A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

A violin the size of a speck of dust might sound like a joke - but it’s real. It can’t be played, yet it’s crafted with precision, humor, and high-tech skill.



This tiny violin, smaller than a single strand of human hair, isn’t just a novelty. It’s a clever demonstration of how far technology has come - and an unexpected gateway to future computing breakthroughs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-violin-with-a-big-purpose">A tiny violin with a big purpose</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loughborough University</a> have created a violin so small it measures just 35 microns long and 13 microns wide. A micron is one-millionth of a meter.



For comparison, even the famously tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-a-16-million-year-old-tardigrade-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a>, or “water bears,” are much larger - typically measuring between 50 and 1,200 microns.



Why a violin? It’s a nod to a popular phrase used to mock overly dramatic complaints: “Can you hear the world’s smallest violin playing just for you?” 



The saying, often paired with a pinched-finger gesture mimicking violin playing, dates back to 1970s TV and has since reappeared in shows like SpongeBob SquarePants and cultural commentaries.



But this microscopic violin isn’t just a cultural wink. It’s the product of serious research and sophisticated technology. The violin was created to demonstrate the capabilities of the university’s new nanolithography system - a laboratory-scale platform designed to work at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-put-nanoscale-tattoos-onto-individual-cells-inside-your-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoscale</a>.



“Though creating the world's smallest violin may seem like fun and games, a lot of what we've learned in the process has actually laid the groundwork for the research we're now undertaking,” said Professor Kelly Morrison, head of the Physics Department.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/xsnqYDVSUTM?si=-i66BFJnygHUZhV7
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Physicists at Loughborough University have used advanced nanotechnology to create what may be the world’s smallest violin.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-nano-sculpting">A new era of nano-sculpting</h2>



At the heart of this effort is a machine called the NanoFrazor. It uses thermal scanning probe lithography - a process where a heated, needle-like tip “writes” detailed designs at the nanoscale. 



First, a tiny chip is coated with two layers of a gel-like material called a resist. The NanoFrazor then burns the violin design into the top layer.



Once the pattern is set, the exposed areas are dissolved, leaving a violin-shaped cavity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Platinum</a> is then applied in a thin coat, and the remaining material is rinsed away to reveal the miniature instrument.



This entire process happens in a tightly controlled environment. The lab uses gloveboxes and sealed chambers to avoid contamination by dust or moisture. Moving a chip from one stage to another is done using robotic arms operated from outside the enclosure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-the-tiny-violin">Creating the tiny violin </h2>



Each violin takes about three hours to make. But the final version took months to perfect as the team tested and refined their process.



“Our nanolithography system allows us to design experiments that probe materials in different ways - using light, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/altermagnetism-third-form-of-magnetism-existence-confirmed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetism</a>, or electricity - and observe their responses,” Professor Morrison explained.



“Once we understand how materials behave, we can start applying that knowledge to develop new technologies, whether it's improving computing efficiency or finding new ways to harvest energy. But first, we need to understand the fundamental science and this system enables us to do just that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-heat-into-an-ally">Turning heat into an ally</h2>



The team is already using the nanolithography system in several research projects. One project explores how controlled heating could help create faster, more energy-efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-devices-can-actually-improve-our-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital devices</a>.



Dr. Naëmi Leo, a UKRI Future Leaders Fellow, is using the system to examine how precisely managed heat can be used in data storage. 



Most modern electronics lose energy as heat, reducing efficiency and even damaging components. But when heat is unevenly distributed - hot on one side, cooler on the other - it can generate useful physical effects.



Dr. Leo’s work aims to harness these effects by combining magnetic and electric materials with nanoparticles that convert light into heat. The nanolithography system is key to this effort, allowing these complex structures to be patterned with extreme precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-generation-of-memory-devices">Next generation of memory devices</h2>



Another project led by Dr. Fasil Dejene focuses on magnetic data storage. Current hard drives store data using nanometer-sized magnetic bits read by a tiny magnetic sensor. As devices get smaller and more efficient, these magnetic bits become harder to maintain reliably.



Dr. Dejene is exploring whether emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lasers-make-quantum-materials-reveal-their-hidden-properties/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum materials</a> could create better memory devices - smaller, faster, and more stable. His research could even contribute to “neuromorphic” computing, where systems mimic the human brain.



Using the nanolithography system, he can build nanoscale prototypes of magnetic sensors and test how they compare to today’s technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-violin-what-s-next">Beyond the violin: What's next?</h2>



“I’m really excited about the level of control and possibilities we have with the set-up,” Professor Morrison said. “I’m looking forward to seeing what I can achieve - but also what everyone else can do with the system.”



While the tiny platinum violin may be a fun footnote, the research it sparked is anything but trivial. In fact, it might just play a big part in the future of computing.



Image/ Video Credit: Loughborough University



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists create a violin smaller than a human hair

A violin the size of a speck of dust might...

In a major step toward open science, an international team of researchers has released what is now the largest and most detailed map of the universe ever created.



The project is called COSMOS-Web, and it captures nearly all of cosmic history in one expansive dataset. Created using data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the newly released map includes images and a catalog of nearly 800,000 galaxies.



The scientists behind this effort are from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the Rochester Institute of Technology. The team has constructed a panoramic view of the universe that challenges long-standing ideas about how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earliest galaxies formed</a>.



"Our goal was to construct this deep field of space on a physical scale that far exceeded anything that had been done before," said Professor Caitlin Casey, who co-leads the COSMOS-Web collaboration alongside Jeyhan Kartaltepe of the Rochester Institute of Technology.



"If you had a printout of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field on a standard piece of paper, our image would be slightly larger than a 13-foot by 13-foot-wide mural, at the same depth. So it's really strikingly large."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-early-universe">Peering into the early universe</h2>



The image captures the universe as it appeared roughly 13.5 billion years ago. Given that the universe itself is about 13.8 billion years old, this map spans approximately 98% of cosmic history.



The team wanted to do more than spot distant galaxies. The goal was to place these objects within their environments. The researchers hoped to understand where and how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odd-galaxy-may-hold-clues-to-the-first-stars-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first stars</a>, galaxies, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-formed-through-a-merger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes formed</a> and evolved.



"The cosmos is organized in dense regions and voids," Casey explained. "And we wanted to go beyond finding the most distant galaxies; we wanted to get that broader context of where they lived."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-galaxies-than-anyone-expected">More galaxies than anyone expected</h2>



Before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-celebrates-one-year-anniversary-with-stunning-new-image-of-rho-ophiuchi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a> began its observations, astronomers had made predictions based on older instruments like the Hubble Space Telescope. They thought galaxies within the first 500 million years after the Big Bang would be extremely rare.



"It makes sense - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a> happens and things take time to gravitationally collapse and form, and for stars to turn on. There's a timescale associated with that," noted Professor Casey.



"And the big surprise is that with JWST, we see roughly 10 times more galaxies than expected at these incredible distances. We're also seeing supermassive black holes that are not even visible with Hubble."



"And they're not just seeing more," she added. "They're seeing different types of galaxies and black holes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-than-answers">More questions than answers</h2>



The new data may be one of the most detailed views of the early universe ever made, but it doesn't tie up loose ends. In fact, according to Professor Casey, it’s raising more questions than it answers.



"Since the telescope turned on we've been wondering 'Are these JWST datasets breaking the cosmological model?'" 



"Because the universe was producing too much light too early; it had only about 400 million years to form something like a billion solar masses of stars." 



"We just do not know how to make that happen. So, lots of details to unpack, and lots of unanswered questions," said Professor Casey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-universe-map">Sharing the universe map</h2>



This project marks more than just a scientific milestone - it signals a shift in how astronomy is done. By releasing the largest map of the universe and making its data public, the team hopes to spark new discoveries by astronomers worldwide.



"A big part of this project is the democratization of science and making tools and data from the best telescopes accessible to the broader community," Casey said.



While the data was released almost immediately after collection, it was initially in raw form. That format was only useful to experts with the skills - and computing power - to process it. 



Over the past two years, the COSMOS collaboration has worked to convert that raw information into accessible images and catalogs. Now, even undergraduate students and independent researchers can explore the early universe.



"Because the best science is really done when everyone thinks about the same data set differently," Casey said. "It's not just for one group of people to figure out the mysteries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



But the exploration doesn’t end here. The COSMOS team is returning to the deep field to continue mapping and studying what lies beyond.



"We have more data collection coming up," noted Professor Casey. "We think we have identified the earliest galaxies in the image, but we need to verify that."



The researchers will use spectroscopy, a method that breaks light into its component colors, to determine just how far away - and how ancient - these galaxies truly are.



"As a byproduct, we'll get to understand the interstellar chemistry in these systems through tracing nitrogen, carbon and oxygen," said Professor Casey. "There's a lot left to learn and we're just beginning to scratch the surface."



The COSMOS-Web image is available to <a href="https://cosmos2025.iap.fr/fitsmap.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">browse interactively</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/astrophysical-journal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/journals/astronomy-astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: M. Franco / C. Casey / COSMOS-Web collaboration



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Largest-ever map of the universe reveals 800,000 galaxies

In a major step toward open science, an international team...

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride pressed into wet river mud - three clawed toes, each the length of a hand. Minutes later, the water receded, silt drifted over the mark, and the print was saved for posterity. 



Fast-forward 120 million years, and that fossilized step helps rewrite the map of an ancient world.



Back in the Early Cretaceous, Cameroon was stitched to the elbow of northeastern Brazil. There was no Atlantic Ocean, only a low, swampy plain linking the two landmasses. 



Long-necked plant-eaters lumbered through reed beds, sharp-toothed hunters trailed them, and every footfall wrote a record in clay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-pre-atlantic-ocean">Dinosaur tracks pre-Atlantic Ocean</h2>



Geologists call that vanished landscape <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gondwana" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, the southern supercontinent that had only recently split from Pangea. 



Around 140 million years ago, tectonic forces tugged at its seams, opening rifts that would become the South Atlantic. 



Even as magma welled up offshore, rivers still braided across the future ocean floor, allowing wildlife to wander freely between the continents. 



Those paths are now exposed in two places more than 3,700 miles apart: the Koum Basin of Cameroon and the Borborema region of Brazil.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho." class="wp-image-1973174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho.</figcaption></figure>



The connection comes into sharp relief thanks to a study led by paleontologist <a href="https://www.smu.edu/dedman/academics/departments/earth-sciences/people/emeriti/l-jacobs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Louis L. Jacobs</a> of Southern Methodist University (<a href="https://www.smu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMU</a>). 



His international team catalogued more than 260 dinosaur tracks in both basins across the Atlantic Ocean and showed that “in terms of age, these footprints were similar,” Jacobs said. 



“In their geological and plate tectonic contexts, they were also similar. In terms of their shapes, they are almost identical.” 



The twin sites, once side by side, preserve what researchers now call the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Late-Cretaceous-dispersal-of-dinosaurs-across-marine-barriers-1-Titanosauria-South_fig12_346582740" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaur Dispersal Corridor</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-tracks-tell-pre-atlantic-dinosaur-tales">Stone tracks tell pre-Atlantic dinosaur tales</h2>



Most of the footprints belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-toed theropods</a>, the fleet carnivores of their day. A handful of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropod</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-million-year-old-dinosaur-eggs-show-glimpses-of-life-in-jurassic-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithopod</a> impressions round out the roster, hinting at herds of plant-eaters trudging through the same wetlands. 



Sediments alongside the tracks contain pollen that also dates to about 120 million years ago, reinforcing the match between both sides of the Atlantic rift.



“One of the youngest and narrowest geological connections between Africa and South America was the elbow of northeastern Brazil nestled against what is now the coast of Cameroon along the Gulf of Guinea,” Jacobs explained. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho" class="wp-image-1973179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho</figcaption></figure>



“The two continents were continuous along that narrow stretch, so that animals on either side of that connection could potentially move across it.” 



The footprints freeze that moment when the land bridge was still open yet fragile, a snapshot just before the continents drifted apart for good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-along-the-dispersal-corridor">Life along the dispersal corridor</h2>



River valleys served as natural highways. Their floodplains offered water, sheltering vegetation, and soft ground ideal for capturing prints. 



“Rivers flowed and lakes formed in the basins. Plants fed the herbivores and supported a food chain," Jacobs continued. 



"Muddy sediments left by the rivers and lakes contain dinosaur footprints, including those of meat-eaters, documenting that these river valleys could provide specific avenues for life to travel across the continents 120 million years ago.” 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1s.webp" alt="Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces (as shown by Matos et al., 2021a, fig. 1) can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. (Modified from Scotese, 2021)." class="wp-image-1973172"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



With every rainy season, new tracks overlapped the old, building a layered story of migration.



Beyond tracks, bones tell of a thriving ecosystem. 



Fossils from nearby basins include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/benggwigwishingasuchus-eremicarminis-new-triassic-crocodile-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a>, turtles, fish, and even early mammals such as Abelodon abeli, a curious tooth-shaped animal that hints at the deep roots of modern mammal lineages. 



Each discovery fills gaps in the puzzle of how life adapted while the ground beneath it slowly tore apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-meet-fossils">Footprints meet fossils</h2>



<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024JAfES.20905129N/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Koum</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-the-Babouri-Figuil-Basin-as-well-as-the-main-hydrographic-network-of-the_fig1_357405559" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Babouri-Figuil</a> basins are half-graben structures - troughs formed when crust stretches and drops along faults. Similar basins pepper both coasts of the South Atlantic, but few are as rich in terrestrial fossils. 



That makes northern Cameroon a focal point for anyone tracing dinosaur journeys across Gondwana. The first finds came to light in the 1980s during the multinational <a href="https://www.appluslaboratories.com/global/en/about-us/innovation/pireco-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIRCAOC project</a>, and newer digs still turn up surprise specimens despite the region’s remote location.



In Brazil, the matching tracks lie within red siltstones that once lined ancient lagoons. Their fine grain preserves claw imprints and skin traces in remarkable detail. 



Together, the African and South American sites confirm that dinosaurs strolled across a contiguous landmass long after <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a> began unraveling, using the same river corridors that would later drown beneath the Atlantic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-tracks-matter-today">Why these tracks matter today</h2>



Studying the dispersed footprints sharpens computer models that reconstruct continental drift, improving predictions of where oil, minerals, or groundwater might reside today. 



They also highlight how living routes shift as climates and coastlines change, offering lessons for wildlife facing modern habitat fragmentation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Credit: SMU" class="wp-image-1973177"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



Visitors can now follow marked trails to view several of the Cameroonian prints, stepping where theropods once hunted. Local guides say the site feels like “a story written in stone.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-reunited-across-the-atlantic">Dinosaur tracks reunited across the Atlantic</h2>



That story is still unfolding as researchers scan, map, and compare each trackway. Future excavations may uncover additional corridors, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric migration</a> was as complex and wide-ranging as journeys undertaken by animals in the present day.



The tracks remind us that continents move at a snail’s pace, yet over millions of years that pace is enough to reshape oceans, climates, and the paths available to life. 



By reading the mudstone diaries of Cameroon and Brazil, scientists glimpse how creatures responded to those changes - walking, feeding, and multiplying across a supercontinent that no longer exists, but whose memory endures beneath our feet.



The full study was <a href="https://smu.box.com/s/e2ghm8ycjb1zf6hu9pooypdl4sosylbn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in print by New Mexico Museum of Natural History &amp; Science



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Matching dinosaur footprints found on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean, answering a very old question

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride...

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured out. Animals like lizards and snakes, they said, relied mostly on their senses of sight and smell, while their inner ears handled balance and little else. 



That tidy picture just got a shake-up - literally. Fresh research finds that a gecko’s balance organ also acts as a sensitive microphone for ground-borne vibrations, giving the animal a stealthy extra sense.



That discovery matters because it rewrites part of the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-hawks-evolved-super-hearing-abilities-to-locate-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">story of hearing</a>. It hints that an ancient vibration pathway never vanished when vertebrates crawled onto land; it merely slipped below the scientific radar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-tokay-gecko">Studying the tokay gecko</h2>



The new study zeroed in on the tokay gecko, a hardy lizard famous for its loud bark. Deep inside its skull sits the saccule, a fluid-filled pouch long tagged as a balance sensor. 



Researchers gently recorded nerve signals while delivering low-frequency shakes - think deep rumbles between 50 and 200 Hz. The saccule lit up. 



Those frequencies fall well below the range the gecko’s eardrum usually detects, showing that the animal runs two parallel sound channels: one for airborne squeaks, one for tremors underfoot.



“The ear, as we know it, hears airborne sound. But this ancient inner pathway, which is typically linked to balance, helps geckos detect vibrations that travel through media such as ground or water,” explained study co-author Catherine Carr, a Distinguished University Professor of Biology at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>. 



“This pathway exists in amphibians and fish, and now it has been proven to be preserved in lizards as well. Our findings shed light on how the auditory system evolved from what you see in fish to what you see in land animals including humans.”



Carr and her colleagues published their findings in Current Biology, under the title “Auditory pathway for detection of vibration in the tokay gecko.” Leading the bench work was postdoctoral researcher Dawei Han, who first explored the idea during his graduate studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-some-animals-sense-vibrations">How some animals sense vibrations</h2>



Electrical traces told only part of the story. The team also mapped the gecko brain and found a relay station called the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39368471/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus vestibularis ovalis</a>. 



This pocket receives input solely from the saccule, then forwards the information to higher auditory centers. It behaves like a dedicated vibration highway, separate from the regular hearing roadbed. 



Similar brain nuclei turned up in snakes and the ancient New Zealand reptile Sphenodon, hinting at a shared blueprint across the reptile family tree.



“Many snakes and lizards were thought to be ‘mute’ or ‘deaf’ in the sense that they do not vocalize or hear sounds well,” Han explained. 



“But it turns out they could potentially be communicating via <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treehoppers-secretly-communicate-by-making-plants-vibrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vibrational signals</a> using this sensory pathway instead, which really changes the way scientists have thought about animal perception overall.” 



Desert sand-diving snakes, burrowing skinks, and even turtle hatchlings thumping inside their nests may all trade information by shaking their surroundings rather than shouting through the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-this-new-animal-sense">Evolution of this new animal sense</h2>



Fish rely on inner-ear organs to feel pressure waves in water, while amphibians straddle both water and land. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geckos-can-recognize-their-own-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gecko</a> work suggests that early tetrapods carried a vibration sense ashore and kept it alongside eardrum-based hearing. 



Over millions of years, some lineages dialed it down, but others - like the tokay - held on. That persistence reminds biologists that evolution often repurposes old tools instead of discarding them.



“Think about when you’re at a live rock concert. It’s so loud that you can feel your whole head and body vibrate in the sound field. You can feel the music, rather than just hearing it," Carr continued.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1s.webp" alt="University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Credit: Duncan Leitch" class="wp-image-1973168"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Duncan Leitch</figcaption></figure>



"That feeling suggests that the human vestibular system may be stimulated during those loud concerts, meaning our senses of hearing and balance may also be closely linked.” 



Her point: our own balance organs might pitch in when sounds get strong enough, blurring the line between feeling and hearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“The implications of this research extend beyond the world of reptiles,” Han said. “As we uncover these hidden mechanisms, we’re also gaining a richer and more nuanced picture of how animals perceive and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-has-its-own-internet-and-were-only-beginning-to-understand-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environments</a> - and potentially, new insights into our own sensory experiences.” 



If the vestibular system partners with the cochlea at extreme volumes, it could influence therapies for balance disorders or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-deafening-noise-can-cause-ear-ringing-worsen-tinnitus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tinnitus</a>. 



Engineers designing earthquake sensors or underwater microphones might also borrow tricks from the saccule’s elegant hair cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-never-ceases-to-amaze">Nature never ceases to amaze</h2>



Geckos clinging to cave walls are now known to sense the faint shiver of approaching footsteps. Snakes gliding through leaf litter likely feel the scurry of prey. And humans, rocking out in packed arenas, might engage an ancient inner circuit we rarely acknowledge. 



The new research opens a wider conversation about how vertebrates keep tabs on their world - through both ears and bones.



By tuning into the quiet language of vibrations, scientists are uncovering a sensory mosaic that stretches back hundreds of millions of years.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01227-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals found to have a 'sixth sense,' changing some evolutionary theories

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured...

Astronomers studying the young star HD 100453 have discovered an astronomical first: rare isotopes of methanol. These molecules, which are linked to the origin of life, were found floating in the warm gas around the star where new planets are forming.



The discovery offers an unprecedented look at the organic inventory available to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comets-may-have-delivered-water-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> and, eventually, to seed newborn worlds with life-friendly chemistry.



HD 100453 sits about 330 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation Centaurus. Weighing roughly one-and-a-half Suns, the star is only about a million years old - a toddler by cosmic standards - and still swaddled in a broad, dusty disk.



The disk is a natural laboratory. Its chemistry today hints at the ingredients that future planets, moons, and comets will inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-isotopes-matter">Why these isotopes matter </h2>



Chemists use the term “isotope” for versions of a molecule whose atoms carry extra or fewer neutrons.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-methanol-the-next-green-power-player-clean-energy-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methanol</a>’s case, the team managed to detect variants that are between ten and a hundred times rarer than the ordinary form. Spotting these elusive variants required the sharp vision of the <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array</a> (ALMA) in Chile.



Alice Booth is the lead author of the study and an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a>.



“Finding these isotopes of methanol gives essential insight into the history of ingredients necessary to build life here on Earth,” she said.



Because isotopes act like chemical fingerprints, their ratios tell scientists about the conditions - temperature, radiation, ice content - that prevailed when the molecules formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-makes-the-difference"><a></a>Heat makes the difference</h2>



Previous searches had picked up ordinary methanol in disks around lower-mass stars like our Sun, but only indirectly. The alcohol stayed locked in icy grains, invisible to telescopes tuned to gas.



HD 100453 changed the game. Its higher mass warms the surrounding disk, pushing the “snow line” for methanol farther out. At one and a half billion miles out, the alcohol sublimates to gas - 16 times farther than Earth’s orbit. That gaseous state lets ALMA capture the molecule’s telltale radio signatures.



“Finding out methanol is definitely part of this stellar cocktail is really a cause for celebration,” said co-author Lisa Wölfer, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>. “I’d say that the vintage of more than a million years, which is the age of HD 100453, is quite a good one.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mirror-to-our-own-beginnings"><a></a>A mirror to our own beginnings</h2>



One of the study’s most intriguing results is how closely the methanol-to-other-molecule ratio in HD 100453 matches that in comets from our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-new-dark-comets-discovered-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar System</a>.



Such comets are frozen time capsules: they preserve the chemistry of the early Sun’s disk and, according to many scientists, may have delivered a vital cargo of organics to the young Earth.



