, <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=TCF7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TCF7</a>, appears essential for preserving an immune boost that wards off illnesses throughout life. TCF7 is linked to T-cells and helps them remain functional for longer, according to additional research that shows its importance in preventing T-cell exhaustion.



Midlife stands out as a window of opportunity. Investigators saw that maintaining a strong immune profile between 40 and 70 years of age lowered mortality by 69%, which points to an ideal time for reinforcing healthy habits and seeking medical guidance.&nbsp;



Experts have noted similar patterns before, suggesting that positive health strategies in midlife can significantly improve outcomes later on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-good-immune-resilience-matters">Why good immune resilience matters</h2>



Beyond avoiding infections, strong immunity appears to reduce the burden of heart trouble, Alzheimer’s disease, and severe illnesses. 



One reason might be that a balanced defense can respond to harmful events while keeping damaging inflammation under control. Scientists say it’s like having a security system that wards off intruders without wrecking the house in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>.



Immune resilience may also preserve vital brain structures by limiting harmful inflammatory signals. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9698256/">Research</a> points to a link between chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-t-cells-help-you-age-better">How T-cells help you age better</h2>



T-cells are a type of white blood cell that can adapt and remember threats. These cells tend to wear down in older adults, but the new study found that certain people preserve youthful T-cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> for decades. 



They also seem to generate strong responses when given vaccines, highlighting how beneficial it is to look after the immune system well before reaching old age.



When T-cells lose their vigor, everyday infections can linger, and vaccines might fail to work as intended. Scientists stress that better immune monitoring - especially in the 40–70 bracket - could guide targeted interventions.



This approach also aligns with broader <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22224726/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a> into ways in which to prevent age-related decline rather than only treating diseases once they arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midlife-habits-that-boost-immunity">Midlife habits that boost immunity</h2>



The research team highlights midlife interventions as a powerful preventive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">route</a>. Lifestyle changes, controlling blood pressure, and managing early signs of chronic ailments are among practical measures that may help keep immune resilience in good shape. 



Some anti-inflammatory therapies also appear promising in slowing down the harmful cascade caused by chronic inflammation.



Early detection matters. If you wait until problems become severe, potential benefits might be reduced after the age of 70, when the lines of mortality risk seem to converge. For many experts, this emphasizes why mid-adulthood checkups and healthy routines are more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ways-to-boost-immune-strength">Future ways to boost immune strength</h2>



Future work could delve deeper into how different interventions - like certain biologics - might raise low immune resilience up to more youthful levels.



Researchers also want to see whether new therapies can sustain TCF7 activity and keep T-cells strong for a longer span of life. They believe this approach might translate into fewer infections, better vaccine responses, and delayed onset of degenerative diseases.



Scientists propose that these findings redefine how we think about aging. It’s no longer just a race against time, but a chance to preserve the active elements of an immune system that quietly defends the body each day.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acel.70063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Strong immune resilience in midlife reduces risk of early death

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but...

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United States and is well known for its link to better sleep. Scientists recently explored this supplement's impact on oxidative DNA damage, which occurs when daily cellular processes form harmful byproducts that can disrupt genetic material.



This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2001037019304209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new research</a> focused on those who work during late hours, who often face reduced production of melatonin at night. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Umaimah-Zanif-2215395467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Umaimah Zanif</a>, from Occupational and Environmental Medicine in Canada, led the team and evaluated whether adding an inexpensive over-the-counter melatonin supplement to daytime rest could improve the body’s natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repair</a> DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-repair-matters-and-supplements-needed">DNA repair matters and supplements needed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cells</a> need a way to fix ongoing wear and tear so that harmful changes do not take hold. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00261.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long suspected that alterations in circadian rhythms can affect many bodily functions, including the repair of genetic material.



Those who work during traditional sleeping hours often have higher amounts of circulating melatonin, which can offer some antioxidant protection. 



When that level drops in individuals on night shifts, it may become harder for their bodies to handle daily oxidative strain.



Scientists in this field believe that disruptions in the melatonin supplement can interfere with enzymes needed to remove damaged DNA. 



By targeting this link between hormone levels and cellular maintenance, researchers hope to improve long-term well-being among people with unusual schedules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-melatonin-trial-was-organized">How the melatonin trial was organized</h2>



In this study, a group of adults who regularly handled work during normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleeping</a> hours were randomly assigned to take a melatonin supplement or a placebo. Over several weeks, the team measured how well each participant’s system cleared out broken bits of DNA.



Some participants took the supplement before sleeping in the daytime, when their bodies would normally produce very little melatonin. The researchers used standard techniques to analyze nighttime and daytime urine for biochemical markers linked to DNA repair.



With this approach, the scientists could see whether the supplement made a real difference in how effectively the body removed potentially harmful byproducts. They noted a clear improvement during daytime rest in those who used melatonin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-snapshot-of-the-key-findings">A snapshot of the key findings</h2>



“Our randomized placebo-controlled trial suggested melatonin supplementation may improve oxidative DNA damage repair capacity among night shift workers,” said Dr. Zanif. The data showed that supplement users excreted higher levels of a specific repair marker after their day shift ended.&nbsp;



The improvement was not observed once they went back to overnight work. This makes sense to experts, given that melatonin levels typically sink during late hours if a person is exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-light-instantly-enhances-brain-function-alertness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright environments</a>.



When participants continued taking the same amount of melatonin for weeks, the effect on daytime rest persisted. Researchers say this finding backs the idea that targeted timing and dose may be needed for best results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-effects-and-considerations">Other effects and considerations</h2>



Some participants also recorded how rested they felt while using the supplement. In general, melatonin has been linked to slightly better daytime sleep, though results vary from person to person.



Those behind the trial say that mixing the supplement with changes in exposure to light could yield even bigger benefits. 



Small shifts, such as avoiding bright rays after a night shift, may increase melatonin naturally and lessen the need for synthetic help.



Individuals with rotating schedules might consider discussing safe supplement use with a doctor. This conversation can help account for personal factors like overall health, work routines, and consistent patterns of rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-melatonin-possibilities-for-future-research">More melatonin: Possibilities for future research</h2>



“Our findings warrant future larger-scale studies that examine varying doses of melatonin supplements and longer-term impacts of melatonin use,” noted Dr. Zanif. 



Because this was a smaller study, the authors believe larger projects would confirm whether the benefit truly lasts over many months or even years. 



They are interested in identifying any long-term changes in overall health that might stem from better DNA repair. This includes possible links to various serious diseases that have been associated with disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-color-has-no-impact-on-our-internal-clocks-or-sleep-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep cycles</a>.



As more data comes in, there may be recommendations for how workers can schedule melatonin to align with their specific job demands. Careful planning around daily tasks could be a simple way to maintain more robust cellular upkeep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-those-on-late-hours">Hope for those on late hours</h2>



Night shift employees often struggle to regulate the hormones that most people release naturally in darkness. An affordable supplement capsule that supports DNA repair may eventually become part of regular self-care if upcoming results confirm what this pilot project suggests.



At the same time, experts urge caution for anyone experimenting on their own, since every supplement has potential side effects and unique interactions with medications. For most, well-timed use and standard safety checks could offer a manageable route to feeling better equipped for upside-down schedules.



Some professionals may use these findings to shape workplace guidelines. Even small policy changes, such as offering dimmer lighting in post-shift break areas, could reinforce the body’s natural cycles while saving employees from unwanted risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-thoughts">Final thoughts</h2>



This trial opens a fresh dialogue about whether an easy-to-buy supplement can benefit people who rest while the sun is out. Next steps include detailed research to see if melatonin’s influence on DNA repair translates into broader health advantages in demanding shift-work settings.



If investigations show solid advantages, then the everyday supplement aisle might hold a remarkable ally for the modern worker who seldom follows a 9-to-5 routine. Until then, experts lean on caution and suggest that individuals remain aware of how any supplement can influence sleep and general well-being.



The study is published in <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/82/1/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Occupational and Environmental Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Healthier DNA thanks to an inexpensive, over-the-counter supplement

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United...

Many of us can recall times when a twinge of discomfort made us uneasy far more than a soothing moment put us at ease. Our brain reacts and certainly seems to put extra weight on signals that say something bad might be coming.



This research, conducted by <a href="https://www.iasp-pain.org/person/ulrike-bingel-md-phd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ulrike Bingel</a> at the University Hospital Essen, tackled a puzzle that has long kept experts on their toes. They wanted to know why negative suggestions bring on stronger responses than positive ones when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-suggestion-placebo-and-nocebo">Power of suggestion: Placebo and nocebo</h2>



Placebo describes a helpful effect triggered by positive expectations of relief. Nocebo is its darker twin, sparking an increase in symptoms just from negative thoughts about a treatment or situation.



An earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21862825/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> showed nocebo responses happen even when a person only hears warnings about possible side effects. Scientists point out that this is linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lsd-can-treat-crippling-anxiety-with-a-single-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> and attention, which can spike with a single negative comment from a trusted source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-relief-fades-faster-than-fear">Why relief fades faster than fear</h2>



Positive experiences, like a drop in pain, often feel less memorable than unpleasant ones. Studies suggest that our minds don’t replay comfort with the same intensity or frequency as they do discomfort.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-heights-or-public-speaking-each-fear-has-a-unique-place-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fear</a> and discomfort seem to leave a deeper mark. That’s likely because the brain treats them as warnings to remember and avoid in the future - making comfort easier to forget and fear harder to shake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-negative-cues-stick-more">Why negative cues stick more</h2>



Some experts explain that our minds are wired to keep us safe. That may explain why nocebo cues are remembered so strongly, even when we have only experienced them once.



“Significant placebo and nocebo effects were detected on day 1 and day 8, but nocebo effects were stronger on both test days,” reported Bingel. This tendency ties into an evolutionary idea often called the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810014001962" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘better safe than sorry’</a> strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-bias-toward-bad-news">The brain’s bias toward bad news</h2>



Research in neuroscience shows that the brain tends to light up more, reacting more to threats than to rewards. This reaction happens quickly, sometimes even before we fully realize what we’re reacting to.



This could explain why even a subtle negative expectation - like the possibility that something might hurt - grabs our attention and sticks with us. It's not just emotional; it's wired into how our nervous system responds to the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-role-does-personal-experience-play">What role does personal experience play</h2>



When individuals feel pain is eased, that personal experience can shape what they expect next time. But if a past situation suggested pain might get worse, that memory can loom large.



Scholars note that repeated experiences of pain reduction can slowly build trust in a treatment. Yet if negative signals stand out more, they may overshadow positive ones, which makes neutral or even reassuring messages seem less convincing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practitioner-connection-and-beliefs">Practitioner connection and beliefs</h2>



If a care provider seems highly competent, that might unintentionally boost nocebo responses when they mention potential downsides. Patients may trust them so much that any warning sounds like a sure threat.



Certain traits, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2090830/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">somatosensory amplification</a> (tendency to notice and worry about physical sensations), also appear to tamp down the strength of a placebo effect. During short lab tests, participants with that tendency seemed less likely to feel relief from positive suggestions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-ways-to-address-nocebo-effects">Possible ways to address nocebo effects</h2>



Communication strategies that reduce needless worries may ease nocebo effects. Simple changes to phrasing can shift focus away from worst-case scenarios.



Addressing everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> might help, too. Since anxious thoughts feed negative expectations, steps to calm the mind can prevent nocebo responses before they snowball.



Nocebo effects don’t just cause discomfort in the moment - they may also change the way people act in the future. If someone links a harmless activity or medication with pain or side effects, they might start avoiding it altogether.



Over time, this avoidance can build into broader patterns like skipping doctor visits, refusing useful treatments, or becoming wary of all health interventions. These patterns might quietly reduce quality of life and increase the risk of unmanaged conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-reacts-looking-ahead">How the brain reacts: Looking ahead</h2>



Many clinical teams plan to keep looking at how negative expectations gain momentum. By pinpointing personal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-neural-basis-of-social-support-in-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social cues</a> that drive nocebo effects, they hope to improve care and reduce treatment dropouts.



A deeper awareness of these findings could shape how doctors talk about treatments. Small adjustments to conversation style or tone might go a long way in protecting patients from nocebo-driven problems.



The study is published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105753" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The brain reacts more strongly to potential harm than to potential relief

Many of us can recall times when a twinge of...

Earth’s oceans are not just rising and changing in modern times. Scientists say there was a phase when they went the other way, sinking by an amount that might raise a few eyebrows.



Another era saw sea levels plunge by roughly 85 feet to 105 feet, a shift that took place about 15,000,000 to 6,000,000 years ago. <a href="https://vivo.brown.edu/display/cdalton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Colleen Dalton</a> from Brown University, together with colleagues, connects this dramatic change to a slowdown in seafloor spreading that reshaped the depth of the ocean basins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture-earth-s-crust">The bigger picture: Earth's crust</h2>



Our planet is always moving under the hood. Spreading ridges create fresh crust, while older crust sinks back into the Earth at subduction zones.



That constant cycle keeps continents and seas in flux. Observations suggest that a 35% dip in crust production can trigger a significant sea-level drop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vast-ocean-change-deepening-basins">Vast ocean change: Deepening basins</h2>



Not everyone thinks of the ocean floor as dynamic. Yet the basaltic crust beneath the seas gradually cools and sinks with age.



When new crust forms more slowly, there’s less warm, shallow seafloor at any given moment. Researchers report that this chain reaction can change ocean depths by dozens of feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-a-slowdown-matters">Why a slowdown matters</h2>



Much like a production line, ridges run at certain speeds. Once that speed shifts, a ripple effect spreads across the planet’s oceans.



Such changes don’t happen overnight. But over millions of years, they can reshape coastlines and potentially alter ocean chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remaking-the-chemistry-of-earth-s-crust">Remaking the chemistry of Earth's crust</h2>



Young crust emits heat and interacts with seawater in hot vents. Slower creation of that crust can reduce this heat flow and the exchange of minerals.



Older crust does not host the same level of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrothermal-circulation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal circulation</a>. As a result, off-axis chemical interactions can also shift, though more gradually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-with-ice-melt">Contrasting with ice melt</h2>



If the entire <a href="https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/antarctica-2/east-antarctic-ice-sheet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Antarctic Ice Sheet</a> melted, scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0300-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a> ocean levels might climb about 118 feet. That’s a stark contrast to an ancient time when seas pulled back instead of inching upward.



Both events carry huge implications for coastal life. Yet one is driven by solid Earth processes, and the other by melting ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonics-not-just-climate">Tectonics, not just climate</h2>



Conversations about sea-level rise often spotlight warming temperatures. But Earth’s geological engine quietly plays its own role.



Ice melts can be fast in geologic terms. Tectonic changes operate at a more measured pace but produce lasting consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-evidence-of-ocean-change">Tracking evidence of ocean change</h2>



Some rocks on certain coastlines hint at older shorelines that once sat higher in local strata. Shifts in the shape of ocean basins connect with those clues.



<a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/publication/deep-glacial-troughs-and-stabilizing-ridges-unveiled-beneath-the-margins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> piece together these findings by reconstructing plate motions over time. That sleuthing provides a window into how our planet has changed through slow but steady movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-crust-impact-on-heat-flow">Earth's crust: Impact on heat flow</h2>



As the younger crust becomes less abundant, total heat from the mantle escapes at a lower rate. Studies estimate an overall drop of about 8% in oceanic heat flow linked to the slower spreading.



Heat flow is crucial for understanding Earth’s cooling over the ages. It also influences how deep-sea ecosystems function near vents and ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linked-studies">Linked studies</h2>



Other authors have probed past seafloor spreading records, noting that speed changes align with shifts in sea level. Long-term reconstructions support the idea that tectonics can rival ice-related effects in the big picture.



This topic sparks interest because it underscores that climate is not the sole driver of water’s position on Earth’s surface. Tectonic processes add another layer of complexity that’s easy to miss in short-term observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-climate-tie-ins">Broader climate tie-ins</h2>



Some scholars propose that a slowdown in crust production might also lessen volcanic CO2 emissions. Cooling oceans would then contract, pushing sea levels even lower.



That theory suggests multiple factors can compound to shift coastlines dramatically. It’s a reminder that Earth’s systems are woven together in surprising ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-echoes">Real-world echoes</h2>



Past events may guide us in understanding today’s rising seas. Although current changes move more rapidly, the underlying lesson is that sea levels can swing.



Coastal communities often grapple with local uplift or sinking land. Those vertical motions can compound any global shifts, whether from melting ice or tectonic adjustments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-future-insights">Potential future insights</h2>



As scientists refine plate reconstructions, they may pinpoint exactly how often this slowdown has recurred. Each chapter of Earth’s tectonic story leaves clues in sediments and crust.



We stand to gain more clarity on the pace and scale of changes. Those insights may refine how experts project future sea-level trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-perspective">Human perspective</h2>



Every change or slight shift in ocean levels touches people living near coasts. Knowing that deep Earth processes have long-term effects may expand our appreciation for subtle geologic forces.



This knowledge can help shape future research. It highlights that climate and geology can shape the seas in tandem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-note-on-publication">Final note on publication</h2>



Results linking slower crust production with large sea-level drops invite fresh questions about the planet’s internal mechanics. They also add a twist to how we interpret geologic records.



One thing is certain: Earth’s interior is not just a passive backdrop. It has been influencing the height of our seas for ages.



The study is published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GC011773" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The same process that is raising sea levels today sank them millions of years ago

Earth’s oceans are not just rising and changing in modern...

Archaeologists in Pompeii have found two nearly life-size statues that appear to be images of a Roman couple. They made this discovery in a cemetery near <a href="https://pompeiisites.org/en/comunicati/a-funerary-relief-from-a-monumental-tomb-in-the-necropolis-of-porta-sarno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Porta Sarno</a>, a gateway that once welcomed merchants and travelers into the bustling city.



