A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras. From iconic selfies to being spotted from space, its activities have been well-documented over the years.



But something new happened on February 28, the 4,466th Martian day - or sol - of its mission. Curiosity was caught mid-drive, possibly for the first time, by one of NASA’s Mars orbiters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-glimpse-of-curiosity">A rare glimpse of Curiosity </h2>



The <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> was taken by the HiRISE (High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) camera, which is aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> operate this camera, which offers a sharp view of the Martian surface. In the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photo</a>, Curiosity appears as a small, dark speck at the front of a long trail of tracks stretched across the Red Planet.



The tracks cover about 1,050 feet (320 meters) and reflect roughly 11 drives that started on February 2, 2025. 



During these moves, Curiosity crawled along at a top speed of just 0.1 mph (0.16 kph), making its way from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a> channel toward its next science destination: a region that may hold boxwork formations created by ancient groundwater billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-curiosity-is-still-roaming-mars">Why Curiosity is still roaming Mars</h2>



Curiosity wasn’t just sent to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> to take pretty pictures. Its mission, which began with a dramatic landing in 2012, is all about asking a big question: Was Mars ever able to support small forms of life? 



To answer that, the rover has been exploring the ancient environments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, drilling into rocks, analyzing soil, and studying the planet’s climate and geology. 



Every discovery Curiosity makes helps build a clearer picture of what Mars was like, billions of years ago. Some of its biggest finds so far include evidence of ancient rivers, lakes, and the chemical ingredients necessary for life.



Even after more than a decade, Curiosity is still hard at work, pushing uphill to study higher and older layers of Martian history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-curiosity-s-journey">A closer look at Curiosity’s journey</h2>



Curiosity’s arrival at its next stop isn’t on a set timeline. Several factors can affect its progress, including how its navigation software handles the landscape and how steep the terrain becomes. 



Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California work hand-in-hand with scientists to plan each day’s drive carefully.



“By comparing the time HiRISE took the image to the rover’s commands for the day, we can see it was nearly done with a 69-foot (21-meter) drive,” said Doug Ellison, Curiosity’s planning team chief at JPL.



HiRISE is built for incredible detail. Most of its images are in black and white, with a strip of color down the center to boost spatial resolution. 



Although HiRISE has captured Curiosity in color in the past, this time the rover happened to fall inside the black-and-white section of the image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-that-tell-a-story">Tracks that tell a story</h2>



In the latest image, Curiosity’s tracks stretch across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> and lead up to the base of a steep slope. 



Since the image was taken, the rover has successfully climbed that slope. If everything goes smoothly, Curiosity is expected to reach its new science site within the next month or so.



The trail it left behind could remain visible for months, unless Martian winds sweep the marks away. 



Every track, every footprint on Mars tells part of the story of a journey that's been unfolding for more than a decade - and is still going strong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-mars-exploration">What comes next for Mars exploration</h2>



Curiosity’s journey is just one piece of the bigger picture, a stepping stone in our long-term efforts to explore another world. 



NASA and other space agencies are already planning the next steps to explore Mars even further, using the lessons learned from past and current missions.



Missions like Perseverance are already collecting rock samples that could someday be brought back to Earth for detailed study.



Future plans include launching more helicopters, building complex sample return missions, and even sending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts</a> to the Red Planet in the 2030s - a goal that once seemed like pure science fiction.



Each discovery Curiosity makes helps shape and inspire these future missions. It reminds us that even the slow, careful drive of a lone rover can lay the groundwork for humanity’s bigger dreams beyond Earth.



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/">press release</a> by NASA's JPL.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Curiosity rover captured in action for the first time

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras....

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the dramatically thick lips of several African cichlid species. These unique fish, found in lakes Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika, have puzzled researchers who seek to understand how and why such large lips evolved.



This fascination has led to fresh investigations by scientists comparing lip structures, tissue composition, and gene expression in these fish. 



The research effort is led by Dr. Nagatoshi Machii from the <a href="https://www.isct.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, whose group has examined microscopic details and molecular data to pinpoint what drives lip enlargement in certain cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlid-lips-and-parallel-evolution">Cichlid lips and parallel evolution</h2>



Researchers have documented that cichlids across different lakes display similar traits, even though they are not closely related. Such repeated emergence of shared features is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/parallel-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a>, a process often fueled by environmental pressures.



“Parallel evolution is evidence of natural selection that drives adaptive solutions to the environment,” wrote Jonathan Losos, an evolutionary biologist based at Harvard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-as-natural-laboratories">Lakes as natural laboratories</h2>



The isolated ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika act like nature’s own research stations. Each lake evolved its own line of cichlid species, yet many developed the same traits independently - a perfect setup to study parallel evolution.



By comparing species across these lakes, scientists can spot patterns that might be missed in a single location. It’s a rare opportunity to test how evolution repeats itself under similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> but with different starting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-lip-building-proteins">Unmasking the lip-building proteins</h2>



Detailed analyses indicate that thick cichlid lips contain a proteoglycan-rich layer (a structural element found in various tissues, including bone, cartilage, tendons, and skin, that play crucial roles in tissue organization, hydration, and mechanical properties) not seen in normal-lipped fish. 



Proteoglycans are large molecules with attached sugar chains, sometimes linked to extra water retention.



One study on cichlids with enlarged lips showed that certain proteins, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, were in high abundance. This composition may give these hefty lips their signature plumpness by increasing connective tissue volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lip-growth-starts-young">Lip growth starts young</h2>



The team found that differences in gene expression begin earlier than expected. Even in juvenile cichlids, before their lips fully thicken, the genes responsible for building extracellular matrix components are already more active in species that develop larger lips.



This suggests the groundwork for lip hypertrophy is laid early in life and then reinforced as the fish matures. The continuous expression of these genes throughout development points to a tightly regulated system that ensures these lip traits persist across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-oversized-cichlid-lips">Genes behind oversized cichlid lips</h2>



Scientists also noted changes in genes involved in the Wnt signaling network (a complex network of proteins that plays a critical role in how cells grow, divide, move, and develop. 



It’s especially important during embryonic development, but it also helps maintain and repair tissues in adults). This pathway influences a wide array of growth and developmental processes in many animals.



Some cichlids with oversized lips showed heightened expression of Wnt-related genes at both juvenile and adult stages. This suggests the pathway may stay active over time, nudging tissues to expand and accumulate more extracellular material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissue-connection-mirrors-human-biology">Tissue connection mirrors human biology</h2>



Recent findings have drawn an unexpected link between the oversized lips of cichlids and conditions seen in humans. The same proteoglycans found in fish lips are also involved in human skin disorders like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/keloid-scar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keloids</a>, where excess connective tissue causes raised, fibrous scars.



In both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and humans, these molecules seem to attract and hold large amounts of water, helping tissues expand. Researchers believe that understanding how these proteins behave in cichlids may offer new insights into how connective tissues grow - or overgrow - in other animals, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-role-in-cichlid-feeding">Possible role in cichlid feeding</h2>



Biologists have long debated the ecological benefits of bulky lips. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8025722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests these lips might help fish probe rocky crevices or minimize tissue damage as they forage.&nbsp;



Another line of research hints that extra lip surface could boost contact with environmental cues. This might aid in locating prey, which would be especially useful in the maze-like habitats of the African Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-all-cichlids-have-big-lips">Why not all cichlids have big lips</h2>



Despite the shared environments of the East African Great Lakes, not every cichlid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> ends up with hypertrophied lips. That’s because this trait appears to be polygenic, meaning it depends on many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> working together - each with a small influence.



Environmental pressures like foraging style or diet likely interact with genetic tendencies. In species where the benefit of thick lips isn’t strong enough, the genes driving lip growth may remain quiet or develop differently, even if the molecular tools are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Genetic studies have pinpointed multiple points in the cichlid genome that may influence lip thickness. Each locus seemingly offers a small push toward fuller lips, forming a broad and complex mechanism for the trait.&nbsp;



Investigations into parallels between enlarged fish lips and certain human connective tissue conditions have also started. Some scientists hope comparisons might clarify how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> and other structural molecules work in different organisms over many generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/99160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The molecular secret behind the giant lips of African cichlids

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the...

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.



To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.



The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.



Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.



The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.



“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. “Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. 



Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.



The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. 



Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. 



Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. 



Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.



Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. 



By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.



Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. 



Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.



“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.



While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.



As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.



Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. 



With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.



A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.



From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. 



NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.



Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about what our planet can endure. The earliest global glaciation event of the Neoproterozoic Era, known as the Sturtian glaciation, lasted 56 million years and turned the planet into a "snowball" all the way to the equator. 



A second snowball glaciation, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X23003210" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marinoan glaciation</a> has been more difficult to pin down in terms of duration and extent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-global-glaciation">Evidence of global glaciation </h2>



In 2025, a research team led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=K1m-rEMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adrian R. Tasistro-Hart</a> from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science, McCone Hall, at the University of California, presented findings that link the structure of certain rock layers to this second massive chill in the Neoproterozoic Era. 



The study provided direct dating evidence of this widespread freeze, and helped tackle a puzzle that has long intrigued geologists.



Clues from rock formations in Namibia, southwestern Africa, suggested that long-lasting sheets of ice reached these areas that were previously thought to have been spared. This enabled the researchers to date the onset and duration of the Marinoan glaciation event. 