“This research supports the idea that comets may have played a big role in delivering important organic material to Earth billions of years ago,” explained co-author Milou Temmink from the <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/science/astronomy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden Observatory</a>. “They may be the reason why life, including us, was able to form here.”



Methanol is a stepping-stone molecule to more complex compounds, like simple sugars, that could seed future life. Its presence hints that amino acids and sugars might also exist in the disk, ready for detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-for-planets-and-life"><a></a>Building blocks for planets - and life</h2>



Chemists know methanol as a reactive starting point: expose it to radiation on ice grains, and it can assemble into formaldehyde, ethylene glycol, or even rudimentary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/synthetic-biowire-made-of-natural-amino-acids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a>.



The fact that the molecules reside in a region where solid material is clumping into comets means those bodies may lock away rich chemical “starter kits.” When comets strike rocky planets, they could deliver organic molecules, jumpstarting complex organic chemistry on pristine surfaces.



By measuring the ratio of methanol isotopes in the gas, the team could infer the methanol abundance frozen in ice. 



The researchers concluded that ices inside of planet-forming disks are not simple water-frost coatings but dense warehouses loaded with carbon-based molecules. They serve as fertile ground for prebiotic chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-isotopes-unlock-big-mysteries">Rare isotopes unlock big mysteries</h2>



Detecting uncommon isotopes isn’t just a technical badge of honor; it helps disentangle competing formation pathways.



When a molecule forms at low temperatures on dust-grain surfaces, it often carries more heavy isotopes than its gas-phase counterpart.



In HD 100453, the isotope ratios point to an icy-grain origin, reinforcing the idea that complex organics grow in the deep freeze before warming gas sets them free.



High methanol levels likely concentrate at the inner edge of a dusty ring that orbits the star. Radiation there evaporates ices, enriching the gas and lighting up ALMA’s detectors. 



Over time, some of that methanol may refreeze onto grains farther out, seeding multiple zones of the disk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-molecules-in-star-systems">Life molecules in star systems</h2>



ALMA’s sensitivity is poised to improve, and future arrays - along with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-may-reveal-how-fast-the-universe-is-expanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> - will hunt for bigger organic prey. This discovery is an important stepping stone because where methanol goes, more complex molecules may follow.



Astronomers catalog molecules in young star systems to refine estimates of life’s potential beyond Earth. HD 100453 gives astronomers real-world evidence that even around stars unlike our Sun, familiar ingredients exist in space.



Whether those ingredients bake into living chemistry depends on many factors, but one thing is clearer than ever: the recipe starts early, in the swirling gas and dust where planets are born.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adc7b2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: CfA/M. Weiss



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Life-building molecules discovered in the disk of a young star

Astronomers studying the young star HD 100453 have discovered an...

Imagine a narrow, invisible firehouse stretching thousands of miles through the sky, carrying more water than the Amazon - meteorologists call these features atmospheric rivers. They form over warm oceans, sweep poleward, and unleash their cargo as intense rain or snow.



In the Arctic and mid-latitudes, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-antarctic-sea-ice-loss-is-causing-severe-storms-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> already shape flood and drought cycles. But over Antarctica - a continent that locks up enough ice to raise global seas by nearly 200 feet (60 meters) - their role has been harder to pin down.



A new study delivers the most detailed forecast of Antarctic atmospheric rivers to date. An international team led by Michelle Maclennan of the British Antarctic Survey analyzed a high-resolution climate model and a worst-case greenhouse-gas scenario. 



The results suggest that the number of atmospheric rivers hitting Antarctica could double by 2100. The amount of moisture they deliver could also rise by two and a half times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-moisture-in-a-warmer-world"><a></a>More moisture in a warmer world</h2>



The engine behind this change is simple physics: warmer air can hold more water vapor. As global temperatures climb, the Southern Ocean and lower atmosphere load up like a sponge.



The model uses 40 ensemble members to capture year-to-year swings. It shows an exponential rise in atmospheric moisture over Antarctic coastal waters. In some months late in the century, integrated water vapor could be three times higher than today’s values.



With more moisture available, the narrow jet-stream corridors that funnel air toward the pole become supersized rivers in the sky.



By applying present-day detection thresholds, the researchers find a continent-wide doubling of atmospheric-river days each year.



Even when the detection algorithm is “scaled” to account for the moister background (a tougher hurdle for qualifying as a river), certain hot-spot regions - especially Dronning Maud Land and parts of West Antarctica - still see clear increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rain-snow-tipping-point">Rain-snow tipping point</h2>



Antarctic atmospheric rivers are a mixed blessing for the ice sheet. Under cold conditions they produce heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowfall-drops-in-hindu-kush-himalayas-water-crisis-may-follow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowfall</a>, adding mass and temporarily slowing sea-level rise.



Under warmer conditions they bring rain or above-zero air that can melt and weaken ice shelves - the floating ledges that buttress grounded glaciers. If those shelves fracture, inland ice can flow faster into the ocean.



Using surface-temperature criteria to separate snow from rain, the study reveals an intriguing twist. Rainfall will increase, but atmospheric rivers will mostly bring more snowfall to the ice sheet this century.



This could temporarily compensate for some of the mass that Antarctica loses elsewhere through ocean-driven melting and iceberg calving. Under the high-emissions pathway (known as SSP3-7.0), total atmospheric-river precipitation nearly triples, but most of that falls as snow.



Even so, rainfall spikes in vulnerable places like the Antarctic Peninsula and coastal ice shelves. The model suggests up to 40 millimeters of extra rain-water-equivalent each year on the Bellingshausen coast and Larsen C Ice Shelf.



Rain can soak porous firn, refreeze, and leave an ice lens that promotes further runoff and surface collapse - a process implicated in the disintegration of Larsen B in 2002.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-atmospheric-rivers-and-sea-levels">Antarctic atmospheric rivers and sea-levels</h2>



One striking result is the sheer variability atmospheric rivers impose on Antarctica’s “surface mass balance,” the ledger of snow gained versus ice lost.



Today, a single storm offsets weeks of melting. In a warmer world, these storms grow larger and more frequent. Thus, yearly variations in atmospheric river frequency creates significant fluctuations in Antarctica’s contribution to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-will-antarctica-contribute-to-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>, with that volatility appearing set to grow.



Because sea-level projections often rely on multi-decadal averages, this swing factor has been under-represented.



The new simulations indicate that by 2100, extreme-event years - those once considered rare - could become the norm. This shift would complicate efforts to forecast coastal risk for cities and small-island nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-shifts-and-ice-loss">Wind shifts and ice loss</h2>



The model also captures how circulation changes amplify the story. As greenhouse forcing strengthens the temperature contrast between tropics and pole, the polar jet stream shifts eastward in segments and intensifies.



That wind realignment steers more atmospheric rivers toward the Amundsen Sea and Ross Sea sectors - regions already destabilized by warm ocean water undercutting ice shelves.



Meanwhile, sea-ice extent retreats, exposing open water that feeds extra moisture back into the storms. The authors warn that these coupled atmosphere–ice–ocean feedbacks could accelerate once thresholds are crossed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-rivers-and-climate-predictions">Atmospheric rivers and climate predictions</h2>



“This is the first study to consider how these extreme weather events in Antarctica might change in response to human-induced warming this century,” Maclennan said.



“Because atmospheric rivers deliver massive precipitation to Antarctica and significantly impact snowfall variability, understanding their future patterns is crucial to projecting Antarctica’s contribution to sea level rise.”



Her team’s findings highlight a fresh source of uncertainty in global sea-level budgets. Most projections bracket the 21st-century rise between half and one meter. If Antarctic atmospheric rivers add more snow than rain, they could shave a few centimeters off the high end.



However, if warming outpaces snowfall gains, they could hasten ice-shelf collapse and push sea levels higher. Either way, policy planners need more precise tools that resolve these weather-driven swings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictions-of-atmospheric-rivers">Predictions of atmospheric rivers </h2>



The study emphasizes that predictions hinge on both emissions pathways and the technical choice of how researchers detect atmospheric rivers in models. 



When adjusted for moister air, continent-wide doubling disappears. Instead, regional increases and decreases appear. This sensitivity highlights the need for multiple modelling approaches, finer-scale regional simulations, and continuous satellite monitoring.



Antarctica is sometimes portrayed as a silent, immutable block of ice. In reality it is poised to host ever-stronger that can both cushion and threaten the world’s coastlines.



Future research will determine which outcome dominates - but the message is clear: choices made this century about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse-gas emissions</a> will reverberate in every atmospheric river that sweeps across the coldest continent.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02333-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Antarctic atmospheric rivers set to double by the end of the century

Imagine a narrow, invisible firehouse stretching thousands of miles through...

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish are killed to feed humanity. Their deaths often go unnoticed. Yet beneath the surface is a simple biological fact: fish can suffer.



Rainbow trout, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> farmed and consumed across the globe, experience not just death - but a prolonged and intense form of distress when killed by air asphyxiation. 



A new study published in the journal Scientific Reports shines a light on this pain and offers a pathway to reduce it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-pain-needs-better-measurement">Fish pain needs better measurement</h2>



Unlike environmental impact or public health, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-lobsters-crustaceans-feel-pain-calls-for-immediate-ban-on-boiling-them-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal suffering lacks a universal metric</a>. There are no equivalents to carbon footprints or life years lost. To address this, scientists developed the Welfare Footprint Framework (WFF).



This tool measures pain in minutes, allowing researchers to compare welfare outcomes across species and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. The research team applied this method to trout slaughter, where air exposure is still a widely used technique.



Fish, when pulled from water, begin a slow and stressful decline. Their gills collapse. They gasp in panic. Their blood chemistry spirals. Oxygen disappears while carbon dioxide builds. 



These biological reactions unfold as the fish continues to move, gasp, and suffer - sometimes for as long as 25 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-suffer-up-to-25-minutes">Fish suffer up to 25 minutes </h2>



The researchers divided the trout's suffering into four time segments. These range from alarm at removal to the final depression of brain activity before unconsciousness. 



Through behavioral, neurological, and pharmacological evidence, the team estimated that the average trout endures about ten minutes of pain that qualifies as hurtful, disabling, or excruciating. 



In some conditions, this could stretch beyond 20 minutes. When adjusted by weight, that translates to 24 minutes of such pain per kilogram (about 11 minutes per pound) of fish killed.



The team used neurophysiological data like EEG signals and reflex loss to identify unconsciousness. They reviewed how fish respond to CO₂, pH imbalance, muscle exhaustion, and fear-inducing stimuli. Each pain level had specific criteria, ranging from annoyance to total disruption of basic functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-methods-cause-painful-deaths">Current methods cause painful deaths</h2>



Air asphyxiation is still legal and common in many parts of the world. But it is neither quick nor painless. Chilling in ice or using ice slurry might sound gentler, yet for cold-adapted species like trout, this method just slows down metabolism. 



This can delay loss of consciousness even further, compounding the suffering. Ice exposure also risks tissue damage, thermal shock, and prolonged fear.



The research shows that suffering does not always begin at the point of slaughter. It often starts well before. 



Crowding, transport, and handling all add to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s cumulative pain. These pre-slaughter stressors can cause physical injury and hours of distress. Yet, regulations usually overlook them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stunning-can-help-fish-suffer-less">Stunning can help fish suffer less </h2>



The study evaluated two types of stunning: electrical and percussive. Electrical stunning, if properly used, could spare 60 to 1,200 minutes of suffering for every dollar spent. This makes it one of the most cost-effective welfare interventions known. 



But implementation remains inconsistent. In many commercial settings, electrical stunning fails to reliably render fish unconscious. Poor placement of electrodes, inadequate voltage, or faulty machines may undermine the potential benefits.



Percussive stunning - a physical blow to the head - has shown better consistency in lab settings. But it's difficult to scale. Fish vary in size. Equipment must be precisely calibrated. Worker fatigue also reduces effectiveness. Any slip means the fish remains conscious while bleeding out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-language-for-animal-pain">A new language for animal pain</h2>



What makes the Welfare Footprint Framework powerful is its transparency. Instead of assigning a fixed label to pain, it works with probabilities. If scientists believe there's a 40% chance the pain is disabling and a 40% chance it is excruciating, the framework includes both.



This makes the model flexible and more reflective of real-world uncertainty. Pain, like emotion, varies between individuals. Some fish may suffer more than others, even under identical conditions.



"The Welfare Footprint Framework provides a rigorous and transparent evidence-based approach to measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> welfare, and enables informed decisions about where to allocate resources for the greatest impact," noted Dr. Wladimir Alonso from <a href="https://welfarefootprint.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Welfare Footprint Institute</a>.



This approach mirrors models used in public health or environmental science. Just like life years lost to disease, we can now talk about minutes of suffering saved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-policies-and-people">Implications for policies and people</h2>



Fish slaughter occupies only minutes in an animal’s life - but these minutes can be extremely painful. Compared to long-term reforms on farms, slaughter improvements are easier to implement and affect billions of lives. 



The study's authors argue that investing in better stunning tools and training workers can provide enormous welfare gains.



For policy makers, this research offers a scientific foundation to reform outdated practices. Certification schemes can set minimum stunning effectiveness based on real pain data. 



Governments can use this to guide humane slaughter laws. For consumers, it gives a new way to think about what ends up on their plate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-fish-suffer-too">Other fish suffer too</h2>



Though this study focused on rainbow trout, the underlying stress pathways - oxygen deprivation, acidosis, metabolic failure - are common across fish species. That means the Welfare Footprint Framework can be adapted. 



Salmon, catfish, seabass, tilapia - they all may suffer in similar ways during air exposure. However, each species will need specific data. 



Some tolerate low oxygen better. Others may react more strongly to ice. Future research must expand to include this diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turning-point-for-aquatic-welfare">A turning point for aquatic welfare</h2>



The world is just beginning to reckon with the sentience of fish. For decades, their pain was denied or ignored. But science no longer allows that. 



With trillions of fish slaughtered every year, even small improvements can have vast impact.



The WFF doesn’t just measure pain. It opens a language of empathy grounded in evidence. It lets regulators, producers, and consumers weigh the cost of change. 



And perhaps, most importantly, the framework acknowledges what fish have felt all along - suffering that deserves to be seen and reduced.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-04272-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists prove that fish suffer "intense pain" for at least 10 minutes after catch, calls made for reforms

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish...

Every spring, satellites capture vast beige plumes of dust rising from the Sahara, the Gobi, and the deserts of the Middle East. These gritty clouds drift across continents, staining skies rusty orange and sometimes crossing whole oceans before settling out of the air.



For years, scientists viewed wind-blown mineral dust as a mostly passive traveler - important for fertilizing soils and influencing climate but chemically inert once it left the ground.



 A new international study overturns that view, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert dust</a> can transform itself into a powerful source of air pollution while it is still aloft.



The research, led by an international team of researchers from China, Japan, the United Kingdom and several other countries, demonstrates that aged dust particles act like microscopic “chemical reactors in the sky.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-grains-transform-the-air">Dust grains transform the air</h2>



After spending hours or days in the atmosphere, the mineral grains acquire thin coatings rich in water and nitrate. 



The coatings dissolve trace gases, drive rapid chemical reactions, and manufacture what scientists call secondary organic aerosols, or SOA - tiny carbon-containing particles that damage lungs, darken skies, and alter Earth’s heat balance.



Field teams collected air samples during intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saharan-dust-crosses-the-atlantic-a-journey-seen-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sandstorms</a> in locations stretching from Inner Mongolia to the Greek island of Crete.



Using high-resolution electron microscopes and nanoscale chemical probes, they discovered that roughly half of all water-soluble SOA present during these events was lodged inside coarse “super-micron” dust grains.



That finding was unexpected because textbooks have long asserted that SOA forms almost exclusively in much smaller, soot-like particles or inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-turbulence-clouds-makes-tiny-water-droplets-turn-into-rain-showers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud droplets</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grain-slime-a-hidden-factory">Grain slime: A hidden factory</h2>



The study shows that large desert grains, once thought too dry and too alkaline to host such chemistry, are in fact major production sites when conditions are right.



The key lies in how dust ages. As a mineral grain blows through polluted air, acidic gases such as nitric acid attack its calcium-rich surface. The reaction forms calcium nitrate - a compound that is unusually good at scavenging moisture.



Even when the relative humidity drops below ten percent, a thin liquid film condenses on the grain. This microscopic pond becomes a sanctuary for water-soluble gases such as glyoxal, a common by-product of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-warnings-fossil-fuels-are-causing-climate-health-and-biodiversity-crises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil-fuel</a> combustion and plant emissions.



Dissolved in the film, these molecules collide, combine, and polymerize into heavier, stickier compounds that no longer evaporate. In other words, the grain slime becomes a factory that pulls gases from the air and locks them into solid or semi-solid particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-from-tiny-dust-pollution">Impacts from tiny dust pollution</h2>



Until now, evidence for such chemistry came largely from laboratory studies. The team’s direct field measurements - matched by global modelling - show that the process is not a curiosity but a central player in the “dust belt” stretching from the Sahara across the Middle East to China.



In these regions the model suggests aqSOA (aqueous-phase secondary organic aerosol) on dust can account for up to two-thirds of all secondary organic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> during storm conditions.



Worldwide, reactions on nitrate-coated dust may produce roughly one-sixth of the total SOA burden - vastly more than earlier estimates that ignored coarse dust chemistry.



Zongbo Shi is the senior author of the study and a professor of atmospheric biogeochemistry at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.



“This discovery marks a major advance in understanding the chemistry of secondary organic aerosols,” he said. “We’ve found that water-containing aged dust can act like a sponge and a reactor - absorbing gaseous pollutants and transforming them into particles that affect our health and the climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-pollution-s-hidden-dangers">Dust pollution's hidden dangers</h2>



Those numbers matter for several reasons. Fine and coarse particles alike penetrate the respiratory system, but their size influences where they deposit and how long they linger in the air.



By converting invisible gases into solid mass stuck to relatively large grains, dust storms change both the amount and the distribution of harmful particles people breathe.



Epidemiological studies already link airborne particulate matter to millions of premature deaths each year; the new results suggest that natural dust events can amplify those risks far downwind of the original desert source.



Climate modelling also has to adjust. Organic coatings alter how dust reflects sunlight and how readily it seeds clouds or ice crystals.



Coated dust may absorb more solar energy, warming the atmosphere, or it might increase cloudiness, cooling the surface - subtle feedbacks that depend on properties the models must now capture.



“Unravelling the ‘black box’ of surface reactions on wet dust particles is key to expanding the current boundaries of knowledge for accurately assessing aerosol impacts on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-have-an-underestimated-effect-on-clouds-and-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> and the environment,” explained Akinori Ito of the <a href="https://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-dust-s-future-impact">Managing dust's future impact</h2>



The findings raise practical questions for policy-makers. Many air-quality regulations target urban and industrial emissions, yet episodes of dangerous haze in regions like northern China or the eastern Mediterranean often coincide with dust surges.



If a large share of the pollution forms on dust already in the air, then solely curbing local traffic or smokestacks may not deliver the expected relief during storm seasons. 



Forecasting tools will need to incorporate dust-driven chemistry to warn the public appropriately and to guide emergency responses.



The researchers are now calling for denser monitoring networks in desert-influenced regions, more laboratory experiments to pin down reaction rates and revised climate-chemistry models that include the new pathway.



The experts also point out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a> and land-use changes could increase dust emissions in the future, potentially magnifying the phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-to-answer">More questions to answer</h2>



From a distance, a dust plume may look like an inert cloud of sand. Up close, each grain is a bustling micro-reactor, soaking up pollutants and spawning new particles that ride the winds across continents.



The discovery shows that Earth’s natural processes can both clean and contaminate the air we breathe, complicating our attempts to manage a changing climate and protect human health.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nsr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nsr/nwaf221/8154540" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Review</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dust storms are a surprising source of deadly air pollution

Every spring, satellites capture vast beige plumes of dust rising...

NASA’s Mars Odyssey spacecraft has captured a view that, until now, existed only in the imagination: a sunrise panorama of Arsia Mons thrusting through a gauzy blanket of clouds on the Martian horizon.



Captured on May 2, 2024, the image shows the ice-tipped giant looming 12 miles (20 kilometers) above Mars’ surface - twice the height of Earth’s Mauna Loa - and wrapped in dawn-lit water-ice clouds.



Besides its cinematic beauty, the shot marks the first time any of the three colossal Tharsis Montes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> has been photographed from the side rather than from directly overhead. This new perspective provides scientists with a fresh vantage on Martian weather.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-odyssey-turns-sideways"><a></a>Odyssey turns sideways</h2>



Launched in 2001 and still going strong, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/odyssey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Odyssey</a> is the longest-lived orbiter at any world beyond Earth.



Beginning in 2023, mission engineers started performing an unusual maneuver. They rotate the entire spacecraft 90 degrees so that its downward-facing camera can instead look sideways.



By turning the Thermal Emission Imaging System (<a href="https://themis.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THEMIS</a>) toward the limb of the planet, the team can photograph layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-could-threaten-the-health-of-future-astronauts-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust</a> and ice clouds stacked above the surface - and, when lucky, snag silhouettes of Martian landmarks.



Each horizon-pointing sequence creates a mosaic stitched from dozens of narrow, high-altitude frames. By repeating the experiment in different seasons, scientists watch how cloud decks grow, shrink, or migrate.



“We’re seeing some really significant seasonal differences in these horizon images,” said Michael D. Smith of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>. “It’s giving us new clues to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-mars-missing-atmosphere-hiding-in-plain-sight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars’ atmosphere</a> evolves over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-at-the-edge-mars">Clouds at the edge Mars</h2>



Mars boasts two primary kinds of clouds: flakes of frozen carbon dioxide - essentially dry ice - and plumes of water ice. The Tharsis Montes region, a volcanic plateau bigger than the continental United States, is famous for its spectacular water-ice displays at dawn.



Cold nighttime air slides downslope, then flows back up the sunlit volcano flanks at sunrise; as it rises, the air expands and chills, and water vapor condenses into clouds.



When Mars reaches aphelion - its farthest point from the Sun - lower temperatures let these clouds thicken into a shimmering equatorial band called the aphelion cloud belt. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mars-volcano_arsia-mons_above-clouds_Mars-Odyssey_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mars-volcano_arsia-mons_above-clouds_Mars-Odyssey_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Arsia Mons, an ancient Martian volcano, was captured before dawn on May 2, 2025, by NASA’s 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter while the spacecraft was studying the Red Planet’s atmosphere, which appears here as a greenish haze. come Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU" class="wp-image-1973140"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Arsia Mons, an ancient Martian volcano, was captured before dawn on May 2, 2025, by NASA’s 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter while the spacecraft was studying the Red Planet’s atmosphere, which appears here as a greenish haze. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU</figcaption></figure>



Odyssey’s new panorama catches that belt in full flourish, its bluish haze almost Earth-like against the orange surface below.