Pompeii met a sudden end when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, but this catastrophe also sealed countless details of its daily life in ash. 



These newest findings have drawn the interest of <a href="https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2021/04/12/pompeiis-new-director-gabriel-zuchtriegel-how-archaeology-moves-beyond-the-elitist-male-gaze-of-history" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gabriel Zuchtriegel</a>, director of the Pompeii Archaeological Park, who wants to uncover every clue these statues hold about their owners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-pompeii-s-hidden-necropolis-secrets">Exploring Pompeii's hidden necropolis secrets</h2>



Beneath centuries of debris, a necropolis emerged with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-uncover-5000-year-old-royal-tomb-that-is-18-feet-long/">multiple tombs</a> and urns. Within one of these burial structures, researchers uncovered a distinctive wall that featured carved niches, each designed to hold cremated remains.



“This could be her husband, but it could also be her son. There was no inscription, so we don’t know,” said Gabriel Zuchtriegel. The central niche boasts a relief that seems to depict two individuals standing side by side.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sacred-symbols-in-roman-reliefs">Sacred symbols in Roman reliefs</h2>



The female figure grasps laurel leaves, an item often linked with purification rites in ancient Roman ceremonies. She also holds a container that some scholars believe might hold a scroll or incense.



“She really looks like a very important woman in the local elite,” said Gabriel Zuchtriegel. Her elaborate attire, including a cloak draped over a tunic, suggests a person of considerable importance.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-she-be-a-priestess">Could she be a priestess?</h2>



Researchers point to her jewelry, especially a crescent-shaped lunula pendant, as a clue that she may have held a special role in religious life. This emblem was traditionally worn by young Roman girls for protection before marriage.



“She was widely revered,” said <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691169576/a-place-at-the-altar?srsltid=AfmBOopCkOiUIfZC1JUyrNp1zn14souHiVxcx0I4NjfHdL9TSR0SYJSf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meghan J DiLuzio</a>, who has studied Roman priesthoods. Her posture and objects could indicate service to Ceres, a revered goddess linked with crops and fertility.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-standing-and-power">Social standing and power</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/opulent-private-bathhouses-unearthed-ancient-pompeii-before-volcanic-eruption/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In ancient Pompeii</a>, a woman who served a deity often had rights beyond those of typical homemakers. Historians note that these roles placed them at the forefront of public ceremonies and feasts.



Some texts reference women who held the title of public priestess in the city, which conferred status and possibly financial support. One <a href="https://books.openedition.org/ausonius/2183?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> observes that these positions combined faith with significant influence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-man-s-attire">Reading the man’s attire</h2>



The male figure is dressed in a toga that drapes in a straightforward style, indicating Roman citizenship without excessive pomp. This clothing choice may signal a practical individual rather than a member of the ultra-wealthy class.



His carefully rendered features, from the folds of the fabric to the subtle detail of his shoes, highlight Roman artistry. 



Scholars find it intriguing that both figures appear lifelike, as if they were intended to represent everyday people while still celebrating their position.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-ancient-funerary-rituals">A glimpse into ancient funerary rituals</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-discover-141-ancient-gold-coins-some-from-a-little-known-roman-emperor/">Roman</a> law typically required burials outside the city walls, so families built tombs along roads leading into town. These tombs served not only as resting places but also as spaces for remembrance and gatherings.



Archaeologists have found traces of offerings like wine, oil, and spices near burial sites. This custom allowed families to honor their ancestors and maintain a connection with those who had passed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-artistry-in-southern-italy">Rare artistry in southern Italy</h2>



Experts date these carvings to the Late Republican era, a period from the second to first century BC when such tomb reliefs were uncommon. The refined details make this find unusual and shed light on regional carving techniques.



Most funerary art from southern Italy focuses on simpler forms, so these nearly life-size figures stand out for their complexity. Scholars believe the family who commissioned this work sought a strong statement of their identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-exhibit-to-spotlight-new-restoration-work">Pompeii exhibit to spotlight new restoration work</h2>



These sculptures will soon appear in an exhibit called “Being a Woman in Ancient Pompeii,” where visitors can watch as experts restore the original colors and textures. Each chip of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/">stone</a> and fleck of pigment may reveal more about social dynamics in that era.



Researchers plan to analyze residues on the figures to identify any surviving paint or varnish. Piecing together these micro-details could confirm the woman’s possible role as a priestess and offer insight into how people in Pompeii viewed devotion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-funerary-art-to-everyday-roman-life">Funerary art to everyday Roman life</h2>



Families in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-evidence-reveals-new-clues-about-pompeiis-eruption-victims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pompeii</a> often displayed their standing through tomb decorations. These statues, placed prominently on a major route, would have caught the eye of anyone entering the city.



The imagery also let the living communicate messages about lineage, duty, and faith. Roman culture placed great value on public visibility, and a well-crafted monument was a way to remain part of communal life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-significance-of-pompeii-s-new-discoveries">Modern significance of Pompeii's new discoveries</h2>



Discoveries like this remind us that people of the past had personal ambitions, family ties, and religious commitments. Their stories echo across centuries, inviting us to consider how they wanted to be remembered.



Although the volcanic eruption destroyed their world, it also sealed these scenes for later generations to see. By studying them, we step into an era when the line between daily routine and sacred duty was often quite thin.



Researchers hope further excavation around Porta Sarno will uncover more markers of community life in this region. Each artifact broadens our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-have-unearthed-a-stone-coffin-hidden-underground-for-1500-years/">Roman customs</a>, particularly the ways people balanced social roles with personal devotion.



Insights gained from these carvings may encourage scholars to rethink how we classify ancient art. The blend of personal style and widespread tradition suggests a culture always ready to adapt.



The study is published in <a href="https://pompeiisites.org/wp-content/uploads/04_E-Journal_A-Monumental-Tomb-with-a-relief-of-two-spouses-in-the-funerary-area-of-Porta-Sarno.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E-Journal Scavi di Pompei</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Archeologists discover sculptures that could be almost life-size representations of a Roman family

Archaeologists in Pompeii have found two nearly life-size statues that...

Hand,Putting,Out,Cigarette,In,Ashtray.,Glass,Ashtray,With,Cigarette

Cigarette smoking has been on a steady decline across the United States. New research shows that young adults are driving this shift, especially in states where smoking rates were once the highest. However, there is still a long road ahead for older generations, whose slower progress in quitting may delay broader public health improvements. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> published their findings in the journal JAMA Network Open. The study points to major differences in smoking habits depending on age, region, and background.



Although national smoking rates have dropped sharply, adults over 50 are quitting at a much slower pace. This slower change could keep smoking-related diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-may-trigger-lung-cancer-in-non-smokers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lung cancer</a> and heart disease high for years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-rates-progress-and-persistence">Smoking rates: Progress and persistence</h2>



The researchers used data from the Tobacco Use Supplements to the U.S. Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey. This large monthly survey gathers information from about 54,000 households across the country. 



The analysis, covering responses from 1.77 million people between June and October 2024, revealed some striking trends. Across the board, smoking has dropped. But the states that once had the highest smoking rates have seen the biggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighborhood-green-space-linked-to-lower-rates-of-smoking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improvements</a>.



In contrast, places with historically lower rates saw more modest declines. One of the most important findings was the difference between younger and older adults. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-smoking-among-teens-has-declined-dramatically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Young people</a> have quit smoking at much faster rates than those over 50.



Dr. Matthew Stone, the study's first author, is an assistant professor at the UC San Diego Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health.



“The rapid decline in smoking among young adults is clear evidence that the smoking epidemic will come to an end in our lifetime,” said Dr. Stone.



“Indeed, we project that the national smoking prevalence will be under 5% by 2035. However, the much slower decline in smokers over the age of 50, particularly in previously high smoking states, will mean that the high rates of lung cancer, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart</a> disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that are caused by lifelong smoking will take longer to decrease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-far-we-have-come">How far we have come</h2>



Smoking in America has been on a steady decline for decades. In 1955, more than half of U.S. adults - 56.9% - were smokers. 



By 2000, that number had fallen by more than half. It dropped again by 50% by 2022. If current trends continue, smoking rates are expected to fall to under 5% by 2035.



Another important pattern has also emerged. States that cut smoking rates the most have seen the biggest drops in lung cancer deaths - though with a delay of about 16 years. This connection shows how public health efforts, policies, and education campaigns can pay off over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-smoking-rise-in-vaping">Decline in smoking, rise in vaping</h2>



While cigarette smoking is fading, other problems are taking its place. "The ongoing decline in cigarette smoking is a major public health success story," said study co-author Dr. John P. Pierce, a professor at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science and Moores Cancer Center.



"Recent evidence suggests that the tobacco industry has successfully recruited a new generation of teenagers into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e-cigarette</a> use and nicotine addiction. Further research is needed to assess the long-term impact of this shift."



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaping-epidemic-half-of-students-who-try-e-cigs-get-hooked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaping</a> and e-cigarette use grow among teens, public health experts are concerned about what the next chapter in tobacco use might look like. Today's young adults may be turning away from cigarettes, but tomorrow's teenagers could be facing a different kind of addiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-and-public-health-the-future">Smoking and public health: The future</h2>



Public health efforts over the past several decades have made a real difference. Education campaigns, smoking bans, higher tobacco taxes, and smoking cessation programs have all played a role in driving down smoking rates. However, the work isn’t finished.



Addressing the slow decline among older adults will be key to reducing the burden of smoking-related illnesses. At the same time, understanding and managing the rise in e-cigarette use among younger people will be critical. 



As smoking habits shift, researchers and policymakers alike will need to adapt to ensure the next generation stays healthy and smoke free.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2833289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Young adults lead dramatic decline in smoking rates

Cigarette smoking has been on a steady decline across the...

Mother,And,Her,Daughter,Planting,Tree,Together,In,Garden

We already know that living near trees, parks, and green spaces is good for pregnant mothers and babies - and now, new trees might matter just as much. Recent research adds another layer to our understanding about the health benefits of nearby greenery. 



Scientists have found that even newly planted trees - not just mature ones - may improve birth outcomes. The study was led by researchers at <a href="https://drexel.edu/academics/grad-professional-programs/pubhealth?q&amp;sortBy=relevance&amp;page=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drexel University's Dornsife School of Public Health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-birth-outcomes">Trees and birth outcomes</h2>



The researchers used a special dataset from Portland, Oregon. Between 1990 and 2020, the nonprofit group "Friends of Trees" planted more than 36,000 trees across the city. The team linked this information with birth data from the Oregon Health Authority, covering births from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2020.



They recorded the number of new trees that had been planted within 100 meters (330 feet) of a mother's home during the last 10 years. They also looked at existing tree cover and road density in those areas.



By controlling for other important factors like a mother's race, body mass index (BMI), education level, and whether it was her first pregnancy, the researchers were able to focus on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-planting-campaigns-fall-short-of-successful-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> of tree planting itself. Their findings showed a strong connection between increased number of trees and healthier babies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-trees-help-babies-grow-stronger">New trees help babies grow stronger</h2>



Each tree planted within 100 meters of a mother's home within the last 10 years was associated with a 2.3-gram (0.08-ounce) increase in birthweight. While this might sound small, the researchers stress that the impact adds up.



“Although there is benefit from well-established trees, we’re finding that newly planted trees are also associated with healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-have-a-surprising-influence-on-their-babys-birth-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth weight</a>,” said senior author Yvonne Michael, a professor and interim chair in the Dornsife School of Public Health. 



“This is another data point showing that planting trees is a relatively easy and low-cost way to improve public health from the earliest stages of a life.”



Living near at least 10 trees was tied to about a 50-gram (1.8-ounce) increase in birthweight. However, the researchers noted that the benefit seemed to level off after reaching 10 nearby trees.



“Fifty grams may not seem like a lot, but if every baby in our sample gained 50 grams at birth, that means 642 fewer babies considered small for gestational age, and at higher risk for worse development later in life,” said Professor Michael. She explained that 2,879 babies in the study were diagnosed as small for gestational age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-power-of-older-trees">The hidden power of older trees</h2>



While newly planted trees showed benefits, older trees might offer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-growth-trees-more-tolerant-to-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even more</a>. The researchers suggest that mature trees may provide psychological comfort that newly planted ones cannot yet match.



Stress is a well-known risk factor for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">premature birth</a> and other poor health outcomes. Older trees can create an environment of “soft fascination,” a calming effect described in previous studies. This kind of natural calm can counter the mentally draining features of urban buildings and infrastructure.



“It’s rare to have detailed information on large-scale tree plantings for research,” said Professor Michael. “Existing tree cover is often closely tied to factors like income, education, and race, making it difficult to fully account for other possible explanations when studying birth outcomes."



"By focusing on newly planted trees, we were able to reduce the bias - essentially treating it as a natural experiment. Plus, we observed the improvements in birth outcomes after trees were planted, establishing temporal order.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-traffic-pollution">Trees and traffic pollution </h2>



The study also found that existing trees - but not new ones - helped reduce some of the negative effects of living near dense road networks. Older trees with developed canopies may do a better job blocking road noise and filtering out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/specific-air-pollutants-linked-to-asthma-attacks-in-urban-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollutants</a>, both of which can harm newborn health.



Interestingly, the researchers noticed that birthweights in the area generally decreased over the study period. However, they believe this decline was likely tied to external factors like rising temperatures and wildfire smoke, not to a lack of trees.



Their data also showed that race, education level, and the existing tree canopy were not linked to the locations where new trees were planted. This helps strengthen the study’s findings by ruling out some potential biases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-trees-healthier-babies">More trees, healthier babies?</h2>



While the study presents strong evidence linking tree planting to better birth outcomes, it is not absolute proof. The researchers point out that a randomized controlled trial would be needed to confirm cause and effect.



Still, the results offer some of the best real-world data we have so far. The new findings build on earlier studies by the same researchers, including a 2013 study that found the loss of millions of trees to an invasive pest was tied to more deaths from heart disease and respiratory illness.



This growing body of evidence suggests that planting trees isn’t just good for the environment - it could be one of the simplest ways to boost public health, starting before a baby is even born.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969725008642?via%3Dihub">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Planting new trees brings hope for healthier babies

We already know that living near trees, parks, and green...

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending a significant part of their day making a curious chatter. This chatter, known as babbling, lasts around seven minutes on average, with some sessions reaching an impressive 43 minutes.



Researchers studied 19 pup-mother pairs in roosts across Panama and Costa Rica. According to Dr. Ahana A. Fernandez from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>, the project focused on how maternal behavior influences this vocal practice in young bats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-pup-babbling-and-infant-speech">Bat pup babbling and infant speech</h2>



These tiny creatures produce many different syllable types during their babbling phase. Some of these sounds match up with calls that adults use for territorial defense and group identification.



Scientists use the term <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518205_Nonmutual_vocal_mother-pup_recognition_in_the_greater_sac-winged_bat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal ontogeny</a> to describe how bat pups develop the full range of sounds that adults make. Babbling by greater sac-winged bats features repetitive and varied sequences that resemble early infant speech in humans.



Male bats sing loud territorial songs at dawn and dusk. Pup babbling, though, seems mostly linked to interactions with their mothers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-influence-on-bat-babbling">Maternal influence on bat babbling</h2>



Researchers filmed and recorded each babbling session. They noticed that some mothers stayed quiet, while others hovered, crawled, or moved closer to their pups during these long bouts of chatter.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/">Bat</a> pups with more interactive mothers kept babbling longer. Those pups also showed a bigger variety of the learned song syllables in their practice.



Interestingly, the number of singing males in a roost did not matter for pup babbling length. Instead, the mother’s activity seemed to drive how long and how richly the pup practiced its sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-feedback-shapes-learning">How feedback shapes learning</h2>



“Social interactions can have a direct effect on how baby talk develops,” concluded a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1332441100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Michael Goldstein and colleagues. In human babies, certain social responses can speed up the shift from simple babble to more mature sounds.



Bats may follow a similar pattern. Mothers often respond to babbling pups with touches, movements, or by allowing nursing right after a session.



Scientists suggest that these gestures reinforce the pup’s interest in babbling. The pups might then refine their vocal control more quickly through this extra practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babbling-beyond-male-tutors">Babbling beyond male tutors</h2>



Adult males offer a steady supply of acoustic input through their songs. Yet the presence of multiple singers in a colony does not appear to increase a pup’s babbling time.



Mothers, on the other hand, engage in direct interactions. The physical movements and close attention may push the pup to keep going, stacking more practice into each day.



This result differs from research in songbirds, where direct tutor interaction is often critical for learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hoary-bat-flying-over-open-ocean-first-ever-sighting/">Bat</a> pups instead appear to depend heavily on their mothers for motivation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-female-pups-babble-too">Why do female pups babble too?</h2>



Male bats use these songs later to mark territory. Females normally leave their birth colony once they are grown and do not sing these territorial tunes as adults.



Scientists were surprised to see no difference between male and female pups during babbling sessions. Both sexes copy adult song syllables, show similar levels of practice, and respond to their mothers in a similar way.



One idea is that female pups benefit from early song practice to identify local song dialects in new colonies. This extra experience might help them recognize males from their home group or pick suitable mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-s-moves-and-vocal-maturity">Mother’s moves and vocal maturity</h2>



Researchers also tracked whether pup syllables moved toward more adult-like features. They found that pups whose mothers showed higher activity reached mature-sounding syllables earlier.



These results could mean that the mechanical skills and brain processes for producing adult calls are boosted by social contact. Over time, the pup transitions from broad babbling to crisp, well-formed phrases.