The field data suggested an unexpected stability in the frozen surface that lasted around 4 million years. This raises questions about how life managed to persist during these extreme times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-a-frozen-earth">Clues about a frozen Earth</h2>



Scientists have spent decades studying ancient sediments to understand the causes behind major planetary cool-downs. Some layers reflect glacial activity in places as distant as southwestern Africa, with rugged terrain that extends for about 11 miles (18 kilometers) in certain study zones.



Evidence from drone imagery and core samples in this area hints at ice piles that never budged even when orbital changes caused the usual shifts in climate. This pattern suggests a stability in conditions that leaves researchers wondering why none of the typical fluctuations were recorded.



Such steadiness separates this period from shorter glacial intervals that were seen in more recent times. It also indicates that small differences in volcanic activity might lead to dramatic changes in how our planet traps or reflects heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-global-glaciation-event">What caused the global glaciation event?</h2>



Earth radiates much of the Sun's energy back out into space under normal circumstances. Sometimes, volcanic activity can produce clouds of gas and dust that increase albedo (the proportion of solar radiation that is reflected) and block incoming solar radiation. 



This would have cooled the Earth and potentially triggered a run-away glaciation event. As more ice formed and began to cover not just polar regions, the incoming solar radiation was likely insufficient to counteract the reflective nature of this white covering, which led to the Earth's becoming locked in a long cycle of freezing temperatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tipping-point-in-the-atmosphere">A tipping point in the atmosphere</h2>



Volcanoes kept pumping CO2 into the atmosphere, but the thick ice would have hampered normal silicate weathering. This is a chemical reaction in which rainwater - slightly acidic from the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide - interacts with silicate minerals in rocks and helps remove CO2 from the atmosphere to be stored in the ocean. 



By slowing this process, the removal of CO2 was reduced and the levels of this greenhouse gas gradually increased. A buildup of CO2 in the air eventually led to global warming which caused surface temperatures to rise, though it took a huge concentration to break free from the extended freeze. 



<a href="https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1945298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> suspect that minor factors, like the dustiness of the ice sheets, could have accelerated the meltdown by decreasing reflectivity.&nbsp;



This shift challenges typical models that focus on gradual geological changes over shorter spans. The planet may have lingered in an icy standstill until the atmosphere reached a tipping point, which set off a dramatic thaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-found-in-rock-and-volcanic-ash">Patterns found in rock and volcanic ash </h2>



The researchers chose to study an area in Namibia where sediments provide a rare record of snowball onset during the Marinoan glaciation. Drone mapping revealed sedimentary layers stacked in ways that show minimal vertical shifts. 



The contact points between distinct rock beds appear consistent, implying that grounded ice stayed in place during the Marinoan glaciation for ages.



No large scouring marks or abrupt breaks were identified, and that silence in the record indicates subdued glacial motion. Researchers interpreted one zone of minimal erosion to mean the grounding line never bounced around, which is rare in studies of prolonged ice coverage.



Patterns in buried volcanic ash lend further clues. A single layer might become entombed, signifying calm accumulation rather than the usual push and pull of warmer spells. 



Isotopic dating of the ash layers in various locations indicated that the Marinoan glaciation onset began 639 million years ago and lasted around 4 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-life-survive-global-glaciation">How did life survive global glaciation?</h2>



A global freeze of that scale raises questions about how organisms survived beneath thick ice. Anaerobic communities could have lived off chemical nutrients, but others may have endured near cracks or in sheltered marine pockets.



Researchers debate whether oxygen levels dropped enough to challenge more complex life forms. The resilience of certain species appears remarkable, given the extreme conditions that blocked sunlight and isolated habitats.



An abrupt rebound in temperatures could have triggered bursts of evolution, setting the stage for <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/science.281.5381.1342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran ecosystems</a> to emerge. Scientists continue to explore how these expansions followed such a prolonged ice event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-refuge-beneath-the-ice">A refuge beneath the ice</h2>



Some scientists believe that pockets of liquid water beneath the ice provided refuge for early life. These subglacial ecosystems could have been sustained by geothermal heat, allowing microbial life to persist even in the absence of sunlight.



Chemical nutrients released by hydrothermal vents or rock-water interactions may have fed these organisms, setting the stage for survival during global freezes. Once the ice retreated, these life forms could have re-emerged and diversified rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-other-worlds">Looking to other worlds</h2>



Researchers mention that findings like these expand discussions about habitability on exoplanets that are locked in ice. If a planet undergoes a global glaciation, the accumulation of greenhouse gases might eventually spark an intense thaw.



That thaw could reshape its atmosphere and allow liquid water, paving the way for more complex chemistry. Another planet might remain stuck in an icy state if certain tipping points are never reached.



“The disparity in durations [between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations] demonstrates different routes to deglaciation,” said Tasistro-Hart. 



The researchers noted that every icy scenario can have its own exit strategy. This study offers a fresh perspective on the dynamic relationship between geology and climate. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418281122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frozen Earth: Global glaciation event lasted 4 million years

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about...

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in reports of the alpha-gal food allergy, which is linked to bites by certain ticks. The number of confirmed cases jumped from just 24 in 2009 to more than 34,000 in 2019.



“Red meat allergy caused by tick bites might be increasing in association with fragmented habitats,” noted Dr. Brandon D. Hollingsworth, from <a href="https://www.unchealth.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Health</a>, who was lead lead author of a new study in the mid-Atlantic region. 



Dr. Hollingsworth has explored how environmental features might be tied to these tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-and-red-meat-allergies">Tick bites and red meat allergies</h2>



Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) affects people who have developed a specific immune response triggered by substances present in tick saliva. After being bitten, they react negatively to certain sugars in mammalian meat, and develop symptoms that include hives, stomach distress, and sometimes serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.



Health specialists have noted that neurotoxins and other biological cues in tick saliva may help these creatures to latch onto humans, increasing exposure for people in areas where wildlife and urban zones overlap.



Those who live near forest edges, or in suburban spots with scattered trees, may be at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broken-forests-and-suburban-lawns">Broken forests and suburban lawns</h2>



Fragmented lands often bring deer, raccoons, and other tick-carrying animals into contact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-show-that-allergy-season-is-becoming-longer-and-more-intense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> communities. Large lawns that border wooded patches create a patchwork of grass and trees, which many ticks seem to favor.



Recent investigations found that open space development and low-intensity construction might be associated with more tick bites.



Arachnologist field surveys have shown that some of the densest populations of the tick <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8352541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amblyomma americanum</a> occur where small forests and developed lots meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-coastlines-to-mountains">From coastlines to mountains</h2>



Scientists who mapped the distribution of alpha-gal syndrome in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia observed a general shift in case frequency from coastal plains to mountainous zones. 



Some analyses showed patchy spots in coastal lands, but the highest likelihood of cases was often in places with low-density sprawl.



Low-density suburban settings offer enough shade, leaf litter, and wild animal life to allow ticks to flourish. Even properties with scattered white-tailed deer traffic may give these ticks the chance to drop off and find new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness">Lack of awareness </h2>



Diagnosing <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha-gal syndrome</a> isn't easy. Unlike most food allergies, symptoms don’t appear right after eating. They can take 3 to 6 hours to show up, which makes it hard for people to connect their symptoms to something they ate.



Even worse, most doctors still aren’t familiar with the condition. A 2023 CDC <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7230a1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> found that 77% of U.S. healthcare providers were either unaware of AGS or unsure how to diagnose it. 



Without proper testing and awareness, thousands of people may go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often enduring months of unexplained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-peanut-consumption-could-prevent-100000-allergy-cases-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-tick-borne-meat-allergies">Protection from tick-borne meat allergies</h2>



Reports of alpha-gal syndrome could keep rising if habitat changes continue and warmer temperatures <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0150180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend</a> the active season for ticks. Simple habits, such as using insect repellents, wearing light-colored clothing, and promptly checking for ticks after yard work can reduce exposure risks.



Healthcare professionals also suggest that individuals track any reactions linked to beef, pork, or other red meats. 



Test positivity rates in certain regions have approached 30% of screened patients, which means vigilance is important for anyone experiencing odd, food-related issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-can-spark-lifelong-allergies">Tick bites can spark lifelong allergies</h2>



“We found evidence that suggests repeated tick bites can set off the allergic response,” wrote Gary Crispell, who studied tick-induced IgE patterns in North American patients. Surprisingly, a single tick bite is sometimes enough to spark alpha-gal sensitivity in certain people.&nbsp;



Although this condition can affect day-to-day life for some, awareness among doctors and patients is still catching up. 



Early and correct diagnosis can help steer people away from foods that might trigger severe meat allergy events, leading to more confident meal choices and fewer unwelcome surprises after sitting at the dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research-directions">Limitations and future research directions </h2>



One of the main limitations in current research is that tick exposure is estimated based on where a person lives, not on the location where they were actually bitten. Many people spend time in parks, on trails, or visiting family in different areas, so the models can't pinpoint exact exposure sites.



Researchers also noted that wealthier individuals in suburban areas might be more likely to seek medical help and testing, which could also skew case data. 



To improve accuracy, future studies may need to incorporate patient travel histories and broader seroprevalence surveys across different income and age groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-influential-factors">Recognizing the influential factors</h2>



Many counties across the mid-Atlantic are adding public health alerts to help folks recognize the signs of alpha-gal syndrome. 



Researchers have expressed hope that timely recognition of these habitat factors will lead to targeted education, so that fewer individuals end up with frustrating or even dangerous allergic reactions.