From orbit, the contrast is dramatic. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-holes-on-mars-might-harbor-alien-life/">Arsia Mons</a> and its siblings Pavonis and Ascraeus Mons pierce the veil, looking like dark islands in a misty sea.



Water-ice clouds are crucial to the planet’s weather engine: they influence surface temperatures, control how dust is lofted, and may even seed local snowfalls. 



Understanding their rhythm improves climate models and, eventually, the safety margins for landing future spacecraft.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-titans-of-tharsis"><a></a>Volcanic titans of Tharsis</h2>



Though dormant today, Arsia Mons on Mars once erupted with such ferocity that its caldera - the summit depression - could swallow a metropolitan city. 



Its sheer size disturbs local winds, essentially steering the atmosphere around it. The new horizon image reveals how that topography interacts with water vapor.



“We picked Arsia Mons hoping we would see the summit poke above the early morning clouds. And it didn’t disappoint,” said Jonathon Hill of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, who oversees THEMIS operations.



Seeing volcanoes from the side rather than from above helps scientists measure cloud altitudes more accurately. If the cloud layer intersects the mountain at six miles up, for instance, the intersection appears as a crisp boundary in profile.



Knowing that height refines calculations of temperature, humidity, and wind speed - data that feeds into global circulation models much like those used for Earth’s weather forecasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-tech-new-science">Old tech, new science</h2>



THEMIS was designed two decades ago to map minerals and sniff out water-ice reservoirs beneath the Martian dust. 



Its infrared sensor can detect buried ice that future astronauts might mine for drinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>, oxygen, or rocket propellant.



At visible wavelengths, the camera has catalogued thousands of dust devils, monitored violent planet-wide dust storms, and even surveyed Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to reveal their patchy coatings of crustal debris.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mars-volcano_arsia-mons_Tharsis-Montes-region_Mars-Odyssey_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mars-volcano_arsia-mons_Tharsis-Montes-region_Mars-Odyssey_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Arsia Mons is the southernmost of the three volcanoes that make up Tharsis Montes, shown in the center of this cropped topographic map of Mars. Olympus Mons, the solar system’s largest volcano, is at upper left. The western end of Valles Marineris begins cutting its wide swath across the planet at lower right. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech" class="wp-image-1973142"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Arsia Mons is the southernmost of the three volcanoes that make up Tharsis Montes, shown in the center of this cropped topographic map of Mars. Olympus Mons, the solar system’s largest volcano, is at upper left. The western end of Valles Marineris begins cutting its wide swath across the planet at lower right. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</figcaption></figure>



Yet the horizon campaign showcases the instrument’s flexibility. By capturing the edge of the planet, THEMIS turns into a low-cost weather satellite, watching how dust and ice swirl in layers tens of miles thick.



Such observations give engineers clues to the timing and intensity of dust storms - hazards that affect solar-panel performance, entry-descent-landing trajectories, and astronaut health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-cloud-details-and-humans">Mars cloud details and humans</h2>



Detailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-mars-clouds-catalogued-in-stunning-new-online-photo-atlas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud measurements</a> will help mission planners decide when to launch, where to land, and how robust life-support systems must be.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water-ice clouds</a>, in particular, can scatter sunlight and lower surface temperatures by several degrees. These small temperature drops matter greatly for battery life and thermal control of rovers, habitats, and ascent vehicles.



Moreover, the volcanoes themselves are intriguing for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-plan-terraform-mars-nanoparticles-would-make-it-habitable-for-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human explorers</a>. Their gentle slopes - about five degrees on average - could be traversed by rovers to study ancient lava flows, search for volcanic caves that might shelter life, and harvest ice trapped in shaded craters.



The high elevations also provide commanding views and extended lines of sight for communications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-different-seasons-on-mars">Targeting different seasons on Mars</h2>



Mars Odyssey’s next horizon sessions will target different latitudes and seasons, building a time-lapse of Martian atmospheric change. 



Scientists hope to observe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> onsets, night-shining clouds near the poles, and perhaps the faint arc of Mars’ ozone layer, a tenuous shield that waxes and wanes with the planet’s seasons.



The spacecraft’s longevity demonstrates how even mature missions can pivot to fresh science with a twist of engineering ingenuity.



As it enters its third decade, Mars Odyssey continues to surprise - showing that a camera built to stare straight down can, with a little roll of the spacecraft, reveal an alien sunrise worthy of an astronaut’s window seat.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mars volcano captured with its head above the clouds in sunrise photo

NASA’s Mars Odyssey spacecraft has captured a view that, until...

New research places the Philippine archipelago at the center of early human mobility in Island Southeast Asia. 



Archaeologists from Ateneo de Manila University, working with international teams, have compiled 15 years of data that reshapes how scholars understand prehistoric ocean navigation, tool use, and cultural exchange in the region.



The findings, published in the journal Archaeological Research in Asia, emerge from the Mindoro Archaeology Project. This long-term effort brings together fieldwork from Occidental Mindoro, including Ilin Island, San Jose, and Sta. Teresa in the Magsaysay municipality.



These sites preserve some of the oldest evidence of modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-drove-an-evolutionary-leap-in-early-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> in the Philippines, dating back over 35,000 years.



The research challenges older models that viewed the Philippines as peripheral. Instead, it presents the archipelago as a crucial maritime corridor, long engaged in regional human movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mindoro-and-early-ocean-navigation">Mindoro and early ocean navigation</h2>



Mindoro has never been linked to the mainland by land bridges or ice sheets. Access has always involved open-sea travel. Unlike Palawan, which may have allowed limited crossings during glacial periods, Mindoro remained isolated. 



Reaching Mindoro required early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> to develop seafaring capabilities. This isolation made the island an ideal location to study maritime adaptation. Excavations reveal repeated human occupation, even in the Pleistocene.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ISEA_map_ice-age_Sunda-region_credit-Gebco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ISEA_map_ice-age_Sunda-region_credit-Gebco_1s.webp" alt="A map of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) and the Sunda region as it appeared roughly 25,000 years ago at the height of the last Ice Age, with locations of archaeological sites surveyed by the Mindoro Archaeology Project. The sites yielded artifacts with remarkably similar characteristics despite separation by thousands of kilometers and deep waters that are almost impossible to cross without sufficiently advanced seafaring knowledge and technology. Credit: Base Map: gebco.net, 2014" class="wp-image-1973131"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A map of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) and the Sunda region as it appeared roughly 25,000 years ago at the height of the last Ice Age, with locations of archaeological sites surveyed by the Mindoro Archaeology Project. The sites yielded artifacts with remarkably similar characteristics despite separation by thousands of kilometers and deep waters that are almost impossible to cross without sufficiently advanced seafaring knowledge and technology. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Base Map: gebco.net, 2014</figcaption></figure>



Early settlers did not simply survive on Mindoro. They arrived intentionally, navigated its waters, and adapted to coastal life. This suggests that seafaring was not a rare or late innovation, but a long-standing aspect of life in Island Southeast Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-filipinos-mastered-deep-sea-fishing">Early Filipinos mastered deep-sea fishing</h2>



Archaeologists documented a wide array of material remains, including lithic artifacts, marine shells modified for use, and skeletal fragments from both humans and animals. The remains indicated that early communities engaged in diversified foraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-first-used-fire-to-preserve-meat-instead-of-cooking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a>.



The communities made use of both inland environments and offshore ecosystems with deliberate intent. Bone tools point toward line-and-hook techniques, while species analysis reveals the capture of oceanic predators like bonito and shark.



This level of ecological engagement suggests mastery of offshore zones that dates back well over 30,000 years. It also signals early development of navigation techniques and targeted marine resource use. 



The ability to reach and fish in pelagic zones implies direct contact with neighboring island groups throughout <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallacea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wallacea</a>.



Such sustained interaction with coastal and marine settings reveals an intimate grasp of seascapes. It also highlights the cultural significance of movement, planning, and adaptation in shaping long-term settlement patterns across Island Southeast Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-link-mindoro-to-ocean-navigation">Tools link Mindoro to ocean navigation</h2>



Several tool types point to regional connections. Researchers found obsidian cutting tools in Mindoro with chemical signatures matching those from Palawan. 



This suggests either direct movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primitive-tools-discovery-reveals-human-life-in-jungle-150000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> or exchange networks spanning multiple islands.



Other notable finds include Tridacna (giant clam) shell adzes, dating to between 7,000 and 9,000 years ago. These adzes are not unique to Mindoro. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ISEA_ancient-technology-tools_ice-age_Sunda-region_credit-Gebco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ISEA_ancient-technology-tools_ice-age_Sunda-region_credit-Gebco_1s.webp" alt="Samples of ancient technology discovered in and around Mindoro. Clockwise, from upper left: a bone fishing gorge (A) and a possible gorge fragment (B); hammer stones (A-F), pebble tools (G-L), and net sinkers (M, N); obsidian cutting tools from Mindoro (top) and Palawan (bottom), exhibiting similar chemical composition; and Tridacna giant clam shell adzes (A,B) and a shell tool (C). Credit: Photos and figures by A. Pawlik; after Pawlik et al. 2025; Pawlik &amp; Piper 2019; Neri et al., 2015" class="wp-image-1973129"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Samples of ancient technology discovered in and around Mindoro. Clockwise, from upper left: a bone fishing gorge (A) and a possible gorge fragment (B); hammer stones (A-F), pebble tools (G-L), and net sinkers (M, N); obsidian cutting tools from Mindoro (top) and Palawan (bottom), exhibiting similar chemical composition; and Tridacna giant clam shell adzes (A,B) and a shell tool (C). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Photos and figures by A. Pawlik; after Pawlik et al. 2025; Pawlik &amp; Piper 2019; Neri et al., 2015</figcaption></figure>



Similar forms have appeared throughout Island Southeast Asia, and even on Manus Island in Papua New Guinea, over 3,000 kilometers away.



Such parallels indicate not only shared tool-making techniques but also long-distance cultural transmission across the maritime region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-practice-and-social-complexity">Ritual practice and social complexity</h2>



On <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilin_Island" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ilin Island</a>, researchers documented a 5,000-year-old human burial. The individual had been laid in a flexed position and placed between limestone slabs. The treatment suggests more than practical disposal. It reflects symbolic practice.



Flexed burials, found as far as Vietnam and Indonesia, may indicate shared belief systems or funerary customs across Island Southeast Asia. These traditions likely spread via the same networks that carried tools and ideas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-age-ocean-navigation-network">Stone Age ocean navigation network</h2>



Mindoro’s archaeology shows more than isolated innovation. It reflects regional trends. The island’s early inhabitants had developed strategies for fishing, boat-making, and long-term settlement. 



They communicated with neighbors, shared material practices, and perhaps even shared languages and cosmologies.



Cultural connections did not depend on land. They moved over water. The Philippine archipelago, rather than dividing populations, connected them.



Taken together, the findings indicate that Mindoro and surrounding Philippine islands belonged to a wide-reaching maritime system active since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stone Age</a>. 



This network enabled early human communities across Island Southeast Asia to exchange tools, ideas, and cultural practices over thousands of years.



The sea was not a barrier. It was a route. It supported communication, innovation, and continuity over tens of thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-mobility-in-southeast-asia">Human mobility in Southeast Asia</h2>



The Mindoro Archaeology Project offers a new perspective on early human movement in Southeast Asia. It reveals that ancient populations did more than migrate through the region - they settled, adapted, and innovated. 



They mastered local terrains, crafted tools from what they had, and upheld cultural links across wide geographic spans.



Through long-term evidence of habitation, evolving subsistence strategies, and early maritime skills, the project addresses key gaps in Philippine prehistory. It also broadens how we understand the role of these islands in shaping human adaptation across Island Southeast Asia.



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindoro" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mindoro</a> stands not as an isolated site, but as a vital point within a larger landscape that was defined by water, mobility, and shared tradition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-navigation-and-early-innovation">Ocean navigation and early innovation </h2>



This research does more than add to archaeological knowledge. It challenges how we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early innovation</a>.



It places island communities, often ignored in historical models, at the center of technological and cultural change. Early humans in the Philippines built tools, buried their dead with care, and knew how to sail long before formal trade networks existed.



They were not waiting for civilization to reach them. They were shaping it themselves. From Mindoro, a new history emerges - one carried not on foot, but on the sea.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352226725000261?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeological Research in Asia</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Archaeologists discover technologically advanced society across Philippine islands 35,000 years ago

New research places the Philippine archipelago at the center of...

The world of psychedelic science just gained a surprising new chapter, thanks to morning glory seeds and a student at West Virginia University (WVU). 



While much of modern pharmaceutical research depends on billion dollar labs and global corporations, sometimes the most powerful discoveries grow quietly in a greenhouse. 



Hidden in the seed coat of a common plant, an elusive fungus has finally been found. It may lead to better treatments for depression, PTSD, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-psychedelic-dose-may-improve-brain-flexibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addiction</a>, and more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-morning-glory-seed-coats">Inside morning glory seed coats</h2>



Corinne Hazel, an environmental microbiology major from Delaware, Ohio, had no idea she was on the brink of a major scientific moment. 



As a Goldwater Scholar and lab researcher at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WVU</a>’s Davis College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Hazel was investigating how morning glory plants manage the movement of ergot alkaloids. These are natural compounds with known effects on both plants and people.



In collaboration with Professor Daniel Panaccione, she explored whether these alkaloids, long known to provide protective effects to plants, might be linked to fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelics-sexuality-and-self-discovery-what-a-new-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>. 



The team had collected many morning glory specimens in their lab, each holding potential secrets. Then, during one routine observation, Hazel noticed something small but strange.



"We had a ton of plants lying around and they had these tiny little seed coats," she said. "We noticed a little bit of fuzz in the seed coat. That was our fungus."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-confirms-new-fungus-species">DNA confirms new fungus species</h2>



To determine exactly what they were looking at, the researchers extracted DNA from the seed coat and sent it out for genome sequencing. This process would determine the fungus’s genetic fingerprint and confirm whether it had ever been cataloged before. 



When the results came back, it was clear. They had discovered a new species. Hazel named it Periglandula clandestina. The name reflects the fungus’s stealthy nature. It had hidden in plain sight for decades. 



The DNA sequence has now been officially stored in a gene bank, permanently linking her name to this scientific achievement. "Sequencing a genome is a significant thing," Panaccione said. "It's amazing for a student." 



But the importance of the discovery did not stop at its novelty. This tiny fungus was not just rare. It filled in a crucial piece of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychedelic</a> puzzle that had lingered for nearly a hundred years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-morning-glory-fungus-and-lsd-effects">Morning glory fungus and LSD effects</h2>



In the late 1930s, Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann created LSD by modifying ergot alkaloids. He also noticed that morning glories seemed to contain similar psychedelic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-ibogaine-can-now-be-produced-without-rare-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compounds</a>. 



Hofmann theorized that a fungus living inside the plants could be responsible. However, scientists for decades could not find this mysterious organism.



"Morning glories contain high concentrations of similar lysergic acid derivatives that give them their psychedelic activities," Panaccione explained. 



"This inspired Hofmann and others to investigate morning glories for the presence of a hidden fungus related to the ergot fungus that might be the source of these chemicals. They found very similar chemicals, but they could never find the fungus itself."



Hazel and Panaccione’s work finally closed this chapter. Their findings, published in the journal Mycologia, confirm what Hofmann had only suspected. The fungal symbiont inside morning glories is not only real but also active in producing these mind-altering alkaloids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-dangerous-to-therapeutic">From dangerous to therapeutic</h2>



Ergot alkaloids have a complicated history. Produced only by fungi, they naturally occur in grains like rye and plants like morning glory. While some forms are dangerous and toxic to humans and livestock, others have long been used in medicine. 



Doctors have used them to manage migraines, stop uterine bleeding, and even treat Parkinson’s disease. However, these treatments come with risks. Side effects can be severe. 



With the discovery of Periglandula clandestina, researchers now have a new fungal model that produces ergot alkaloids efficiently and in high amounts. This could offer a new path to refining these compounds for medical use, with better control and fewer unwanted effects.



"Many things are toxic. But if you administer them in the right dosage or modify them, they can be useful pharmaceuticals. By studying them, we may be able to figure out ways to bypass the side effects. These are big issues for medicine and agriculture," noted Panaccione.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-morning-glory-fungus">Naming the morning glory fungus</h2>



The choice of name, Periglandula clandestina, was no accident. For decades, scientists looked for this very fungus. Its absence puzzled many. Its ability to hide, even while producing clearly detectable chemicals, added to the mystery.



"I think that's the perfect name," Panaccione said. "And I love that we did this project together. Corinne has a ton of talent. It's about students recognizing the opportunities, seizing them and having the skill and the brain power to bring this work to fruition."



For Hazel, this was not just a technical project or a lucky break. It became a moment that validated years of training, careful observation, and persistence. Her work gives other students a model to follow. Paying attention can lead to scientific impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-fungus">What’s next for the fungus</h2>



Hazel has not stopped with the discovery. She is now studying how best to grow the fungus in the lab. This is not easy. Periglandula clandestina grows slowly and under specific conditions. 



If she succeeds, it could allow scientists to produce ergot alkaloids in more controlled settings, advancing pharmaceutical research.



Hazel also plans to examine other morning glory species. It is possible that many more fungi, still unknown, may be working quietly inside these plants. They could be producing powerful compounds and waiting to be found.



"I'm lucky to have stumbled into this opportunity," she said. "People have been looking for this fungus for years, and one day, I look in the right place, and there it is. I'm very proud of the work that I've done at WVU."



Hazel’s discovery reminds us that scientific revolutions can begin in the most overlooked places. In this case, the revolution started with a bit of fuzz in a seed coat and the curiosity of one determined student.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.2025.2483634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycologia</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fungus that lives in 'morning glory' flower seeds produces psychedelic effects similar to LSD

The world of psychedelic science just gained a surprising new...

It appears that a new chapter is opening in the quest for precious metals. Scientists have uncovered a surprising fungus that incorporates gold into its structure in soils where trace particles of this metal occur.



This discovery raises eyebrows because gold rarely reacts with living organisms. It caught everyone’s attention when researchers noticed bits of gold attached to the microscopic strands of the fungus. 



<a href="https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/fungi-hidden-dimension" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycelium</a> are the fine, thread-like filaments that help fungi absorb nutrients. In the case of this fungus, they seem capable of interacting with gold through metabolism in ways many believed to be nearly impossible. 



“Gold is so chemically inactive that this type of interaction is unusual and surprising,” remarked <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=7_x-MfQAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Tsing Bohu</a>, the lead researcher at <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/news/all/news/2019/may/gold-coated-fungi-are-the-new-gold-diggers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-gold-eating-fungus">Discovering gold-eating fungus</h2>



Dr. Bohu and his colleagues at CSIRO, first observed that the fungus grows faster and appears healthier when gold attaches to its cells. 



Some experts think these findings could help geologists detect underground gold deposits through more targeted surveys. 



Exploration companies have historically analyzed plants, soils, and even water to locate gold-rich areas, but the use of gold-seeking fungi opens the door for a more focused approach.



Humans have been obsessed with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/couple-finds-a-gold-nugget-measuring-7-inches-across-weighing-more-than-9-pounds/">gold</a> for centuries because of its scarcity and status in global markets. It is essential in medical devices, smartphones, and numerous other technologies. 



Yet the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergiant-gold-deposit-find-claims-to-be-the-worlds-largest-discovery-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effort to mine gold</a> comes with challenges, including large excavation sites and water-intensive processing. 



This new fungal method could reduce environmental pressures because it taps into the natural processes of living organisms rather than relying on large-scale digging or harsh chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-gold-fungus-stands-out">Why this "gold fungus" stands out</h2>



The fungus studied by the Australian team belongs to strains similar to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/fusarium-oxysporum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fusarium oxysporum</a>, which has been reported to transform inorganic particles through metabolic pathways. 



These pathways allow gold to accumulate in or on the fungal filaments over time. The fungus in question draws energy from its surroundings in ways that encourage gold accumulation, though researchers are still pinpointing the precise enzymes involved.



An intriguing strain called <a href="https://www.mycobank.org/details/708/105304" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Candida rugopelliculosa</a> has also been noted for producing gold nanoparticles through a stress response when exposed to certain gold compounds. 



Scientists suggest that these microorganisms release specific <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24456802/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polysaccharides</a> and proteins to reduce the metal ions and keep the resulting gold in stable nanoparticle form. 



This biological trick could be a big win for miners looking for less destructive ways to harvest precious metals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-eyes-toward-the-stars">Turning eyes toward the stars</h2>



Space agencies and private companies are already exploring methods to mine resources on asteroids, whose metal content is often richer than that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s crust</a>. The fungus’s ability to process gold in harsh conditions shows potential for extraterrestrial applications. 



Some researchers envision deploying specialized microbial colonies to break down metals in orbiting rocks, transforming space mining into a more efficient, lighter operation without the need for massive excavators.



Engineers debate how well a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-eating-fungus-beauveria-bassiana-causes-the-immune-system-to-attack-neurons/">fungus</a> would perform in low-gravity environments with limited nutrients. Yet the concept of sending living systems into space to work on raw materials intrigues those who want to lower mission costs. 



If the fungus can multiply and process metals using minimal equipment, it might shift how organizations plan resource extraction far from Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-angle-on-sustainability">Fresh angle on sustainability</h2>



Governments worldwide are tightening environmental rules on mining because of landscape damage and water pollution. 



Traditional methods to extract gold frequently involve toxic substances or large energy inputs. The new fungus-based approach presents an idea that goes hand-in-hand with more eco-conscious strategies.



It is also potentially safer for workers, who could see a reduced need for heavy machinery. More importantly, harnessing a living organism’s capabilities means that gold may be collected in forms that are easier to refine with fewer harsh processes. 



Although these notions remain in the early stages, they shine a light on how biology can inform industrial practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-plans">Challenges and future plans</h2>



Scientists must still figure out how to cultivate this organism on a grand scale. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-photographs-a-rare-red-cane-fungus-thought-to-be-extinct-stinkhorn-mushroom/">fungus</a> may need very particular conditions to produce gold particles efficiently. 



Moisture, soil pH, and other minerals might influence how well it grows and how much gold it accumulates.



Ensuring no harmful mutations take place during large-scale fungal cultivation is also a concern. The introduction of any non-native organism to new environments warrants caution, especially if plans involve use in space. 



Collaboration among biologists, engineers, and mining experts could clarify best practices so that the fungus remains beneficial without unexpected ecological impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prospects-for-the-mining-industry">Prospects for the mining industry</h2>



Some mining firms are already discussing the potential for gold-focused fungal detection kits. These kits could analyze samples in less time than typical drilling and surveying routines. 