Scientists have proposed that such maternal feedback helps the young strengthen vocal skills. Pups learn by comparing their own calls to the calls they hear, then adjusting until there is a match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-to-human-speech">Connections to human speech</h2>



Though humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-north-american-bats-face-extinction-risk-in-15-years/">bats</a> are worlds apart, both rely on extensive vocal imitation in early life. People have long studied infant babbling to find clues about how children master speech.



Some researchers think that babbling might serve <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29375276/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple goals</a>. It gives the infant a chance to practice forming sounds, and it can trigger extra bonding time with caregivers.



Bats might display a comparable loop. Pups try out different notes, the mother replies with movement or attention, and the pup is encouraged to produce more complex sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-babbling-sessions-and-complex-learning">Long babbling sessions and complex learning</h2>



The final number of syllables mastered by weaning did not directly link to how active each mother was. That aspect might depend more on how long pups keep babbling or how quickly they pick up new sound types.



Future work could explore whether mothers respond more often to specific syllables. That level of detail may reveal patterns of back-and-forth shaping that were not obvious in the broader analysis.



Scientists also wonder if close contact with motherly affection can spark hormone changes in pups. This might influence how quickly babbling matures, echoing theories in human child development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-bat-pup-babbling">Significance of bat pup babbling </h2>



These findings hint at a social element in mammalian voice learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/">Bats</a> share certain brain structures with humans, making them especially interesting for understanding speech origins.



The study offers a glimpse into how complex communication systems can appear in non-human mammals. It also opens the door to new ideas on how maternal cues guide early vocal practice.



Such knowledge can enrich our understanding of communication in the animal kingdom. It might even offer fresh perspectives on how humans first learned to talk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/99474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What secrets are hidden in the babbling of bats?

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending...

The,Theatre,Of,Aspendos,Ancient,City,In,Antalya

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in York, have uncovered the first direct physical evidence of gladiatorial combat between a human and fierce, wild animal. 



The breakthrough came through a close forensic analysis of bite marks found on one of the 82 robust male skeletons excavated at the site.



This discovery reshapes our understanding of Roman entertainment beyond the walls of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-romans-made-such-incredibly-durable-concrete-is-no-longer-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colosseum</a>. The cemetery first made headlines in 2010 when experts revealed that the men buried there were young, muscular individuals who had likely undergone intense physical training. 



Their skeletons also bore signs of violent trauma, and their unusual burial practices hinted at lives lived, and often ended, in combat.



However, until now, the idea that these men were gladiators had remained a compelling theory - lacking one final piece of evidence. That final piece came in the form of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion</a>’s bite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiator-combat-confirmation">Gladiator combat confirmation</h2>



Malin Holst, a lecturer in Osteoarchaeology at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> and managing director of <a href="https://yorkosteoarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Osteoarchaeology</a>, led the analysis that definitively linked the bite marks to a large feline predator.



“The bite marks were likely made by a lion, which confirms that the skeletons buried at the cemetery were gladiators, rather than soldiers or slaves, as initially thought and represent the first osteological confirmation of human interaction with large carnivores in a combat or entertainment setting in the Roman world,” she explained.



This new insight stems from research that began in 2004, when the first of these 1,800-year-old skeletons was excavated along a Roman road leading out of York. Experts determined that many of these individuals had come from different parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)" class="wp-image-1967179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)</figcaption></figure>



An analysis of their bones suggested high levels of physical strain and repeated injuries - markers typical of gladiators. The man in question was aged between 26 and 35 at the time of death. 



His skeleton, found buried with two others and overlaid with horse bones, bore evidence of a tough life - spinal issues likely from strain, inflammation in the lungs and thigh, and signs of early malnutrition that he had recovered from.



However, the lion bite - unhealed and fatal - was what sealed his fate. After death, he was also decapitated, a ritual observed in several other burials of the same period, though the cultural reasoning behind this remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-in-combat-with-gladiators">Lions in combat with gladiators</h2>



Professor Tim Thompson from <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a> in Ireland highlighted the significance of the discovery. “For years, our understanding of Roman gladiatorial combat and animal spectacles has relied heavily on historical texts and artistic depictions," he said.



"This discovery provides the first direct, physical evidence that such events took place in this period, reshaping our perception of Roman entertainment culture in the region,” he continued.



Analysis of the remains suggests the man may have been a Bestiarius, a type of gladiator tasked with fighting wild animals. These roles were often filled by volunteers or enslaved individuals. 



What’s particularly notable is that the combat involving this individual likely did not take place in Rome but in Roman York - a major provincial city. Although the city’s amphitheater has yet to be discovered, this evidence strongly suggests one existed.



“We often have a mental image of these combats occurring at the grand surroundings of the Colosseum in Rome, but these latest findings show that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/youth-sports-are-more-accessible-to-privileged-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sporting events</a> had a far reach, well beyond the center of core Roman territories,” Holst said. “An amphitheatre probably existed in Roman York, but this has not yet been discovered.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiators-combat-and-the-roman-empire">Gladiators, combat, and the Roman Empire</h2>



York’s importance as a political and military hub during the Roman period - home to influential figures including Emperor Constantine - meant it would have had the cultural infrastructure to support such spectacles. 



Gladiatorial games were not merely brutal displays; they were high-stakes entertainment, tied into the social and political fabric of Roman cities. Interestingly, despite their expendability, gladiators were valuable assets. 



Owners would invest in their success, and when they did die, some were given burial gifts to serve them in the afterlife, as seen at Driffield Terrace. 



Owners of gladiators would most likely not have wanted them to die, since they were expensive ‘sports people,’ similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/college-athletes-have-lasting-brain-changes-after-concussion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">footballers</a> today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-roman-history-in-the-north"><a></a>Rewriting Roman history in the north</h2>



According to David Jennings, CEO of <a href="https://yorkarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Archaeology</a>, this finding is crucial in expanding the story of the Roman world beyond its capital. 



“This latest research gives us a remarkable insight into the life - and death - of this particular individual, and adds to both previous and ongoing genome research into the origins of some of the men buried in this particular Roman cemetery,” he said.



“We may never know what brought this man to the arena where we believe he may have been fighting for the entertainment of others, but it is remarkable that the first osteo-archaeological evidence for this kind of gladiatorial combat has been found so far from the Colosseum of Rome, which would have been the classical world’s Wembley Stadium of combat,” Jennings added.



Visitors to <a href="http://www.digyork.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIG: An Archaeological Adventure in St Saviourgate</a> will soon have the chance to come face-to-face with history, as the lion-bitten skeleton will be displayed there alongside a reconstructed model of the gladiator’s face - bringing a forgotten chapter of Roman Yorkshire vividly back to life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319847" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First physical evidence found of gladiators fighting fierce animals in Roman arenas

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in...

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed with giants. Towering reptiles, thunderous birds, and hulking marsupials defined a wild and ancient world of sprawling rainforest ecosystems. Among these formidable creatures was&nbsp;Protemnodon, a now-extinct genus of giant kangaroo.



Despite its size - some individuals tipped the scales at 170 kilograms (375 pounds) - it wasn’t a long-range wanderer.



Instead, Protemnodon lived a curiously local life. New research reveals that these megafaunal marsupials stayed close to home, navigating only a small stretch of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> terrain. That fateful trait may have doomed them when the land began to dry. 



A study led by Christopher Laurikainen Gaete at the <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wollongong</a> uncovers how restricted mobility, climate change, and the loss of rainforest habitats converged to erase these kangaroos from the map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-kangaroos-stayed-close-to-rainforests">Giant kangaroos stayed close to rainforests</h2>



In the animal kingdom, large herbivores tend to move over vast areas to meet their dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-faces-its-biggest-legal-shift-in-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">needs</a>. Scientists use this trend to predict how extinct animals might have behaved. 



Based on this logic, Protemnodon, with its substantial mass, should have had a home range exceeding 11 square kilometers. The research team, using a regression model anchored in data from living macropods, estimated a predicted home range of 11.6 ± 5.8 km² (4.5 ± 2.2 square miles).



But when they examined fossilized teeth from eight individual Protemnodon collected from the limestone caves of Mt Etna in central Queensland, they found something surprising. The chemical signatures etched into these ancient teeth told a different story. 



Strontium isotopes, which reflect the geology of the area where an animal foraged, revealed the kangaroos fed within a narrow band of territory. Their enamel contained isotopic ratios matching only the local limestone of the Mount Alma Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-teeth-prove-they-lived-locally">Fossil teeth prove they lived locally</h2>



The findings relied on a cutting-edge approach. The researchers conducted strontium isotope analysis using laser ablation mass spectrometry. This technique allowed them to trace where each individual likely lived and ate during enamel formation.



Surprisingly, the vast majority of samples matched strontium levels from the immediate area <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surrounding</a> the Mt Etna caves.



Only one individual showed signs of a slightly wider movement pattern. This tooth, labeled WIGL8550, held isotope signatures more consistent with nearby formations like Alton Downs Basalt, suggesting a movement of about 1.5 km (0.9 miles) to the east or south.



However, the researchers can’t confirm whether this movement occurred in life or after death. One theory suggests scavengers, such as Thylacoleo carnifex or Sarcophilus, may have dragged the body to the cave after the animal died elsewhere.



In most other specimens, the teeth recorded a remarkably stable pattern. These kangaroos didn’t roam widely. They seemed to live and die within the same small patch of forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-gave-kangaroos-food-and-shelter">Rainforests gave kangaroos food and shelter</h2>



The study explored three main reasons why Protemnodon might have avoided long-distance travel. The first was environmental. 



For over 200,000 years, the Mt Etna region maintained a stable rainforest ecosystem. This lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> offered abundant food and shelter, meaning the kangaroos didn't need to search far for survival.



Second, the species’ feeding habits likely played a role. While modern kangaroos like Macropus are grazers, feeding on grasses across open landscapes, Protemnodon probably browsed. 



Its low-crowned teeth and long forelimbs suggest a diet of leaves, fruits, and soft vegetation, more easily found in dense forest environments. Browsers often have smaller foraging ranges compared to grazers of similar size, and this pattern seems to hold true here.



Third, locomotion appears to have been a limiting factor. Unlike their hopping cousins, Protemnodon may have moved on all fours. Its anatomy - including elongated forelimbs and robust humeri - points toward a quadrupedal gait.



This form of movement, although efficient in forests, restricts the speed and distance an animal can cover. Without the ability to hop long distances, these kangaroos were naturally more sedentary within rainforests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-disappear-so-do-the-giants">Rainforests disappear, so do the giants</h2>



These limited movement patterns became a fatal flaw when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> began to shift. Around 280,000 years ago, the once-stable rainforest began to decline. Increasing aridity transformed the landscape into dry woodlands. The thick vegetation Protemnodon relied upon began to vanish.



Because these kangaroos were so tightly tied to their habitat, they couldn’t adjust. They couldn’t migrate to find new rainforests. The kangaroos lacked both the physical capability and behavioral tendency to move long distances. In effect, they became stranded in an ecological trap. The resources they needed evaporated around them.



New dating methods, including thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) and uranium-thorium dating, confirmed that these individuals lived between 280,000 and 330,000 years ago. Their extinction coincided with the local collapse of rainforest ecosystems. 



Over time, the rainforest fauna of Mt Etna gave way to animals adapted to dry, open conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ideas-about-extinct-species">New ideas about extinct species</h2>



The implications of this research stretch beyond a single species, challenging the assumption that body size alone predicts home range in extinct animals.



Instead, the study suggests that environment, diet, and movement style must also be considered. The idea that Australia’s megafauna had flexible ranges similar to African elephants or North American bison may not apply across the board.



“Using data from modern kangaroos, we predicted these giant extinct kangaroos would have much larger home ranges. We were astounded to find that they didn’t move far at all, with ranges mirroring smaller modern kangaroo species,” said Laurikainen Gaete.



“These new isotopic techniques have blown our field wide open. Imagine ancient GPS trackers - we can use the fossils to track individuals and know where they moved, what they ate, who they lived with and how they died. It’s Palaeo Big Brother,” added Dr. Scott Hocknull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-giant-kangaroos">The fate of giant kangaroos</h2>



The Protemnodon case reveals how extinction can creep up slowly. The kangaroos didn’t die out in a dramatic, singular event - the loss of rainforests sealed their fate. 



Rather, they were slowly cornered by environmental changes they couldn’t outrun. Their highly specialized biology, once perfectly suited to rainforest life, became a burden.



These findings offer a cautionary tale. Species adapted to narrow niches are often the first to go when habitats shrink. For scientists studying extinction, understanding those ancient patterns helps anticipate what modern species might face as climate shifts intensify.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant kangaroos died out when rainforests disappeared

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed...

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors, but their habit of shining during daylight is still surprising to many. They refuse to hide and instead display bright spots, stripes, or swirling hues that some predators quickly learn to avoid.



Dr. Cedric van den Berg from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> and his team examined 45 species of <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/collage-nudibranch-colors" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nudibranch slugs</a> to see how color patterns might work as predator deterrents. 



The researchers looked at how certain slugs appear to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-slugs-use-sunlight-to-survive-just-like-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> with trichromatic vision, finding that being active under bright conditions helps highlight toxic or stinging defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-slugs-flash-bright-colors">Sea slugs flash bright colors</h2>



“Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slugs</a> use bright, contrasting color patterns to send messages to potential predators like ‘Don’t eat me, I’m poisonous,’” noted Dr. van den Berg.



Sea slugs often rely on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/aposematism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic signals</a>, which are bright or bold patterns that suggest they’re not worth a predator’s time.&nbsp;



Animals with chemical defenses, such as irritating toxins or stinging cells, appear to flaunt thick stripes or glowing spots. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma" class="wp-image-1966961"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Those colors can look intense to fish that rely on sight, so it’s a clear communication strategy in well-lit environments.



Nocturnal slugs, by comparison, usually stick to calmer patterns. Their prey time is after sunset, so they’re less likely to advertise threats that won’t be easily seen in the dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-avoid-slugs-that-shine-in-sunlight">Fish avoid slugs that shine in sunlight</h2>



The researchers used specialized imaging to simulate how these patterns register with a fish’s eyes. A quick flash of white or dark stripes against a colorful background can make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inspired-by-sea-slugs-microneedles-could-transform-health-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> think twice about an easy meal.



“We can even use the fingerprint to successfully classify the daytime activity of almost 90% of all the species we looked at,” said Dr. van den Berg. This suggests a strong link between how slugs look and when they move around each day.



Some slugs have more than just bright colors at their disposal. They also pack potent chemicals that might taste awful or damage a predator’s tissues on contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-strengthens-sea-slug-colors">Sunlight strengthens sea slug colors </h2>



Light is crucial for these color patterns to send the right message. Bold outlines or high-contrast spots fade in dim conditions, but under direct sun, the same hues scream for attention.



A fish that tries nibbling a slug with toxins might get a nasty mouthful. That experience can teach predators to avoid the next brightly spotted slug they see.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1s.webp" alt="Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis" class="wp-image-1966959"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists call these patterns and body outlines essential parts of the slug’s warning display. It’s like wearing a vibrant outfit that signals danger to those who might otherwise bite first and ask questions later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-chemicals-and-warning-colors">Toxic chemicals and warning colors</h2>



These creatures store or produce toxic compounds, depending on their diet and species-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. A few absorb nasty elements from what they eat, then load them into stinging cells on their backs.



Not all sea slugs rely on chemical deterrents, though. Some have mild or no toxins and instead hide or blend with the environment at night.



Other slugs team multiple strategies. One group even uses <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/showall/biolumin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent flashes</a>, but that tends to happen if they get harassed after dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-as-survival-strategies">Colors as survival strategies</h2>



Colorful warnings are common in reef environments filled with fish that spot <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/did-you-know/why-are-corals-so-colorful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright objects</a> from many angles. Sea slugs are only one example of creatures that play this card.



These slugs aren’t alone in teaching predators to step back. Some marine animals sport bright polka dots or bold stripes, but the principle is the same: let attackers know a nasty surprise awaits them.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae" class="wp-image-1966963"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Biologists are keen to see how these patterns might shift as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> conditions change. If waters get murkier or fish populations decline, it could alter what signals remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-colors-help-sea-slugs-survive">Bold colors help sea slugs survive</h2>



Future research may reveal more about how brightness levels in shallow waters affect slug survival. Since some species rely on colorful hints to broadcast their poison, changes in light could tilt the scales in favor of camouflage instead.



Learning more about daytime patterns might also explain how certain toxins develop. If a slug’s flashy outfit reliably stops attacks, chemical defenses might grow stronger over time.



It’s a balancing act. Slugs can’t be so bold that hungry predators want to test them, yet they have to be bold enough for the signal to stand out in daylight.



Studying sea slugs provides a glimpse of how clever visual signals shape daily routines. Their reliance on sunshine to amplify threats is a neat twist on survival.



Most species in this research project seem to embrace the idea of risking daylight for the payoff of a loud warning. The few that prefer darkness skip the bright stripes and trust stealth to keep them off the menu.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea slugs are very tiny, but they might also be the most beautiful creatures in the seas

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors,...

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests they might be less tolerant when rewards are split unequally. Researchers set out to see if these apes would walk away from deals that favored a partner and shortchanged them.



This insight emerges from the work of first author Kia Radovanović from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. A team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology collaborated on these trials to gauge bonobos’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> to unequal treats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-recognize-unfair-rewards-and-protest">Bonobos recognize unfair rewards and protest</h2>



Some experts use the phrase <a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/inequity-aversion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity aversion</a> for patterns in animals that refuse to cooperate when they get a raw deal. Human <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/114/3/817/1848113?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have noted how people often protest if someone else is given better benefits for the same effort.



Bonobos share close ties with people on the <a href="https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>. Their social lives revolve around interactions where resources and tasks are commonly exchanged. 