Some people worry that fewer forest corridors might mean fewer ticks, but partial deforestation and selective development sometimes backfire by providing more edges for tick proliferation. 



Land planners aiming to reduce tick-human contact may need to balance green space with better pest-management practices.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tick bites can trigger lifelong red meat allergies

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in...

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to communicate. Thankfully, we can understand a person's intention from their gaze with just a look. Long before the first spoken word, our ancestors navigated danger, formed bonds, and shared meaning through glances and gestures. 



Among these silent exchanges, eye contact holds a unique power. A single look can connect minds, signal warning, or offer comfort. But how much can we really know from someone’s gaze?



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> brings science closer to answering this age-old question. The findings suggest that intentional eye movements - those chosen freely by a person - send out subtle signals that others can sense and interpret rapidly.



These tiny, often imperceptible differences <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> how quickly we respond to what someone else is looking at. In a world that often relies on words, this study reminds us that silence can still speak volumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-read-intent-through-eyes">We read intent through eyes</h2>



In human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, silence could mean survival. Making a sound might have alerted predators, but eyes offered a way to share information without speaking. As groups grew more complex, humans became increasingly skilled at reading facial cues, especially those from the eyes.



“Humans have a long history of living in complex groups and social situations. It has been theorized that this has led our brains to develop a heightened ability to focus on social cues from faces, and especially from eyes,” said Jelena Ristic, a professor in McGill’s psychology department.



“It’s a system that has evolved to support very quick exchanges of complex social information.”



This insight ties into something we experience every day. Whether in conversation, walking down a street, or sitting in a room, our eyes constantly seek out the gaze of others to determine their intention. 



We look where they look. We try to see what they see. And even infants - just months old - follow the gaze of their caregivers.



“Gaze-following is thought to provide a foundation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social development</a> and behavior. It helps us to understand what others are thinking, looking or wanting, as well as to connect with them mentally, so we follow where others are looking quickly and spontaneously. Even young human infants and primates do it,” said Ristic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-eye-movements">Different eye movements</h2>



To better understand how gaze reveals intention, researchers at McGill created a unique experimental setup. Participants viewed videos where people looked either to the left or right. 



In some clips, the on-screen individuals decided for themselves where to look. In others, they were directed by a computer. The twist? Observers didn’t know whether the gaze was chosen or instructed.



Videos paused just before the eye movement began. Participants were then asked to guess the direction the person would look next. 



What the researchers found was compelling: when the gaze was self-chosen, participants responded faster - even if their guesses weren’t always more accurate. This suggests that people subconsciously picked up on something in the eyes before the gaze shift occurred.



This phenomenon became the focus of three detailed experiments led by Florence Mayrand, Sarah D. McCrackin, and Jelena Ristic. The results confirm that we are quicker to respond when we sense the intention behind a glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-react-faster-to-an-intentional-gaze">We react faster to an intentional gaze</h2>



The first experiment measured how fast participants could predict gaze direction. In the second and third experiments, the researchers explored whether the gaze also affected how quickly people responded to targets appearing in the gazed-at direction. 



The answer was yes - targets that matched the direction of an intentional gaze prompted faster responses. Importantly, this was not just about where the eyes moved. It was about how they moved. 



A detailed analysis using optical flow techniques revealed more subtle motion in the eye region when the gaze was intentional. These small changes, although nearly invisible to the naked eye, were enough to affect how people responded.



“The speed of the observers’ responses suggests that they implicitly recognize and respond more quickly to intentional eye movements. It also told us how sensitive we are to information about the mental state and intentions conveyed by the eyes,” Mayrand explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-seeing-intention-through-gaze">Science of seeing intention through gaze</h2>



This sensitivity doesn’t seem to stem from deliberate thought. Instead, it appears automatic - something wired into our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>. Experiment 1 showed that people respond faster to intentional looks even before any visible shift occurs. 



This supports the theory that mental state information is conveyed through the eyes, and that others pick up on it before movement is complete. Subsequent experiments explored the timing of gaze-related cues.



In Experiment 3, the researchers varied the delay between the moment the eyes moved and when the target appeared. They found that the effect of intentional gaze was strongest when participants had time to process the cue - suggesting that even subtle signals need a short moment to influence behavior.



Interestingly, while directionality affected how quickly people noticed targets, it did not significantly interact with the perception of intent. This indicates that the brain may process where someone is looking and why they are looking there using different systems, possibly in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-eye-motions-speak-volumes">Tiny eye motions speak volumes</h2>



In their analysis, the researchers measured the motion around the eyes in self-chosen versus instructed trials. They found that even before the actual gaze shift, intentional eye movements created slightly more motion in the eye region.



These micro-movements may be the signals that observers unknowingly detect and respond to. This motion pattern is so subtle that it’s not consciously visible, yet it still changes behavior. 



The study used Optical Flow Analysis to measure these movements, offering a new method for understanding how gaze communicates mental states. The results open up possibilities for future research using high-speed eye tracking or neuroimaging to examine this phenomenon more closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-shapes-how-we-connect">Gaze shapes how we connect</h2>



The findings have broader relevance. In real life, we often make quick judgments based on a look. These split-second decisions might be influenced by motion cues we don’t even realize we’re seeing. 



This also explains why some people appear more expressive than others - even when they don’t speak. The research team now hopes to explore how these cues function across different populations.



Can people with autism or ADHD pick up on the same signals? How do different gazer identities influence observer response? And does gender affect the perception of intention?



In future studies, researchers aim to test more diverse gazers and contexts. They may examine how intention detection works in natural settings, such as live conversations or social environments. They also plan to investigate how auditory cues or timing instructions affect our ability to recognize intentions behind a person's gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-as-messengers-of-the-mind">Eyes as messengers of the mind</h2>



This study confirms what poets, artists, and parents have known for centuries: our eyes carry meaning far beyond sight. The research shows that even the smallest eye movement can transmit intent, emotion, and attention. 



What’s new is the scientific understanding of how, when, and why that happens. At its core, this work redefines what it means to “see” someone. 



A look is never just a look - it’s a signal. And now, thanks to this research, we know that signal is not only visible but measurable. In a noisy world, the quiet power of a glance still speaks the loudest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-024-00137-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gaze and intention: The unspoken language of survival

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to...

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These tiny helpers are often smaller than a grain of pollen, yet they promise many possibilities that could address specific medical needs or environmental challenges.



Janus particles are nano- or micro-sized materials that have distinctly different properties on the opposite sides of each particle. 



The particles can carry out more than one function at the same time. This special property, which is related to their asymmetry, makes them candidates for smart tasks, such as moving substances around in specific ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-janus-particles-caught-attention">Why Janus particles caught attention</h2>



A couple of decades ago, a Penn State team developed <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.4c05076" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phoretic Janus particles</a>, which are small structures covered by two different chemical surfaces. One side can push fluid away, while the other side does the opposite.



Scientists consider these particles interesting because they can power themselves using simple fuels. This feature allows them to swim along microscopic pathways, carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>, and respond to signals like changes in acidity



“A major problem with designing anything that moves, both large and small, is how its motion is altered when placed in a confined environment,” said Stewart Mallory, assistant professor of chemistry and chemical engineering at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



His team explored these concerns through theoretical and computational approaches, targeting ways to manage and harness particle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a> when space is restricted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-janus-particles-for-smart-tasks">Controlling Janus particles for smart tasks</h2>



Single-file movement appears in microscopic and daily life situations. When particles line up without the option to pass, researchers call it <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-file dynamics</a>.



For microscale designs, predicting how far these particles will travel over time becomes vital. Mallory’s group recently published a study, revealing a new way to handle this problem in tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>.



The researchers aim to fine-tune the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of these particles for various uses. By adjusting the chemical nature of the two surfaces, it becomes possible to control the direction, speed, and timing of their movements.



These tiny swimmers could someday move inside the body, delivering medication to specific spots. Another application involves targeting pollutants, such as unwanted plastics in water, by programming the particles to bind to those pollutants and carry them away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-need-to-predict-motion-precisely">Why we need to predict motion precisely</h2>



Microscale environments are unpredictable. Fluids behave differently, surfaces become obstacles, and minor changes can throw off expected behavior. If we want reliable machines the size of a cell, we need to account for every bit of delay, drift, or redirection.



That’s why the Penn State team focused so much on <a href="https://docs.mdanalysis.org/2.0.0/documentation_pages/analysis/msd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mean square displacement</a> - a measure of how far a particle tends to move over time.



The new formula factors in restrictions like narrow pathways and traffic-like build-ups, which helps engineers design devices that can meet medical or environmental deadlines without getting stuck or stalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-behavior-of-janus-particles">Group behavior of Janus particles</h2>



Microscopic workers sometimes act together. This leads to <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective behavior</a>, a phenomenon where large groups of self-propelled particles produce effects that extend beyond individual motions.



Once these particles interact in confined environments, the crowded setting can slow them or change their patterns. 



Learning how Janus particles cluster under different conditions paves the way for practical applications such as localized treatment or smart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-buddies-encourage-children-to-stay-physical-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a> assembly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prospects-for-targeted-treatments">Prospects for targeted treatments</h2>



Some nanoparticles, made from materials like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a>, can respond to unique markers from diseased cells, allowing them to gather in the affected area. These tiny machines might deliver medication straight to cancer cells or other unhealthy tissue.