Once the fungus picks up subtle traces of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-gold-rush-begins-as-very-high-volume-deposit-identified-in-a-single-drill-hole/">gold</a>, exploration teams would zero in on precise areas with a higher likelihood of viable deposits.



The same methods could apply to other metals that share certain chemical traits with gold. Meanwhile, ongoing research is exploring variations of the fungus that absorb different elements to aid geologists in pinpointing new sources of valuable minerals.&nbsp;



The study is published in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10966691/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heliyon</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gold-eating fungus discovery could revolutionize the search for metals and minerals on Earth, asteroids, and other planets

It appears that a new chapter is opening in the...

The world’s oceans are home to some of the most iconic marine megafauna, including sharks, whales, turtles, and seals. These ocean giants sit at the top of ocean food webs, playing critical roles in keeping marine ecosystems healthy. 



But they face mounting threats as human pressures reshape the oceans they call home.



A major new study has tracked the movements of over 100 marine megafaunal species to pinpoint the most important areas in our oceans for urgent conservation.



The research, conducted by a global team including scientists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) and The Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>), highlights where protective efforts must focus.



The study is part of the UN-endorsed MegaMove project, a massive collaboration involving nearly 400 scientists from more than 50 countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-marine-megafauna-the-basics">Understanding marine megafauna - the basics</h2>



Marine megafauna are the giants of the ocean - large animals like whales, dolphins, sharks, sea turtles, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-are-now-habitats-for-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant rays</a>. These creatures play critical roles in maintaining the health of marine ecosystems. 



For example, whales help circulate nutrients by diving deep and then surfacing to breathe, effectively stirring the ocean layers. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea turtles</a> keep seagrass beds healthy by grazing, while sharks regulate the food web by preying on the sick and weak. 



These species aren't just beautiful and fascinating - they're essential. Their presence supports biodiversity and helps oceans function as stable, resilient systems.



Despite their importance, marine megafauna face mounting threats from human activity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-face-severe-destruction-from-bottom-trawling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Overfishing</a>, ship strikes, entanglement in plastic waste, noise pollution, and habitat loss all take a toll. 



Climate change compounds these challenges by warming waters and disrupting migration and breeding patterns. Many of these animals are long-lived and slow to reproduce, so their populations can't bounce back quickly once harmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-highways-of-marine-megafauna">Hidden highways of marine megafauna</h2>



Currently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) cover just eight percent of the world’s oceans. However, the UN High Seas Treaty aims to expand that coverage to 30 percent. This new study shows that while the 30 percent goal is important, it may not be enough.



“The impacts of a changing ocean on marine megafauna are already evident,” said Camrin Braun, assistant scientist and ocean ecologist at WHOI. 



“Our recent work tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine predators</a>, including an earlier WHOI-led study, indicates changes in the ocean are expected to fundamentally alter the status quo for where these species are and how they live.”



The research team tracked animal movements to find areas critical for feeding, breeding, and migration.



“We found that the areas used by these animals overlap significantly with threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tuna-fishing-gear-is-harming-oceans-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, shipping, warming temperatures, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a>,” said Ana Sequeira, marine ecologist at ANU and the study’s lead author. 



“The 30 percent protection goal is seen as helpful but insufficient to protect all important areas, meaning that additional mitigation strategies are needed to alleviate pressures beyond areas that will be protected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-effort-to-protect-marine-megafauna">Global effort to protect marine megafauna</h2>



The MegaMove project, launched by Sequeira in 2020, aims to unite the marine movement ecology community to confront the urgent challenges facing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cascading-oxygen-loss-could-endanger-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean life</a>.



“MegaMove brings together an international network of researchers to provide innovative research to advance the global conservation of marine megafauna,” Sequeira said.



The team emphasizes that while expanding protected areas is crucial, it’s equally important to tackle threats outside those zones.



“Our research shows that, in addition to protected areas, implementing mitigation strategies like changing fishing gear, using different lights in nets, and traffic schemes for ships will be key to alleviating current human pressure on these species,” Sequeira explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ranking-oceans-for-conservation">Ranking oceans for conservation</h2>



Study co-lead author Dr. Jorge Rodríguez, from Instituto de Física Interdisciplinar y Sistemas Complejos, shared new insights on how the team identified priority areas for marine megafaunal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-conservation-credit-system-could-reduce-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>.



“We’ve outlined the top areas for 30 percent protection, ranking them based on their use by marine megafaunal species,” Rodríguez said.



“Our analysis identifies which areas in the global ocean these species are using as residencies or migratory corridors. We specifically focused on ranking higher those areas used for these important behaviors by the largest number of species.”



According to Sequeira, even if the whole 30 percent protection were selected in key areas used by marine megafauna, it would still not be enough to conserve them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-changing-ocean">Preparing for a changing ocean</h2>



Braun emphasized the need for flexibility in conservation strategies as ocean conditions continue to evolve.



“Adaptive management approaches, and stronger mitigation strategies are critical components of the coordinated international approach necessary to conserve these species into the future,” Braun said. 



“We need all the tools we can get if we are going to successfully balance conservation goals with human uses in a changing ocean.”



The study connects closely with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 14, which focuses on life below water.



By combining large-scale tracking data and coordinated international efforts, this research offers a clear path forward - a future where marine megafauna continue to thrive alongside a growing human presence on the seas.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl0239" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine megafauna face growing threats - despite global protections

The world’s oceans are home to some of the most...

Scientists and conservation groups are pushing for stronger safeguards for seamounts, which are underwater peaks that support sea life in astonishing ways. 



These submerged elevations can be pivotal feeding stations for marine animals, but they are at risk from a fishing practice known as bottom trawling, which involves scraping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-new-underwater-map-reveals-nearly-100000-hidden-ocean-mountains-seamounts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> floor with heavy nets.



Leading marine researchers have emphasized these concerns at the <a href="https://ocean-climate.org/en/unoc2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Third United Nations Ocean Conference</a> in Nice. 



Dr. Lissette Victorero of the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (DSCC) explained that the clock is ticking to protect these environments before irreparable harm is done.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-seamounts-support-sea-life">How seamounts support sea life</h2>



Seamounts play a role in supplying shelter and resources for everything from coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a> to whales. They also help certain fish species that rely on the gentle currents flowing around these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater</a> cliffs for breeding grounds and essential nutrients.



“These underwater mountains are biodiversity powerhouses, home to unique communities and vital habitats that are often older than our most ancient forests,” said Dr. Lance Morgan, president of the Marine Conservation Institute.



Scientists say losing these habitats would be a devastating blow, not only for <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> but for local economies that rely on sustainable fishing.&nbsp;



Seamounts are classified by the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations</a> as part of vulnerable marine ecosystems (<a href="https://www.fao.org/in-action/vulnerable-marine-ecosystems/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMEs</a>), which means special attention is needed. Their fragile coral and sponge populations do not recover quickly once damaged, and bottom trawling can crush them in an instant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-concerns-about-carbon-emissions">Urgent concerns about carbon emissions</h2>



A new <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> published January 17, 2024, found that bottom trawling is responsible for releasing an estimated 370 million metric tons of <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/?intent=121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> into the atmosphere each year. 



Carbon stored in sediments for hundreds of years can be disturbed by the plowing effect of the trawls, sending a portion into surface waters.



“Global warming is like death by a thousand cuts. It’s lots of different sources producing CO2 emissions,” said Enric Sala, following a 2021 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> he led.



The <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/5301/2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023 Global Carbon Budget</a> shows the planet is already under pressure from rising CO2, so scientists argue that any additional source of emissions is too large to ignore.



<a href="https://usa.oceana.org/bottom-trawling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seafloor nets</a> that are used by some operators can weigh over 11,000 pounds (nearly 5,000 kg). These nets have heavy chains that drag across the bottom of the ocean, stirring up sediments and releasing gases that might otherwise remain trapped for centuries. 



The disturbance is not limited to one location, as currents can carry sediments far away and spread the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-suggestions-to-protect-deep-sea-life">Suggestions to protect deep-sea life</h2>



Several groups, including the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (<a href="https://stateoftheocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPSO</a>), see marine protected areas as a practical solution for curtailing the worst effects. 



Protecting critical sections of the deep ocean may allow key habitats to stay intact while also limiting extra carbon in the air.



A <a href="https://marine-conservation.org/on-the-tide/tracking-bottom-fishing-in-eu-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from the Marine Conservation Institute outlines that sustainable fishing approaches can keep local food supplies robust without flattening the seabed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shielding-vulnerable-marine-ecosystems">Shielding vulnerable marine ecosystems </h2>



Some nations already ban bottom trawling in certain coastal areas and are studying whether to expand these restrictions.



“Never before have we known so much about seamounts and their importance for biodiversity, their vulnerability, and their essential role in keeping our ocean healthy,” said Dr. Victorero.&nbsp;



Conservationists mention that nations agreed in 2006 to shield vulnerable marine ecosystems from harmful fishing, yet the implementation has been scattered. 



The 2006 resolution aimed to protect vital seafloor terrains, but oversight varies from region to region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-seamounts-from-trawling">Protecting seamounts from trawling </h2>



Calls for immediate action have also been stirred by the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ) <a href="https://www.thegef.org/what-we-do/topics/biodiversity-beyond-national-jurisdiction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agreement</a>. 



The treaty seeks to close governance gaps for ocean areas that lie outside any single nation’s boundaries, yet final ratification may take time.



Groups such as the DSCC and IPSO encourage policymakers to block destructive fishing practices on seamounts now rather than wait for lengthy legal processes. This safeguard would complement efforts to reduce emissions from other sectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-trawling-and-seamount-damage">Heavy trawling and seamount damage</h2>



“Bottom trawling is the most damaging way to obtain food from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-satellite-is-rewriting-what-we-know-about-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. We know the ecological impacts are disastrous,” said Sala. 



Consumers sometimes feel obligated to avoid fish caught using trawls, though some experts see a policy-based route as more efficient.&nbsp;



International cooperation and local enforcement appear to be key. Countries with heavy trawling must collaborate with those whose waters receive these drifting sediments. 



The Marine Conservation Institute, established in 1996, highlights the value of well-managed marine protected areas for maintaining a balance between food supply and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-governments-fail-to-protect-seamounts">Governments fail to protect seamounts</h2>



“This letter is a call to action from the scientific community. States have the tools required to stop this destruction,” said Dr. Victorero.



Fishing councils in certain regions already restrict bottom gear usage in huge sections of the ocean floor. But many seamounts, trenches, and ridges remain open to industrial vessels, risking long-term damage for short-term catches.&nbsp;



Some scientists believe properly designed no-trawl zones around major seamount clusters would preserve essential habitats. The DSCC started in 2004 with more than 130 organizations determined to halt destructive fishing in the deep. 



Localized bans on bottom trawling in parts of the United States and Europe have served as test grounds, and have shown partial success in preserving important fish stocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-shifts-to-save-seamounts">Regulatory shifts to save seamounts </h2>



Scientists also point to the possibility of more advanced gear that floats off the seafloor. But until research funding and industry support align, the simplest way to protect sensitive areas is often a firm ban. 



Observers note that the next few years will likely reveal whether these appeals spur significant regulatory shifts or remain pledges on paper.



Time is short for life that relies on these underwater structures. The DSCC, IPSO, and the Marine Conservation Institute encourage the international community to follow through on previous pledges and add new ones if needed. 



The goal is to eliminate the severe threat trawling poses to seamounts before irreversible damage is done.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Seamounts face severe destruction from bottom trawling

Scientists and conservation groups are pushing for stronger safeguards for...

Mosquito,On,Kids,Skin.,Little,Boy,Attacked,By,Mosquitoes,In

Mosquito swarms may sound like chaos, but male mosquitoes are incredible listeners. Despite the noise, they can hear the faint sounds made by female wingbeats.



A new study from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> uncovers how male mosquitoes hear across a wider range of frequencies than females, helping them locate mates in buzzing clouds while evading human defenses. These insights offer a fresh path toward smarter mosquito control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-use-complex-acoustic-cues">Mosquitoes use complex acoustic cues </h2>



Scientists have long used sound traps to catch male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a>. These traps mimic female wingbeat sounds to lure in males and then sterilize them. But in real-world settings, most of these traps underperform. 



Sound traps often catch only a few insects each day because they don’t match the complex acoustic cues that male mosquitoes truly seek.



The recent study has revealed that males don't just listen for one frequency. Their hearing is tuned to a wide and nuanced range of sounds.



These sounds include not only female wingbeats but also blended frequencies that are made when male and female wingbeats mix. The research could explain why simple traps fail to hold their attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-male-mosquitoes-process-sound">How male mosquitoes process sound</h2>



The researchers used calcium imaging to study brain activity in male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-could-make-insect-repellents-less-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a>. They examined responses in the <a href="https://www.virtualflybrain.org/term/antennal-mechanosensory-and-motor-center-ammc-bb4-neuron-fbbt_00111484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMMC</a> (antennal mechanosensory and motor center), a key hearing region in the mosquito brain.



“We found that male brains showed responses not only to the same frequencies of sound as female brains, but also to much higher frequencies,” noted Professor Matthew Su. 



“This finding shows the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex information processing</a> required for males to identify the location of females.”



In males, the AMMC showed activity across 150 to 500 Hz. Females mostly responded between 100 to 200 Hz. 



Males also showed four unique patterns of sound responses, whereas females showed two unique patterns and one shared with males. These clusters suggest that males process sound in more diverse ways than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-mosquito-sounds-and-human-traps">Female mosquito sounds and human traps</h2>



Strikingly, some male neurons showed negative responses. They reduced activity at 150 Hz. This pattern may help males tune out distractions or adjust sensitivity to specific tones. 



Another brain cluster responded to low-frequency sounds in both sexes. Researchers suggest this may help mosquitoes detect predators, like dragonflies. 



So, even as males evolved fine-tuned mating tools, both sexes may still use sound to stay safe.



To understand why male hearing is so sharp, the team examined the base of the antennae. 



They found males express more genes linked to cilia, which are tiny hairs that detect vibration. These include dynein genes that are already known to affect hearing in other insects.



“Cilia are thought to function to increase receptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-are-mosquito-magnets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitivity to certain sounds</a>,” explained Professor Azusa Kamikouchi. “This sound processing mechanism may be a specialized and sophisticated mechanism that is not found in other insects.”



A <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/fgfr3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene called fd3f</a>, which is known to guide cilia development, was also more active in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-bite-more-often-during-droughts-to-stay-hydrated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males</a>. This suggests males are genetically wired for better hearing. 



Proteins from these genes were also found in greater amounts in males, strengthening the evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-better-sound-traps">Designing better sound traps</h2>



“Male mosquitoes rely on the sound of female wings to find mates. Therefore, mosquito hearing is a promising target for preventing the reproduction of mosquitoes,” noted Professor Kamikouchi.



With this deep understanding of how male mosquitoes hear, scientists could redesign traps that mimic the real complexity of female wingbeats. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mosquitoes_males_find-females_avoid-traps_illustration_credit-Issey-Takahashi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mosquitoes_males_find-females_avoid-traps_illustration_credit-Issey-Takahashi_1s.webp" alt="How Male Mosquitoes Target Females—and Avoid Traps. Credit: Issey Takahashi" class="wp-image-1973044"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">How Male Mosquitoes Target Females—and Avoid Traps. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Issey Takahashi</figcaption></figure>



By copying not just one sound but many, perhaps even distortion products, these tools could catch more males and limit mosquito breeding more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprisingly-complex-auditory-system">Surprisingly complex auditory system </h2>



This study significantly broadens and deepens how we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-listen-for-a-specific-buzz-to-find-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> hearing. It goes beyond simply identifying differences between male and female mosquitoes. 



The research uncovers a highly specialized and surprisingly complex auditory system in males - one that appears to have evolved specifically to improve the chances of finding a mate in noisy environments.



Rather than relying on a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-secrets-of-mosquitoes-may-help-us-gain-control-of-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating cue</a>, male mosquitoes interpret a rich variety of sound frequencies, including blended signals that form when male and female wingbeats overlap.



This suggests their hearing has been shaped by strong evolutionary pressure to succeed in mating within dense and chaotic swarms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sound-as-a-survival-tool">Using sound as a survival tool</h2>



The study also revealed that certain parts of the mosquito’s hearing response are shared between males and females. These shared responses likely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved long ago</a>, before mating behavior became so specialized.



For example, both sexes respond to low-frequency sounds that mimic the wingbeats of dragonflies, one of their natural predators. 



This implies that parts of the mosquito’s hearing system originally developed as a survival tool to allow them to detect and escape from danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-sound-and-human-frustration">Mosquitoes, sound, and human frustration</h2>



While male mosquitoes have acquired new, advanced hearing abilities for mating, they still retain these older sensory features that help them stay alive.



The researchers believe that by fully understanding this dual function - mating and predator detection - we might find new ways to disrupt the mosquito life cycle.



If we can mimic or interfere with the sounds that mosquitoes depend on, we could reduce their ability to reproduce or survive. 



In doing so, we might finally quiet the constant buzz of mosquito swarms in places where they pose the greatest threat to human health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads2689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists learn how mosquitoes outsmart and evade human defenses

Mosquito swarms may sound like chaos, but male mosquitoes are...

Chimpanzees have new companions in the world of yawning: androids. Researchers have discovered that chimpanzees not only yawn in response to a humanoid android’s yawn, but also exhibit restful behaviors like lying down.



The findings, published in the journal Scientific Reports, suggest a deeper behavioral and social link than mere imitation. This is the first real-time evidence of contagious yawning triggered by an inanimate humanoid model.



The study strengthens the idea that yawning can carry social meaning beyond automatic reflexes - even across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-mix-vocal-calls-to-create-new-meanings-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and material boundaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-watched-a-robot-with-facial-motions">Chimps watched a robot with facial motions</h2>



Fourteen adult chimpanzees between 10 and 33 years old took part in the study. The chimps lived at the Fundació Mona Primate Sanctuary in Spain, and had been rescued from the entertainment and pet trades.



The researchers used a life-like android head, built with 33 servo motors, and capable of three facial conditions: yawning (mouth fully open to 5.5 cm or 2.17 inches), gaping (partially open to 1.5 cm or 0.59 inches), and closed-mouth neutrality.



Each condition lasted five minutes and was presented in a randomized order. The android performed each movement between 15 and 20 times. 



Meanwhile, cameras recorded the chimpanzees’ reactions. The team also measured how much time the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> spent looking at the android and lying down after each display.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-can-make-chimpanzees-yawn">Robots can make chimpanzees yawn</h2>



Yawning frequency surged only during and after the yawning condition. Chimps yawned 22 times during android yawns and 23 times in the post-yawn phase. That totaled 45 yawns - three times more than for any other facial condition. 



No yawns occurred during the gaping or closed-mouth presentations. Only a handful of yawns were seen during baseline and post-close periods.



The response also extended to behavior. More chimps lay down after the android yawned, compared to after gape or closed-mouth conditions. They even gathered bedding materials - actions that were rarely seen during other conditions. 



The results suggest that yawns from the android didn’t just mimic biology. They served as contextual cues for rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yawns-as-social-signals">Yawns as social signals</h2>



“Our findings show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-genetically-adapted-to-thrive-in-their-local-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> exhibit yawn contagion when triggered by a non-biological inanimate agent, a humanoid android, that looks as if it is yawning,” said lead author Dr. Ramiro Joly-Mascheroni.



“Despite its elusive primary functions - we still don’t know exactly why we yawn, let alone why yawning is contagious - yawning may still have an evolutionarily old, non-verbal communicative role, and its contagious aspect may help us find out more about how humans and animals developed ways of communication and social interaction.”



This extends earlier findings about contagious yawning in dogs, bonobos, and elephants. It implies that even without familiarity or biological cues, chimpanzees pick up and respond to socially meaningful movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-androids-can-help-us-study-empathy">Androids can help us study empathy</h2>



“Exploring the yawning responses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> towards an artificial agent helps us to understand the mechanism of social cognition and interactions beyond humans," said Professor Calvo-Merino.



"This interdisciplinary research enhances the collaboration of disciplines such as psychology, robotics and zoology."



One interesting idea is that yawning may activate an embodied, perception-action coupling. The chimpanzees could be reacting automatically or making a deeper association - such as recognizing the android's yawn as a signal to rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-instinctive-yawn-responses-of-chimps">Instinctive yawn responses of chimps</h2>



The findings suggest that a living, biological presence is not essential to trigger yawning in chimpanzees. An artificial agent - a robot with human-like features - can produce the same contagious effect. 



This challenges long-held assumptions that only animals or humans can evoke such deeply social and instinctive responses.



By showing that non-living entities can activate behaviors linked to empathy and relaxation, the study broadens the tools available for behavioral science. 



Researchers can now design more controlled experiments without needing a live yawn source. This helps isolate which visual or motion cues are truly responsible for triggering social responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-research">Implications of the research </h2>



The implications of the research extend beyond the yawning behavior of chimpanzees. Future studies might explore whether robotic agents can also provoke other reactions like mimicry, play gestures, or even emotional expressions. 



Understanding which cues matter most could improve our knowledge of social cognition in both humans and animals.



Ultimately, the study shows that chimpanzees do not need skin, muscle, or familiar faces in order to respond. A plastic android, with carefully programmed movements, can be enough to signal rest. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-98639-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chimpanzees catch yawns from robots - and lie down to rest

Chimpanzees have new companions in the world of yawning: androids....

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a hapless black bear that gorged itself on lost narcotics. It turns out the plot has a saltwater sequel. In coastal Brazil, “cocaine sharks” - petite Brazilian sharpnose sharks - are cruising through drug-laden surf, minding their own business - and absorbing far more than sunshine.



The tale sounds like clickbait, yet it is anchored in hard numbers. Seawater sampled near the crowded <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Santos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Port of Santos</a> - Latin America’s busiest harbor - contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-help-us-understand-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine concentrations</a> on par with caffeine. 



Those waters eventually lap against popular beaches only a few miles away. Juvenile sharks captured for study later returned chemical readings that would make any toxicologist wince. 



Sharks on cocaine? Believe it!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocaine-small-sharks-big-questions">Cocaine, small sharks, big questions</h2>



Barely 20 inches from snout to tail, <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/2694" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhizoprionodon lalandii</a> hardly fits the image of a fearsome predator. These nimble hunters weigh less than a quart of milk yet punch above their size in local food webs. 



They became the focus of marine toxicologist Gabriel de Farias Araujo and ecotoxicologist Enrico Mendes Saggioro at Brazil’s <a href="https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oswaldo Cruz Institute</a> after a late-night brainstorming session about invisible pollutants and overlooked species.