When tested in a token-exchange setting, they faced a scenario where one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">participant</a> got a higher-value treat, while the other settled for a lesser option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turn-down-free-snacks">Why turn down free snacks?</h2>



“We found that bonobos more often refused to participate when faced with inequitable rewards,” said Radovanović. This outcome goes against the idea that they simply expect the same tasty morsel and quit if disappointed.



There were instances where an automated contraption handed out the treats. Bonobos avoided interacting if the gadget gave them a lower reward, yet spared a friend something tastier. 



This trend did not appear to stem from dissatisfaction with the human caretaker but instead from the unequal handouts themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-unfairness-can-bonobos-tolerate">How much unfairness can bonobos tolerate?</h2>



Cooperative behavior in this species is often viewed as a key characteristic. Some pairs seemed more tolerant of small imbalances, especially if they had strong social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonds</a>.



The closer pairs of bonobos sometimes accepted the mismatch without walking away. These differences in how each ape responds hint that personal relationships might play a role in how big a difference in goodies they are willing to allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-chimps-and-unfair-rewards">Bonobos, chimps, and unfair rewards</h2>



Unlike bonobos, chimpanzees in similar tests often show refusal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> that seem tied more to the person handing out the food than to fairness itself. 



When chimpanzees received lesser rewards, they reacted more strongly if the distributor was a human instead of a machine. That suggests they may be expressing frustration with the person, not necessarily protesting the unfairness of the trade.



Bonobos didn’t follow that same pattern. Their refusals were strongest when a machine was involved and their partner still got something better. 



This detail sets them apart and raises the possibility that bonobos might have developed a clearer internal barometer for fairness, while chimpanzees may lean more toward social expectations or experimenter-based cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-tests-to-explore-fairness-in-apes">More tests to explore fairness in apes</h2>



Fair-minded behavior might develop from social structures that value harmony.



"This study provides new insights into how fairness may have evolved, but further research is needed,” said Daniel Haun, Director at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



Researchers continue to plan follow-up tasks that offer group-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> and broader test groups. They hope to see whether living conditions or group composition shape each individual’s perception of what is or is not an acceptable share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-value-rewards-and-fairness">Bonobos value rewards and fairness</h2>



People once believed that only humans show strong objections when rewards are lopsided. Bonobo evidence suggests some apes may notice these imbalances too. 



This pattern could reinforce cooperation over time, because no one wants to keep playing with a partner who always gets the bigger prize.



These observations add a new perspective on how a sense of fair play might have taken shape in diverse primate lineages. Focusing on bonobos’ responses could clarify the complexities of social ties and resource division in living groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bonobos-fix-unfairness-themselves">Can bonobos fix unfairness themselves?</h2>



Researchers propose testing different tasks where bonobos can actively equalize outcomes. Deeper analysis may also reveal if other apes respond similarly in varied settings. 



Questions remain about how environment and familiarity influence the readiness to leave an unfair arrangement.



If bonobos keep showing that they can detect and reject unequal rewards, the idea of fairness in non-human species grows stronger. That could shift how we talk about morality and ethical conduct in the broader animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobos say no to unfair trades, even if it costs rewards

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests...

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of thumb: species that live over huge swaths of territory and boast large populations are usually safer from extinction than creatures confined to small patches of habitat. 



However, a new global analysis of roughly 1,500 bird species has revealed that there's no comfortable rule when it comes to climate change.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, shows that a wide geographic footprint can hide an unexpectedly narrow dependence on climate. In a warming world, that hidden fragility could make certain familiar birds surprisingly vulnerable.



“Because that region is so big, species that occupy it tend to have large populations and large geographic range sizes - two characteristics that are often associated with lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> risks,” explained Carlos Botero, an associate professor of integrative biology and senior author of the study.



“The problem here is that because many of those species are adapted to a very narrow range of climates, those seemingly large populations can be quite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">susceptible</a> to collapse when climate patterns begin to change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-paradox-from-the-arctic"><a></a>A paradox from the Arctic</h2>



One of the clearest examples comes from the Arctic, where a single broad climatic regime stretches across thousands of miles. The Bohemian waxwing is emblematic: its breeding distribution spans an immense arc from Scandinavia to Alaska.



Yet the Arctic’s uniform environment means that the waxwing’s entire life cycle is tied to cold temperatures and consistent snow cover. Even minor warming or shifts in precipitation could push the species outside its comfort zone - no matter how far it can fly within that chilly belt.



In their analysis, Botero’s team contrasted the waxwing with the chestnut-crowned laughingthrush. The laughingthrush is restricted to a sliver of montane forest in Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring parts of Asia - an area a fraction of the waxwing’s extent.



But the Himalayan foothills expose that small-ranged bird to a wider palette of temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> patterns throughout the year. The laughingthrush therefore occupies a broader “climate niche,” potentially giving it more room to maneuver as conditions shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-brains-and-climate-specialization">Bird brains and climate specialization</h2>



The surprises did not stop with range maps. Analyses also revealed an unexpected relationship between brain size and climate flexibility. 



Larger-brained birds, long celebrated for their resourcefulness, tended to be the very species most tightly wedded to specific climate regimes. “Larger brain sizes correlate with more flexible behavior, so `big-brained birds are usually expected to be more adaptable,” Botero said. 



“However, it turns out that many big-brained birds are climate specialists - meaning that they have evolved to thrive in very particular climate types and may therefore also be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-are-more-at-risk-from-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to climate change than we expected.”



Why would an animal capable of problem-solving and tool use paint itself into a narrow climatic corner? Botero and coauthor João Fabrício Mota Rodrigues (now at <a href="https://unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brazil’s University of Campinas</a>) suspect that cognitive prowess helps species exploit highly specific environments with great efficiency. 



Over evolutionary time, that specialization can lead to tight physiological tolerances - exactly the trait that becomes risky when the planet’s thermostat creeps upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-two-dimensional-climate-map"><a></a>Building a two-dimensional climate map</h2>



To quantify each species’ niche, the team merged two huge datasets. First came detailed range maps created from hundreds of thousands of sightings submitted by volunteer birders to the <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a> platform. 



Second, the researchers developed a simplified, yet powerful, climate classification that captures two axes of environmental hardship. The first axis - “temperature harshness” - rises as places become colder, more variable, and less predictable. 



The second - “xeric harshness” - ratchets upward with drier, more erratic rainfall. Plotting Earth’s land areas across those twin axes produced a two-dimensional climate space. 



Points near the center represent benign zones: warm, moist, and seasonally steady. Farther out lie the extremes: parched deserts, storm-prone tropics, or frigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-changing-tundra-landscapes-affect-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra</a>. 



By overlaying each bird’s distribution onto that grid, the researchers measured how much of the climate space the species actually uses. A small ellipse located at one edge of the diagram signals trouble. 



Birds confined to that limited set of conditions may find it hard to track shifting isotherms or precipitation belts. Conversely, a large swath cutting across multiple quadrants suggests climatic breadth and, potentially, resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-interactions-hidden-risks"><a></a>Hidden interactions, hidden risks</h2>



The latest study adds to a growing chorus urging conservation planners to reconsider single-factor threat lists. 



“We need to stop looking at individual risk factors in isolation, but evaluate how these complex factors combine,” Botero emphasized. “Sometimes, it is the unexpected interactions that matter most.”



Indeed, a species can check all the traditional “safe” boxes - huge range, big population, high intelligence - yet still sit on a climatic knife-edge. Arctic breeders are just one illustration. 



Tropical forest birds with large brains and tight humidity requirements could face similar hazards if droughts intensify. Even desert specialists might falter if rainfall becomes too unpredictable for reliable breeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-and-big-picture-insights">Citizen science and big-picture insights</h2>



According to Rodrigues, the analysis was made possible by citizen scientists. Data derived from eBird gave the experts an unprecedented global snapshot.



Without hundreds of thousands of observers recording where they saw even the most common species, they couldn’t have mapped climate niches with this precision. Such an approach is quickly becoming a backbone of ecological forecasting. 



By harnessing real-time, geo-tagged records from amateurs, researchers can update models as species ranges expand, contract, or fragment - often faster than traditional field surveys could manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-species-conservation">Smarter species conservation</h2>



Recognizing climate specialization where none was suspected may reshape conservation priorities. Agencies often triage limited funds toward charismatic, range-restricted species. 



But Botero’s work suggests that some cosmopolitan birds deserve equal attention, precisely because their “bigness” masks a slender climatic lifeline. Future investigations will probe whether similar patterns hold for mammals, reptiles, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>. 



For now, the message is clear: size - of range, of population, of brain - does not guarantee safety. In a rapidly changing climate, ecological nuance matters. 



Understanding that nuance could spell the difference between proactive protection and costly rescue missions when numbers suddenly plummet. As policymakers craft strategies for the coming decades, studies like this remind us that vulnerability isn’t always where we expect it. 



Sometimes it hides beneath vast northern skies, in flocks that seem abundant - until the weather shifts just a little too far, and the invisible boundaries of their climate niches close in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58815-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Big brains and wide ranges can't save birds from climate change

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the Lesser Goldfinch, go where conditions allow them to thrive. These tiny songbirds, once mostly limited to the Southwest, are now appearing in increasing numbers far north of their traditional range. What’s more surprising is the speed and consistency of this shift.



New research published in the journal Ornithology offers fresh insight into this striking expansion. It’s a story that touches climate, urbanization, and our relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. It’s also a reminder that sometimes, change isn’t just visible - it’s audible in birdsong that wasn’t there before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinch-surge-across-the-northwest">Goldfinch surge across the Northwest</h2>



The study comes from a collaboration between Washington State University (<a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=Washington+State+University&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. 



The researchers relied on observations submitted by everyday birdwatchers through two Cornell initiatives: Project <a href="https://feederwatch.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FeederWatch</a> and <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a>. These programs collect real-time data, creating a massive network of people watching and logging birds.



The analysis revealed that Lesser Goldfinch populations have grown dramatically between 2012 and 2022.



In Washington, the number rose by 110.5%. Idaho saw a 66.3% increase, while Oregon had a more modest but still notable 16.9%. These numbers suggest more than a seasonal visit. They point to full-scale colonization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-experience-sparks-a-major-discovery">Personal experience sparks a major discovery</h2>



For Mason Maron, the lead author of the study, the change wasn’t just academic - it was personal.



"When I first arrived in eastern Washington I was pretty new to birding and Lesser Goldfinches were new to me. I was seeing groups of 30 or 40 at a time and I sort of assumed that was normal, until I started meeting local birders who said, '10 years ago we never had Lesser Goldfinches,’ so I started to investigate what was going on,” said Maron.



That moment of curiosity eventually led to this landmark study. It highlights how individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> can turn into powerful scientific discoveries, especially when supported by large-scale data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-are-moving-with-intention">Goldfinches are moving with intention </h2>



Lesser Goldfinches are not just randomly moving. The researchers discovered clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>.



"What's fascinating is how these birds are adapting to human-modified landscapes," said Maron. 



"They're not just moving north randomly - they're following specific corridors, particularly along rivers and through urban areas where temperatures are warmer and where both native and non-native plants provide food."



These zones offer warmer microclimates and a diverse range of food sources, making them ideal for expansion. The urban heat island effect plays a role too, buffering the birds from harsher northern winters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-linked-to-goldfinch-expansion">Factors linked to goldfinch expansion </h2>



The study pinpointed four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental factors</a> most closely linked with the birds’ expansion. Maximum annual temperature and rainfall topped the list. Urban development and proximity to rivers also played strong roles.



Although these birds often appear at backyard feeders, Maron and his team were surprised by one finding: bird feeders don’t make a meaningful difference in helping establish new populations.



"There wasn't really a significant association with bird feeders," Maron said. The first individuals to arrive in a new area might go to feeders because they provide easy to access food, but Maron explained that “it's not going to be enough to sustain a whole population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-act-as-goldfinch-highways-nbsp">Rivers act as goldfinch highways&nbsp;</h2>



Rivers stood out as essential channels. They don’t just provide water. They also bring life in the form of seeds, insects, and disturbed soil - perfect conditions for opportunistic birds like the Lesser Goldfinch.



"These rivers carry weedy plants and seeds really well," said Maron. "We, as people, like to live along the river, so we disturb the soil and that really creates this sort of chain of the perfect conditions for them."



This overlap between human settlement and bird habitat is not just a coincidence. It shows how species can align their movements with our built environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-in-new-regions">Stability in new regions</h2>



It’s one thing for a species to explore new territory. It’s another to settle in and grow. The researchers found that once goldfinches arrive, they tend to stay - and even thrive.



"Our results are suggestive of this species being able to pretty rapidly colonize new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>," said Jordan Boersma, co-author and research associate at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 



"It's not just that Lesser Goldfinches are exploring these new areas…they are moving in and typically turning into stable populations or even increasing populations."



This kind of success story is rare. Many species that encounter environmental change don’t survive, much less expand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southward-decline-mirrors-northward-growth">Southward decline mirrors Northward growth</h2>



Even as they thrive in the north, Lesser Goldfinches appear to be declining in the south. The Cornell Lab’s eBird Status and Trends project notes losses in the species’ traditional southwestern strongholds.



This suggests that the northward shift may not be a pure gain. Instead, it reflects an underlying pressure - possibly driven by heat, drought, or changing vegetation - that is making the southern part of their range less hospitable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nuanced-view-of-adaptation">A nuanced view of adaptation</h2>



While this study shows how adaptable the Lesser Goldfinch can be, the researchers urge caution in drawing wide conclusions. Most species are not so fortunate.



"What it really shows is that we know a lot of species are declining and struggling because of these changes. Some species can survive and adapt and do better, but it's not necessarily a trade-off," said Maron.



Adaptability varies. For every bird that expands, others may retreat or vanish. It’s a reminder that environmental change rarely distributes benefits equally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-moving-in-response-to-change">Goldfinches moving in response to change</h2>



Boersma sees deeper meaning in the goldfinch’s journey. "This species has proven remarkably adaptable to environmental change," he said. 



"Understanding how birds like the Lesser Goldfinch respond to climate change and urbanization helps us predict how other species might also be impacted."



Birds are sensitive indicators of ecological shifts. Watching them closely reveals how ecosystems are changing - sometimes before we notice anything else.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-public-participation">Power of public participation</h2>



None of this research would exist without everyday people recording what they see in their yards, parks, and neighborhoods. Through Project FeederWatch and eBird, citizens contribute millions of observations that build into something far greater than the sum of its parts.



"When we understand how wildlife responds to environmental change, we're better equipped to make informed decisions about urban planning, conservation, and climate adaptation," said Maron.



The goldfinches remind us that even small birds can carry big messages - if we’re paying attention.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ornithology/ukaf013/8116731?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Goldfinches are moving to new homes in unusual places

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the...

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely notice something missing - fewer buzzing bees, fluttering butterflies, or humming beetles. Across the globe, insect numbers are crashing.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small creatures</a> may not grab headlines like tigers or elephants, but they play vital roles in pollination, decomposition, and supporting ecosystems. Without them, life on Earth would unravel in quiet but devastating ways.



The concern isn’t new, but recent efforts to grasp the scale and causes of insect decline are painting a clearer, more complex picture. 



A research team at Binghamton University, State University of New York (<a href="https://www.suny.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY</a>), has taken a sweeping look at how scientists explain this crisis. Their work doesn’t just identify the usual suspects - it shows a deeply interconnected web of causes, some obvious, many ignored, and all urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-are-disappearing-fast">Insect are disappearing fast</h2>



In 2017, a shocking <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> revealed a 75% drop in insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in under 30 years. That single paper stirred a global scientific response, triggering waves of new research.



Scientists began investigating the reasons behind this collapse, with studies emerging across fields from agriculture to climate science.



Despite this burst of attention, understanding the full picture has remained elusive. Many studies focus on specific regions, stressors, or insect groups. 



This fragmented view has made it difficult to see how the various factors combine or overlap. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linked-causes-of-insect-population-loss">Linked causes of insect population loss</h2>



To capture the breadth of expert opinion, the <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton</a> researchers examined over 175 scientific review papers. These reviews included more than 500 hypotheses about why insects are disappearing. The team read and analyzed them all, building a network of over 3,000 linked ideas.



“It's really hard to talk to everybody about what everyone thinks. And so instead of getting 600 people into a room, we decided to take an approach where we read every paper that's either a review or a meta-analysis,” said Christopher Halsch, a post-doctoral researcher at Binghamton and lead author of the paper.



This network approach allowed them to trace how one cause leads to another. For instance, agriculture may lead to pesticide use, which harms insects. Urban sprawl might increase pollution and fragment habitats. 



Every driver connects to others, forming a dense mesh of stressors that influence insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agriculture-the-dominant-driver">Agriculture: The dominant driver</h2>



When the team looked at which drivers showed up most often, agricultural intensification topped the list. This includes land-use changes, monocultures, and pesticide applications. These practices reduce natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-uniquely-adapted-to-withstand-harsh-winter-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and expose insects to toxic chemicals.



But Halsch and his colleagues caution against seeing this as a simple ranking. Agricultural practices often interact with other forces, amplifying the damage. 



For example, land cleared for farming may also face climate pressures or pollution. One driver rarely acts alone.



The network map shows that stressors don’t exist in isolation. They create a feedback loop, where one issue triggers another. This interdependence complicates conservation, which often focuses on single threats or single species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-pressures-and-disappearing-insects">Climate pressures and disappearing insects</h2>



Among the other stressors, climate-related changes play a major role. Extreme precipitation, wildfires, rising temperatures, and seasonal shifts all affect insect life cycles, behavior, and habitats. But even within this broad category, complexity reigns.



Each climatic factor may worsen another threat. For example, hotter summers can increase pesticide use, while floods can destroy fragile habitats. These interactions mean that insects face stress from multiple fronts at once.