Fine control is crucial. Engineers need to predict how quickly the particles will reach their destinations, whether they will remain stable in the bloodstream, and how to stop them from clustering when unnecessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-janus-particles-for-material-building">Janus particles for material building</h2>



Mallory’s team also investigated how smaller building blocks might form more extensive structures on their own. Natural processes inspire this work, showing that self-assembly can arrange molecules into organized clusters.



If the right pieces are placed in a fluid with active particles, researchers think they can coax those pieces into forming patterns. This approach might save costs and time by letting the system organize itself, thus cutting down on human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-models-and-future-paths">Computational models and future paths</h2>



Mallory and his colleagues developed complex simulations that focus on both single particles and swarms. The goal is to blend these methods so that the microscopic actions of each particle add up to a predictable whole.



These simulations matter because every change in environment affects how the particles swim or assemble. By building reliable models, the team hopes to create functioning micro-robots that can handle tasks ranging from medicine to pollution control.



Interest in these tiny movers is steadily growing. Scientists want to ensure their designs are safe, efficient, and precise before they are put to the test.



Some experts think these developments may transform how diseases are treated or how we deal with ecological threats. Every step in understanding single-file motion or boosting the abilities of Janus particles moves the field closer to helpful outcomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article-abstract/162/16/164902/3344885/Single-file-diffusion-of-active-Brownian-particles?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Chemical Physics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny particles may help cure disease and clean up pollution

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These...

Humans have depended on baker’s yeast for thousands of years. They used it to produce bread, wine, and other fermented goods as early as 7000 BCE.&nbsp; Recent work at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a> uncovers how this tiny organism might hold a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-bakers-yeast-have-similar-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> of past human movement.



The study was led by Douda Bensasson, an associate professor in the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences Department of Plant Biology at the University of Georgia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-found-in-kitchens-and-forests">Yeast found in kitchens and forests</h2>



Scientists have found yeast living both in food production settings and in wild habitats. The researchers discovered that wild types from certain forests show <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0030-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic differences</a> from those usually associated with baking or winemaking.



“We are seeing distinct subpopulations within continents,” said Jacqueline J. Peña, a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Plant Biology.



She explained that evidence points to some wild yeast types mingling with those associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>, even though they still maintain separate traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-migration-mirrors-human-farming">Yeast migration mirrors human farming</h2>



Migration patterns often bring to mind ancient journeys of large mammals. Yeast appears to have followed a similar <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16103919/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timeline</a>, but on an invisible scale.



“But to our surprise, we found that it roughly coincided with the last ice age, which is around the time that humans were starting to grow their own food and spreading farming around the world,” said Bensasson. 



She noted that this timeline could suggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prediction-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-next-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> helped scatter microscopic travelers without knowing it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-unknowingly-carried-yeast">Humans unknowingly carried yeast</h2>



The scientists traced certain genetic markers in yeast to see if strains in America might have come from other regions.



The results showed that some forest populations in North America share a close link to those in Asia, while others in Europe also appear to have origins outside local woodlands.



This picture hints that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> have carted microbes along with food and supplies for centuries. It also reveals how a single-celled organism can adapt to bark and soil while staying genetically distinct from domestic varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-vineyard-rescue">Historic vineyard rescue</h2>



A major clue about how humans moved yeast lies in 19th-century Europe. Vineyards suffered from Phylloxera, an insect accidentally introduced from North America that devastated grapes in places like France.



Workers <a href="https://archive.org/details/botanistvintnerh0000camp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saved</a> the wine industry by bringing hardy rootstock from the southern United States. This decision likely introduced American yeast into European soils, where it now coexists with local strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-yeast-in-the-forest">Secrets of yeast in the forest</h2>



This study pushes back against the tidy line we often draw between wild and domestic life. 



Humans show that microbes like yeast don’t stay neatly categorized - they move, mix, and adapt in ways that blur the boundaries we expect.



When North American yeast appeared in European forests, it didn’t just mean new DNA in new places. It revealed that even wild spaces aren't untouched. What looks natural might carry a quiet legacy of global trade, human survival strategies, and forgotten agricultural fixes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worries-about-modern-shifts">Worries about modern shifts</h2>



The researchers fear that current global trade, travel, and agricultural methods might speed up yeast relocation. They suspect unintentional transport could alter local ecosystems in ways we still do not fully grasp.



“If humans, without intending to, were moving microbes around thousands of years ago, just think about all the stuff that we are doing now. We may be changing all kinds of things without knowing it. And I don’t know if that’s good or bad, but it’s a little worrying that we have no idea what we’re doing,” said Bensasson.&nbsp;



Scholars want to keep mapping these microscopic footprints. They believe it might uncover more interactions between human habits and the natural world.



Future studies could focus on other corners of the globe where microbes remain understudied. Research on overlooked strains may reveal even more about how such organisms follow humanity’s path across different landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-reveals-human-nature-connection">Yeast reveals human-nature connection</h2>



Although tree-borne yeast strains often stay isolated, these lineages can occasionally merge with domestic cousins. Some leaps across oceans happened without notice, spreading yeast populations that now stick to bark or hide in grapevines.



Tracking them sheds light on the entwined story of people and the species we carry. Each forest sampling reveals new details about an ongoing shuffle between wild and cultivated environments.



Yeast research brings a fresh perspective to ancient migrations and modern agricultural practices. The way yeast shows up in unexpected places illustrates how small life forms can roam far when humans are on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.17669" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yeast in forests reveals a story of ancient human migration

Humans have depended on baker’s yeast for thousands of years....

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex role in hunting and survival. A new study is shaking up traditional ideas by showing that some island populations are evolving simpler venom <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-beyond-animals-the-toxic-arsenal-of-fungi-plants-and-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profiles</a> instead of increasingly intricate ones.



The researchers explored 11 remote islands in the Gulf of California to gather samples from 83 rattlesnakes. The investigation was led by Dr. Mark Margres of the <a href="https://www.usf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Florida</a> and doctoral student Samuel Hirst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-rattlesnakes-were-studied">How these rattlesnakes were studied</h2>



The research team spent long nights on quiet shorelines, collecting rattlesnakes once the tropical sun had settled. The goal was to capture fresh venom that reflects real-world conditions in these secluded habitats.



Each snake was coaxed into a specialized container to safely harvest a small sample of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cobra-venom-just-became-less-deadly-thanks-to-a-common-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a>. Afterward, every reptile was released back into the wild, minimizing stress and disruption.



Once collected, the venom samples were carefully dried and labeled, then examined through advanced lab techniques. Different chemical components helped reveal how each snake’s meal plan might influence its toxin makeup.



Because these islands host four recognized rattlesnake species, the researchers could compare venom traits across multiple genetic backgrounds. This gave them a unique perspective on how ecology, diet, and isolation interact to shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-rattlesnakes-evolved-simpler-venoms">Island rattlesnakes evolved simpler venoms</h2>



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1704949114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat fragmentation</a> is a key factor in the current biodiversity crisis, which threatens species worldwide. Islands act like natural test cases for fragmentation, letting scientists see how animals respond when surrounded by ocean barriers.



“We initially hypothesized that larger islands, which support greater biodiversity and prey diversity, would be associated with more complex venoms. However, we found the opposite pattern,” said Hirst.&nbsp;



On these bigger landmasses, island rattlesnakes often developed narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> ranges. The reason might be linked to competition from other snake species that forces them to specialize.



At the same time, smaller islands presented their own surprises. Limited space and fewer prey options led to different venom formulas that still challenge old assumptions about how venom should evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-changes-in-rattlesnake-venom">Habitat changes in rattlesnake venom</h2>



“Habitat fragmentation is like breaking apart a completed puzzle. A healthy, intact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> is like a 1,000-piece puzzle where every piece is in place - you can clearly see the full picture,” said Margres.



Although these Gulf of California islands are not heavily impacted by people, they show what might happen in places where roads, farms, or cities carve habitats into smaller patches. Different species may evolve unexpected traits just to keep up with these pressures.



That includes changes at the molecular level, such as refining venom for specific prey. This idea underscores why monitoring smaller populations is so vital to conservation biology.



Funding from the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a> supported fieldwork efforts that took place under permits from Mexican environmental authorities. This partnership made the study possible while respecting ecological protections on the islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-island-rattlesnakes-matter">Why island rattlesnakes matter</h2>



Island rattlesnakes aren’t just oddities tucked away on remote shorelines - they’re indicators of how quickly evolution can shift when ecosystems shrink or isolate.



What happens on an island, where every change is magnified, might foreshadow what could unfold in other fragmented habitats affected by human expansion.



Because venom is a survival tool that adapts to local prey, changes in its complexity can highlight how animals respond to shifting resources, competitors, and climate pressures. 



Studying these snakes offers a rare, measurable glimpse into evolutionary changes that would be hard to track in more connected landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antivenom-effectiveness-for-island-venoms">Antivenom effectiveness for island venoms</h2>



“Right now, we don’t know how well existing antivenoms work against these island venoms - but our research is helping to change that,” said Margres, who is examining these specialized formulas.



Clinical treatments hinge on understanding how well existing remedies match the venom found in actual bites.&nbsp;



An effective antivenom must neutralize the toxins a snake produces, so the discovery of simpler but more specialized venoms calls for careful testing. The team plans to compare the performance of available treatments against the samples taken from remote island snakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation-can-change-evolution">Habitat fragmentation can change evolution</h2>



Aside from medical relevance, the research on island rattlesnakes offers lessons for wildlife managers seeking to preserve healthy ecosystems. 



Fragmented habitats can reshape the way species adapt, shifting the balance of life in ways we are only beginning to recognize.