The researchers spent weeks prowling estuaries in small boats, setting gill nets at dawn and dusk when sharpnoses patrol the shallows. Thirteen juvenile and young adult sharks were taken back to the lab, packed in ice.



Chromatography showed every fish carried cocaine plus hefty doses of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoylecgonine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benzoylecgonine</a>, the drug’s chief metabolite. 



Levels dwarfed those seen in most aquatic surveys, pointing to chronic exposure rather than a one-off snort from floating contraband.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-drugs-pollute-ocean-waters">How drugs pollute ocean waters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pharmaceutical-pollution-changes-the-behavior-of-atlantic-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pharmaceutical pollution</a> is a worldwide headache, but Brazil faces an outsized share because it is a major transit hub for cocaine. 



Much of the drug winds up in wastewater after human use, slipping past treatment plants that were never designed to neutralize narcotics. In hot, crowded cities, a single facility may discharge millions of gallons of partially treated effluent each day.



Add in discarded bales tossed overboard by smugglers and residue from clandestine labs hidden along rivers, and the result is a steady trickle of cocaine into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-can-quickly-recover-carbon-lost-to-climate-extremes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangroves and estuaries</a>. 



Tidal mixing and mangrove roots slow water flow, allowing chemicals to linger. By the time currents, wind, and rain have done their spreading, fish, crustaceans, and filter feeders are marinating in a diluted yet persistent cocktail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-cocaine-does-underwater">What cocaine does underwater</h2>



Exactly how cocaine tweaks a shark’s physiology remains an open question, but parallel studies on other species offer troubling clues. 



Zebrafish embryos exposed to tiny doses show reduced cell vitality and greater DNA fragmentation, hinting at developmental risks. 



In European eels, swimming through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine-tainted</a> water alters muscle performance and accelerates exhaustion, making long migrations harder.



Sharks may experience similar stress. Even subtle interference with neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine and serotonin</a> could blunt the electroreception they use to find prey. 



Over time, that handicap translates into slower growth and lower survival, eroding populations already pressured by overfishing and habitat loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loading-the-food-chain">Loading the food chain</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-use-detected-in-the-brains-of-17th-century-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cocaine</a> is not picky about hosts. Once it slips into the water, it is readily absorbed by plankton and small invertebrates hovering at the base of the food web. 



Brazilian sharpnose sharks, prowling for sardines and shrimp, take in a double dose: the drug dissolved in seawater and the bolus stored in their prey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1s.webp" alt="How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute" class="wp-image-1972758"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute</figcaption></figure>



The study recorded tissue concentrations up to one hundred times higher than levels measured in other marine organisms. 



Such biomagnification means that apex predators - larger sharks, dolphins, even seabirds - could be accumulating unexpected pharmaceutical payloads without leaving obvious forensic clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wider-pollution-picture">The wider pollution picture</h2>



Cocaine is only one piece of a sprawling chemical mosaic. Researchers have spotted antidepressants in Great Lakes perch, epilepsy drugs in British river otters, and methamphetamines in Czech trout. 



Each compound nudges behavior and metabolism in its own way, yet they mingle in the same waterways and sometimes interact.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer seas</a> driven by climate change add another wrinkle by speeding biochemical reactions and altering currents. 



Altered predator-prey dynamics, skewed reproductive cycles, and shifts in migration routes can ripple outward, reshaping entire ecosystems faster than regulators can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-cocaine-away-from-sharks">Keeping cocaine away from sharks</h2>



Araujo and Saggioro argue that sharper monitoring is the first step toward relief. 



Upgrading wastewater plants with activated carbon filters, cracking down on illegal dumping, and tracing pollution hot spots with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> surveys would help tighten the tap before drugs reach the open ocean.



Roughly one-third of shark and ray species already teeter on the edge because of overfishing. Pharmaceutical runoff piles on yet another hurdle. 



Curbing drug pollution is less about finger-wagging at individual users and more about safeguarding coral nurseries, fisheries, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-flooding-is-happening-far-more-often-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal communities</a> that depend on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-ocean-shared-responsibility">One ocean, shared responsibility</h2>



The presence of cocaine in Brazilian sharpnose sharks is more than a catchy headline. It is a plain reminder that human habits seep into the sea in ways we seldom notice. 



Cleaning up after ourselves should never be looked at as just a charitable act of kindness for wildlife. 



Not only is it our responsibility as the dominant species on the planet, it's an investment in the stability of ecosystems, biodiversity, and global food chains that humans ultimately rely on. The ocean does not recognize national borders, so every watershed matters.



Solving the problem will take cooperation from chemists, wastewater engineers, legislators, and everyday citizens. 



Until then, the next time a ripple of seawater brushes your ankles, keep in mind the curious little shark beneath the surface - and the silent stimulant drifting alongside it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724049477" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Cocaine sharks" found off the coast of Brazil - strange but true tale of ocean pollution consequences

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a...

For years before the world knew COVID-19, viruses were already moving from humans to wild animals. Among those affected were chimpanzees, who suffered quietly as diseases crossed species lines.



The issue became urgent on December 31, 2016. At Ngogo, a research site in Uganda’s Kibale National Park, a viral outbreak struck a large chimpanzee community. 



The virus, which originated from humans, killed 25 out of nearly 200 chimps. Scientists had been studying these chimps for three decades, making the loss even more devastating.



In a study from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, researchers offer clear evidence that basic safety measures - like masks, distancing, and quarantine - work. 



These steps, now familiar because of the pandemic, can protect chimpanzees and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> not only at research sites like Ngogo but also at tourist destinations where humans and animals interact daily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-chimpanzees-remain-at-risk">Why chimpanzees remain at risk</h2>



Jacob Negrey is an assistant professor of anthropology in the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences and the study's lead author.



"We have really good reasons to think that chimpanzees that are visited regularly by tourists are at even greater risk of this sort of transmission because they're exposed to a wider range of people on a daily basis," said Negrey.



"The kind of trends we're documenting here are really relevant to all of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-chimpanzee interactions</a>, not just ones related to research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-health-of-chimpanzees">Tracking the health of chimpanzees </h2>



Ngogo is no ordinary site. Research started there in 1994, and the location’s dense rainforest and large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recent-genetic-connectivity-found-among-chimpanzee-subspecies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee population</a> have made it a top site for primate studies. It's even featured in Netflix’s documentary series Chimp Empire, released in 2023.



Negrey has spent more than a decade at Ngogo, tracking the health of these chimps. His typical day begins before dawn, setting out from a forest campsite to observe chimp behavior and collect biological samples.



"You can be wandering through the forest and then there's rustling and you realize you've almost walked into a herd of elephants," he said. "You have to really love the chimps and love the work that you're doing because there's a good chance you're going to be peed on."



Samples collected in the field are later analyzed in laboratories, providing essential data on the chimps’ health over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-diseases-in-chimpanzees">Human diseases in chimpanzees </h2>



The risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leprosy-has-been-found-in-wild-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human diseases crossing to chimps</a> has worried researchers for years. Even before the 2016 outbreak, the Ngogo team followed recommendations from the International Union for Conservation of Nature. 



The researchers kept a 15-foot distance from chimps, buried any human waste, and stayed away from the forest when sick.



"But there was never any systematic study showing that they were effective," Negrey explained. "There was just such an urgency to this problem that it was like the solution needed to be put out before we even had evidence of its efficacy."



After the 2017 outbreak, they toughened the rules. Anyone with symptoms could not enter the forest. Healthy researchers had to keep a distance of about 20 feet - preferably 30. They wore masks, sanitized their hands, and used separate clothing for forest work and camp life. 



By 2020, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-if-humans-are-spreading-covid-19-to-other-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> prompted even stricter rules: researchers arriving from abroad quarantined for a week before entering the forest. Today, these safety measures to protect chimpanzees from human diseases remain firmly in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safety-protocols-are-working">Safety protocols are working</h2>



The researchers analyzed nearly 70 samples of chimpanzee waste collected between 2015 and 2019. They compared samples from before, during, and after the 2016-2017 outbreak. 



The experts found viral DNA from humans in the chimps’ samples - but saw a clear drop in virus presence once strict protocols began.



Coughing patterns of the chimpanzees also changed. Before the new rules, chimps coughed about 1.73% of the time. After the rules, that number dropped to 0.356%. By 2022, after adding the quarantine rule, it fell even further to 0.075%.



"We're really excited about this study because it actually does show - for the first time, as far as I'm aware - that these protocols work," Negrey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-chimps-for-future-generations">Protecting chimps for future generations </h2>



Professor Negrey, who joined the University of Arizona in 2023, found his passion for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> as a child fascinated by gorillas at the zoo. Initially majoring in journalism at Miami University in Ohio, a chance meeting with a primatologist steered him toward anthropology.



Today, Negrey focuses on the health of chimpanzees, especially how they are impacted by diseases and aging. As some of our closest living relatives, chimpanzees offer critical insights into our own species.



"They're so special, they're so weird, and they're really unlike anything else on the planet," said Negrey. "It's to our great benefit to protect them for future generations so we can continue to be awed by them and continue to learn from them."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320725002629?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human diseases threaten chimpanzees - but we can protect them

For years before the world knew COVID-19, viruses were already...

Where do fish go for a deep clean? Coral reefs. These underwater hubs host bustling stations where small fish perform hygiene services for their larger neighbors. 



Cleaner fish dart around bigger "clients," even entering mouths to remove parasites and bacteria. Some even offer what looks like a massage.



But are these fish spas just about grooming? Or could they affect the entire microbial network of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-fish-help-microbes-travel">Cleaner fish help microbes travel</h2>



A study published in the journal Marine Ecology Progress Series explores this hidden layer of reef life. The research was led by experts at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>).



The team set out to investigate whether cleaner stations help spread harmful pathogens or helpful microbes. 



If microbes move easily around a reef, they may influence coral bleaching or disease resistance. Understanding these interactions could inform coral restoration strategies.



“How pathogens or microbes are moving around a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> could be critically important to understanding how individuals will be affected,” said lead author Anya Brown, an assistant professor with the UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory and a National Geographic Explorer. 



“We know microbes play a role in coral bleaching, for example. This study really lays a foundation for using cleaner fish stations as a way to study movement of microbes around the reef environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-gobies-and-fish-visits">Cleaner gobies and fish visits </h2>



The scientists chose to study the cleaning goby, a tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-jaws-twist-to-feed-more-effectively-on-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> known for its services on Caribbean reefs. Despite its small size, the goby plays a key role in reef life. It has a striped body and is about the size of a human pinky finger.



In June 2021, the researchers removed these gobies from some cleaning stations on reefs in Puerto Rico and St. Croix. They wanted to see what would happen when these little cleaners were taken out of the picture. 



The team analyzed changes in water quality, shifts in the kinds of microbes in the water, and how other fish, especially damselfish, responded. Damselfish often visit gobies to get cleaned.



The results were revealing. Places that still had gobies attracted more fish. These active cleaning spots seemed to influence the tiny life forms in the water too. But each reef reacted differently, showing that microbial shifts depend on local reef conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-parasite-removal">Impacts beyond parasite removal</h2>



Cleaner fish do more than just remove parasites from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Their cleaning activity may also change the types and amounts of microbes in the reef.



By interacting closely with many fish, cleaner fish might help spread certain microbes or reduce harmful ones. This can affect not only the health of individual fish but also the balance of microscopic life across the reef. So, their impact extends beyond visible cleaning - it reaches the invisible microbial world that supports the whole ecosystem.



Study co-author Paul Sikkel is a research professor at the Rosenstiel School’s Department of Marine Biology and Ecology.



“While larger organisms on coral reefs attract the most attention, the study underscores the huge impact tiny organisms such as these fish can have and how important they are to helping healthy reef ecosystems function,” said Sikkel.



“While cleaner fish are well-known for their role in consuming parasites and reducing stress in other fish, this is the first field study to quantify their effects on microbes of other fish and the surrounding coral reef environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-collaboration-and-next-steps">Global collaboration and next steps</h2>



Scientists from several institutions collaborated on the research, including Amy Apprill and Jeanne Bloomberg from WHOI, and Gina Hendrick and Matthew Nicholson from the <a href="https://www.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>. Marta Soares and Raquel Xavier joined from the <a href="https://www.up.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Porto</a> in Portugal. 



The study was supported by major science organizations. Funding came from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, WHOI, and <a href="https://www.fct.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Portugal’s Foundation for Science and Technology</a>. 



Even though cleaner fish are tiny, they can influence entire ecosystems. Researchers are just beginning to understand how these fish help control the movement of microbes and maintain reef balance. The study opens new questions about the deeper connections shaping ocean life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v761/meps14851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cleaner fish may spread helpful microbes across coral reefs

Where do fish go for a deep clean? Coral reefs....

Long believed to be confined to the lab, the bizarre and cooperative behavior of "worm towers” has now been documented in nature.



An international team of researchers has recorded the first direct evidence of nematodes forming vertical, living structures in decaying fruit in German orchards. It's a phenomenon once thought to be mythical. 



These living towers, built from worm bodies, act as a collective vehicle to reach new environments and improve survival under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-towers-step-into-nature">Worm towers step into nature</h2>



For years, scientists suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nematodes-use-chemistry-to-survive-and-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nematodes</a> might build these structures in the wild, but evidence was lacking.



Although seen in labs and chambers, no one had documented them in the wild - until now. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) and the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> have changed that.



“I was ecstatic when I saw these natural towers for the first time,” said Serena Ding, senior author and group leader at MPI-AB, recalling the moment a colleague shared video footage from the field.



“For so long natural worm towers existed only in our imaginations. But with the right equipment and lots of curiosity, we found them hiding in plain sight.”



Ryan Greenway, a technical assistant at MPI-AB, spent months scouring rotting apples and pears with a digital microscope in local orchards near the University of Konstanz. His patience paid off.



In several cases, he observed the worms forming elaborate, upright clusters. When the team brought some into the lab for study, they made a surprising discovery. Despite many nematode species, the towers were made only from one kind, in a tough, immobile “dauer” larval state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-pile-of-worms"><a></a>More than a pile of worms</h2>



“A nematode tower is not just a pile of worms,” said first author Daniela Perez, a postdoctoral researcher at MPI-AB. “It’s a coordinated structure, a superorganism in motion.”



In the wild, individual dauer-stage nematodes stand on their tails to latch onto passing animals, hitching rides to new environments. But this study revealed that entire towers - dozens of worms high - can perform the same trick collectively.



The towers responded to touch, detached from surfaces, and even managed to cling en masse to insects like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-help-us-understand-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a>. It’s group movement on a microscopic scale.



To test the behavior under controlled conditions, Perez created worm towers in the lab. She used Caenorhabditis elegans, a commonly studied nematode species.



By placing starved worms on food-free agar with a bristle, she saw them build towers within two hours. These structures remained stable for over 12 hours, sometimes forming exploratory “arms” that extended into the surrounding space or bridged gaps to reach new surfaces.



“The towers are actively sensing and growing,” Perez said. “When we touched them, they responded immediately, growing toward the stimulus and attaching to it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-together-as-one">Climbing together as one</h2>



In the wild, only dauer-stage worms built towers, but in the lab, Perez saw adults and other larval stages also built them. This suggests the behavior may be more common and versatile than previously believed. 



Despite their impressive structure, the towers showed no evidence of specialization. Worms at the base were just as mobile and fertile as those at the top.



“C. elegans is a clonal culture and so it makes sense there is no differentiation within the tower,” the authors explained. “In natural towers, we might see separate genetic compositions and roles, which prompts fascinating questions about who cooperates and who cheats.”



This kind of egalitarian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-single-cells-to-complex-life-was-cooperation-the-first-step/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperation</a> - where no individual appears to dominate or be sacrificed - raises new questions about how group behaviors evolve and how individual actions contribute to collective success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-towers-inspire-models">Worm towers inspire models </h2>



These findings place nematodes in a very exclusive group. Until now, only a few animals - like slime molds, fire ants, and spider mites - were known to use body-linking for collective motion.



The discovery that nematodes, Earth’s most abundant animals, do the same in nature opens vast research possibilities.



“Our study opens up a whole new system for exploring how and why animals move together,” Ding said. “By harnessing the genetic tools available for C. elegans, we now have a powerful model to study the evolution of collective dispersal.”



As scientists continue to explore how cooperative behaviors arise in everything from insect colonies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrating birds</a>, the humble worm tower may now rise - literally and figuratively - as a new cornerstone in the study of group movement.



What was once a lab oddity has become a natural wonder, twisting upward in decaying fruit, silently revealing how animals - even the tiniest - can work together to reach for better places.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00601-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225006013%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worm towers: Nematodes build living structures that puzzle scientists

Long believed to be confined to the lab, the bizarre...

Marine ecosystems supply an enormous variety of fish that meet the nutritional needs of communities across the globe. Overfishing has put intense strain on these resources, prompting urgent questions about sustainable seafood choices.



Biodiversity is more than just a word; it is the foundation of a balanced and flexible approach to using marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> for human nourishment. This principle has taken center stage in a recent study led by Cornell University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-provide-more-nutrition">Small fish provide more nutrition</h2>



Sustainability <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9804230/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> around the world have long highlighted the value of smaller fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that grow quickly and reproduce at higher rates. 



This concept gained new momentum thanks to the efforts of Sebastian Heilpern, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, who recently explored how diverse fish portfolios can boost nutrition while easing harvest pressure.



Heilpern's team examined how varying species can provide up to 60 percent more nutrients than relying on a single fish. They tapped into existing databases to determine which fish thrive in different regions, seeking an optimal selection that meets dietary needs with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40196308/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minimal biomass</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-species-help-ecosystems-recover">Small species help ecosystems recover</h2>



Many smaller species have an advantage because they occupy lower levels on the food chain. Their swift reproduction rates allow them to replenish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> more rapidly than bigger species.



<a href="https://blog.sintef.com/ocean/why-low-trophic-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lower trophic positions</a> also translate to fewer accumulated contaminants, making some smaller fish safer for consumption. These factors combine to place sardines and anchovies near the top of the list of ecologically resilient choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-mix-of-species">Best mix of species</h2>



The researchers fed nutrient data and biomass information into sophisticated models to pinpoint the best mix of species for each region. They evaluated fish populations across continents, weaving together data from hundreds of sources.



“We can then ask, out of all these combinations of potential options of species, which ones could we select and how much of each, in a way that would provide us with sufficient nutrition to meet a person’s diet needs with the lowest amount of fish biomass,” said Heilpern. 



This approach underscores how strategic variety can supply enough protein, vitamins, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-removes-key-nutrients-from-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minerals</a> for communities without exhausting the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-biodiversity">Importance of biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity</a> involves preserving different forms of life so species can complement each other. This interplay can help address multiple nutritional gaps with smaller portions.



The new findings hint that a few carefully chosen fish can bring more vitamins, minerals, and proteins than a single nutrient-dense but larger species. 



This synergy also promotes an adaptable fishery system that remains steady if one species declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-patterns-of-eating-fish">Global patterns of eating fish</h2>



Tropical coastal regions tend to exhibit abundant fish life, which could offer people a broader menu. Countries along the <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/10index/background/biodiversity/biodiversity.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Triangle</a>, as well as areas in the Amazon, stand out for their high variety of fish species.



Meanwhile, the United States has a reasonable degree of diversity yet consistently consumes only a narrow <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/foss/f?p=215:25:16158701237164:::::" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selection</a>. 



Around 10 species make up the bulk of what Americans eat, pointing to untapped potential in local waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-are-resilient">Small fish are resilient</h2>



Water temperature fluctuations have less impact on some small fish, making them more resistant to severe weather events. They cope with changing conditions by reproducing quickly and requiring fewer resources.



This resilience helps maintain a stable seafood supply even as the environment shifts. It also offers a safety net to communities that rely on fish for essential nutrition.



Harvesting smaller fish can also lessen the burden on heavily fished species higher up the food chain. This strategy balances human needs with ecological considerations, easing overexploitation.



Individuals can enjoy adequate nutrition from smaller portions if they choose fish wisely. This concept assists in lowering overall fishing pressure while still delivering vital nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-and-moral-responsibility">Biodiversity and moral responsibility</h2>



“This research hopefully highlights the importance of biodiversity, not just because of a moral quandary that we’re causing a mass extinction on Earth, but also because biodiversity can lead to better outcomes for fishery sustainability,” said Heilpern. 



Ensuring fish variety grants communities the chance to preserve ecological balance. It also speaks to our sense of stewardship over aquatic habitats.



Policymakers may wish to broaden guidance on recommended fish consumption to highlight small species that flourish under sustainable management. Such adjustments could align public health goals with ecological realities.



Governments might also rethink catch limits to give small, prolific species more room to thrive. Making small changes in fish market preferences could spark larger shifts in how resources are used.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selectively-harvesting-small-fish-species">Selectively harvesting small fish species</h2>



Coastal communities are often the first to see the impact of overfishing. Their experiences can offer lessons in how to adapt and explore a wider range of local species.



Collaborative efforts between fishers and scientists can spark ideas for selective harvesting. In some regions, these partnerships already guide more balanced approaches to keep fish populations healthy.



Small fish pack a punch when it comes to proteins, vitamins, and minerals. This advantage lessens the need for huge quantities, ensuring that diets remain balanced and nutritious.



Eating a mix of nutrient-dense fish also reduces dependency on processed supplements for addressing deficiencies. It builds a more direct path between natural resources and good health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efficient-use-of-fish-diversity">Efficient use of fish diversity </h2>



Scientists continue to investigate how climate patterns and fishing methods intersect with species composition. They aim to refine models for even more accurate predictions of fisheries outcomes in changing environments.



More data on specific vitamins or micronutrients could further fine-tune dietary guidelines based on local fish availability. Such progress would help ensure that communities have reliable access to essential nutrients.



Efficient use of fish diversity can support robust marine systems and lasting sources of food. By spreading demand across multiple species, we reduce the pressure on vulnerable stocks.



Consumers can also play a role by exploring varieties beyond the usual favorites. This step can support fishers who harvest responsibly and seek to maintain healthy waters.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01577-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Small fish provide climate-resilient nutrition for a warming world

Marine ecosystems supply an enormous variety of fish that meet...

Researchers have found that some birds may ingest traces of ethanol through everyday foods. This behavior has fascinated ecologists who are keen to see if it affects flight or general health - especially when birds consume nectar, fruits, or even insects that have fed on fermenting plants.



The research was led by Dr. Robert Dudley and colleagues from the <a href="https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/research-unit/museum-vertebrate-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Vertebrate Zoology</a> at the University of California, Berkeley. 