Despite the importance of these factors, many are still overlooked. The Binghamton study highlights that much of the scientific literature misses critical threats that aren’t easy to quantify or observe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-literature-misses-entirely">What the literature misses entirely</h2>



Perhaps the most startling finding was what the researchers didn’t find. Entire categories of known threats were nearly absent from the literature. Natural disasters, war zones, railways, and human intrusions - none appeared in any of the reviews examined.



“None of the papers mentioned natural disasters,” said Professor Eliza Grames, who was part of a recent <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/news/story/5386/20-of-butterflies-in-the-u.s-have-disappeared-since-2000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showing a 20% loss of butterflies in the United States.



“No papers looked at human intrusions and disturbance, or the effects of war on insects, or railroads.”



These threats are well known in biodiversity discussions. Yet, when it comes to insects, they vanish from view. This raises concerns about research blind spots and missed opportunities to address emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studies-mostly-focus-on-bees-and-butterflies">Studies mostly focus on bees and butterflies</h2>



Another problem is the overwhelming focus on bees and butterflies. These species are loved and easily recognized. They’re also valuable to agriculture, which means they attract research dollars and public support.



“Because people have focused so much on pollinators like bees and butterflies, we are limited in identifying conservation actions that benefit other insects,” said Grames.



This focus creates a loop. “Bees are agriculturally important and people care about them. So there is a lot of research priority towards funding research on bees. So you get this kind of feedback: if you prioritize research on bees, you learn more about bees," said Halsch.



Meanwhile, countless other insects remain poorly understood and unprotected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-broader-conservation-vision">Towards a broader conservation vision</h2>



Focusing on well-known species risks missing the bigger picture. The vast majority of insects aren’t pollinators. Many play roles in soil health, pest control, and nutrient cycling. Ignoring them puts entire ecosystems at risk.



“One of the important points we're trying to make in the paper is that conservation actions overly biased towards certain insects or certain stressors will likely be negative for many other insects,” said Halsch. 



“If we focus too much on bees and butterflies and their conservation, we will miss a lot of other species, most of them in fact.”



The way forward, the researchers argue, is to adopt broader, more inclusive strategies. This means managing not just individual drivers, but their connections. It requires recognizing unseen threats and correcting biases in funding and focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crisis-of-disappearing-insects">The crisis of disappearing insects</h2>



Insects don’t inspire awe like whales or wolves. But their absence would mark the collapse of ecological foundations. This new research urges us to look beyond the familiar, to notice what the data - and our eyes - often miss.



By weaving together 3,000 hypotheses into a single map, the Binghamton team has made one thing clear: insect decline is a many-headed crisis. 



Addressing this issue of disappearing insects will take more than targeted fixes. It will take a shift in how we view the smallest lives on Earth - and how much we’re willing to do to protect them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf034/8115312?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Insects are still disappearing - and there are hundreds of reasons why

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely...

Chimpanzees,Couple,Sharing,Fruit

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a new discovery may be rewriting what we know about the social lives of our primate cousins. A team of researchers, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, has documented a rare behavior: wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> eating and sharing fermented fruit that contains alcohol.



The finding, captured using motion-activated cameras, offers intriguing evidence that chimpanzees may not only consume ethanol naturally found in fruits but do so in a way that strengthens their social bonds. This echoes human traditions of sharing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> during communal feasts.



“For humans, we know that drinking alcohol leads to a release of dopamine and endorphins, and resulting feelings of happiness and relaxation,” said lead author Anna Bowland, from the Center for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We also know that sharing alcohol - including through traditions such as feasting - helps to form and strengthen social bonds. So - now we know that wild chimpanzees are eating and sharing ethanolic fruits - the question is: could they be getting similar benefits?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-behavior-caught-in-the-act">Chimpanzee behavior: Caught in the act</h2>



The footage showed chimpanzees engaging with large, fibrous African breadfruit that had begun to ferment, naturally developing ethanol levels. Across ten recorded instances, chimps of various ages and sexes were seen actively sharing the fruit, sometimes ignoring larger, unfermented pieces in favor of smaller, fermented ones.



Two adult females, Chip and Até, opted for a ripe, alcoholic piece over a more substantial one. In another case, adult males Mandjambé and Gary approached a breadfruit with aggressive posturing, before Mandjambé laid claim to a piece. Though the initial interactions were tense, others nearby, including Bobby, also joined in and sampled the fruit.



The alcohol content of the fruit, measured at up to 0.61% alcohol by volume (ABV), is relatively low - roughly comparable to a light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-were-drinking-beer-in-china-over-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beer</a>. But as chimpanzees consume large amounts of fruit daily, the cumulative intake could be significant.



“They can feed on kilograms of the stuff every day. It’s probably analogous to us sipping on a light beer,” said senior author Kimberley Hockings, a lecturer at the University of Exeter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-sharing-alcoholic-fruit">Chimpanzees sharing alcoholic fruit</h2>



This isn’t the first time scientists have observed chimpanzees consuming alcohol. In 2015, Hockings and her colleagues published research showing that chimps in West Africa had learned to steal palm sap from human containers - sap that had undergone natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>. 



Some chimps even appeared tipsy afterward, delaying nest-building and displaying mischievous behavior. However, in the latest observations, there’s no evidence that the chimps reached a level of inebriation. 



The researchers note that becoming visibly drunk would likely impair a wild chimpanzee’s ability to survive, making such behavior evolutionarily disadvantageous. Still, the attraction to fermented fruits raises fascinating questions about cognition, behavior, and the potential benefits of mild alcohol consumption.



“Chimps don’t share food all the time, so this behavior with fermented fruit might be important,” said Hockings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-feasting-traditions">Fruit feasting traditions</h2>



The study explores the idea that our own traditions of communal eating and drinking may have ancient evolutionary roots. The researchers propose that the behavior seen in chimpanzees today could represent an early form of “feasting.”



“We need to find out more about whether they deliberately seek out ethanolic fruits and how they metabolise it, but this behavior could be the early evolutionary stages of feasting,” Hockings said. “If so, it suggests the human tradition of feasting may have its origins deep in our evolutionary history.”



The notion that humans aren’t alone in their penchant for alcohol isn’t entirely new. Biologists have speculated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> may have been drawn to fermented fruits both for their energy content and their intoxicating effects.



Recent genetic evidence supports this, revealing a molecular adaptation in the common ancestor of African apes that improved ethanol metabolism. Such adaptations may have allowed ancient species, including humans and chimpanzees, to safely consume small amounts of alcohol as part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-seek-out-alcoholic-fruit">Do chimpanzees seek out alcoholic fruit?</h2>



Though the dataset is small - just 10 filmed instances - the findings open the door to a new area of primate research. 



Future studies may explore whether chimpanzees intentionally seek out fermented fruits, how their digestive systems process ethanol, and whether such behavior is widespread or localized to specific populations.



Hockings believes that more discoveries may be just around the corner. The number of observations was small but they could lead to an explosion of research into the topic, she argued.



At the very least, the study offers a glimpse into the social dynamics of chimpanzees and the complex behaviors they exhibit - ones that may not be so different from our own. 



Thus, perhaps chimpanzees feasting on alcoholic fruit provide a mirror to the earliest roots of human sociability - bonding over a shared snack and, possibly, a mild buzz.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00281-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chimpanzees share alcoholic fruit to increase social bonding

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a...

In the forests of Madagascar, few animals command attention quite like lemurs - especially when it comes to questions of social hierarchy. 



In many lemur species, it is the females that rule the roost. They dominate food, take prime spots, and often chase, bite, or hit males who get in their way. 



Yet new evidence shows that this aggressive matriarchy is not universal among lemurs, and the key difference may lie in how their brains deploy a single hormone: oxytocin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-equality-and-oxytocin-receptors">Gender equality and oxytocin receptors </h2>



A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> takes a close look at seven species in the genus Eulemur. Some of these species, such as the blue‑eyed black lemur, operate under rigid female dominance, while others, like the collared lemur, live in more egalitarian groups.



By mapping oxytocin‑binding sites in the animals’ brains, the researchers discovered an intriguing pattern: lemur societies that are more equitable between the sexes possess a denser network of oxytocin receptors. This is especially true in a brain region that governs fear, anxiety, and aggression.



“It’s more of an even playing field,” said first author Allie Schrock, who completed her PhD in evolutionary anthropology at Duke. Her remark contrasts with blue-eyed black lemurs, where dominant females control males through intimidation and strength.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemur-queens-rule-the-canopy">Lemur queens rule the canopy</h2>



Dominant females in species like the blue‑eyed black lemur do not confine their aggression to maternal defense or resource scarcity. They wield authority even when circumstances are calm, reinforcing status through spontaneous acts of aggression. 



According to senior author Christine Drea, a professor of evolutionary anthropology at Duke, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamines-role-in-male-aggression-fades-with-fighting-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> in these females is often entirely unprovoked, simply to remind others who’s in charge.



“Males let females have priority access to whatever they want,” Drea said. This arrangement places males perpetually on the defensive, ceding first rights to fruiting trees, coveted shade, or safe resting platforms. 



Though unusual to humans, these social structures are common in lemurs - except for notable deviations in the Eulemur genus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-rewires-lemur-behavior">Oxytocin rewires lemur behavior</h2>



To understand how some Eulemur species shed female domination for gender parity, the team turned to preserved brain tissue housed at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center</a>. These samples came from naturally deceased, flash-frozen lemurs - a vital resource given Madagascar’s endangered primates.



Using autoradiography, a high‑resolution imaging method, the researchers traced where oxytocin molecules could bind throughout the brain. Oxytocin, popularly dubbed the “love hormone,” is well known for its role in mammalian bonding, trust, and social recognition.



The surprising discovery was that egalitarian lemurs had significantly more oxytocin receptors than their female‑dominated cousins. The density spike was most pronounced in the amygdala, a neural hub for emotion regulation.



This pattern suggests that animals with more oxytocin “targets” in emotional centers may experience a dampening of aggression across both sexes, creating conditions favorable to equal status. Rather than males meeting female hostility blow‑for‑blow, the entire group becomes somewhat less confrontational.



For Drea, the data indicate that egalitarian species achieved gender parity by becoming less aggressive towards others overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-neuroscience">Implications for human neuroscience</h2>



The study slots neatly into a broader conversation about oxytocin’s influence on lemur social behavior.



In humans, variations in oxytocin signaling have been tied to spectrum disorders such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>, as well as to patterns of aggression and anxiety. The Duke study shows tiny chemical shifts in receptors can drive major social changes over evolutionary time.



Scientists have already documented an “oxytocin paradox” in which the hormone can foster in‑group bonding but also fuel suspicion or aggression toward outsiders. 



The lemur findings offer a new perspective. When oxytocin receptors increase in brain areas that reduce fear or promote calm, the hormone’s bonding effects may spread more widely. This could help ease social hierarchies rather than intensify them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-million-year-experiment">A million‑year experiment</h2>



Genetic evidence indicates that egalitarian Eulemur species diverged from their more dictatorial relatives within the past million years. That is lightning‑fast in evolutionary terms - and hints moderate adjustments in oxytocin pathways may be sufficient to trigger a social overhaul. 



“We have a natural experiment right here,” Schrock said. He added that closely related species provide a powerful test case for linking neurobiology and behavior.



Researchers will study how oxytocin receptors relate to group size, social habits, and the length of pair bonds. “There's a lot more that we can learn from lemurs about how the brain regulates behavior,” Schrock emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-lemur-society">The story of lemur society</h2>



Though lemurs occupy only a sliver of the world’s biodiversity, their social quirks resonate widely. 



Understanding how neurochemical circuitry shapes aggression and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperation</a> could inform conservation strategies. It can also improve welfare in captive primates, and even shed light on human behavioral disorders. 



For endangered species, understanding social harmony can aid reintroduction efforts by reducing conflict and improving survival.



In the end, lemurs remind us that social structures - whether matriarchal dominance or egalitarian negotiation - do not exist in a vacuum. They are built on biochemical foundations that evolution can remodel. 



As scientists continue to uncover those hidden mechanisms, the story of lemur society becomes a window into the delicate interplay between brain chemistry, behavior, and the bonds that hold communities together.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0647">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hormones influence power and peace in lemur society

In the forests of Madagascar, few animals command attention quite...

In a quiet corner of the Ecuadorian Andes, a chorus of frogs has sparked a global conversation about environmental justice. These aren’t just any amphibians from Ecuador - they’re symbols of resistance, biodiversity, and legal innovation.



In a recent paper, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/instituteforagroecology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont’s Institute for Agroecology</a> and international collaborators explore how Ecuador’s pioneering constitutional recognition of the Rights of Nature is changing the way we think about law, justice, and the planet.



The study presents Ecuador as a test case for reimagining governance systems in favor of both people and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-amphibians-massive-impact">Tiny amphibians, massive impact</h2>



At the heart of this story is the Resistance Rocket Frog - Rana Cohete Resistencia - named by residents of Intag Valley to embody the united effort to protect their land. Though small and seemingly inconspicuous, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> amphibians from Ecuador became co-plaintiffs in a landmark lawsuit that halted large-scale mining in their habitat.



Supported by community members, biologists, lawyers, and activists, the frogs helped establish one of the most influential legal precedents in Earth system law.



“Translating the Constitutional Rights of Nature into concrete conservation measures is a powerful tool to prevent species extinction in areas threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a>,” said Andrea Terán, an Ecuadorian biologist and co-author of the study.



“Large-scale mining concessions are concentrated in the Andes and their foothills, overlapping with regions of high amphibian endemism and richness. Therefore, having a mechanism to halt this extractive economic model opens the door to exploring alternative relationships with nature and sustainable economic models that support life in the long term.”



Ecuador’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is staggering: the country ranks ninth among the world’s most biologically rich nations, home to as many as 20,000 plant species, nearly 700 amphibians, and over 450 types of mammals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frogs</a>, in particular, are considered critical ecological indicators due to their acute sensitivity to pollutants, making them a powerful symbol of environmental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognition-of-nature-s-rights">Recognition of nature's rights</h2>



In 2008, Ecuador became the first country in the world to constitutionally recognize the Rights of Nature, granting ecosystems the legal right to “exist, persist, maintain and regenerate.” Unlike traditional environmental laws, which regulate harm through permits and limits, Rights of Nature laws treat ecosystems as legal subjects, not objects. 



This shift allows non-human life to be represented in court as plaintiffs. In the Llurimagua mining case, legal teams successfully argued on behalf of the forest ecosystem and the species within it, using Ecuador’s constitutional protections.



“In the case of Llurimagua, as explained in the article, the practical applicability of the rights of Nature is demonstrated, showing that these are not merely symbolic declarations but rights with real-world legal effects,” said Mario Moncayo, one of the attorneys on the case.



“The recognition of the rights of nature has allowed individuals and communities to exercise them directly, establishing relevant precedents in the protection of nature.” The legal precedent set by these victories has inspired environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-health-and-environmental-justice-the-push-for-electric-trucks-in-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">justice</a> advocates around the world.



According to Carlos Varela Arias, a constitutional law professor and co-author of the paper, this framework will enable the design of new strategies and global governance mechanisms to adapt human systems to those of nature, allowing for our survival and peaceful coexistence with the natural environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-standard-for-nature-s-rights">A global standard for nature's rights?</h2>



The Ecuadorian model is already echoing beyond its borders. Bolivia’s Mother Earth Law, New Zealand’s legal personhood for the Whanganui River and Te Urewera, and Canada’s recognition of First Nations’ land rights all draw on similar legal reasoning.



Cases in Mexico, India, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, and the United States reflect the growing influence of this movement. To institutionalize these advances, the paper outlines three fundamental dimensions of effective Rights of Nature legislation:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Intrinsic worth: recognizing nature’s value independent of human utility.</li>



<li>Guiding principle: using Nature’s rights to steer legal and political decisions.</li>



<li>Enforceability: holding states and citizens legally accountable for harm.</li>
</ol>



The authors also identify the Escazú Agreement - a legally binding treaty signed by 23 Latin American countries including Ecuador. The treaty acts as a promising regional tool to reinforce these rights and protect environmental defenders. 



Despite its ratification in 2021, threats to activists remain dire. According to <a href="https://globalwitness.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Witness</a>, over 2,100 nature defenders have been murdered globally in recent years, with 70% of those killings occurring in just four Latin American countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legal-innovation-and-indigenous-wisdom">Legal innovation and Indigenous wisdom</h2>



“The Rights of Nature is a strong and inspiring idea that started in Ecuador,” said Amaya Carrasco Torrontegui, senior author of the paper and a University of Vermont affiliate. “This approach encourages us to see Nature not just as a resource, but as something alive and deserving of care - drawing on Indigenous wisdom and the idea of Pachamama, or Mother Earth.”



Lead author Carlos Andres Gallegos-Riofrío emphasized the transformative potential of these legal frameworks. “A key lesson - especially the coalition that advanced the Llurimagua case - is that there are real alternatives for governing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-systems-critical-all-life-on-verge-total-collapse-paris-agreement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth system</a>." 



"These alternatives, to become truly transformative, need society’s active engagement. Only then can they serve as critical tools to help local communities stop activities that harm both people and Nature, globally preventing us from continuing to cross the planet’s safe operating boundaries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-andes"><a></a>Lessons from the Andes</h2>



The success of Ecuador’s Rights of Nature movement demonstrates the power of local activism, coalition-building, and a bold rethinking of legal norms. It also highlights the potential of a “tiny avatar” - like the rocket frog - to symbolize much larger battles over climate, biodiversity, and justice.



With mining blocked in three major projects in the Intag Valley and courts upholding the rights of ecosystems in multiple landmark cases, Ecuador’s approach is proving that environmental justice doesn’t always start in global halls of power. It can also begin in a small village, a forested valley, or the determined leap of a tiny frog.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589811625000199?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Governance</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Does Mother Nature have rights? A tiny frog has joined the fight

In a quiet corner of the Ecuadorian Andes, a chorus...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, now we know what it was

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum...