By focusing on a trait that directly affects survival, the scientists have tapped into a powerful indicator of broader environmental change. These findings show that even minor alterations in habitat size or community structure can shift evolutionary outcomes.



The research adds to our understanding of how quickly animals might adjust when their surroundings become splintered or rearranged. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/advance-article/doi/10.1093/evolut/qpaf074/8118642?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rattlesnakes develop simpler venom when living on bigger islands

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex...

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability. Scientists have tested these microscopic animals in punishing conditions, and some have lived to tell the tale.



Tardigrades measure just around 0.02 inches, yet appear to shrug off extreme cold, radiation, and weeks without moisture. Observers are now stunned to see new <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> that place micro designs on their bodies through a specialized electron beam approach.



Ding Zhao from <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a>, along with fellow researchers, has introduced a way to etch micro tracings onto tardigrade exteriors without hindering their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-microfabrication">What is microfabrication?</h2>



The term <a href="https://monroeengineering.com/blog/what-is-microfabrication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microfabrication</a> describes a set of processes for building incredibly small devices. Researchers have used these methods to create sensors, circuit boards, and other intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>.



Achieving compatibility with delicate organisms has remained a sticking point. Old methods risk harming living cells with toxic chemicals or destructive radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattooing-tardigrades-without-harm">Tattooing tardigrades without harm</h2>



The experts used an electron beam to form patterns on a tardigrade’s outer layer. Some portions of the animals withstood the process and resumed normal movement soon after.



“Through this technology, we’re not just creating micro-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoo-ink-travels-through-the-body-and-may-cause-long-term-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tattoos</a> on tardigrades - we’re extending this capability to various living organisms, including bacteria,” explained Ding Zhao.



This statement highlights how advanced microfabrication might find uses across a wide range of living systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tardigrades-survive-extreme-conditions">Why tardigrades survive extreme conditions</h2>



Scientists are still uncovering the factors behind these creatures’ legendary <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5492148/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toughness</a>. Research has shown that certain species can return to life after losing nearly all their water content, which is a remarkable example of endurance.



This survival strategy makes them ideal test subjects for new fabrication ideas that require harsh steps like exposure to vacuum or cold. Their bodies recover in ways that few other animals can match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-implants-could-help-future-medicine">Tiny implants could help future medicine</h2>



Biomedicine may benefit from micro-scale implants or sensors that merge seamlessly with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoos-and-body-art-found-on-1200-year-old-peruvian-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a>. Some experts foresee devices that collect data inside the human body without major surgical steps.



“It is challenging to pattern living matter, and this advance portends a new generation of biomaterial devices and biophysical sensors that were previously only present in science fiction,” noted Gavin King, who invented the underlying ice lithography technique but was not involved in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-using-micro-tattoos">Next steps for using micro-tattoos</h2>



The researchers hope to expand these methods to other resilient microorganisms. New forms of <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Anisole" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anisole</a> or related compounds might open doors to printed electronics that stick firmly on biological surfaces.



Specialized micro-sensors could someday track health markers in real time and transmit signals externally. This might transform disease monitoring and personalized care options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-micro-tattoos-harm-tardigrades">Can micro-tattoos harm tardigrades?</h2>



There are still questions about long-term impacts on each test subject’s health and lifespan. Further studies will examine whether repeated procedures cause hidden issues inside their cells.



Refinements in cooling, beam intensity, and chemical agents are likely to minimize harm. Some scientists see this as a path to safer, more precise methods that respect an organism’s integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-tough-tardigrades">Discovery of tough tardigrades</h2>



Tardigrades belong to a distinct group called Phylum Tardigrada. They were first documented in the late 18th century by naturalists who studied water samples.



Early observations noted their curious shape and lumbering walk, prompting the nickname water bear. Centuries later, advanced labs continue to explore new features of their biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-micro-tattoos-could-help-robotics">How micro-tattoos could help robotics</h2>



Scientists speculate that flexible circuits could coat the surfaces of living microbes to monitor chemical changes in high-risk environments. This might lead to real-time alerts about contamination or hidden toxins.



Similar concepts might appear in robotics, where living cells combine with manufactured parts to form hybrid machines. Supporters envision a time when microbes and man-made systems work in unison without harming each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Teams worldwide exchange notes to refine micro-scale engineering on living hosts. This collaboration crosses disciplines, tying biology, physics, and chemistry into one puzzle.



Continual improvements in electron beam control allow for finer detail with fewer side effects. Leading laboratories consider tardigrades a stepping stone to more fragile organisms.



Enthusiasts believe new micro-designs on these creatures will spark ideas for advanced drug delivery and personalized treatments. Tiny adhesives may cling to tissues and guide medication where it is needed most.



Engineers and biologists see common ground in these experiments. The combination of precise patterns and natural resilience points to methods that could redefine how we use biological surfaces in tech.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tattoos on tardigrades could change biomedicine

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability....

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders. They play an important role in regulating Earth's climate. 



New research shows that climate change may be weakening one of the Arctic’s most important defenses - the ability of its fjords to capture and store carbon.



Scientists from the <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iC3 Polar Research Hub</a> have been studying these changes closely. Their work focuses on Kongsfjorden in Svalbard, one of the Arctic’s dynamic fjord ecosystems. 



The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-can-speed-up-continental-drift-and-fuel-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting ice</a> is not just altering the local environment. It is also affecting the balance of life that helps keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-heroes-of-the-arctic">Microscopic heroes of the Arctic</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a>, tiny microscopic plants, are the backbone of Arctic food webs. They are not just food for fish and marine animals. They also play a key part in cycling carbon and regulating the climate.



When ice retreats, more sunlight reaches the ocean's surface. This encourages phytoplankton to grow. Life flourishes, with fish and other animals gathering around these rich patches of productivity.



“The changes we observe suggest that the future of these fjord ecosystems will depend heavily on how well they adapt to a warmer climate," explained Jochen Knies, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-ocean-temperatures">Rising ocean temperatures</h2>



Warmer water can fuel phytoplankton growth during bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic summers</a>. At first glance, this sounds like good news. However, it comes with hidden problems. 



As surface waters warm, they become more layered and stable. This prevents nutrients from reaching the surface where phytoplankton live.



While more phytoplankton might bloom at first, their ability to capture and lock away carbon could shrink over time.



“While we anticipate greater primary production, the reality is that warmer, stratified waters could hinder the fjords' ability to serve as effective carbon sinks,” said Jochen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-disappearing-nutrient-lifeline">The disappearing nutrient lifeline</h2>



Glacial meltwater brings crucial nutrients to Arctic fjords. These nutrients support the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food chain</a>. 



As glaciers retreat, the flow of meltwater becomes unpredictable. Without a steady supply, fjord ecosystems could lose their ability to support rich marine life.



This would not only affect fish and marine mammals. It could also weaken the Arctic’s ability to capture carbon, shifting the balance of life and climate regulation in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arctic-s-warning-to-the-world">The Arctic’s warning to the world</h2>



The Arctic acts as a global climate barometer. Changes here are often early signs of bigger challenges ahead. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrinking ice</a> caps are more than a symbol of loss - they are a warning.



“The future of Arctic fjords reflects the broader climate challenges we face globally,” Jochen warns.



What happens in the Arctic does not stay in the Arctic. These fjords are sending a message. Whether we listen could shape the future of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-touching-everything">Climate change is touching everything</h2>



The effects of climate change are no longer limited to remote areas like the Arctic. They are penetrating into almost every corner of the globe, transforming weather patterns, ecosystems, and even lifestyles.



Rising temperatures are causing more severe storms, increased durations of drought, and volatile growing seasons for crops. Ocean currents are changing. Animals are moving into new ranges. Whole industries, from agriculture to tourism, are being compelled to adjust to a new normal.



What is unfolding in Arctic fjords is just one part of a far larger puzzle. Melting glaciers might be far away from the concerns of most individuals, yet they are linked with rising sea levels that pose a threat to coastal metropolises thousands of miles distant.



Shifts in phytoplankton blooms may also seem like a minor thing. But they are indicative of a broader disruption in the natural systems of the planet, with effects that can ripple across food webs and economies globally.



Scientists emphasize that these changes are happening at an accelerating rate than many models previously estimated. Every degree of warming counts. 



Each choice, from cutting emissions to preserving natural reserves, might make difference toward a more stable future. The tale of the Arctic fjords is an indication of the global challenge facing us all.



The full study was published in the journal Communications Earth &amp; Environment.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Arctic fjords show signs of struggle in a warming world

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders....

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few years to whales that sail through life for more than a century, raising questions about how aging shapes such differences and what forces keep some animals healthy for so long.



Experts have long suspected that variations in the microscopic machinery inside cells might be at play. An emerging study now suggests that certain tiny adjustments in our proteins could hold the secret to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living better</a>, not just longer.



Recent work from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a> points to specific post-translational modifications in proteins that could be linked to a healthier lifespan. 



Led by Professor Haim Cohen of the Sagol Healthy Human Longevity Center at Bar-Ilan University’s Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, the team used a new computational tool to examine how these protein tweaks show up in species with impressive lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-aging-and-longevity">Clues to aging and longevity </h2>



Nature has been running a grand experiment for millions of years, offering clues about what helps certain species thrive. 



Researchers noticed that whales, elephants, and even some human populations seem to manage serious threats like cancer better than expected.