The team studied the presence of ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in feathers to investigate which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> might be getting a dose of ethanol from their usual meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-might-be-consuming-alcohol">Birds might be consuming alcohol </h2>



Many people assume that only fruit-eating animals face the risk of consuming fermented sugars. Yet the scientists discovered traces of EtG in the feathers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> with diets as varied as seeds, insects, and other animals.



The researchers focused on birds from different regions because diet and environment can influence the amount of alcohol in foods like fallen fruit or sugar water.



“Artificial nectar feeders might be a source of ethanol if the sugar water ferments,” noted Cynthia Wang-Claypool, the study's lead author. 



One surprising clue came from hummingbirds. They rely heavily on nectar, which can ferment in nature or in backyard feeders. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-feathers-reveal-their-alcohol-exposure">Bird feathers reveal their alcohol exposure</h2>



EtG is a small molecule made when ethanol breaks down in the body. Tests on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31096163/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human hair</a> link higher EtG levels to heavy alcohol consumption. This marker offers a long-term look at someone’s drinking habits.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, feathers have a growth cycle that might capture EtG at certain stages. Once the feather stops growing, blood flow in the shaft fades. 



Any EtG embedded during growth can remain, giving a partial snapshot of whether a bird encountered ethanol-rich items.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-diets-and-hidden-sources">Bird diets and hidden sources</h2>



Birds categorized as <a href="https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio300b/nectariv.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectarivores</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/frugivore" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frugivores</a> might seem most likely to ingest alcohol. Some, however, tested negative for EtG in this study. That might mean the sugary food they ate did not ferment enough, or that their feathers had grown when they had no exposure to ethanol.



Meanwhile, certain seed and insect eaters showed the marker. One possibility is that prey items or seeds could ferment or contain ethanol-producing microbes. 



Another hypothesis involves <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/what-are-arthropods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> that feast on sweet fruit or nectar, indirectly passing along traces of alcohol to the birds that consume them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-unplanned-drinks">Potential for unplanned drinks</h2>



Some hummingbird feeders have been <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.230306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> to form low levels of ethanol. People who leave sugar water out for too long might inadvertently offer these tiny flyers more than just a sugary treat. 



The researchers found that Anna’s hummingbirds frequently tested positive for EtG, suggesting they might encounter small amounts of fermented sugar on a regular basis.



“Exposure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> to ethanol could be much more widespread than has been previously recognized,” said Dudley. He noted that birds could be consuming more ethanol than we realize. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-alcohol-consumption">Records of alcohol consumption </h2>



The team measured EtG in bird livers as well, though the short-term nature of organ tissue might explain why fewer samples tested positive. 



Feathers, on the other hand, can retain markers over a longer interval. Still, differences in molt timing or feather wear could influence how much EtG gets stored or later eroded.



In humans, alcohol studies typically use hair or blood analysis. That method provides clues about a person’s intake over several weeks or months. 



For birds, flight feathers might develop at specific times of year, which leads to gaps in our understanding of their exposure outside of molt season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-alcohol-affects-birds">Studying how alcohol affects birds</h2>



The discovery of EtG in avian feathers will spark questions about how often birds face fermented foods in the wild. 



More testing on their feeding choices might reveal whether certain species are partial to overripe fruit or sugar-based liquids that can ferment in warm weather.



Future projects may examine whether ethanol affects bird behavior, flight, and daily activities. If small-bodied birds process ethanol differently than larger species, a few sips could have effects that are not yet fully known. 



Studies might also check how seasonal shifts or migration patterns influence exposure to fermenting nectar or fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-watchers">Implications for bird watchers</h2>



These findings might change how people maintain backyard feeders. Some might refresh the sugar water more often to reduce fermentation. 



Others could keep an eye on local fruit crops that drop to the ground, especially in warmer months when yeasts flourish.



The biology behind alcohol metabolism is familiar in human medicine but less so in birds. The presence of EtG in feathers opens the door for more analyses of avian life, particularly in species that rely on sugar-laden meals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/735669" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological and Evolutionary Physiology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds are consuming alcohol more often than we realized

Researchers have found that some birds may ingest traces of...

Tiny crustaceans living on coral reefs have intrigued people for decades. Many folks think crabs often scuttle along the sandy bottom, far from bright coral structures, but that picture doesn’t apply to certain crab species.



Gall crabs carve out shelters in coral as they develop, forming snug spots that keep them tucked away from roaming predators. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022098116301228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Symbiotic crabs</a>, like gall crabs, exist in tandem with living coral, often relying on coral mucus for nutrients while staying in place for much of their adult lives.&nbsp;



The presence of <a href="https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/techniques/fluorescence/fluorescenceintro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluorescence</a>, or the ability to absorb one wavelength of light and re-emit it at another, remains a curious adaptation in these little crustaceans. A recent study on these crabs has opened new questions about camouflage on coral reefs, and the conversation is getting livelier each day.



Susanne Bähr from <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KAUST</a> has worked closely with gall crabs for years, and her observations shed new light on how these creatures manage to blend into coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structures</a> in ways that most people would never suspect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-crab-hiding-spots">Coral crab hiding spots</h2>



<a href="https://okinawanaturephotography.com/gall-crabs-coral-inhabiting-micro-crabs-of-okinawa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gall crabs</a> have tiny frames and spend their days hidden in concealed spots in tropical waters. Some individuals inhabit more open dwellings, while others live in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a> pockets or enclosed domes.



That difference in habitat can guide how visible they are, which might influence whether they glow under certain light conditions.&nbsp;



The researchers carried out a morphological analysis on 286 gall crabs from 14 different genera. They documented various color patterns and fluorescence areas on the carapace and limbs. 



Those patterns, often orange-red under blue excitation, can be tough to spot without specific lighting tools.



“It disguises the outline of the crab, so you really can’t see a crab shape,” said Bähr, noting that the unique markings sometimes obscure the crab’s outline. 



Scientists categorize gall crab fluorescence into specific forms that show how each species might blend with coral branches or openings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-traits-evolved-in-crabs">How glowing traits evolved in crabs</h2>



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11896703/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> use advanced gene-sequencing methods to figure out relationships among gall crab species. By reconstructing an evolutionary tree, scientists can track where the fluorescence trait first appeared and where it may have faded.



It is believed that gall crabs in the genus <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-021-02163-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Opecarcinus</a> were the first to show strong fluorescent patterns. Those patterns can show up on the claws, abdomen, and even along the carapace. In certain lineages, that glow partially vanished.



Crabs lacking fluorescence might rely on coral growth habits to camouflage themselves. Species living in fully enclosed coral galls appear to have fewer luminous patches, suggesting they need fewer bright markings when less of their body is exposed.



The dynamic interplay of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a> shape and crab coloration continues to fascinate those who study life in reefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crabs-glow">Why crabs glow</h2>



Biologists remain curious about why these crustaceans glow in the first place. Fluorescence in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24421880/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> can help with camouflage or communication. In crustaceans, the research is still new.



Some decapods rely on colorful signals for attracting mates, warding off rivals, or avoiding predators that lurk around reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structures</a>.&nbsp;



Even with uncertain explanations, a few gall crab lineages reveal more intense fluorescence than others. That leads some researchers to suspect that at least part of the glow disrupts the crab’s outline against the coral.



Placing fluorescent patches on the claws or abdomen may be important for the few seconds of contact these crabs have with potential mates or rivals. 



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10263385/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> on other crab families hint that unique colors on claws can function as signals. Whether gall crabs also read these signs or whether the effect is purely for disguise still needs more investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-need-crabs">Coral reefs need crabs</h2>



Tropical coral reefs are home to countless creatures that often go unnoticed. Gall crabs, though tiny, maintain a key part of these ecosystems.



Like many coral-dependent critters, they feed on mucus or trapped particles and sometimes alter the coral’s growth patterns. They might not devour large amounts of coral tissue, but their presence can affect local diversity.



“This is one of the many types of invertebrates living in association with corals on tropical reefs,” said Francesca Benzoni from KAUST, who supervised part of the work. 



Benxoni noted that more studies on these hidden animals can reveal overlooked parts of coral reef biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-the-crabs-adjust-their-glow">Can the crabs adjust their glow?</h2>



Marine scientists still have much to learn about gall crab vision. It is unknown whether these crustaceans can see their own luminous patterns.



Many <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/decapod" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decapods</a> have compound eyes that work differently than fish eyes, so they may or may not perceive certain wavelengths.&nbsp;



Researchers also wonder if the fluorescent glow is more noticeable to would-be predators, or if it merges seamlessly with the coral’s background. Considering how red wavelengths fade quickly deeper than about 33 ft, these bright red or orange patterns might stand out more than one expects.



Further work is needed to confirm if gall crabs might adjust fluorescence depending on depth or coral color. Bähr hopes that future efforts will define how these simple but striking patterns fit into the broader puzzle of coral reef ecosystems.



Another big question is whether gall crab fluorescence changes over their lifespan, or if it remains fixed once their shells harden in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture-for-reef-life">The bigger picture for reef life</h2>



Gall crabs are not alone in displaying these subtle lights. A range of invertebrates along coral reefs show some form of fluorescence, including certain shrimp and sea anemones. Most remain poorly studied. 



Humans often miss these signals without special filters or lights designed to pick up emitted wavelengths. Still, the existence of these hidden visuals reminds us that reef environments rely on many cryptic, cooperative relationships.



Understanding how symbiotic crabs thrive may give reef scientists a clue about what helps corals survive. 



Environmental shifts can disrupt fragile invertebrate relationships, and the more we learn about these glow-in-the-dark dwellers, the more we realize each species brings its own piece to the reef puzzle.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2403">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



Image Credit: KAUST Habitat and Benthic Biodiversity Laboratory



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some reef crabs absorb light to glow and hide in plain sight

Tiny crustaceans living on coral reefs have intrigued people for...

A large-scale study spanning seven years and 11 wildlife reserves in South Africa has revealed that removing the horns of rhinos can significantly reduce poaching.



The research is the first of its kind to assess the real-world effectiveness of dehorning in curbing illegal killings of one of the world’s most endangered animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rhino-poaching-plunges">Rhino poaching plunges</h2>



Between 2017 and 2023, scientists and reserve managers tracked the poaching of nearly 2,000 rhinos in the Greater Kruger region, which is home to roughly 25% of all African rhinos. During this period, teams dehorned more than 2,200 rhinos across eight of the reserves.



“Dehorning rhinos to reduce incentives for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-colobus-monkeys-are-threatened-by-poachers-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poaching</a> was found to achieve a 78% reduction in poaching using just 1.2% of the overall rhino protection budget,” said lead author Tim Kuiper, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.mandela.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nelson Mandela University</a>. Kuiper also pointed out that 2,284 rhinos were dehorned across eight reserves. 



The researchers compared reserves with and without dehorning, and assessed poaching levels before and after dehorning started.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cost-effective-strategy"><a></a>A cost-effective strategy</h2>



The team documented the poaching of 1,985 rhinos, about 6.5% of the population annually, across 11 Greater Kruger reserves over seven years. "This landscape is a critical global stronghold that conserves around 25% of all Africa’s rhinos,” Kuiper said.



The financial impact was also evaluated. Between 2017 and 2021, the reserves spent roughly $74 million on a variety of anti-poaching efforts. That included everything from helicopter patrols, ranger teams, and detection cameras. 



However, the study found no statistical evidence that these traditional enforcement methods had a measurable effect on reducing poaching incidents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rising-challenge-of-poaching">The rising challenge of poaching </h2>



While dehorning rhinos reduced poaching significantly, it did not eliminate it entirely. The study noted that some poachers continued to target dehorned animals for their horn stumps and regrowth.



In fact, evidence from 2024 and 2025, collected after the study period, suggests that this challenge may be increasing. The researchers also warned that poachers could shift their attention to populations that still have intact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horned-dinosaur-species-lokiceratops-rangiformis-is-largest-most-ornate-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horns</a>.



Moreover, systemic issues such as poverty and corruption can undermine even the best anti-poaching strategies.



“Finally, ineffective criminal justice systems mean that arrested offenders often escape punishment, with evidence from our study area of multiple repeat offenders,” Kuiper said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-helps-save-rhinos">Science helps save rhinos</h2>



The study stands out for its close collaboration between researchers and conservation practitioners.



The <a href="https://gkepf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greater Kruger Environmental Protection Foundation</a> (GKEPF), a collective of reserve managers operating on the front lines of rhino protection, started the initiative.



KEPF convened workshops, gathered data, and worked with scientists from the <a href="https://www.uct.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cape Town</a>, Nelson Mandela University, <a href="https://www.sun.ac.za/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stellenbosch University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



Sharon Hausmann, CEO of GKEPF, described the partnership as a model for evidence-based conservation.



“The true value of this innovative study, conceived by GKEPF operational managers, lies in its collective critical thinking - ensuring not only that operations are guided by science, but also that science is grounded in real experience from the frontline,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-money-matters">Conservation money matters</h2>



One of the study’s most important contributions guides how conservation funding might be better allocated. 



“From a donor perspective this study has given excellent insight where conservation donor funding can be spent and where to avoid funding,” said co-author Markus Hofmeyr from the <a href="https://rhinorecoveryfund.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhino Recovery Fund</a>.



Professor E.J. Milner-Gulland from the University of Oxford, echoed that sentiment. “This collaboration is a brilliant example of how the effectiveness of conservation interventions can be assessed quantitatively, even in challenging and complex situations,” she said.



The study also underscored the importance of rigorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-of-things-tech-will-transform-ocean-data-collection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data collection</a>. Professor Res Altwegg of the University of Cape Town, who supervised the statistical analysis, noted that it is important to check that conservation interventions work as intended and keep working that way.



“For me, this project has again highlighted the value of collecting detailed data, both on the interventions that were applied and the outcome. It’s such data that makes robust quantitative analyses possible," said Altwegg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turning-point-for-rhinos">A turning point for rhinos</h2>



Poaching remains the top threat to rhino survival. Despite years of enforcement efforts, criminal networks continue to exploit gaps in governance and enforcement. But this study offers hope - and a practical, data-backed approach - for turning the tide.



Dehorning rhinos, while not a perfect solution, may offer a powerful tool when integrated into a broader strategy that addresses the root causes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-using-forensic-science-to-fight-wildlife-trafficking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trafficking</a>.



As governments, NGOs, funders, and private reserves reconsider their conservation priorities, the evidence from Greater Kruger urges them to focus not just on what they’ve done, but on what works.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado7490">Science</a>.

Dehorning rhinos significantly cuts down on poaching

A large-scale study spanning seven years and 11 wildlife reserves...

Tiny motors and humming generators may seem harmless against Antarctica’s sweeping silence, yet new evidence shows that the noise is reaching some of the continent’s most fragile refuges.



Recordings reveal that a single power unit over a mile away can pierce the natural hush of Ardley Island, an Antarctic sanctuary for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-makes-it-harder-for-seabirds-to-find-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabirds</a> and seals. This discovery raises fears that steady human noise is already stressing its wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-noise-in-antarctica">Listening to noise in Antarctica</h2>



An international team of researchers from the <a href="https://udelar.edu.uy/portal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Republic of Uruguay</a> (Udelar) and <a href="https://www.upf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pompeu Fabra University</a> (UPF) embarked on two summer field campaigns in 2022 and 2023 that measured the acoustic footprint of an energy generator stationed on the busy Fildes Peninsula.



One recorder sat 900 feet (300 meters) from the machine; another perched on Ardley Island itself, inside Antarctic Specially Protected Area 150. 



Hour-by-hour samples proved the generator’s low-frequency thrum was “clearly perceptible” inside the reserve, even when gusty winds muffled other distant sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-from-human-activities">Noise from human activities </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noise</a> from human activities can affect animals’ communication and social interaction, which is highly dependent on acoustic signals.



In penguin rookeries and seal haul-outs, calls carry instructions about mating, feeding, and danger. When a mechanical drone overlaps those pitches, parents may miss a chick’s plea, or a nervous adult may abandon a nest too often.



“Animals typically respond to noise exposure by altering their usual behavior, including changes in the type and frequency of vocalization and efficiency in foraging and responding to predators," said co-author Martín Rocamora, a scientist at UPF. "They may also develop hearing loss or increased levels of the stress hormone."



Field stations around Fildes use countless engines - generators, trucks, boats, aircraft - to keep science and logistics running.



Until now, most studies of Antarctic noise focused on ships disturbing whales at sea. Terrestrial soundscapes, however, have gained little scrutiny, even though colonies of gentoo, chinstrap, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a> depend on predictable auditory cues during the frantic austral summer breeding window.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-stresses-birds-in-antarctica">Noise stresses birds in Antarctica </h2>



Each recorder captured five-minute clips every hour, day and night. Spectral analysis identified the generator by its distinctive low-frequency fingerprints and helped rule out other sources such as helicopters or quads. Researchers then compared these signals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-antarctic-winds-speed-up-melting-of-doomsday-glacier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind</a> readings.



They found that strong onshore gusts could dampen the noise, but calmer periods let it travel unbroken across sea ice and snow. Over time, the machine’s pulse became a near-constant layer beneath waves, katabatic winds, and bird chatter.



Although Ardley Island teems with several nemoral species, the study zeroed in on seabirds. The island supports roughly five percent of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chinstrap penguins</a> in the South Shetlands and large numbers of southern giant petrels. Both species rely on short, discrete calls.



A background hum may not drown them outright, yet the overlap forces individuals to call louder or more often, draining energy and exposing nests to predators and cold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-today-population-shifts-tomorrow"><a></a>Stress today, population shifts tomorrow?</h2>



The work stops short of documenting direct behavioral changes, but the authors argue that sustained exposure is a credible threat.



Chronic noise can mask alarm calls, hamper chick-feeding coordination, and raise baseline stress. Over successive seasons, such subtle costs may tip breeding success below replacement levels.



The scientists stress that further monitoring should link sound levels to on-site observations of bird and seal activity. Because the generator sits in one of Antarctica’s busiest research corridors, its acoustic reach likely mirrors dozens of similar installations across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-as-a-possible-ally"><a></a>Wind as a possible ally</h2>



Wind shear above the ocean’s surface occasionally deflects the drone away from Ardley’s nesting crags. This natural buffer hints at practical mitigation: situating future generators behind ridges or erecting small acoustic baffles could slash sounds without hindering operations. Even switching to newer, quieter models would help.



The researchers emphasize the urgent need to raise awareness about how noise pollution affects Antarctic ecosystems and to incorporate measures addressing this issue into the management plans of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-hosts-more-plant-life-vegetation-than-scientists-survey-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Specially Protected Areas</a> (ASPAs).



Current guidelines for protected areas emphasize limits on foot traffic, fuel spills, and invasive species, yet mention little about decibel thresholds.



Adding continuous acoustic monitoring to routine environmental checks could flag hotspots early and guide equipment placement before wildlife pays the price.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-unnecessary-noise-in-antarctica">Reducing unnecessary noise in Antarctica</h2>



Antarctica will never be utterly silent - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-antarctic-sea-ice-loss-is-causing-severe-storms-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>, ice quakes, and natural colonies produce their own orchestrated roar. But unnecessary human noises are avoidable.



Installing mufflers, clustering machinery farther from breeding sites, and timing heavy-lift flights outside peak nesting hours all lie within reach of today’s logistics teams. 



Each adjustment would preserve the continent’s rare acoustic commons and shield animals whose entire life cycles pivot on being heard.



Until comprehensive studies link generator drone to chick survival, researchers plan to expand their sensor network across other South Shetland islands.



The early evidence, though, is unambiguous: even in Earth’s last great wilderness, a single engine can speak louder than an entire penguin colony. Protecting the Antarctic soundscape may prove as crucial as guarding its ice and krill.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574954125001268?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Informatics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human noise is disrupting wildlife in Antarctica

Tiny motors and humming generators may seem harmless against Antarctica’s...

In a quiet corner of a museum, behind glass or inside drawers, sit creatures long departed from the wild. A bird collected from a soot-covered forest in the early 1900s. A fish caught from a river that no longer runs clear. These specimens, once seen mainly as records of biodiversity, are now being reinterpreted. 



The specimens carry the fingerprint of the environments from which they came. This includes not just the climate and ecology but also the pollution, hidden in feathers, scales, bones and skin.



A recent study has highlighted this unexpected role. The researchers discovered that preserved plants and animals in natural history museums serve as powerful tools for understanding pollution over time. 



These preserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> hold clues about environmental contamination, and offer a rare glimpse into ecosystems that existed more than two centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-specimens-and-pollution-data">Museum specimens and pollution data</h2>



We treat pollution as a modern issue. Smog, chemical waste and microplastics dominate headlines today. But the environmental degradation caused by industry and human expansion stretches back much further. 



The problem is that monitoring systems did not exist in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past</a>. That means we do not have continuous data on how pollution levels have changed or how they impacted communities.



“We often lack the historical pollution data needed to understand the links between environmental contamination and long-term health effects, such as cancer, asthma, cognitive disorders and premature birth,” said Dr. DuBay, assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://www.uta.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Arlington</a> and lead author of the study.



“By leveraging museum specimens, we can reconstruct environmental conditions from over a century ago and assess how pollution has impacted different communities.”



This historical gap limits our ability to connect environmental data with public health trends. Knowing when certain pollutants appeared or peaked could provide critical context for rising disease rates, childhood asthma or even regional disparities in birth outcomes. 



That is why museum collections are so valuable. They allow researchers to go back in time using biology as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/34-million-year-old-snake-fossil-hibernophis-breithaupti-changes-our-understanding-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record-keeper</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-record-of-shifting-pollution-levels">A record of shifting pollution levels</h2>



Dr. DuBay and his team have shown that biological specimens contain more than DNA or taxonomy. These samples preserve traces of airborne and waterborne pollutants. 



The researchers analyzed items such as feathers and fish tissues and discovered that they still carry metals and particulates from their original environments, even if they were collected more than 100 years ago.



Before the rise of environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science</a>, no one thought to measure mercury in fish or airborne lead in birds. But the creatures that lived through those times did absorb such substances. By studying the specimens now, scientists can reconstruct long-term pollution timelines.



One compelling case involved two field sparrow specimens from the U.S. Rust Belt. One was collected in 1906, the other in 1996. 



The 1906 bird had visible black carbon deposits, the result of coal-based pollution. In contrast, the 1996 bird had clean feathers, showing how pollution levels had changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-of-chronic-illness">Patterns of chronic illness</h2>



DuBay and his colleagues believe these museum archives can do more than map trends. They can help link historical pollution exposure to human health outcomes. 



If researchers compare pollution levels in specimens to local medical records, they might reveal patterns of chronic illness, cognitive issues or premature births that are tied to environmental exposures.



“We’ve always had gaps in historical pollution data,” said DuBay. “These specimens offer a new way to fill those gaps and better understand how pollutants persist in the environment.”