Nature lovers worldwide are turning to EarthSnap, the AI-powered identification app that can instantly recognize over 2 million plants, animals, bugs, birds, and more. 



Built by the team behind Earth.com with over 15M monthly visitors, EarthSnap has quickly gained traction among outdoor enthusiasts looking for a smarter, more interactive way to explore and understand the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-earth-month-with-earthsnap">Celebrate Earth Month with EarthSnap</h2>



With the official rollout timed for April in celebration of Earth Month, EarthSnap invites users across the globe to reconnect with nature and explore biodiversity like never before. 



As environmental awareness reaches a peak during this globally recognized month, EarthSnap offers a powerful, tech-driven way to engage with the planet and share discoveries with others.



With its advanced AI, EarthSnap allows users to identify species in seconds simply by snapping a photo. 



The app goes beyond just identification - offering an extensive database filled with detailed insights, a search function for learning more about specific species, and an interactive SnapMap where users can explore identified species from around the world. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-connection-with-nature">A deeper connection with nature</h2>



As more people seek deeper connections with nature, EarthSnap has emerged as a must-have tool for hikers, travelers, gardening enthusiasts and anyone curious about nature.



"EarthSnap is redefining how people interact with the world around them," said Eric Ralls, CEO of EarthSnap and Earth.com. 



"With over 15 million visitors to Earth.com each month, we've seen firsthand the growing demand for accessible, AI-driven tools that make nature exploration easier and more engaging. EarthSnap brings that vision to life.”



EarthSnap is more than just an identification app - it’s a global hub for nature lovers. 



The EarthSnappers Community allows users to share their discoveries, engage with fellow outdoor enthusiasts, and contribute to a growing database of species observations. 



Whether it’s a rare orchid spotted on a mountain trail or a never-before-seen bird in a backyard, EarthSnap makes it easy to document and discuss nature with a like-minded community.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earthsnap.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/EarthSnap_feature-graphic_press-release_V3s.webp" alt="EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here." class="wp-image-1966695" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-features-driving-earthsnap-s-popularity">Key features driving EarthSnap’s popularity</h2>



● AI-Powered Identification: Instantly recognize over 2 million plants and animals by snapping a photo.



● Search &amp; Learn: Look up species by name to access detailed facts and insights.



● Global SnapMap: Explore photos of identified species from users worldwide.



● Personalized Snap Collections: Save and organize nature discoveries in a digital library.



● Cross-Platform Accessibility: Access all saved photos and data on both mobile and desktop.



As Earth Month continues to inspire a global appreciation for the natural world, EarthSnap is providing a timely solution for those eager to deepen their understanding of biodiversity and participate in meaningful environmental engagement.



With AI-powered tools, a vast species database, and an engaged global community, EarthSnap is setting a new standard for how people interact with nature.



EarthSnap is now available for download on <a href="https://apps.apple.com/us/app/plant-animal-id-earthsnap/id1590178460" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iOS</a> and <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.earthsnap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Android</a>. To learn more, visit <a href="https://earthsnap.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap’s website</a>.

Nature enthusiasts are flocking to EarthSnap for plant and animal ID

Nature lovers worldwide are turning to EarthSnap, the AI-powered identification...

When a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named SuBastian dropped into the frigid waters near the South Sandwich Islands on March 9, the scientists watching the video feed expected fascinating footage of deep‑sea life. What they did not anticipate was history.&nbsp;



At roughly 600 meters (1,968 feet) below the surface, the ROV’s cameras recorded a transparent juvenile colossal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni). This is the first time this legendary species has ever been observed alive in its natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-centennial-surprise">A centennial surprise</h2>



The timing could not have been more fitting: 2024 marks one hundred years since zoologists first described and named the colossal squid, a member of the glass‑squid family Cranchiidae.&nbsp;



After a century of piecing together its existence from beaks found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm‑whale</a> stomachs and the occasional adult cadaver tangled in fishing gear, researchers finally have moving images of a live individual.



“It's exciting to see the first in situ footage of a juvenile colossal and humbling to think that they have no idea that humans exist,” said Kat Bolstad from <a href="https://www.aut.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auckland University of Technology</a>, one of the experts who verified the find. 



“For 100 years, we have mainly encountered them as prey remains in whale and seabird stomachs and as predators of harvested toothfish.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colossal-squid-in-every-sense">Colossal squid in every sense</h2>



Even as a youngster, the squid measured nearly 30 centimeters (one foot) long. As adults, these giants are thought to reach seven meters (23 feet) and tip the scales at up to 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds), making them the heaviest invertebrates on Earth.&nbsp;



Yet they remain among the least understood marine animals. Juveniles like the one filmed are nearly transparent; with maturity they darken and lose that ghostly clarity.



Adult colossal squids - possibly exhausted or dying - have occasionally surfaced on fishing lines, but until now none had been witnessed alive in the abyss where they thrive.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://youtu.be/lzPoG9H8Hlo?si=8us1wTJU1egTZVjn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/colossal-squid_Mesonychoteuthis-hamiltoni_Schmidt-Ocean-Institute_1s.webp" alt="*Click image to launch the video.* This is the first confirmed live observation of the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, in its natural habitat. The team on Schmidt Ocean Institute’s Research Vessel Falkor (too) captured footage of the 30-centimeter-long squid (nearly one foot) at a depth of 600 meters (1968 feet) using their remotely operated vehicle SuBastian during an Ocean Census flagship expedition searching for new marine life. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1966667"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">*Click image to launch the video.* This is the first confirmed live observation of the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, in its natural habitat. The team on Schmidt Ocean Institute’s Research Vessel Falkor (too) captured footage of the 30-centimeter-long squid (nearly one foot) at a depth of 600 meters (1968 feet) using their remotely operated vehicle SuBastian during an Ocean Census flagship expedition searching for new marine life. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute *Click image to launch the video.*</figcaption></figure>



Dr. Aaron Evans, an independent authority on glass squids, helped confirm the juvenile’s identity. One key clue was a set of hooks located midway along each arm - distinctive hardware that differentiates M. hamiltoni from similar glass‑squid species.&nbsp;



Apart from those arm hooks, juveniles of several glass‑squid lineages can look remarkably alike: clear bodies, large eyes, and a pair of long feeding tentacles sporting sharp terminal hooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-breakthrough-leads-to-another">One breakthrough leads to another</h2>



The March discovery was not the research vessel’s only brush with squid lore. On January 25, during an earlier expedition to the Bellingshausen Sea near Antarctica, Falkor (too) scientists had filmed Galiteuthis glacialis, known as the glacial glass squid, alive and undisturbed for the first time.&nbsp;



That sighting came as the team surveyed the seafloor where a Chicago‑sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ecosystem-sea-creatures-never-before-seen-revealed-antarctica-iceberg-breakup/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> had calved from the George VI Ice Shelf. At 687 meters (2,254 feet) down, the transparent squid floated with its arms loose above its head - the so‑called “cockatoo pose” typical of glass squids.



“The first sighting of two different squids on back-to-back expeditions is remarkable and shows how little we have seen of the magnificent inhabitants of the Southern Ocean,” noted <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s executive director Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Fortunately, we caught enough high‑resolution imagery of these creatures to allow the global experts, who were not on the vessel, to identify both species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-voyage-of-discovery">A collaborative voyage of discovery</h2>



Both encounters occurred aboard the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s research vessel Falkor (too), equipped with the ROV SuBastian and supported via satellite telepresence by taxonomists around the world.&nbsp;



The 35‑day cruise that netted the colossal‑squid footage served as the flagship expedition of Ocean Census, the largest global mission to discover marine life.



“It's incredible that we can leverage the power of the taxonomic community through R/V Falkor (too) telepresence while we are out at sea,” said expedition chief scientist Michelle Taylor from the <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Essex</a>.&nbsp;



“The Ocean Census international science network is proud to work together with the Schmidt Ocean Institute to accelerate species discovery and expand our knowledge of ocean life, live online with the world's science community.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-catalog-of-firsts">A growing catalog of firsts</h2>



SuBastian has rapidly become one of the world’s premier vehicles for squid discovery. In 2020, it filmed the enigmatic Ram’s Horn Squid (Spirula spirula) alive for the first time. 



In 2024, before the colossal‑squid milestone, it captured another first‑ever video of a deep‑sea squid in the genus Promachoteuthis. A fifth suspected first is currently under expert review.



“These unforgettable moments continue to remind us that the Ocean is brimming with mysteries yet to be solved,” Virmani said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-colossal-squid-sightings">Significance of the colossal squid sightings</h2>



Beyond the thrill of seeing elusive creatures, such footage provides valuable clues about life histories, behaviors, and ecosystems that were once purely speculative. 



Observing a juvenile colossal squid confirms its depth range and offers hints about its developmental stages. 



Similarly, viewing G. glacialis in the wild helps scientists understand how glass squids position themselves in the water column, interact with predators, and potentially respond to changing ocean conditions.



These findings come at a time when the Southern Ocean is undergoing rapid environmental change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice‑shelf</a> calving, warming waters, and shifting currents could reshape food webs. Documenting present‑day biodiversity is crucial for detecting future alterations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-images-of-deep-sea-life">Upcoming images of deep-sea life</h2>



The researchers now plan to analyze the new video frames for details such as muscle movements, fin strokes, and eye orientation - data points that, when compared with dead specimens, can illuminate how these squids hunt and evade predators.&nbsp;



The experts also hope to revisit the South Sandwich trench system to deploy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA) samplers that might capture genetic traces from larger, unseen individuals.



For the public, these deep‑sea cameos kindle imagination. Once the stuff of sailor legend, colossal squids are no longer merely mythic giants - they are living animals caught on camera, navigating a twilight realm six football fields beneath the waves.



As technology pushes boundaries, the ocean continues to reveal that its most dramatic stories have yet to be told.



The <a href="https://oceancensus.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census</a> is a partnership between the Schmidt Ocean Institute, the <a href="https://en.nippon-foundation.or.jp/what/projects/ocean/ocean-census" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nippon Foundation‑Nekton Ocean Census</a>, and GoSouth (a consortium led by the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Plymouth</a>, <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research</a>, and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>).



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Living baby colossal squid captured on video for the first time ever

When a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named SuBastian dropped into...

The Endangered Species Act (ESA), long regarded as a cornerstone of U.S. environmental policy, is facing a dramatic reinterpretation. Federal agencies have proposed the removal of habitat changes from the definition of “harm” to endangered and threatened species. 



This move, conservation groups warn, could accelerate extinctions by allowing logging, mining, construction, and other development to proceed unimpeded in sensitive areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-protections-face-a-major-shift">Wildlife protections face a major shift</h2>



Since the ESA was enacted in 1973, regulators and courts have treated the term “harm” broadly. Under the existing framework, an activity that destroys or degrades the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-could-help-protect-30-of-atlantic-ocean-habitats/">habitat</a> of a listed species can be deemed unlawful even if the action is not intended to kill or harass individual animals.



The <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> (FWS) and the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Marine Fisheries Service</a> (NMFS) now argue in their newly released proposal that habitat loss should not count as “harm” because it differs from the direct targeting of wildlife - referred to in the statute as “take.”



The agencies’ notice, recently made public and slated for official publication in the Federal Register, states that the act’s prohibition on “take” was never meant to cover changes to the landscape. Agency lawyers argue the ESA uses other tools, like critical habitat designations, to protect spaces species depend on.



If that interpretation is finalized, private landowners and industry operators could no longer be held liable under the ESA for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clearing forests</a>, draining wetlands, or reshaping shorelines so long as they claim no intention to injure protected animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-could-have-dire-consequences">Changes could have dire consequences</h2>



The announcement drew swift rebuke from environmental organizations. Noah Greenwald, who directs endangered species work at the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Biological Diversity</a>, noted that habitat destruction is the biggest cause of extinction.



Greenwald argued that the proposed rule “cuts the heart out of the Endangered Species Act.” It does this by removing a key safeguard that has blocked or modified countless development projects over the past half‑century.



“If (you) say harm doesn't mean significant habitat degradation or modification, then it really leaves endangered species out in the cold."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rule-threatens-decades-of-progress">The rule threatens decades of progress</h2>



Greenwald also pointed to two high‑profile examples that currently depend on habitat protections: the northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest’s old‑growth forests and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-the-panther-day-protecting-floridas-big-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida panther</a> in the state’s shrinking swamplands. 



Greenwald warned the new policy lets loggers and developers act freely if they claim any wildlife harm was unintentional.



<a href="https://earthjustice.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthjustice</a> attorney Drew Caputo echoed those concerns. He said the rule “threatens a half‑century of progress in protecting and restoring endangered species,” listing bald eagles, gray wolves, Florida manatees, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a> as beneficiaries of the existing interpretation. 



“Destroying a forest, beach, river, or wetland that a species relies on for survival constitutes harm to that species,” he said, citing decades of legal precedent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supreme-court-s-role-in-the-esa">Supreme Court’s role in the ESA</h2>



The current definition of “harm” has already survived judicial scrutiny at the highest level. In the 1995 case Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the government’s inclusion of habitat modification within the scope of “take.” That decision has guided agency practice ever since.



Patrick Parenteau, an emeritus professor at the <a href="https://www.vermontlaw.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vermont Law and Graduate School</a> who has argued endangered species cases, noted that reversing course now raises questions of legal consistency. 



Opponents may argue the agencies shouldn't abandon a Supreme Court-backed definition without strong new evidence if they finalize the Endangered Species Act rule.



Because the existing standard has been in place for decades, landowners and federal planners have used it to conserve “many, many millions of acres of land,” according to Parenteau. 



Removing habitat from the definition of “harm” could upend scores of conservation plans negotiated between agencies and private stakeholders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-species-in-hawaii">Endangered species in Hawaii</h2>



Hawaii may feel the impacts more acutely than anywhere else. Although the islands cover less than one percent of U.S. land area, they host roughly 40 percent of all species listed under the ESA. 



Maxx Philipps, Hawaii and Pacific Islands director for the Center for Biological Diversity, warned that weakening habitat safeguards will accelerate Hawaii’s extinction crisis. 



Philipps also said it will destroy the biological and cultural heritage of the islands, highlighting one example, tiny native bees that pollinate coastal dune plants.



Development has already fragmented the few remaining stretches of shoreline. If development proceeds without habitat review, she said, bees and other shoreline species - including green sea turtles - could see their last refuges disappear. 



“Habitat is life, right?” she asked. “And without it, there is no recovery and without recovery, there is only extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lawsuits-begin-agencies-remain-silent">Lawsuits begin, agencies remain silent</h2>



The <a href="https://www.doi.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of the Interior</a>, which oversees FWS, declined to comment, referring inquiries to the agency. 



Officials also noted that the proposal will soon appear in the Federal Register, opening a 30‑day window for public input.



Environmental advocates are already preparing litigation. Caputo said groups like Earthjustice will challenge the rule if it becomes final, arguing that the administration’s narrow interpretation conflicts with the statute’s language and the Supreme Court’s guidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removing-habitat-protections">Removing habitat protections </h2>



Supporters of the rule change - including industry associations representing forestry, mining, and farming - contend that private landowners have shouldered disproportionate burdens under the ESA. They argue penalizing habitat changes hurts development and may prompt landowners to clear areas before species are discovered.



Critics counter that streamlined approvals come at the expense of irreplaceable ecosystems and the species dependent on them.



The debate underscores a broader tension within environmental law: balancing economic opportunity against the preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. Though Congress could revise the ESA’s habitat rules, past efforts have failed under both Republican and Democratic control.



As a result, the practical meaning of “harm” often hinges on regulatory interpretation and judicial review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-the-endangered-species-act">Future of the Endangered Species Act </h2>



If the proposed rule to the Endangered Species Act takes effect after the comment period, it would mark one of the most significant shifts in ESA enforcement in decades. 



Conservation organizations predict a surge of lawsuits aimed at reinstating the broader definition of “harm.” They also worry about immediate on‑the‑ground consequences as businesses test the new limits. 



For researchers and advocates vested in species recovery, the stakes could not be higher: without habitat to return to, plants and animals already on the brink may have no path back from the edge.



As Philipps put it, preserving habitat is the foundation for recovery. The ESA’s future hinges on public comments, agency decisions, and expected legal challenges in the months ahead.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Endangered Species Act faces its biggest legal shift in decades

The Endangered Species Act (ESA), long regarded as a cornerstone...

An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber is offering scientists surprising new insights into the evolutionary journey of a rare group known as dirt ants, or Basiceros.



The fossilized ant - a previously unknown species named Basiceros enana - is the first of its kind ever uncovered in the Caribbean. The discovery suggests that these elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> once inhabited the islands before vanishing during the Miocene epoch, which spanned from roughly 23 to 5.3 million years ago.



“Dirt ants are rare finds in the wild. Finding one today is exciting given how well they stay hidden, but captured in amber, it's like finding a diamond,” said Gianpiero Fiorentino, the study’s lead author and a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> (NJIT). “This fossil is singularly distinct from all its modern relatives and reshapes the evolutionary history of Basiceros.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-a-dirt-ant-species">Discovery of a dirt ant species</h2>



Previously, all known members of this ant genus were limited to neotropical rainforests stretching from Costa Rica down to Southern Brazil. Currently, nine living Basiceros species are documented. 



The discovery of B. enana, however, raises new questions about how these ants once dispersed and colonized parts of the Caribbean.