By comparing these animals to their shorter-lived counterparts, scientists discovered key patterns in the proteins responsible for cell maintenance. Each finding hints that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular changes</a> support a more resilient physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-patterns-linked-to-healthy-aging">Protein patterns linked to healthy aging</h2>



To uncover these patterns, the team developed a tool called PHARAOH, short for Positive posttranslational Modifications Regulator of Healthspan. It analyzed protein sequences in 107 different mammal species and looked for changes tied to lifespan.



By using evolutionary data, PHARAOH was able to pinpoint which protein tweaks stuck around in long-lived animals. This let scientists identify specific <a href="https://www.cellsignal.com/pathways/chromatin-acetylation-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOooAw_ZHb32yoec5mQmODkYrVWiqcwg8d-bk5wjwW8T4ndTyT8W8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylation sites</a> that might support healthier aging across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-protein-changes-matter">How do protein changes matter?</h2>



Proteins are the molecules that build tissues, run chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, and keep our bodies functional during aging. they undergo acetylation, a process that adds or removes small chemical tags, which is one example of a posttranslational modification.



These tags shape how proteins fold, interact, and support different parts of our metabolism. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9038119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that adjusting the function of proteins tied to DNA repair and energy production can extend life in model organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-reveal-secrets-to-long-life-nbsp">Whales reveal secrets to long life&nbsp;</h2>



Whales offer a fascinating case study in healthy longevity. Despite having trillions more cells than humans and living for over 100 years, they rarely develop cancer. This phenomenon, known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto’s Paradox</a>, has <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puzzled</a> researchers for decades.



The new study sheds light on this mystery. It found that whales and other long-lived mammals share unique patterns in protein modifications that likely help suppress tumor growth. 



These consistent tweaks in their molecular biology may act as built-in defenses against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related</a> disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-tweaks-may-prevent-diseases">Protein tweaks may prevent diseases</h2>



This new research suggests that tweaking proteins might explain why large mammals rarely suffer from runaway cancer despite having far more cells. 



A lower incidence of some cancers could emerge from strategic molecular shifts in the proteins that keep cell division under control.



“Our findings offer a promising path toward understanding how protein modifications can protect against age-related diseases and promote longer, healthier lives,” said Professor Cohen. 



We could see more methods for shielding humans from age-related conditions if these changes prove adaptable through future therapies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-aging-through-protein-changes">Fighting aging through protein changes</h2>



Scientists hope that tapping into these protein modifications will eventually curb conditions like diabetes and neurodegeneration. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7165364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> found that boosting the action of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/51548" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIRT6</a> helps mice live longer, pointing to a potential strategy for improving health in older age.



As more labs piece together how these modifications appear across species, new ideas for medicines may follow. Clarity on these processes might open ways to slow some effects of aging and give people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better years</a> later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-could-mean-for-medicine">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



If researchers can figure out how to mimic these protective protein changes in humans, it could change how we approach aging-related treatments. 



Instead of targeting single diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, doctors might one day adjust the body’s protein regulation to guard against multiple conditions at once.



Drugs that fine-tune acetylation - the specific type of protein modification linked to longevity in this study - are already being explored. But this research provides clearer targets and stronger biological backing, which could speed up progress in designing future therapies.



Experts believe that continued work in this field could lead to ways of delaying aging and several chronic conditions at once. looking deeper into these molecular changes may hold a key to not just extending life, but ensuring more vitality along the way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58762-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Protein tweaks may hold the secret to healthy aging

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few...

trabajar granja mesia xanceda sueldo 1666 euros - 1

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France. Experts say this is a rare find that sheds light on how Stone Age humans interacted with dogs at a time when both species were figuring out how to live together.



This animal’s remains, first discovered in 2021 by a group of spelunkers in the Baume Traucade cave, offer a window into a past where trust and conflict might have existed in the same breath. 



The lead author, <a href="https://naturalsciences-be.academia.edu/MietjeGermonpr%C3%A9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Mietje Germonpré</a> from the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, has studied early canid remains for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-ancient-bonds">Uncovering ancient bonds</h2>



The nearly complete skeleton belonged to a type known as Palaeolithic dogs. Researchers determined it was about 24 inches (61 centimeters) tall at the shoulder and weighed an estimated 57 pounds (26 kilograms).



This size, along with other skeletal measurements, indicates that the animal was an adult female that was old enough to have experienced at least one year of maturity. The physical traits of the animal were closer to those of ancient dogs than to wolves. 



Experts analyzing these bones suspect the animal was part of a growing connection between humans and canids, which may have involved shared shelter, food sources, or protection. 



Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440314000478" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> from other sites in Western Europe hint that these creatures may have provided practical help, including hunting assistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-of-injuries">A puzzle of injuries</h2>



Evidence of trauma is written on the skeleton in the form of impact marks. Researchers say this indicates human involvement shortly before the dog’s death. 



“It is feasible that the individual obtained [its] injuries from being beaten or struck by people,” said Loukas Koungoulos from the University of Western Australia, who was not part of this analysis.



There is also evidence that humans might have cared for the dog during its life, as the skeleton’s condition suggests it may not have been fending for itself outdoors. This would indicate a possible early attempt at domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-cave">Clues from the cave</h2>



Baume Traucade is located about 525 feet (160 meters) below the surface on a slope shaped by rocky cliffs. This cave is in a region with numerous archaeological sites that show a long history of human use. 



The canid skeleton’s position in the cave implies it wasn’t dragged in by large predators or moved by floodwaters.



The dog’s remains were buried under layers of sediment that preserved the bones for millennia. Researchers believe it died inside the cave, though they remain unsure whether it was led there intentionally or wandered in. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-domestication">Implications for domestication</h2>



This discovery holds significance for our understanding of how early dogs might have been welcomed into human groups. 



Ancient people could have been exploring ways to benefit from these animals’ natural instincts. Some dogs may have earned a spot near the fire, while others might have ended up in conflict with their keepers.



Researchers have long debated when and how grey wolves began evolving into domestic companions. Genetic <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> suggest that dog domestication might have begun during or before the Last Glacial Maximum, though not all lineages survived to the present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-care-and-aggression">Balancing care and aggression</h2>



Further examination points to a complicated picture of cooperation and aggression. This canid may have been nurtured for certain tasks before meeting a violent end. It’s possible that humans valued the dog’s loyalty but also resorted to lethal force if they viewed it as a threat.



Such complexities are not surprising given the harsh environment of the late Pleistocene. Food shortages, harsh weather, and competition from other predators might have influenced how people treated animals. 



These dynamics represent the start of a long and varied journey for the species we now see snoozing on our couches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparisons-with-other-sites">Comparisons with other sites</h2>



Similar Palaeolithic dogs have emerged at sites in Germany, Spain, and Belgium. The 14,000-year-old remains at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284720121_Street_M_Napierala_H_Janssens_L_2015_The_late_Palaeolithic_dog_from_Bonn-Oberkassel_in_context_In_The_Late_Glacial_Burial_from_Oberkassel_Revisited_L_Giemsch_R_W_Schmitz_eds_Rheinische_Ausgrabungen_72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonn-Oberkassel</a>, for instance, included a partial skeleton that was buried with humans. Each find contributes fresh details about the earliest efforts to shape wolf-like creatures into domestic dogs.



Though many remains are incomplete fragments, the Baume Traucade skeleton is almost intact. This allowed for thorough measurements of skull, jaw, and limbs. The bones were then compared to fossil wolves, modern canids, and other prehistoric samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions">Lingering questions</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is pinpointing when domestication began. Some researchers argue that earlier finds might represent wolves with slight shifts in size or shape, and not true dogs. 



<a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135813" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Others</a> maintain that selective breeding and human cohabitation can alter an animal’s features much faster than we realize.



These debates will continue as new discoveries surface. Each site reveals small pieces of a larger puzzle about how humans shaped, and were shaped by, the dogs they invited into their encampments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Researchers plan to conduct further genetic work on the remains. This may confirm ancestral connections or illuminate distinct lineages that have subsequently vanished. Understanding those lineages can help unravel the broader story of dog evolution.



As more ancient skeletons come to light, knowledge of their wounds, diets, and living patterns may reveal how people managed these animals. Over thousands of years, our relationship with dogs has become more peaceful and rewarding, but the road to this point might have been rocky.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379125001088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

A 16,000-year-old dog skeleton has been found, showing the first link between humans and dogs

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France....

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven into the fabric of our societies. It helps people cooperate, build friendships, and resolve conflicts. But empathy is not unique to humans. Across the animal kingdom, from elephants to the bonobos, behaviors hint at emotional connections that transcend species boundaries.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> in the UK delves into how two of our closest living relatives — the bonobo and the chimpanzee — express empathy, challenging long-held assumptions and deepening our understanding of emotional evolution.



This study does more than just compare species. It explores how individual personalities, social bonds, and community structures shape emotional behaviors. Led by Dr. Jake Brooker, the research opens a new chapter in the story of human and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> empathy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-and-chimps-show-similar-empathy">Bonobos and chimps show similar empathy</h2>



Traditionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> have enjoyed a reputation as the "empathic ape," while chimpanzees have been cast as aggressive and political. However, Brooker’s study found that both species comfort others at similar rates.



Observations spanned 1,400 hours, covering 40 bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of Congo and 50 chimpanzees at the <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> in Zambia. 



Researchers focused on how individuals reacted to distress events like fights, recording spontaneous gestures of consolation, including embracing, hand grasping, and soothing touches.