This line of inquiry adds depth to both environmental and medical studies. It could explain why certain communities experienced health disparities for decades. It could also expose how long certain pollutants linger in an ecosystem even after being banned or regulated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specimens-for-pollution-analysis">Specimens for pollution analysis</h2>



Of course, turning a 19th-century bird or fish into a source of chemical data is not easy. These specimens were not originally collected for pollution analysis. 



Many were part of projects that documented species distributions, or collected for museums and educational displays. This makes the data uneven. Some regions are well-represented, while others have few or no samples.



Also, the techniques required to detect trace pollutants in feathers, bones or scales can be highly advanced. Some even risk damaging the original specimen. That is a heavy cost when dealing with irreplaceable archives. 



Scientists must strike a balance between extracting useful data and preserving the sample’s integrity.



Still, the field is advancing. Less invasive methods are being developed. And interdisciplinary teams are working together to share techniques, data and insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specimens-reveal-pollution-s-impacts">Specimens reveal pollution’s impacts</h2>



Despite these challenges, the authors of the study believe there is vast, untapped potential. Natural history museums can serve as long-term archives of human impact on the planet. They are no longer just about biodiversity. They are about environmental change.



“This study underscores the importance of natural history collections - not just for understanding biodiversity, but for examining environmental changes over time,” said DuBay. “By studying these specimens, we can improve our understanding of pollution trends and their broader impacts.”



In a way, these specimens offer a bridge between the past and present. They let us ask: What was in the air when this bird lived? What was present in this fish’s river? The answers could reshape how we view the legacy of industrialization, regulation and recovery.



As researchers continue unlocking the secrets of these long-preserved organisms, one thing becomes clear: the past still speaks. We just need to know where to listen.



Experts from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, University of Chicago, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point, and <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> also contributed to the research.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403781122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Museum specimens preserve traces of pollution from centuries ago

In a quiet corner of a museum, behind glass or...

Evolution is often thought of as a slow, creeping process. But when it comes to octopuses and squids, it seems nature works in quick, sharp bursts.



Over the last 500 million years, nearly all the evolutionary changes in these creatures have happened during short periods when new species appeared.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a> studied these remarkable animals, offering fresh evidence for an idea that’s stirred debate for decades. 



The concept, known as punctuated equilibrium, was first introduced in the 1970s by paleontologists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge. Instead of slow, gradual changes, this theory suggests that evolution typically moves in sudden jumps, with long stretches of calm in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-evolution">New approach to evolution</h2>



Researchers in the University of Auckland’s Department of Physics took a new approach to studying evolution. 



The team refined a probabilistic model and used BEAST 2, a powerful software tool for building evolutionary trees, to track how species changed over time. 



The experts applied their method to cephalopods, a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squids</a>, cuttlefish, and vampire squids. 



By examining traits such as shell shapes, the number of tentacles, and fin structures, the researchers found that gradual evolution played only a “trivial role.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-paced-evolution-unveiled">Fast-paced evolution unveiled</h2>



The team also studied the evolution of Indo-European languages and ancient enzymes involved in genetic coding. According to the analysis, these too evolved in sudden, dramatic leaps that the researchers refer to as "saltative branching."



The idea of saltative branching highlights a shift in how scientists think about evolution. It captures the idea that these rapid changes occur precisely when new species split off from the family tree. 



Instead of a steady march, evolution - at least for cephalopods and other systems studied - seems to move in energetic, unpredictable bursts. It’s a reminder that nature often rewrites its own rules, and sometimes all at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-life-and-leaps">Language, life, and leaps</h2>



The study extended beyond biology. The evolution of Indo-European languages revealed a similar pattern of fast paced change. 



The findings support the “hybrid theory,” which suggests that these languages originated south of the Caucasus Mountains before spreading northward.



Even aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases - enzymes that trace back to life’s beginnings - show signs of evolving in quick bursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-theory-gains-momentum">A theory gains momentum</h2>



For decades, punctuated equilibrium has sparked discussion and debate. It’s been applied to bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, cancer, and even human culture. But questions about its general validity have lingered.



Niles Eldredge, curator emeritus at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, weighed in on the research. In an email to the authors of the study, Eldredge expressed optimism that this research might finally sway the skeptics.



“The new research may serve as a ‘tipping point’ for acceptance of the theory, which has remained controversial for decades,” he said.



Eldredge added that over the past 50 years, the concept has been used broadly but doubts about its widespread applicability remained. 



Now, with the help of advanced mathematical techniques, the new study shows that rapid evolutionary changes almost always align with the appearance of new species. The paper, he said, “removes all doubt.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-rapid-evolution-means-for-science">What rapid evolution means for science</h2>



The idea that evolution can happen in fast paced bursts opens new doors for how scientists think about life’s history. It suggests that sudden environmental changes, genetic shifts, or even random chance could trigger these leaps, reshaping species in a relatively short time.



This challenges the long-held view of evolution as a steady, gradual climb. Instead, it points to a landscape full of sudden turns and quick adaptations. 



For researchers, it means looking closer at the moments when species first appear, as these may hold the real action in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>.



The study also hints at how life might respond to today’s rapid changes in the environment. If evolution can move quickly when needed, it raises both hope and questions about how species will adapt to the pressures of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yeast-evolution-reveals-limits-to-surviving-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and habitat loss.



For now, the study of octopuses and squids adds another layer to our understanding of evolution - one that shows nature’s ability to move in quick, surprising steps when the time is right.



The research was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Octopuses and squids defy the slow pace of evolution

Evolution is often thought of as a slow, creeping process....

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from protection to shared knowledge. But it also brings complexity. Who goes first? Who follows? And why? For decades, scientists have tried to explain why animals like baboons walk in organized lines called "progressions." 



Some believed it was about defense. Others thought it had to do with food. But a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> reveals a different truth. Baboons, it turns out, may just want to walk with their friends.



This insight emerged from one of the most detailed baboon movement studies to date. The team tracked 13 chacma baboons using high-resolution GPS collars. These baboons lived in the Da Gama Park area of South Africa’s Cape Peninsula.



Over 36 days, the team recorded 78 coordinated group movements. Each one showed the animals lining up in a consistent, non-random way. But instead of a tactical plan, social ties seemed to shape this order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-old-baboon-movement-theories">Testing old baboon movement theories</h2>



Previous ideas about baboon movement suggested clear strategies. The “risk hypothesis” argued that strong individuals like males took positions at the front or rear to shield weaker members.



The “competition hypothesis” suggested subordinates moved up front to access food before dominants arrived. And the “decision-making hypothesis” claimed that leaders guided the troop from the front. All these theories aimed to explain baboon lines as evolved survival tools.



But the Swansea team’s results didn’t match those expectations. Their GPS data revealed no strong link between position in the line and safety, food access, or leadership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-shape-movement">Social bonds shape movement</h2>



In fact, dominant baboons often appeared in the center rather than the front. Subordinates moved toward the edges, not because of strategy, but due to social positioning.



“Surprisingly, the consistent order we see for the baboons we studied isn’t about avoiding danger like we see in prey animals when they position themselves in the middle of their social group, or for better access to food or water like we see in the movements of plains zebra,” noted Dr. Andrew King, associate professor at Swansea University.



Their movement is guided by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-can-ease-stress-among-elephants/">social bonds</a> rather than individual choices, creating a consistent pattern.



“In the baboon group we studied, the more socially connected, higher-ranking individuals usually walk in the middle of the group, while lower-ranking baboons are often out in front or at the rear," Dr. King said. 



"During these group movements, like heading to a familiar sleeping spot, it’s likely that the group already knows where they’re going. So, the baboons at the front aren’t really leading; they’re just out ahead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-baboon-walks-reflect-friendship">How baboon walks reflect friendship</h2>



This unexpected discovery led the researchers to apply the concept of a “social spandrel.” In architecture, a spandrel is a space that arises between two arches. 



It wasn’t designed on purpose. It just appears as a side effect. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-rule-of-biology-instability-key-to-evolution-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>, the term refers to traits that emerge not from direct evolutionary pressure, but as by-products of other forces.



In the case of baboons, social relationships were the hidden architects. Friends stayed close together, and these pairs naturally formed repeatable line formations. The travel order was not the result of strategy, but a side effect of close companionship.



Over time, this created what looked like an organized pattern, but it was just friendship in motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-movement-of-baboons">Stable movement of baboons</h2>



To reach these conclusions, the researchers collected 13.87 hours of data using collars fitted to adult baboons. They tracked the animals from morning until evening.



The team defined a progression only when the group moved together in a tight, aligned formation. Progressions happened throughout the day, but many occurred in the late afternoon when baboons returned to their sleeping site.



Interestingly, the baboons’ movement speed, group shape, and order remained stable across different times of day. 



Whether they were heading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forage</a> or returning to rest, the travel line followed the same structure. This consistency further ruled out time-sensitive strategies like racing for food or responding to risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-friends-shape-movement">Friends shape movement</h2>



The researchers compared how close baboons stayed to each other during progressions and during casual group activity.



The same pairs that spent time together while resting also stuck close while walking. Dominant baboons were more central in the group, not because they pushed others aside, but because others naturally gathered near them.



This pattern suggests a kind of social gravity. Baboons with stronger social bonds pull others toward them. Dominant individuals had more neighbors, but their neighbors changed often. 



Subordinates had fewer companions, which often left them at the edges. Over time, these patterns led to consistent line positions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-strategy-just-bonds">No strategy, just bonds</h2>



The data showed no link between position and benefits like food or safety. Even near risky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-animal-species-will-soon-vanish-from-cities/">urban areas</a>, the order stayed the same.



This questions the idea of baboon lines as tactical formations. Instead, movement reflected social bonds.



If strategy mattered, dominant baboons might lead or guard the rear. But they stayed central. These results suggest social ties, not tactics, shape group travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-walk-in-familiar-lines">Baboons walk in familiar lines</h2>



“We know that strong social bonds are important for baboons - they’re linked to longer lives and greater reproductive success," said Marco Fele, the study’s lead author and PhD student at Swansea University.



"But in this context, those bonds aren’t serving a specific purpose. The travel order we see is simply a by-product of those relationships, not a strategy with immediate benefits. Our study highlights the potential for these kinds of spandrels in collective animal behavior.”



This view encourages scientists to rethink wild behavior. Not all group actions are strategic or useful. Sometimes, they reflect social bonds. In baboons, these ties shape both grooming and walking order.



In the end, this study reminds us that friendship may be one of nature’s most powerful organizing forces. Even in the wilderness, when it comes to walking through life, we often choose to do it side by side with those we know best.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/advance-article/doi/10.1093/beheco/araf022/8071582" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behavioral Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Baboons walk in lines just to stay near their friends

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from...

Woman's,Hands,Hugging,And,Scratching,A,Fluffy,Gray,Cat,,Pet,

Whether you share your home with a cat or simply watch them purr online, these creatures hold an irreplaceable spot in countless lives. They have evolved alongside humans, displaying distinct tendencies unlike most other felines that live solitary lives.



Curiosity about the genetic background of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-people-apart-by-sniffing-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> has grown in recent years, and a new study explores a particular region of the androgen receptor gene to see if it links to purring and other behavior patterns. 



The investigation was led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.wrc.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Research Center</a> of Kyoto University, including first author Yume Okamoto from Kyoto University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-with-short-genes-purr-more">Cats with short genes purr more</h2>



Many cat enthusiasts have noticed that cats communicate in various ways, yet they may not realize that purring is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19602409/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than just a pleasant hum</a>. It can indicate comfort, solicit attention, and even signal a desire to maintain peace in tense moments.



Researchers looked at a group of neutered or spayed mixed-breed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-cats-orange-scientists-have-finally-found-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> living in typical home settings. They investigated whether short or long versions of a DNA repeat in the gene might affect behaviors, especially purring and meowing. 



One of the early takeaways was that cats with short-type gene repeats showed higher purring than those with long-type repeats.



The study also noted that male cats carrying shorter repeats tended to be more vocal toward humans. That finding could mean these cats are more likely to request food or companionship with distinct calls. 



In contrast, female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-associate-human-words-with-images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> holding the short-type repeats scored higher on measures of aggression directed at unfamiliar people.



This dual pattern highlights how the same gene region could influence communication in one sex and potential defensive responses in the other. 



The team also discovered that longer variants of the gene were usually found in purebred cats, while many shorter variants showed up in rescued or formerly stray mixed breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cats-breeds-and-genes-shape-purr-patterns">How cats’ breeds and genes shape purr patterns</h2>



Comparisons with related species, such as the leopard cat and the fishing cat, revealed that domestic cats alone have longer repeats. 



This difference may have emerged with <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20210480418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a>, when friendly or less vocal cats began thriving under human care. 



Selection for certain physical traits or temperaments might have gradually shifted gene frequencies toward specific repeat lengths.



Understanding how these genetic factors play out can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cat-lovers-share-these-personality-traits-according-to-psychologists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help owners</a> and veterinarians pick up on a cat’s needs. 



A cat that rarely meows might still signal stress or discomfort, so early attention to non-vocal cues could be extra important for cats with longer repeats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-genes-could-shape-cat-personality">More genes could shape cat personality</h2>



The research focused on a single gene, but cats (like all animals) express behavior through a complex network of genes and hormones. 



Other candidate genes, such as the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-59161-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin receptor</a> and vasopressin receptor, have shown associations with social bonding and aggression in past feline studies. 



Including these alongside androgen receptor data could give a more complete view of what shapes a cat’s personality.



There’s also growing interest in applying <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7581003/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole-genome sequencing</a> to behavioral studies. With that approach, scientists might identify dozens of small genetic differences that together influence tendencies like playfulness, fear, or sociability. 



That level of detail could one day help animal shelters, breeders, and pet owners better understand how a specific cat might respond to different environments or routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“When we called for participants, we were moved to receive responses from 265 cat owners from across Japan in just a single day, and received kind messages,” said Okamoto. 



He and colleagues used a detailed questionnaire to gather day-to-day accounts of cat behaviors at home. Data from regular home life can show subtle patterns that might be lost in lab-based observations.



Their hope is that this knowledge can lead to more tailored care for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cat-day-creating-life-saving-change-for-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these special animals</a>, especially for rescued cats that rely heavily on vocal signals. 



Owners with an eye on vocal changes, be it louder meowing or quieter behavior, can respond faster to any underlying emotional or health issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-may-also-make-wild-cats-purr">Genetics may also make wild cats purr</h2>



“Through our research, we hope to deepen our understanding of cats and contribute to building happier relationships between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-is-your-cat-in-human-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats and humans</a>,” said Okamoto. That perspective also extends to wild cat relatives.



Some species are on conservation watch lists, and any breakthrough that clarifies feline behavior may help in captivity or rehab situations. 



Genetic insights can set the stage for better strategies in breeding programs, managed habitats, and rescue work. 



The more precisely scientists can predict behavior, the easier it is to create stress-free spaces or direct resources to the animals that need them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-study-of-cat-behavior">Future study of cat behavior</h2>



It is possible that future genetic tests could offer a fuller picture of a cat’s likely social style. 



That knowledge may be valuable in busy households or settings where owners hope to match a cat’s temperament to their own routines.



No single gene tells the entire story, though. Factors like environment, early experiences, and individual personalities still count for a lot. But these findings shine a light on the subtle interplay of heredity and everyday cat life. 



Genetic patterns linked to cat purring and other vocal calls help explain why some felines seem chatty, while others stick to quiet signals.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0324055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How and why do cats purr? Scientists finally found the answers

Whether you share your home with a cat or simply...

Underwater,Photo,Nudibranches,On,The,Sand,Sea,Life

Most of Earth’s surface lies hidden beneath miles of saltwater on the deep ocean floor. Almost every breath we take and every weather pattern we watch on the evening news depends on what happens there, yet humans have seen very little of it. 



The deep sea - water deeper than about 656 feet - covers two-thirds of our planet, but we’ve seen little of it with our own eyes. 



An ambitious new analysis shows how little: less than 0.001 percent of the deep seafloor has ever been photographed.



That fraction is smaller than a single blade of grass on a football field, and it leaves scientists making big decisions from a sliver of evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-deep-ocean-is-unexplored">Earth's deep ocean is unexplored</h2>



Dr. Katy Croff Bell of the <a href="https://www.oceandiscoveryleague.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Discovery League</a> led the team that pored over records from roughly 44,000 dives going back to 1958. 



She and her colleagues found that, if every picture ever taken of the deep seafloor were stitched together, the patchwork would cover an area about the size of Rhode Island. It is also only one-tenth the size of Belgium, a country many travelers cross by train before lunch.



“As we face accelerated threats to the deep ocean - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-mitigate-climate-change-with-deep-ocean-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-impacts-marine-life-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential mining</a> and resource exploitation - this limited exploration of such a vast region becomes a critical problem for both science and policy,” she says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-record-thinner-than-hair">Exploration record thinner than hair</h2>



The tally of dives might sound impressive until you consider scale. The study looked at 66 percent of Earth’s surface and found that almost 30 percent of all visual observations were captured before 1980, often with grainy black-and-white film. 



Nearly two-thirds of the images were taken within 230 miles of the United States, Japan, or New Zealand. Five well-funded nations - the United States, Japan, New Zealand, France, and Germany - conducted 97 percent of documented deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcano-becomes-a-natural-incubator-for-thousands-of-live-skate-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">submersible missions</a>.



“If the scientific community were to make all assumptions about terrestrial ecosystems from observations of only 0.001 percent of that total area,” the authors explain, “they would be basing their assessments of all land-based life on Earth on an area roughly the size of Houston, Texas.” The mismatch is staggering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-ocean-and-daily-life-on-earth">Deep ocean and daily life on Earth</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-satellite-is-rewriting-what-we-know-about-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deep-sea currents</a> shuttle heat around the globe, shaping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a> and steering hurricanes. 



Microbes living in darkness help produce much of the planet’s oxygen and store vast amounts of carbon in ocean sediments. 



Medicines drawn from deep-sea sponges and corals already fight cancer, infection, and pain. 



When warm surface conditions change, the deep absorbs or releases heat, moderating the climate we feel at street level. 



Yet policies on seabed mining, carbon storage, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine conservation</a> often proceed with almost no direct visual evidence of what is at stake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-technology-bottleneck">The technology bottleneck</h2>



Cost sits at the heart of the problem. A single day at sea on a modern research vessel can cost more than $50,000, and deploying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-baby-colossal-squid-captured-on-video-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)</a> or crewed submersibles adds many thousands more. 



Hardware built to survive pressures that would crush a car must be rugged and thoroughly tested, which inflates budgets. Not surprisingly, most countries choose to spend limited research funds closer to shore.



A new generation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exo-auvs-searching-for-life-on-alien-ocean-worlds-will-involve-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)</a>, however, is changing the calculus. Backpack-size AUVs now map seabeds, hover over vents, and capture high-definition video for a fraction of the cost of legacy systems. 



Open-source control software and modular sensor bays make these robots easier to maintain far from large laboratories. 



Once such tools move into wider circulation, regions long ignored by oceanographers could come into view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uneven-map-carved-by-wealth">Uneven map carved by wealth</h2>



History shows how priorities follow money. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union probed submarine canyons in part to understand undersea warfare. 



Japan’s focus on nearby trenches and volcanic arcs reflects earthquake research. Europe’s dive records cluster along commercial telecommunication cable routes and proposed mining sites. 



All of this skews scientific ideas about what “typical” deep-sea life looks like. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-pigs-unicumbers-strange-stunning-creatures-discovered-abyssal-plains-ccz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Abyssal plains</a> - those seemingly flat regions more than 13,000 feet down - cover nearly half of the deep ocean yet remain among the least photographed places on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closing-the-gap-with-new-tools">Closing the gap with new tools</h2>



“There is so much of our ocean that remains a mystery. Deep-sea exploration led by scientists and local communities is crucial to better understanding the planet’s largest ecosystem," says Dr. Ian Miller of the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>, which helped fund the work. 



"Dr. Bell’s goals to equip global coastal communities with cutting-edge research and technology will ensure a more representative analysis of the deep sea. If we have a better understanding of our ocean, we are better able to conserve and protect it.”



Community-based programs already train researchers from small island nations to operate compact ROVs launched from fishing boats. 



Low-cost cameras pressure-rated to 20,000 feet can be paired with baited frames to document undiscovered species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-ocean-currents-play-a-huge-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artificial intelligence</a> now sifts thousands of images overnight, flagging potential new organisms for human review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-earth-s-deep-ocean-floors">Future of Earth's deep ocean floors</h2>



Policymakers face a pivotal choice. They can green-light deep-sea mining concessions and expand distant-water fishing with scant imagery to guide them, or they can invest in the tools that pull back the curtain on the largest habitat on Earth. 



Every pixel gathered from the abyss fills a yawning gap in our knowledge and, perhaps, in our stewardship. 



The deep ocean’s story is still mostly unwritten. With shared technology and broader participation, the next chapter could finally show the full picture rather than a sliver of evidence.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp8602" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

99.999% of Earth's deep ocean floor has still never been seen by humans

Most of Earth’s surface lies hidden beneath miles of saltwater...

Scientists have studied the DNA of dogs living near a site once synonymous with an infamous nuclear accident. Their work reveals that a group of dogs close to the damaged reactor lacks any signs of unusual nuclear-related shifts in genetic material.



These findings point to a variety of environmental factors that may be influencing differences between dogs in the city and those around the reactor, yet radiation-driven genetic mutation does not appear to be among them. 



<a href="https://cvm.ncsu.edu/people/mbreen3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Breen</a> from North Carolina State University and colleagues at <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> Mailman School of Public Health helped to shape these observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-living-in-chernobyl">Dogs living in Chernobyl </h2>



The <a href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/chornobyl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionizing radiation</a> that followed the 1986 accident in Chernobyl spread radioactive particles and other toxins through the region. 



The cleanup efforts and industrial remnants introduced a wide range of contaminants, including lead powder and asbestos. 



Decades later, free-breeding dogs remain in the <a href="https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/chernobyl/faqs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>, forming two distinct groups: one around the power plant and the other in the city.



“We have been working with two dog populations that, while separated by just 16 kilometers, or about 10 miles, are genetically distinct," Breen noted.



"We are trying to determine if low-level exposure over many years to environmental toxins such as radiation, lead, etcetera, could explain some of those differences."



The unique situation in Chernobyl offers a chance to explore differences shaped by environmental exposures. Historical accounts suggest that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-dogs-are-rapidly-evolving-in-strange-ways-due-to-nuclear-radiation-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals were left behind</a>, and their descendants adapted to life in a zone with heavier contamination near the reactor than in the city.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untangling-genetic-clues">Untangling genetic clues</h2>



Researchers performed a detailed comparison of the genomes in both groups of dogs to see if exposure led to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strange mutations</a>. 