“Often lineages will have what appear to be fairly straightforward biogeographic histories. If you find a group of animals that only live in South America up to Costa Rica today, you really have no reason to expect that their early relatives lived in the Caribbean,” said Phil Barden, senior author of the study and associate professor of biology at NJIT.&nbsp;



“A fossil like this underscores how the distribution of living species can belie the complex evolutionary history of life on our planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dirt-ant-s-ancestry">Tracing the dirt ant's ancestry </h2>



To analyze the ancient ant, the team employed cutting-edge imaging methods, including Micro-CT scanning at NJIT and the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a>. These techniques enabled them to reconstruct the fossil in 3D and examine intricate anatomical details otherwise invisible.



“The use of Micro-CT scanning really amplified this study, enabling us to capture features that were virtually impossible to see otherwise,” Fiorentino explained.



The researchers compared these structural features to all known living dirt ant species and used molecular dating methods to trace the species' ancestry. Because amber preserves creatures in three dimensions, the team was able to collect extensive information from the small specimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-fossil">Significance of the fossil</h2>



The fossil ant, measuring just 5.13 millimeters in length, is significantly smaller than its modern descendants, which can grow to nearly 9 millimeters. As a result, B. enana now holds the distinction of being the smallest member of its genus ever recorded.



“Our results show that the embiggening of these ants was relatively rapid,” Fiorentino said. “They almost doubled in size in the span of 20 million years." 



"Previous hypotheses suggested that these ants were ancestrally large and shrank over time, so this flips that on its head and really illustrates how important fossils can be to understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of a lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-camouflage-already-in-play">Ancient camouflage already in play</h2>



Yet despite its smaller size, B. enana already displayed some of the key adaptations that help modern dirt ants remain nearly invisible in their environment - a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage</a> known as crypsis. 



These include two layers of specialized hairs designed to trap dirt and debris: long brush-like setae that lift particles and shorter, tighter hairs that hold them close to the body’s surface.



“What this shows is that playing dead and hiding pays off,” Fiorentino said. “Uncovering a unique fossil like this helps us understand how long organisms may have been employing this strategy, though the presence of these characteristics does not necessarily guarantee they behaved in this way.”



The fossil also shares other recognizable features with today’s dirt ants, such as curved propodeal spines, a distinctive trapezoidal head, and sharp mandibles lined with a dozen triangular teeth - traits suggesting a predatory lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-piece-of-a-larger-puzzle">A piece of a larger puzzle </h2>



Despite these survival advantages, Basiceros ants eventually disappeared from the Caribbean, likely due to dramatic environmental shifts during the Miocene. The team suggests that ancient land bridges might have allowed the ants to migrate from mainland South America to the islands.



“The presence of Basiceros in Dominican amber suggests ancient land bridges may have provided pathways for these ants to traverse from the mainland to the Caribbean,” Barden said. 



“This fossil is a piece of a larger puzzle that will help us understand why some groups of organisms undergo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> and others stick it out for millions of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-ants-in-the-caribbean">Loss of ants in the Caribbean</h2>



Fiorentino noted that the dirt ants' extinction could have come down to a loss of available niches or interspecific competition. 



"These ants are predators, and an overall trend that we see from the Caribbean is a loss of predator ant diversity," said Fiorentino.



“Over a third of ant genera have gone extinct on the island of modern-day Dominican Republic since the formation of Dominican amber. Understanding what has driven this pattern of local extinction is crucial to mitigating modern human-driven extinction and protecting biodiversity."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2171" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



Image Credit: Gianpiero Fiorentino (NJIT)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dirt ants were once masters of disguise in the Caribbean

An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber...

We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding, play, or even casual chatter. Most of us assume they respond only to tone or gestures, not the actual words, but new research challenges this belief.



A collaborative study from the Universities of <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln</a>, <a href="https://www.sussex.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sussex</a>, and <a href="https://www.univ-st-etienne.fr/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jean Monnet</a> has revealed that dogs can detect meaningful words even in monotone human speech.



The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> are not just responding to our cheerful pet voices. They actually “listen in,” parsing out significant phrases from otherwise irrelevant sentences.



This raises fascinating questions about language perception, attention, and the impact of thousands of years of domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-don-t-need-baby-talk-speech">Dogs don’t need baby talk speech</h2>



Humans often use an exaggerated, happy tone when addressing dogs. This is called dog-directed speech (DDS), and it's designed to grab their attention - just like baby talk for infants.



Until now, it was assumed that this exaggerated tone helped dogs identify important words. But are they just reacting to pitch, or do they understand actual language?



The researchers created an experiment to test if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> could pick out meaningful content when speech lacked the familiar emotional tone. They used a stream of neutral sentences delivered in flat monotone and inserted familiar phrases like “[Dog’s name], come on then.” 



These phrases were spoken in either DDS or neutral reading prosody (NRP). The goal was to see if dogs could still identify these phrases without emotional clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-are-really-good-listeners">Dogs are really good listeners </h2>



The findings were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> consistently responded to commands spoken in monotone, ignoring the irrelevant surrounding words. In other words, they weren’t just reacting to tone they were actually parsing the speech for meaning.



"Dogs understand that we say their name to get their attention, and this is almost always paired with a happy 'baby talk' speech register because dogs prefer it," noted Dr. Holly Root-Gutteridge, one of the lead researchers.



"We wanted to see if dogs were only responding to this happy voice or if they could recognize their name, even when it was buried in a sentence and delivered in a flat voice."



"We found that dogs could absolutely find their name when presented in a monotone way and buried in stream of irrelevant speech - a prerequisite for comprehending language - and shows how good they are at listening to us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-can-focus-on-relevant-speech">Dogs can focus on relevant speech </h2>



This capacity relates to what scientists call the “cocktail party effect” - our ability to focus on a single voice amid background noise.



Humans can pick out meaningful speech in a noisy room. This study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> may have a similar skill. Despite irrelevant noise and monotone delivery, they managed to isolate commands meant for them.



The dogs also performed better when a brief pause preceded the command, suggesting they use subtle structural cues to detect speech boundaries. This resembles how human infants learn to segment words.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-tone-boosts-attention">Emotional tone boosts attention</h2>



To better understand how tone and content influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-say-goodbye-before-they-die-these-signs-will-tell-you-if-your-friend-is-leaving-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, the researchers ran two experiments. First, they examined responses to DDS and NRP with and without meaningful content. Then, they tested if dogs reacted differently based on the speaker’s gender.



In the prosody experiment, dogs showed the most attention to DDS with meaningful phrases. But they also responded - though less often - to meaningful words in neutral tone. Surprisingly, they reacted to DDS-control phrases (with no meaning) as much as to NRP-meaningful phrases.



"So, this means that they're listening to us all the time and can pick out their name, but they will pay more attention if you give them both cues. So, 'Sheba, come on then' gets more attention from her if you sound eager to see her," noted Dr. Root-Gutteridge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-aren-t-just-responding-to-tone">Dogs aren't just responding to tone </h2>



In a follow-up experiment, the researchers explored whether dogs responded differently to male and female owners. While women tend to use more exaggerated DDS, the dogs didn’t show a clear preference. Both male and female speakers prompted similar responses.



"We show that dogs can recognize speech information relevant to them in the absence of the usual prosody we use when we address them," noted Professor David Reby, the project’s lead.



This suggests that the ability to perceive verbal content isn't just a reaction to tone or pitch. It may be tied to something deeper, like neural architecture adapted through domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-break-speech-down">Dogs break speech down</h2>



Dogs may be using a process similar to speech segmentation, long studied in humans. This is the ability to split a continuous flow of sound into distinct, meaningful units. 



Infants learn it early on, using pitch, pauses, and patterns. Dogs seem to possess a version of this ability too.



They respond to repeated phonemes and meaningful words embedded in flat speech. Some even outperformed one-year-old human infants in earlier name-recognition tests. This points to a strong capacity for statistical learning and familiar sound identification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-understand-speech-content">Dogs understand speech content</h2>



The researchers concluded that while DDS helps grab attention, dogs can still process flat speech. This means our furry friends might understand more than we think - especially when we say something they’ve heard often.



Dogs' attention was highest when meaningful content was paired with DDS. However, they still showed notable responses when only one of these cues was present. So, if you’re giving commands without the usual cheerful tone, your dog might still catch on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-animals">Implications for other animals</h2>



This study has deep implications. It suggests that dogs aren't just tuned to our emotional expressions - they're truly listening for meaning. 



Future research might explore how well this applies to other species like cats or horses, or whether wild relatives like wolves show similar abilities.



The research team also hopes to study whether voice familiarity strengthens word recognition in dogs. Since human babies benefit from familiar voices, the same might be true for our pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-history-of-listening">A long history of listening</h2>



Dogs have evolved alongside humans for over 14,000 years. This deep bond likely shaped their ability to understand us. While we’ve long known they respond to tone, this study proves they’re paying closer attention than we assumed.



Their ability to sift through speech, identify relevant phrases, and respond - regardless of tone - marks a new chapter in human-animal communication.



And next time you think your dog isn’t paying attention because you didn’t use a cheerful voice - think again. They might be listening all along.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01948-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dogs can understand words even in monotone speech

We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding,...

In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have identified a previously unknown butterfly species hiding in plain sight.&nbsp;



Long mistaken for the Half-moon Hairstreak (Satyrium semiluna), the butterflies found in the Blakiston Fan region have now been named Satyrium curiosolus, or the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak.



This discovery reveals the species’ unique evolutionary path, suggesting it has remained cut off from its closest relatives for tens of thousands of years - potentially as long as 40,000 years - slowly evolving into a distinct population both genetically and ecologically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-completely-isolated-butterfly-population">A completely isolated butterfly population</h2>



Zac MacDonald, co-first author of the study, is a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA’s Institute of the Environment and Sustainability</a>. 



“Our whole-genome sequencing of S. curiosolus revealed strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low genetic diversity</a> and exceptionally high levels of historical inbreeding compared to the geographically nearest S. semiluna populations in British Columbia and Montana, more than 400 km distant,” said MacDonald.



Despite its small size, the species appears to have persisted independently for millennia. “Like the Channel Island Fox, S. curiosolus may have purged some of its harmful recessive genetic variation through a long, gradual history of inbreeding, allowing it to persist as a small and completely isolated population today,” MacDonald added.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> is not only genetically distinct, but also occupies a unique prairie-grassland habitat, unlike its relatives, which typically reside in sagebrush steppe ecosystems. It has adapted to a different set of environmental conditions, relying exclusively on the silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus) as its host plant - a species not used by S. semiluna populations in British Columbia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-mutualistic-partnership">A rare mutualistic partnership</h2>



In another unexpected twist, the study uncovered a mutualistic bond between S. curiosolus larvae and a specific ant species.&nbsp;



“Furthermore, we recently discovered that S. curiosolus larvae have mutualistic relationships with a particular species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> (Lasius ponderosae), which has not been observed in other S. semiluna populations,” said co-author James Glasier, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.calgaryzoo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo</a>.



The caterpillars secrete a sugary substance known as honeydew, which the ants consume. In exchange, the ants protect the larvae from predators and parasites. 



Caterpillars even retreat into ant nests when disturbed or during extreme temperatures, while adult females strategically lay eggs near the entrances of ant colonies beneath silvery lupines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-canada-s-isolated-butterfly">Protecting Canada's isolated butterfly</h2>



Formally recognizing S. curiosolus as a distinct species has critical implications for conservation. Its long isolation has led to very low genetic variability, which can make adaptation to environmental shifts more difficult.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-foxes-montane-need-genetic-rescue-as-they-edge-near-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic rescue</a> - introducing individuals from closely related populations to increase genetic diversity - is often proposed in such cases. But for S. curiosolus, this approach may not be feasible.



Due to the high degree of differentiation from S. semiluna, the risk of outbreeding depression - where introduced genes reduce fitness - is high. In fact, the species may not even be reproductively compatible with its closest relatives. 



Alternative conservation strategies, such as establishing new populations in safe habitats, may be necessary to preserve this butterfly’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-tools-advance-biodiversity-studies">Genomic tools advance biodiversity studies</h2>



Co-first author Julian Dupuis, an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky, noted that the discovery of S. curiosolus is a powerful demonstration of how genomics is revolutionizing taxonomy and conservation.



“While traditional taxonomic methods often rely on morphology alone, our study underscores the importance of integrating genomic and ecological data to uncover hidden diversity," said Dupuis.



"With the rise of genomic tools, previously unrecognized species like S. curiosolus are being discovered, highlighting the need for conservation strategies that account for cryptic biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-complex-conservation-challenges">Tackling complex conservation challenges </h2>



This kind of research would not be possible without strong partnerships. Academic institutions, national parks, and conservation groups worked together to make the discovery possible.



“Our studies on S. curiosolus and S. semiluna highlight the importance of collaboration between academic scientists, nonprofit organizations, and conservation managers,” MacDonald said. “All of this work was made possible through partnerships between academic researchers, <a href="https://parks.canada.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parks Canada</a>, and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo.”&nbsp;



“By combining expertise in genomics, field ecology, and conservation management, we were able to produce findings that not only reshape our understanding of biodiversity but also provide actionable insights for species protection.”&nbsp;



MacDonald noted that moving forward, these interdisciplinary collaborations will be critical for tackling complex conservation challenges and ensuring the long-term survival of species like S. curiosolus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-isolated-butterfly">Significance of the isolated butterfly </h2>



Now that the isolated butterfly Satyrium curiosolus has been officially recognized, the researchers emphasize that further study is needed. Investigating its evolutionary relationships, interactions with host plants and ant species, and responses to climate change will be essential. 



Long-term monitoring led by Parks Canada and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo will help determine how the butterfly copes with ongoing environmental shifts.



“This is a wonderful example of how such monitoring can connect diverse approaches and impactful answers to a simple question like ‘that’s odd - why is it there?’” said senior author Felix Sperling, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a> and curator of the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/museums/museum-collections/eh-strickland-entomological-museum.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Strickland Museum of Entomology</a>.



For now, the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak serves as a reminder of how even the smallest, most overlooked creatures can play a vital role in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> - and in shaping how we protect it for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/143893/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



Image Credit: MacDonald et al.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Curiously isolated’ butterfly found in Canada's Rocky Mountains

In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have...

For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed with single‑celled microbes that shuffled along at a slow biochemical pace -- life, but not complex. 



It lacked ample phosphorus, the nutrient every cell needs for DNA assembly, membrane stability, and ATP energy swaps. Rivers dripped only trace amounts of phosphorus into seawater, holding biology to pint‑size proportions and throttling evolutionary experiments in body size.



Evidence for that long famine sits in ancient mudstones, which contain scant phosphate minerals compared with younger rocks. 



Productivity lagged; oxygen production stayed low; food chains hid in microscopic layers. When phosphorus finally surged, life gained the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-ingredients-building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroid-bennu-dust-sample/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> to try larger, more complex designs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-chaos-and-complex-life">Volcanic chaos and complex life</h2>



About 2.1 billion years ago, the Congo and São Francisco continental blocks slammed together. 



Their collision squeezed faults, stirred magma, and unleashed underwater volcanoes across a shallow inland sea now preserved as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franceville_basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francevillian sub‑basin</a> in Gabon. 



Eruptions pumped phosphorus‑rich fluids straight into the water and walled the basin off from the wider ocean.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycling-in-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyanobacteria</a> thrived in this enclosed lagoon, releasing oxygen and burying carbon as fast as nutrients arrived. 



The chemical bloom raised local energy budgets many times over, creating conditions that favored bigger bodies and cooperative cell assemblies rather than lone bacterial drifters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-discovery-challenges-timeline">Fossil discovery challenges timeline</h2>



Black shales from the basin hold disc‑shaped, ribbon‑shaped, and leaf‑shaped impressions up to six inches long - giants for their day. 



Their regular outlines and clustering hint at biological growth rather than odd mineral concretions. They appear in the same sedimentary layers that show the phosphorus spike, linking anatomy to chemistry.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1s.webp" alt="The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France" class="wp-image-1966454"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France</figcaption></figure>



If these forms truly represent multicellular life, they push the arrival of complex organisms back by roughly 1.5 billion years. 



That jump rewrites the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-life-ice-ages-gave-evolution-a-kick-start/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary timeline</a>, showing that animals were not the first to test large size; earlier prototypes surfaced when nutrients and oxygen briefly aligned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-meets-biology">Chemistry meets biology</h2>



The new work, led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a> geobiologist Dr. Ernest Chi Fru, pairs detailed rock chemistry with fossil mapping. 



“The availability of phosphorus in the environment is thought to be a key component in the evolution of life on Earth, especially in the transition from simple single‑celled organisms to complex organisms like animals and plants," Dr. Chi Fru explained.



“We already know that increases in marine phosphorus and seawater oxygen concentrations are linked to an episode of biological evolution around 635 million years ago. Our study adds another, much earlier episode into the record, 2.1 billion years ago.”



Digging into the basin’s history, Dr. Chi Fru explained that the volcanic activity following the collision of continental blocks likely isolated the basin from the global ocean, creating a nutrient-rich inland sea. 



This stable environment supported abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-once-a-green-marble-before-its-oceans-turned-blue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanobacterial photosynthesis</a>, which in turn oxygenated the water and generated enough energy to support larger, more complex life forms like those seen in the fossils from the period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-complex-life-experiment-stalled">Why the complex life experiment stalled</h2>



Outside the Francevillian lagoon, oceans still lacked phosphorus and carried little oxygen. Larger creatures would have struggled in those harsh surroundings. 



The basin’s shoreline barrier turned the ecosystem into a biological bubble; when volcanic vents cooled and nutrient flow faded, conditions reverted and the macro‑organisms vanished.



Their failure to spread shows that evolution tests possibilities whenever resources allow, but those trials can fizzle if the wider planet remains hostile. 



Complexity needs both innovation and the freedom to roam - something the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic world</a> could not yet provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-steps-to-modern-animals">Two steps to modern animals</h2>



Researchers see a “two‑step” path. The Francevillian pulse marks step one, following the first known rise in atmospheric oxygen. 