“For a long time, bonobos have been thought of as the more empathic ape, whilst chimpanzees are typically spoken about as the violent, despotic ape. However, we found that chimpanzees are just as likely to console one another as bonobos,” said Dr. Brooker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-apes-offer-comfort-more-often">Young apes offer comfort more often</h2>



Age played a significant role in consolation patterns. Younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> were more likely to offer comfort compared to their older counterparts, a trend observed across both species.



In bonobos, young individuals actively both consoled and received consolation. In chimpanzees, young males and close social partners were the primary sources of comfort. These findings echo observations in human children, who often show concern for others even before their first birthday.



The study suggests that emotional sensitivity emerges early and may diminish as individuals mature and navigate complex social hierarchies. Dr. Brooker’s team highlighted that empathy is likely intrinsic rather than solely learned through experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-drives-empathy-in-bonobos">What drives empathy in bonobos?</h2>



One of the standout discoveries was the role of social relationships. Among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, kinship mattered deeply. Individuals were far more likely to console relatives than non-kin. In contrast, chimpanzees prioritized close social bonds over genetic ties when offering comfort.



“Although empathy is very important for our own species, our findings show that empathic behaviours, like consolation, appear to be a common trait we also share with our two closest ape relatives,” said Professor Zanna Clay, senior author of the study. 



This highlights an important point: empathy is not only about feeling another’s distress but is also influenced by relational closeness, just as it is among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-flexibility-within-ape-communities">Emotional flexibility within ape communities</h2>



Variation within species eclipsed differences between species. Some groups showed stronger tendencies toward consolation based on their unique social environments.



For instance, young male chimpanzees were especially active in consoling peers but became less so with age, suggesting social ambition could influence empathic behavior during development. 



In bonobos, higher-ranked individuals were more likely to console, while lower-ranked members appeared more restrained.



“Just like humans, bonobos and chimpanzees may flexibly show empathy depending on the individual, the group, and the surrounding social culture,” Dr. Brooker noted. 



This points to a flexible empathy that shifts according to social conditions and personal traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-depends-more-on-social-context">Empathy depends more on social context</h2>



The study also connects behavioral trends with biological differences. Previous research shows bonobos have more serotonergic fibers in the amygdala, a brain region crucial for emotion regulation. They also possess genetic differences associated with social bonding tendencies.



Despite these neurological distinctions, this study found no overarching difference in the likelihood of consolation between the two species. Empathy-related behaviors appeared instead to be more responsive to social and individual contexts.



This finding challenges ideas that neurobiology alone can predict empathic tendencies. Instead, it emphasizes how emotional expressions are shaped within dynamic social landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consolation-reflect-deep-evolutionary-roots">Consolation reflect deep evolutionary roots</h2>



The behavior of bonobos and chimpanzees adds to a growing body of evidence showing that empathy has ancient evolutionary origins. Consolation behaviors similar to those seen in apes have been documented in elephants, rodents, and even some bird species.



“Finding these overlaps between our two close cousins suggests our last common ancestor likely showed these empathic capacities too. A next step will be to see how much these patterns are also observed in other settings, particularly in the wild,” said Dr. Clay.



This evolutionary perspective deepens our understanding of where human empathy might have originated and suggests that the roots of our emotional lives are much older than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-empathy-in-wild-natural-settings">Ape empathy in wild natural settings</h2>



One of the major recommendations from this study is the need for broader, cross-setting comparisons. Sanctuaries offer semi-natural environments, but understanding how these behaviors manifest in wild populations will be crucial.



Studying more communities could reveal how local conditions, cultural traditions, and ecological pressures influence the expression of consolation and empathy. 



Future research could also explore how demographic factors, such as the presence of juveniles or social network complexity, shape emotional responses in different communities.



The Durham team plans to pursue such questions to build a richer picture of emotional evolution. They believe that understanding emotional flexibility among our closest relatives will illuminate important aspects of human nature itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-is-shaped-by-social-lives">Empathy is shaped by social lives </h2>



Brooker’s study redefines how we think about empathy in our closest relatives. It challenges outdated notions of species-wide emotional profiles and shows that individual differences and social environments hold the key.



Both bonobos and chimpanzees can express profound empathy, but how, when, and to whom they show it depends on who they are and the world they live in. Just like humans, their emotional lives are complex, dynamic, and deeply social.



The research was funded by the Templeton World Charity Foundation and sets the stage for a new wave of empathy studies across the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513825000315?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution and Human Behavior</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobos and chimps express empathy much like humans

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven...

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However, shark bites remain rare. Only about 100 happen globally each year, and roughly 10% are fatal.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharks</a> bite for many reasons. They might act out of competition, territorialism, or predation. Now, researchers have identified another reason: self-defense.



Dr. Eric Clua is a shark specialist and researcher at Université PSL and the first author of the study.



“We show that defensive bites by sharks on humans - a reaction to initial human aggression - are a reality and that the animal should not be considered responsible or at fault when they occur,” said Dr. Clua. "These bites are simply a manifestation of survival instinct, and the responsibility for the incident needs to be reversed.”



This discovery challenges common views. It suggests sharks often bite as an instinctive response, not as cold-blooded attackers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-because-they-feel-threatened">Sharks bite because they feel threatened</h2>



Negative interactions between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> are not new. However, they have increased with more human activity at sea. Management now aims to minimize lethal responses to wildlife.



Sharks, much like land animals, react defensively when provoked. Yet self-defense motivations in sharks were rarely explored until recently. French Polynesia, with an exclusive economic zone that spans 5.5 million square kilometers, provided key insights.



Between 2009 and 2023, 74 shark bites were documented in French Polynesia. Four were strongly linked to self-defense. This proportion, about five percent, matches global trends when activities like spearfishing and fish trap use are considered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-shark-bites-happen-without-warning">Many shark bites happen without warning </h2>



Self-defense bites arise when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> feel threatened by human actions. Activities like spearfishing or grabbing sharks often trigger these responses. Warning signs are rare or absent. Defensive bites usually cause superficial, non-lethal wounds.



This pattern is not unique to sharks. Bears and cassowaries also react similarly, defending themselves without a lethal intent.



“Some species of coastal shark, such as the gray reef shark, are both particularly territorial and bold enough to come to contact with humans,” said Dr. Clua. A human merely intruding their space could be enough.



Repeated bites during defensive events were noted, though fatalities remained rare. In many cases, minor to moderate injuries occurred, reinforcing the non-predatory nature of these incidents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-may-react-with-strong-defense">Sharks may react with strong defense</h2>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> react in self-defense, the force may seem excessive compared to the human action.



“We need to consider the not very intuitive idea that sharks are very cautious towards humans and are generally afraid of them,” noted Dr. Clua.



“The sharks’ disproportionate reaction probably is the immediate mobilization of their survival instinct. It is highly improbable that they would integrate revenge into their behavior and remain above all pragmatic about their survival.”



This reaction closely mirrors human behavior under threat. Defenders often inflict greater harm than the attacker intends.



Additionally, there is no proportional link between human aggression and shark bite severity. Tooth anatomy and shark size primarily influence injury outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-studies-from-french-polynesia">Case studies from French Polynesia</h2>



Detailed case studies shed light on real-world self-defense bites. One case involved two spearfishermen at Makemo Atoll in 2016. After injuring a gray reef shark, the animal retaliated, inflicting multiple non-lethal wounds.



Another case focused on traditional fish traps. Fishers entering traps to retrieve fish sometimes confronted trapped sharks. Attempts to spear sharks often triggered defensive bites.



A third case documented scientists trying to handle a blacktip reef shark for sampling. An improper grip allowed the shark to bite a scientist’s hand. These incidents illustrate that even non-aggressive handling attempts can trigger defensive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-defense-bites-are-common">Self-defense bites are common </h2>



Globally, self-defense bites represent about 4.6% of all recorded shark bites, closely matching French Polynesian observations. Data from the <a href="https://www.sharkattackfile.net" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Shark Attack Files</a> supports this estimate.



For instance, Australian data shows that Wobbegong sharks often bite defensively when accidentally disturbed. This finding highlights that self-defense biting is not region-specific but widespread among various species.



The media often fails to differentiate these events, labeling them all as "attacks," which harms shark conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-shark-bites">Preventing shark bites</h2>



Avoiding aggressive or intrusive actions toward sharks is key to staying safe. Even well-meaning rescue attempts can be perceived as threats.



“Do not interact physically with a shark, even if it appears harmless or is in distress. It may at any moment consider this to be an aggression and react accordingly,” said Dr. Clua. “These are potentially dangerous animals, and not touching them is not only wise, but also a sign of the respect we owe them.”



Touching stranded sharks can lead to defensive bites. Their flexible bodies allow them to turn quickly and strike even when handled gently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-to-survive">Sharks bite to survive</h2>



Recognizing self-defense as a motivation changes how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> incidents should be understood and managed. People must acknowledge their role in provoking many incidents.



This understanding can shift media narratives and reduce unjustified fears. Better reporting can also support shark conservation efforts, crucial for preserving ocean ecosystems.



Self-defense bites reveal sharks as cautious, pragmatic survivors rather than ruthless killers. Humans must revise their attitudes and actions when interacting with these animals.



Reducing aggressive encounters and respecting sharks' space could lower incident rates. Meanwhile, more accurate media representation could significantly aid global shark conservation initiatives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1562502/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sharks often bite people in self-defense, not to attack

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However,...