They examined the possibility that repeated exposure to low-dose contaminants altered large parts of the genome. They also ran precise analyses of single-nucleotide variants to spot any signs of unusual changes.



“First, we contextualized the level of genetic differences between two dog populations, which indicated that the genetics of Chernobyl City dogs were very similar to dog populations in Russia, Poland and the surrounding areas," explained <a href="https://www.breenlab.org/personnel/megan-dillon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megan Dillon, Ph.D.</a> candidate at NC State.



"That way, we were able to use the Chernobyl City dogs as a representative control population to compare with the NPP dogs.” 



Scientists systematically looked for irregularities in <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiation-and-health-effects" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionizing radiation</a>, affected dogs at multiple scales. They checked for numerical errors in chromosomes and for unexpected shifts within smaller segments of the genome. 



No large-scale flaws turned up. There was also no sign of higher mutation rates in the power plant dogs, contrary to speculation that they might pass on unusual variants to offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-alternate-explanations">Discovering alternate explanations</h2>



Investigators believe that some of the differences between these dog groups could be traced to separate breeding pools or selective pressures unrelated to radiation. 



After all, dogs in each area are free-roaming animals that may come into contact with different resources and contaminants. They also appear to have minimal intermingling across the 10-mile divide.



It is possible that genetic traits, which once gave a survival boost right after the accident, remained in the power plant group. That would help explain why the dogs near the reactor look genetically distinct. 



Environmental factors beyond radiation, such as heavy metals, might also shape slight differences without causing any significant rise in inherited mutations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-chernobyl-dogs-matter">Why Chernobyl dogs matter</h2>



“Most people think of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-dogs-carry-unexpected-genetic-characteristics/">Chernobyl</a> nuclear accident as a radiological disaster in an abandoned corner of Ukraine, but the potential adverse health implications are much wider," explained <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/norman-kleiman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norman Kleiman</a>, professor of environmental health sciences at the Columbia University School of Public Health.



"While no one lives at the NPP or in Pripyat anymore, up until the Russian invasion many thousands of people continued to work there every day on remediation and construction projects nearby.” 



These observations show how animal populations can serve as indicators of health risks. If harmful gene alterations had taken root, scientists might have found a clue pointing toward similar issues for humans who share that environment. 



Instead, no nuclear-related changes were detected, so the community can better focus on investigating other toxins and ecological dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Research teams have also studied <a href="https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ticks</a> found on these dogs and documented how pathogens vary across the two areas. 



This parallel project could reveal additional factors at play, since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-is-teeming-with-worms-resistant-to-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactor zone</a> might harbor distinct insects and microbes. 



By analyzing a broader range of features, scientists are gradually piecing together how dogs adapt to such an unusual setting.



Some investigators plan to learn whether selective forces shaped the power plant dog group early on, especially if certain dogs with beneficial traits survived and produced new generations. 



This approach goes beyond seeking obvious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-dna-repair-prevents-harmful-genetic-intrusion-in-plants/">nuclear mutation</a>. Instead, it highlights how a mix of environmental elements can nudge a group of animals onto its own genetic path.



“Our study confirms that no noticeable nuclear abnormalities are at work,” the research team concluded in their recent publication. Their next steps will examine other ways the dogs’ environment may influence their health and genetics.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Study compares DNA of Chernobyl dogs to canines living outside the radiation zone

Scientists have studied the DNA of dogs living near a...

Amphibians, the class of cold-blooded vertebrates that includes frogs, salamanders, and caecilians, are facing a troubling forecast in many habitats across the planet.



The <a href="https://iucn.org/our-union/commissions/group/iucn-ssc-amphibian-specialist-group" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> (International Union for Conservation of Nature) estimates that more than 40% of amphibian species are in danger of extinction due to climate change.



Amphibians endure pressures from habitat destruction, pollution, and disease. These concerns are combining with thermal shifts and rainfall disruptions that threaten to shrink amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> even further.



At the <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/45907464/Institute_of_Ecology__Diversity_and_Evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity</a>, Dr. Evan Twomey and his team have been examining the impact of rising temperatures on these creatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-habitat-loss-and-stress">Pollution, habitat loss and stress</h2>



The global investigation compared weather patterns of the last four decades with the vulnerability of more than 7,000 amphibian species.



Research confirms that environmental changes compromise amphibian habitats and set the stage for reduced breeding success and rising mortality rates, especially in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that rely on short-lived water bodies.



Small wetlands and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vernal pools</a> offer sites for egg-laying, but <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minor shifts</a> in rainfall can leave these patches drained before tadpoles develop. This leaves fewer surviving offspring and upsets local amphibian populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-hurts-amphibians-breeding">Climate hurts amphibians’ breeding</h2>



“Amphibians’ dependence on temporary wetlands for breeding makes them particularly vulnerable to droughts and temperature shifts that causes their breeding grounds to dry prematurely," explained Dr. Twomey.&nbsp;



"Our analyses show the direct connection between the increase in extreme weather events and the decline of amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>."



Hotter days can affect the skin of frogs and the respiration patterns of amphibian larvae, potentially reducing survival rates. 



Severe cold spells in certain locales may push animals beyond their physiological limits and increase susceptibility to pathogens like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11838218/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chytrid fungus</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-vary-by-region-and-species">Threats vary by region and species</h2>



Rising temperatures in tropical forests have coincided with alarming declines in frogs throughout South America. Increased drought in European habitats has made life difficult for true salamanders (the family Salamandridae), which are closely tied to specific wetlands for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-amphibians-survived-earths-deadliest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a>.



 Professor Lisa Schulte is the head of the Department of Wildlife-Zoo-Animal-Biology and Systematics at <a href="https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University in Frankfurt</a>. 



“Already half of the true salamanders native to Central Europe are exposed to increasing droughts today, and this will likely get worse in the future,” she said.



Madagascar, home to many frogs found nowhere else, is also recording stronger <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4009861/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a> that may leave less moisture in forest ecosystems. Some areas of the Southern Cone are seeing more cold spells that could pose an unexpected threat to local frog communities.&nbsp;



Whether it’s droughts, heat waves, or cooler conditions, researchers note that climate change in certain years may enable fungi to invade amphibian tissues, further hastening population drops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-hits-amphibians">Climate change hits amphibians</h2>



Climate change rarely works alone. Amphibians already face threats from pollution, land development, invasive species, and disease. Now, extreme weather is amplifying those risks in places already under stress.



Species exposed to both heat waves and droughts were far more likely to experience a worsening conservation status. 



In some South American families like <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Aromobatidae.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aromobatidae</a> and <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Odontophrynidae.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Odontophrynidae</a>, over a third of the species face both threats. This double burden makes recovery harder, especially when conservation efforts focus on just one danger at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-help-survival">What can help survival</h2>



Small ponds and protected breeding spots can improve amphibians’ chances of producing stable new generations. 



Temporary shelters, such as PVC tubes or shady boards, may offer humidity and a barrier against scorching sun or extended drought.



Land managers in some regions have restored wetlands in ways that provide extra weeks of water retention. This small extension of wet conditions is often enough for tadpoles to grow and metamorphose, so these approaches may be one way to protect sensitive species.



Clear steps matter because amphibians help control insect numbers and serve as an indicator of environmental health. Without them, food webs lose a key piece, and ecosystems shift in unpredictable ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-amphibians-face-climate-change">Helping amphibians face climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salamanders</a> play a quiet but crucial role in many ecosystems. They help control insect populations and serve as prey for larger animals, keeping food webs balanced.



Because they breathe partly through their skin, they're highly sensitive to environmental change.



This means that salamanders are reliable indicators of deeper ecological problems that may affect other species, including humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amphibians are vanishing as climate and drought worsen globally

Amphibians, the class of cold-blooded vertebrates that includes frogs, salamanders,...

Power is not just about strength. Sometimes, it’s about who dares to act fast. In New Zealand’s coastal waters, the spotty wrasse (Notolabrus celidotus) demonstrates this with an almost cinematic twist. This small fish, capable of rapid sex change, has become the center of a remarkable scientific discovery.



New research from <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/about/our-identity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka</a> has revealed that when social order among these fish collapses, biology and behavior shift almost instantly. 



The study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, examines what happens when the top fish in the hierarchy disappears. What unfolds is a fascinating sequence of behavioral dominance and brain transformation that begins within minutes.



The findings offer fresh insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living creatures</a> manage power, identity, and sex. And in the case of the spotty wrasse, these things are deeply connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-size-drives-sex-change">Fish size drives sex change</h2>



The spotty wrasse is a protogynous species. This means that younger individuals are female and they become males as they grow larger. 



The study tracked how this transition is linked to changes in dominance rank. Larger fish quickly climbed to the top and began behaving more aggressively.



“In many of the tanks, second-ranked fish increased their aggression within just a few minutes after removal of the dominant fish,” noted lead author Haylee Quertermous.



The study confirmed a key prediction of the size-advantage model. Size and dominance are tightly linked. Bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-the-moon-cycle-to-manipulate-their-offsprings-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> showed more aggressive behaviors and had higher dominance scores. Smaller ones showed submissive behaviors and avoided confrontations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-in-line-fish-take-charge">Second-in-line fish take charge </h2>



The researchers formed 11 groups of five female-looking initial phase (IP) fish. They ranked them by watching behaviors like "rushing" (aggression) and "escaping" (submission). 



After 11 days, the experts removed the top-ranked fish from some groups and observed the fallout. The second-in-line often stepped up immediately. Their aggression spiked, while submission dropped. 



This shift took less than 30 minutes. The removed fish in control groups were reintroduced right away. In those tanks, behavior remained mostly stable, except for slight agitation in the dominant fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-sex-change-starts-internally">Fish sex change starts internally</h2>



In seven of the 11 experimental tanks, the researchers found that the dominant fish had already begun the internal process of changing sex from female to male.



Although these individuals still appeared female on the outside, closer examination through histological analysis revealed that their gonads were undergoing masculinization. 



This internal shift in reproductive tissue occurred even before any visible signs of sex change had emerged.



The findings strongly suggest that the fish’s behavior and brain activity begin transforming well before the body outwardly reflects the transition. 



In other words, the social and neurological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-corals-have-sex-new-secrets-of-spawning-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> that initiate sex change are set in motion early, preceding the physical transformation that follows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-reacts-fast">The brain reacts fast</h2>



The researchers studied brain activity using pS6 immunostaining. This technique highlights recent neural activity. 



The experts found that 9 out of 10 brain regions involved in social behavior were more active in the newly dominant fish (rank 2) compared to lower-ranked ones.



These brain areas included the preoptic area (POA), periaqueductal gray (PAG), and parts of the telencephalon. 



The only region that showed reduced activity in dominant fish was the anterior tuberal nucleus (aTn). This could reflect reduced defensive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-signals-and-power-shift">Brain signals and power shift</h2>



Principal component analysis showed a strong link between behavioral changes and neural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>. 



Aggression increased in tandem with higher brain activation, especially in the social behavior network. The aTn, in contrast, had strong negative correlations with most other brain areas.



Rank 2 fish formed a distinct group in brain-behavior plots. This cluster separated them from both lower-ranked fish and their former selves before dominance. 



The researchers suggest this rapid shift in brain activity helps kick-start the complex process of sex change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fish-sex-change-matters">Why fish sex change matters</h2>



This study offers rare insights into how social disruption influences sex and power. Quertermous and her colleagues demonstrate that the brain’s decision-making circuits adapt almost instantly to social change.



“They also highlight the importance of social context in shaping individual behavior… even humans,” noted Dr. Kaj Kamstra.



These insights may help manage fisheries with sex-changing species. In New Zealand, for instance, the blue cod fishery could benefit from understanding how fish social structures respond to environmental changes.



Spotty wrasse do not just switch sex over weeks. They start rewiring their brains and shifting behavior within minutes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sex changing fish waste no time claiming top spot in hierarchy

Power is not just about strength. Sometimes, it’s about who...

Humpback whales are famous for their long migrations from icy Antarctic waters to warm tropical seas, where they are known to breed and give birth. But new findings suggest these epic journeys may not be as necessary as once thought - at least when it comes to calving.



It turns out that humpback whales are giving birth much farther south than previously documented, with sightings as far south as Tasmania and New Zealand.



The research team, based at the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New South Wales</a>, studied sightings, strandings, and surveys to piece together a new picture of where young humpback whales are being born.



The findings challenge old assumptions and point to a need for broader conservation measures along the migration path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-humpback-whale-birthplaces">Surprising humpback whale birthplaces</h2>



"Hundreds of humpback calves were born well outside the established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding grounds</a>," said Dr. Tracey Rogers of the University of New South Wales, senior author of the study.



These calves weren’t just found drifting a bit off course. Some were spotted in areas full of human activity. 



"In July 2023, during a whale-watching tour, I encountered a mom and calf at the mouth of Newcastle Harbor - the busiest shipping port in Eastern Australia," said Jane McPhee-Frew, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of New South Wales. 



"The calf was tiny, obviously brand new. What were they doing there? But none of my tourism colleagues seemed surprised." This encounter sparked a deeper look into calving locations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-humpback-whale-births">Records of humpback whale births</h2>



The researchers compiled data from a wide range of sources, including citizen science sightings, government surveys, and whale stranding records dating back to 1991. 



The team also utilized data from New Zealand’s Department of Conservation Cook Strait Whale Project and Australian wildlife authorities.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whale_baby_birth-insights_credit-Vanessa-Risku_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whale_baby_birth-insights_credit-Vanessa-Risku_1s.webp" alt="A mother and baby whale swim at Kiama, New South Wales, Australia. Credit: Vanessa Risku - Instagram: droning_my_sorrows" class="wp-image-1973052"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A mother and baby whale swim at Kiama, New South Wales, Australia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Vanessa Risku - Instagram: droning_my_sorrows</figcaption></figure>



In total, the team identified 209 records involving newborn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-struggles-of-pregnant-humpback-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback calves</a>. The records included 11 confirmed births, 41 strandings, and 168 sightings of live calves - at least 169 individuals in all.



For many of these humpback whales, the direction of travel was known, and 118 were continuing their journey north even after giving birth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-long-distance-migrations">Extensive long-distance migrations</h2>



"Humpback whale populations undertake extensive long-distance migrations from the Southern Ocean to breeding grounds in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropics</a>," said Dr. Adelaide Dedden of Australia’s National Parks and Wildlife Service. 



"They rely heavily on body reserves from an enormous amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-keep-time-in-a-world-of-endless-days-or-nights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a> to support the physiological costs of the journey and reproduction."



One of the southernmost calves was recorded in Port Arthur, Tasmania - 1,500 kilometers farther south than scientists thought humpbacks could calve. Another was found slightly farther north in Kaikoura, New Zealand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-behavior-of-humpback-whales">Overlooked behavior of humpback whales </h2>



Interestingly, most of these observations are from recent years. About two-thirds occurred in 2023 or 2024. 



Still, this behavior may not be new. The researchers believe it may have gone unnoticed before due to the dramatic decrease in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whale-populations-continue-to-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale populations</a> during the era of commercial whaling.



"I think it's very likely that this pattern has always existed, but the low number of whales obscured it from view," said McPhee-Frew. "The Eastern Australia humpback population narrowly escaped extinction, but now there are 30, 40, or 50,000 in this population alone."



"It doesn't happen overnight, but the recovery of humpback whales, and the return of their full range of behaviors and distribution, just goes to show that with good policies built on good science we can have excellent outcomes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-migrate-at-all">Why migrate at all?</h2>



If humpbacks can give birth so far south, why do they bother migrating at all? That question remains unanswered. 



One theory is that while births can happen anywhere along the migration route, the benefits of tropical calving grounds - warmer waters and lower risks from predators - still outweigh the risks of staying south.



In some areas, like Flinders Bay in Western Australia, the researchers found potential nursery zones. While most calves still seem to be born in the tropics, the new data shows that births outside of these regions are more common than once believed.



The team emphasized that this isn’t just a curiosity - it has real conservation implications. Some of the calves seen outside of the usual zones were injured. That suggests greater vulnerability, especially in areas with heavy human traffic, like shipping lanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-calves-on-the-move">Protecting calves on the move</h2>



As whale numbers rise and sightings increase, the need for broader protection becomes clearer. Researchers are calling for more awareness of calving outside traditional breeding zones. That means rethinking how we define critical whale habitats.



"This study was based on opportunistic observations," noted McPhee-Frew. "This data is excellent for answering questions like, 'are there newborn whales here?' But we can't stretch the interpretations too far."



"It might appear that we see more calves the further north we go, or that we have seen more over time. But it could be that there are more people whale-watching in the north, or more cameras and social media sharing in recent years."



"We can only document what we see," added Dr. Vanessa Pirotta of Macquarie University. "Perhaps there are things happening in our ocean that we are yet to find out."



For now, this discovery expands our view of where humpback whales are giving birth. As populations of these gentle giants continue to recover, further research is needed to protect them wherever they go.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1545526/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humpback whales are giving birth where we least expected

Humpback whales are famous for their long migrations from icy...

Whales are known to be intelligent. They use complex sounds, travel in social groups, and show strong memory. But what happens when they do something not tied to feeding or mating? Could they interact in a creative and playful way using bubble rings?



For the first time, researchers from the <a href="https://www.seti.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> and the University of California at Davis (<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>) have documented humpback whales producing bubble rings during friendly encounters with humans.



These bubble rings differ from the bubble nets used in hunting. They appear like spinning smoke donuts, rising gently from the deep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-insights-into-nonhuman-creativity">Rare insights into nonhuman creativity</h2>



The scientists from <a href="https://bmccowanlab.com/current-research/humpback-whale-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WhaleSETI</a> recorded 39 bubble rings from 11 whales across 12 episodes. These were observed in Hawai'i, the Dominican Republic, Mo’orea, and off the U.S. Atlantic coast.



The study offers rare insights into nonhuman creativity, and suggests that ring creation could reflect play, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a>, or curiosity.



At least one whale was seen making a ring using only one nostril. This detail, revealed through frame-by-frame analysis, hints at fine motor control in these large mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-whales-create-bubble-rings">Why do whales create bubble rings?</h2>



“Because of current limitations on technology, an important assumption of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is that extraterrestrial intelligence and life will be interested in making contact and so target human receivers,” said <a href="https://www.seti.org/our-scientists/laurance-doyle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Laurance Doyle</a>, SETI Institute scientist and co-author on the paper.



“This important assumption is certainly supported by the independent evolution of curious behavior in humpback <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>.”



Bubble rings were not released in the presence of prey or during fights. Instead, whales appeared relaxed and moved slowly. 



They often approached boats or swimmers before making a ring. In nine episodes labeled inquisitive, the whales ignored other whales and focused on nearby humans or vessels.



Seven of eight ring blowers swam close - within one body length - of boats or swimmers. In one case, a whale’s ring partially surrounded a swimmer at the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-play-or-signal-the-debate-continues">Play or signal? The debate continues</h2>



“Humpback whales live in complex societies, are acoustically diverse, use bubble tools and assist other species being harassed by predators,” said co-lead author Dr. Fred Sharpe. 



“Now, akin to a candidate signal, we show they are blowing bubble rings in our direction in an apparent attempt to playfully interact, observe our response, and/or engage in some form of communication.”



While bubble rings have been seen in dolphins and beluga whales, this is the first well-documented case in baleen whales. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whales_bubble-smoke-rings_human-communication_montage_WhaleSETI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whales_bubble-smoke-rings_human-communication_montage_WhaleSETI_1s.webp" alt="Composite image of at least one bubble ring from each episode. Photo attributions are as follows: (a) D. Knaub, (b) F. Nicklen, (c) D. Perrine, (d) W. Davis, (e) G. Flipse, (f) A. Henry, (g) M. Gaughan, (h) H. Romanchik, (i) D. Patton, (j) D. Perrine, (k) S. Istrup, (l) S. Hilbourne." class="wp-image-1973059"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Composite image of at least one bubble ring from each episode. Photo attributions are as follows: (a) D. Knaub, (b) F. Nicklen, (c) D. Perrine, (d) W. Davis, (e) G. Flipse, (f) A. Henry, (g) M. Gaughan, (h) H. Romanchik, (i) D. Patton, (j) D. Perrine, (k) S. Istrup, (l) S. Hilbourne. Click image to enlarge. Credit: WhaleSETI</figcaption></figure>



Earlier drone surveys covering thousands of hours in Hawai'i, Alaska, Antarctica, and Bermuda found no rings when humans were absent. This suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpbacks</a> may direct these displays at us, either playfully or communicatively.



According to the researchers, the bubble rings often came with slow rolling, head lifts, or spy-hopping. These playful actions support the idea that ring-blowing is not accidental. One whale even played with seaweed before producing a ring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-alien-intelligence">Searching for alien intelligence</h2>



“Humpback whales often exhibit inquisitive, friendly behavior towards boats and human swimmers,” said co-lead author Jodi Frediani. 



“We’ve now located a dozen whales from populations around the world, the majority of which have voluntarily approached boats and swimmers blowing bubble rings during these episodes of curious behavior.”



Most rings were generated using the blowhole, with no dramatic pre-ring gestures. Unlike dolphins that prepare visibly before blowing a ring, whales give no warning. The action appears smooth and sudden, with no body jerks or O-shaped naris.



The team suggests that humpbacks may be engaging in “play with a purpose.” Play could serve as a flexible behavior for testing environments, objects, and responses. It may also allow interspecies connection, much like a dolphin lifting a swimmer or a whale inspecting a human.



As with early efforts to classify alien signals, recognizing play and curiosity in other species teaches us how to listen. 



The WhaleSETI team believes behaviors like ring-blowing may serve as training data to improve algorithms for decoding unknown signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-whale-bubble-rings-nbsp">Significance of whale bubble rings&nbsp;</h2>



The whales showed no signs of fear, annoyance, or aggression during these events. Many lingered after producing the ring, possibly watching our reactions. One whale made 11 rings in a single episode, suggesting intentional repetition.



Patterns of bubbles - rings, plumes, bursts - may form a continuum. Some bubbles might be failed rings. Others may convey intent or social cues. Documenting these actions and their contexts can improve how we understand other minds.



The researchers urge whale watchers, swimmers, and boaters to report such sightings. Include location, behavior, and if possible, visual proof. These citizen reports help build a richer picture of whale behavior and potentially interspecies connection.



Karen Pryor, a renowned animal trainer, noted that patterns of bubble production in cetaceans constitute a mode of communication not available to terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>.



If whales try to communicate with us through bubble rings, even playfully, we should be listening.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.70026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists photograph whales blowing 'bubble smoke rings' to communicate with humans

Whales are known to be intelligent. They use complex sounds,...

species in Gonatidae

News coming your way