Step two arrived nearly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.5 billion years later</a>, when another oxygen surge met a more sustained supply of nutrients during the Ediacaran period. 



That tandem lifted complex life beyond isolated pockets, setting the stage for the Cambrian explosion and the diverse animals that populate Earth now.



The record hints that ample phosphorus may be as critical as oxygen for forging ecosystems full of active, energy‑demanding organisms. Without both factors in play, biology tends to stay microscopic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Astrobiologists comb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet atmospheres</a> for oxygen because it signals possible photosynthesis. The Francevillian story suggests they should also weigh a planet’s phosphorus cycle. 



A world awash in oxygen but starved of phosphate could linger in a microbial phase for eons. Conversely, tectonic quirks that sprinkle oceans with phosphate might jump‑start evolutionary leaps.



Phosphorus, then, is more than fertilizer for terrestrial crops. It is a potential cosmic throttle on complexity, deciding whether life remains small or reaches for new biological heights.



-----



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926824001669?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precambrian Research</a>.



Image Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Is this a fossil? If so, complex life on Earth emerged 1.5 billion years earlier

For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed...

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven into the fabric of our societies. It helps people cooperate, build friendships, and resolve conflicts. But empathy is not unique to humans. Across the animal kingdom, from elephants to the bonobos, behaviors hint at emotional connections that transcend species boundaries.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> in the UK delves into how two of our closest living relatives — the bonobo and the chimpanzee — express empathy, challenging long-held assumptions and deepening our understanding of emotional evolution.



This study does more than just compare species. It explores how individual personalities, social bonds, and community structures shape emotional behaviors. Led by Dr. Jake Brooker, the research opens a new chapter in the story of human and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> empathy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-and-chimps-show-similar-empathy">Bonobos and chimps show similar empathy</h2>



Traditionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> have enjoyed a reputation as the "empathic ape," while chimpanzees have been cast as aggressive and political. However, Brooker’s study found that both species comfort others at similar rates.



Observations spanned 1,400 hours, covering 40 bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of Congo and 50 chimpanzees at the <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> in Zambia. 



Researchers focused on how individuals reacted to distress events like fights, recording spontaneous gestures of consolation, including embracing, hand grasping, and soothing touches.



“For a long time, bonobos have been thought of as the more empathic ape, whilst chimpanzees are typically spoken about as the violent, despotic ape. However, we found that chimpanzees are just as likely to console one another as bonobos,” said Dr. Brooker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-apes-offer-comfort-more-often">Young apes offer comfort more often</h2>



Age played a significant role in consolation patterns. Younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> were more likely to offer comfort compared to their older counterparts, a trend observed across both species.



In bonobos, young individuals actively both consoled and received consolation. In chimpanzees, young males and close social partners were the primary sources of comfort. These findings echo observations in human children, who often show concern for others even before their first birthday.



The study suggests that emotional sensitivity emerges early and may diminish as individuals mature and navigate complex social hierarchies. Dr. Brooker’s team highlighted that empathy is likely intrinsic rather than solely learned through experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-drives-empathy-in-bonobos">What drives empathy in bonobos?</h2>



One of the standout discoveries was the role of social relationships. Among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, kinship mattered deeply. Individuals were far more likely to console relatives than non-kin. In contrast, chimpanzees prioritized close social bonds over genetic ties when offering comfort.



“Although empathy is very important for our own species, our findings show that empathic behaviours, like consolation, appear to be a common trait we also share with our two closest ape relatives,” said Professor Zanna Clay, senior author of the study. 



This highlights an important point: empathy is not only about feeling another’s distress but is also influenced by relational closeness, just as it is among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-flexibility-within-ape-communities">Emotional flexibility within ape communities</h2>



Variation within species eclipsed differences between species. Some groups showed stronger tendencies toward consolation based on their unique social environments.



For instance, young male chimpanzees were especially active in consoling peers but became less so with age, suggesting social ambition could influence empathic behavior during development. 



In bonobos, higher-ranked individuals were more likely to console, while lower-ranked members appeared more restrained.



“Just like humans, bonobos and chimpanzees may flexibly show empathy depending on the individual, the group, and the surrounding social culture,” Dr. Brooker noted. 



This points to a flexible empathy that shifts according to social conditions and personal traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-depends-more-on-social-context">Empathy depends more on social context</h2>



The study also connects behavioral trends with biological differences. Previous research shows bonobos have more serotonergic fibers in the amygdala, a brain region crucial for emotion regulation. They also possess genetic differences associated with social bonding tendencies.



Despite these neurological distinctions, this study found no overarching difference in the likelihood of consolation between the two species. Empathy-related behaviors appeared instead to be more responsive to social and individual contexts.



This finding challenges ideas that neurobiology alone can predict empathic tendencies. Instead, it emphasizes how emotional expressions are shaped within dynamic social landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consolation-reflect-deep-evolutionary-roots">Consolation reflect deep evolutionary roots</h2>



The behavior of bonobos and chimpanzees adds to a growing body of evidence showing that empathy has ancient evolutionary origins. Consolation behaviors similar to those seen in apes have been documented in elephants, rodents, and even some bird species.



“Finding these overlaps between our two close cousins suggests our last common ancestor likely showed these empathic capacities too. A next step will be to see how much these patterns are also observed in other settings, particularly in the wild,” said Dr. Clay.



This evolutionary perspective deepens our understanding of where human empathy might have originated and suggests that the roots of our emotional lives are much older than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-empathy-in-wild-natural-settings">Ape empathy in wild natural settings</h2>



One of the major recommendations from this study is the need for broader, cross-setting comparisons. Sanctuaries offer semi-natural environments, but understanding how these behaviors manifest in wild populations will be crucial.



Studying more communities could reveal how local conditions, cultural traditions, and ecological pressures influence the expression of consolation and empathy. 



Future research could also explore how demographic factors, such as the presence of juveniles or social network complexity, shape emotional responses in different communities.



The Durham team plans to pursue such questions to build a richer picture of emotional evolution. They believe that understanding emotional flexibility among our closest relatives will illuminate important aspects of human nature itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-is-shaped-by-social-lives">Empathy is shaped by social lives </h2>



Brooker’s study redefines how we think about empathy in our closest relatives. It challenges outdated notions of species-wide emotional profiles and shows that individual differences and social environments hold the key.



Both bonobos and chimpanzees can express profound empathy, but how, when, and to whom they show it depends on who they are and the world they live in. Just like humans, their emotional lives are complex, dynamic, and deeply social.



The research was funded by the Templeton World Charity Foundation and sets the stage for a new wave of empathy studies across the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513825000315?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution and Human Behavior</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobos and chimps express empathy much like humans

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven...

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However, shark bites remain rare. Only about 100 happen globally each year, and roughly 10% are fatal.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharks</a> bite for many reasons. They might act out of competition, territorialism, or predation. Now, researchers have identified another reason: self-defense.



Dr. Eric Clua is a shark specialist and researcher at Université PSL and the first author of the study.



“We show that defensive bites by sharks on humans - a reaction to initial human aggression - are a reality and that the animal should not be considered responsible or at fault when they occur,” said Dr. Clua. "These bites are simply a manifestation of survival instinct, and the responsibility for the incident needs to be reversed.”



This discovery challenges common views. It suggests sharks often bite as an instinctive response, not as cold-blooded attackers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-because-they-feel-threatened">Sharks bite because they feel threatened</h2>



Negative interactions between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> are not new. However, they have increased with more human activity at sea. Management now aims to minimize lethal responses to wildlife.



Sharks, much like land animals, react defensively when provoked. Yet self-defense motivations in sharks were rarely explored until recently. French Polynesia, with an exclusive economic zone that spans 5.5 million square kilometers, provided key insights.



Between 2009 and 2023, 74 shark bites were documented in French Polynesia. Four were strongly linked to self-defense. This proportion, about five percent, matches global trends when activities like spearfishing and fish trap use are considered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-shark-bites-happen-without-warning">Many shark bites happen without warning </h2>



Self-defense bites arise when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> feel threatened by human actions. Activities like spearfishing or grabbing sharks often trigger these responses. Warning signs are rare or absent. Defensive bites usually cause superficial, non-lethal wounds.



This pattern is not unique to sharks. Bears and cassowaries also react similarly, defending themselves without a lethal intent.



“Some species of coastal shark, such as the gray reef shark, are both particularly territorial and bold enough to come to contact with humans,” said Dr. Clua. A human merely intruding their space could be enough.



Repeated bites during defensive events were noted, though fatalities remained rare. In many cases, minor to moderate injuries occurred, reinforcing the non-predatory nature of these incidents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-may-react-with-strong-defense">Sharks may react with strong defense</h2>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> react in self-defense, the force may seem excessive compared to the human action.



“We need to consider the not very intuitive idea that sharks are very cautious towards humans and are generally afraid of them,” noted Dr. Clua.



“The sharks’ disproportionate reaction probably is the immediate mobilization of their survival instinct. It is highly improbable that they would integrate revenge into their behavior and remain above all pragmatic about their survival.”



This reaction closely mirrors human behavior under threat. Defenders often inflict greater harm than the attacker intends.



Additionally, there is no proportional link between human aggression and shark bite severity. Tooth anatomy and shark size primarily influence injury outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-studies-from-french-polynesia">Case studies from French Polynesia</h2>



Detailed case studies shed light on real-world self-defense bites. One case involved two spearfishermen at Makemo Atoll in 2016. After injuring a gray reef shark, the animal retaliated, inflicting multiple non-lethal wounds.



Another case focused on traditional fish traps. Fishers entering traps to retrieve fish sometimes confronted trapped sharks. Attempts to spear sharks often triggered defensive bites.



A third case documented scientists trying to handle a blacktip reef shark for sampling. An improper grip allowed the shark to bite a scientist’s hand. These incidents illustrate that even non-aggressive handling attempts can trigger defensive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-defense-bites-are-common">Self-defense bites are common </h2>



Globally, self-defense bites represent about 4.6% of all recorded shark bites, closely matching French Polynesian observations. Data from the <a href="https://www.sharkattackfile.net" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Shark Attack Files</a> supports this estimate.



For instance, Australian data shows that Wobbegong sharks often bite defensively when accidentally disturbed. This finding highlights that self-defense biting is not region-specific but widespread among various species.



The media often fails to differentiate these events, labeling them all as "attacks," which harms shark conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-shark-bites">Preventing shark bites</h2>



Avoiding aggressive or intrusive actions toward sharks is key to staying safe. Even well-meaning rescue attempts can be perceived as threats.



“Do not interact physically with a shark, even if it appears harmless or is in distress. It may at any moment consider this to be an aggression and react accordingly,” said Dr. Clua. “These are potentially dangerous animals, and not touching them is not only wise, but also a sign of the respect we owe them.”



Touching stranded sharks can lead to defensive bites. Their flexible bodies allow them to turn quickly and strike even when handled gently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-to-survive">Sharks bite to survive</h2>



Recognizing self-defense as a motivation changes how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> incidents should be understood and managed. People must acknowledge their role in provoking many incidents.



This understanding can shift media narratives and reduce unjustified fears. Better reporting can also support shark conservation efforts, crucial for preserving ocean ecosystems.



Self-defense bites reveal sharks as cautious, pragmatic survivors rather than ruthless killers. Humans must revise their attitudes and actions when interacting with these animals.



Reducing aggressive encounters and respecting sharks' space could lower incident rates. Meanwhile, more accurate media representation could significantly aid global shark conservation initiatives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1562502/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sharks often bite people in self-defense, not to attack

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However,...

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed islands - some buried in sediment, others still alive. Off the coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, researchers have made a discovery that rewrites part of crocodilian history. Two isolated island populations - one on Cozumel, the other on Banco Chinchorro - have been identified as distinct species of crocodiles.



For decades, these animals were assumed to be American crocodiles, part of the species Crocodylus acutus, which ranges from Baja California to Venezuela and across the Caribbean. 



But new research reveals that these island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> are not merely remote relatives. They are genetically and physically distinct - products of isolation, adaptation, and evolutionary divergence.



This revelation comes from an international team led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, working alongside Mexican institutions. Their findings mark a turning point in crocodile biology and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-new-crocodile-species">Saving the new crocodile species </h2>



“Biodiversity is disappearing faster than we can discover what we're losing,” said Professor Hans Larsson, who led the study. His team’s goal was to explore hidden patterns of crocodile diversity before development and climate change erased them. 



Crocodiles are often seen as ancient, unchanging predators. Yet in the islands of the Yucatán, they tell a story of dynamic evolution and ecological specialization.



Island species often evolve rapidly, separated from their mainland ancestors by currents, storms, and time. 



The two island populations - Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro - are part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, where prevailing ocean currents reduce genetic exchange with nearby coasts. These natural barriers, acting over thousands of years, allowed isolated populations to take new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary paths</a>.



Each island’s reptiles have stayed hidden in plain sight, their differences mistaken for regional quirks. But as the study shows, these are not minor variations. They are evidence of distinct evolutionary histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-crocodiles-are-two-separate-species">Island crocodiles are two separate species</h2>



To uncover the truth, Larsson’s team used Restriction-site Associated DNA Sequencing (RAD-seq), analyzing over 13,000 polymorphic genetic markers across crocodile populations from the Caribbean, Pacific Mexico, and Central America. 



They found that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro crocodiles had exceptionally high numbers of unique alleles and genetic diversity, despite their small population sizes.



“These results were totally unexpected,” said José Avila-Cervantes, the study’s lead author and former student in Larsson’s lab. 



Avila-Cervantes explained how they originally assumed all sampled animals were members of a single widespread species. But population structure analyses, genetic clustering algorithms, and phylogenetic reconstructions told a different story.



The team discovered that the two island populations form their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic clusters</a> with no signs of admixture. Their genetic divergence from mainland Crocodylus acutus populations is greater than what separates some recognized crocodile species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-level-distinction-confirmed">Species-level distinction confirmed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetics</a> wasn't the only signal of divergence. The researchers also analyzed skull shapes using geometric morphometrics. These analyses revealed dramatic differences in cranial morphology between island crocodiles and their mainland counterparts.



Cozumel crocodiles have notably long and narrow snouts - described as “longirostrine.” In contrast, Banco Chinchorro crocodiles have broader skulls adapted for durophagy, likely to help them crush hard-shelled prey.



Morphospace analysis placed each population in distinct zones, confirming that their physical differences mirrored their genetic splits.



Morphological distinctions extend to scale patterns as well. Banco Chinchorro individuals possess a greater number of post-occipital and nuchal scales, while Cozumel individuals have more irregular caudal scales. These features support species-level separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-species-evolved-in-isolation">Crocodile species evolved in isolation</h2>



Genomic modeling suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations have been genetically isolated for over 11,000 years. That’s long enough for new traits to evolve and for species to diverge.



Estimates suggest each island holds only 500 to 700 effective breeding individuals. While these numbers might seem modest, they are significantly larger than previously thought and are adequate to maintain genetic diversity, especially in isolated systems.



These findings highlight how isolation by environment - not just distance - can drive rapid evolutionary changes. Unlike other Crocodylus acutus populations, these two groups have adapted to harsh, specific conditions on their islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-extremes">Adapting to extremes</h2>



Banco Chinchorro is a small atoll in the Caribbean Sea, distant from the mainland and sparsely inhabited by humans. Its crocodile population has developed exceptional traits to survive in this setting. Lagoon salinity on the atoll reaches levels as high as 65 ppt — more than twice the salinity of typical seawater.



Crocodiles here have adapted to tolerate these hypersaline conditions. Hatchlings survive in salt-saturated nursery sites, and adults exhibit slower growth rates, smaller clutch sizes, and reduced egg mass. 



“The lower reproductive parameters for crocodiles in Banco Chinchorro are probably related to a smaller size of nesting females,” noted the researchers.



These ecological pressures are shaping the biology of the population. Females reach maturity at smaller sizes, and survival strategies now depend on both physiological tolerance and geographic seclusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crocodiles-in-cozumel">Protecting crocodiles in Cozumel</h2>



Cozumel, in contrast, is a much larger island, closer to the Yucatán mainland and more affected by human activity. Urban development, tourism, and invasive species have introduced several stressors. Yet even here, the crocodile population shows signs of stable reproduction and unique genetic makeup.



Despite facing habitat fragmentation and limited protection compared to Banco Chinchorro, Cozumel’s crocodiles have preserved distinct traits and high genetic variation. The study calls for stronger protective measures to preserve their ecological niche.



Recognizing these reptiles as separate species could be the first step toward securing their future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-new-crocodile-species">Naming the new crocodile species</h2>



The study suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations should be officially described and named as new species. Doing so would have major conservation implications. 



These crocodiles could become flagship species for preserving Caribbean mangrove ecosystems, which are under constant threat.



“Now that we recognize these crocodiles as distinct species, it's crucial to protect their habitats. Limiting land development and implementing careful conservation strategies on Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro will be key to ensuring their survival,” said Larsson.



Because Banco Chinchorro is already designated as a Biosphere Reserve, it provides a model for effective conservation. Cozumel, however, has fragmented protections, and needs more attention from policymakers and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-new-species">The evolution of new species</h2>



The discovery of these island crocodiles serves as a powerful reminder: evolution is not a closed chapter. It continues, quietly and sometimes dramatically, in the overlooked corners of the natural world.



The crocodiles of Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro are not just relics of the past. They are living examples of how isolation, environment, and time can create new life forms. 



These new species may be rare, but they are real - and now, with science and will, perhaps they can be protected too.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790325000582?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



Image Credit: McGill University.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hidden in isolation: Two new crocodile species found in Mexico

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed...

species in Aegiridae

News coming your way