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed islands - some buried in sediment, others still alive. Off the coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, researchers have made a discovery that rewrites part of crocodilian history. Two isolated island populations - one on Cozumel, the other on Banco Chinchorro - have been identified as distinct species of crocodiles.



For decades, these animals were assumed to be American crocodiles, part of the species Crocodylus acutus, which ranges from Baja California to Venezuela and across the Caribbean. 



But new research reveals that these island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> are not merely remote relatives. They are genetically and physically distinct - products of isolation, adaptation, and evolutionary divergence.



This revelation comes from an international team led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, working alongside Mexican institutions. Their findings mark a turning point in crocodile biology and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-new-crocodile-species">Saving the new crocodile species </h2>



“Biodiversity is disappearing faster than we can discover what we're losing,” said Professor Hans Larsson, who led the study. His team’s goal was to explore hidden patterns of crocodile diversity before development and climate change erased them. 



Crocodiles are often seen as ancient, unchanging predators. Yet in the islands of the Yucatán, they tell a story of dynamic evolution and ecological specialization.



Island species often evolve rapidly, separated from their mainland ancestors by currents, storms, and time. 



The two island populations - Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro - are part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, where prevailing ocean currents reduce genetic exchange with nearby coasts. These natural barriers, acting over thousands of years, allowed isolated populations to take new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary paths</a>.



Each island’s reptiles have stayed hidden in plain sight, their differences mistaken for regional quirks. But as the study shows, these are not minor variations. They are evidence of distinct evolutionary histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-crocodiles-are-two-separate-species">Island crocodiles are two separate species</h2>



To uncover the truth, Larsson’s team used Restriction-site Associated DNA Sequencing (RAD-seq), analyzing over 13,000 polymorphic genetic markers across crocodile populations from the Caribbean, Pacific Mexico, and Central America. 



They found that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro crocodiles had exceptionally high numbers of unique alleles and genetic diversity, despite their small population sizes.



“These results were totally unexpected,” said José Avila-Cervantes, the study’s lead author and former student in Larsson’s lab. 



Avila-Cervantes explained how they originally assumed all sampled animals were members of a single widespread species. But population structure analyses, genetic clustering algorithms, and phylogenetic reconstructions told a different story.



The team discovered that the two island populations form their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic clusters</a> with no signs of admixture. Their genetic divergence from mainland Crocodylus acutus populations is greater than what separates some recognized crocodile species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-level-distinction-confirmed">Species-level distinction confirmed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetics</a> wasn't the only signal of divergence. The researchers also analyzed skull shapes using geometric morphometrics. These analyses revealed dramatic differences in cranial morphology between island crocodiles and their mainland counterparts.



Cozumel crocodiles have notably long and narrow snouts - described as “longirostrine.” In contrast, Banco Chinchorro crocodiles have broader skulls adapted for durophagy, likely to help them crush hard-shelled prey.



Morphospace analysis placed each population in distinct zones, confirming that their physical differences mirrored their genetic splits.



Morphological distinctions extend to scale patterns as well. Banco Chinchorro individuals possess a greater number of post-occipital and nuchal scales, while Cozumel individuals have more irregular caudal scales. These features support species-level separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-species-evolved-in-isolation">Crocodile species evolved in isolation</h2>



Genomic modeling suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations have been genetically isolated for over 11,000 years. That’s long enough for new traits to evolve and for species to diverge.



Estimates suggest each island holds only 500 to 700 effective breeding individuals. While these numbers might seem modest, they are significantly larger than previously thought and are adequate to maintain genetic diversity, especially in isolated systems.



These findings highlight how isolation by environment - not just distance - can drive rapid evolutionary changes. Unlike other Crocodylus acutus populations, these two groups have adapted to harsh, specific conditions on their islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-extremes">Adapting to extremes</h2>



Banco Chinchorro is a small atoll in the Caribbean Sea, distant from the mainland and sparsely inhabited by humans. Its crocodile population has developed exceptional traits to survive in this setting. Lagoon salinity on the atoll reaches levels as high as 65 ppt — more than twice the salinity of typical seawater.



Crocodiles here have adapted to tolerate these hypersaline conditions. Hatchlings survive in salt-saturated nursery sites, and adults exhibit slower growth rates, smaller clutch sizes, and reduced egg mass. 



“The lower reproductive parameters for crocodiles in Banco Chinchorro are probably related to a smaller size of nesting females,” noted the researchers.



These ecological pressures are shaping the biology of the population. Females reach maturity at smaller sizes, and survival strategies now depend on both physiological tolerance and geographic seclusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crocodiles-in-cozumel">Protecting crocodiles in Cozumel</h2>



Cozumel, in contrast, is a much larger island, closer to the Yucatán mainland and more affected by human activity. Urban development, tourism, and invasive species have introduced several stressors. Yet even here, the crocodile population shows signs of stable reproduction and unique genetic makeup.



Despite facing habitat fragmentation and limited protection compared to Banco Chinchorro, Cozumel’s crocodiles have preserved distinct traits and high genetic variation. The study calls for stronger protective measures to preserve their ecological niche.



Recognizing these reptiles as separate species could be the first step toward securing their future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-new-crocodile-species">Naming the new crocodile species</h2>



The study suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations should be officially described and named as new species. Doing so would have major conservation implications. 



These crocodiles could become flagship species for preserving Caribbean mangrove ecosystems, which are under constant threat.



“Now that we recognize these crocodiles as distinct species, it's crucial to protect their habitats. Limiting land development and implementing careful conservation strategies on Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro will be key to ensuring their survival,” said Larsson.



Because Banco Chinchorro is already designated as a Biosphere Reserve, it provides a model for effective conservation. Cozumel, however, has fragmented protections, and needs more attention from policymakers and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-new-species">The evolution of new species</h2>



The discovery of these island crocodiles serves as a powerful reminder: evolution is not a closed chapter. It continues, quietly and sometimes dramatically, in the overlooked corners of the natural world.



The crocodiles of Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro are not just relics of the past. They are living examples of how isolation, environment, and time can create new life forms. 



These new species may be rare, but they are real - and now, with science and will, perhaps they can be protected too.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790325000582?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



Image Credit: McGill University.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hidden in isolation: Two new crocodile species found in Mexico

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed...

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending a significant part of their day making a curious chatter. This chatter, known as babbling, lasts around seven minutes on average, with some sessions reaching an impressive 43 minutes.



Researchers studied 19 pup-mother pairs in roosts across Panama and Costa Rica. According to Dr. Ahana A. Fernandez from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>, the project focused on how maternal behavior influences this vocal practice in young bats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-pup-babbling-and-infant-speech">Bat pup babbling and infant speech</h2>



These tiny creatures produce many different syllable types during their babbling phase. Some of these sounds match up with calls that adults use for territorial defense and group identification.



Scientists use the term <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518205_Nonmutual_vocal_mother-pup_recognition_in_the_greater_sac-winged_bat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal ontogeny</a> to describe how bat pups develop the full range of sounds that adults make. Babbling by greater sac-winged bats features repetitive and varied sequences that resemble early infant speech in humans.



Male bats sing loud territorial songs at dawn and dusk. Pup babbling, though, seems mostly linked to interactions with their mothers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-influence-on-bat-babbling">Maternal influence on bat babbling</h2>



Researchers filmed and recorded each babbling session. They noticed that some mothers stayed quiet, while others hovered, crawled, or moved closer to their pups during these long bouts of chatter.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/">Bat</a> pups with more interactive mothers kept babbling longer. Those pups also showed a bigger variety of the learned song syllables in their practice.



Interestingly, the number of singing males in a roost did not matter for pup babbling length. Instead, the mother’s activity seemed to drive how long and how richly the pup practiced its sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-feedback-shapes-learning">How feedback shapes learning</h2>



“Social interactions can have a direct effect on how baby talk develops,” concluded a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1332441100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Michael Goldstein and colleagues. In human babies, certain social responses can speed up the shift from simple babble to more mature sounds.



Bats may follow a similar pattern. Mothers often respond to babbling pups with touches, movements, or by allowing nursing right after a session.



Scientists suggest that these gestures reinforce the pup’s interest in babbling. The pups might then refine their vocal control more quickly through this extra practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babbling-beyond-male-tutors">Babbling beyond male tutors</h2>



Adult males offer a steady supply of acoustic input through their songs. Yet the presence of multiple singers in a colony does not appear to increase a pup’s babbling time.



Mothers, on the other hand, engage in direct interactions. The physical movements and close attention may push the pup to keep going, stacking more practice into each day.



This result differs from research in songbirds, where direct tutor interaction is often critical for learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hoary-bat-flying-over-open-ocean-first-ever-sighting/">Bat</a> pups instead appear to depend heavily on their mothers for motivation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-female-pups-babble-too">Why do female pups babble too?</h2>



Male bats use these songs later to mark territory. Females normally leave their birth colony once they are grown and do not sing these territorial tunes as adults.



Scientists were surprised to see no difference between male and female pups during babbling sessions. Both sexes copy adult song syllables, show similar levels of practice, and respond to their mothers in a similar way.



One idea is that female pups benefit from early song practice to identify local song dialects in new colonies. This extra experience might help them recognize males from their home group or pick suitable mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-s-moves-and-vocal-maturity">Mother’s moves and vocal maturity</h2>



Researchers also tracked whether pup syllables moved toward more adult-like features. They found that pups whose mothers showed higher activity reached mature-sounding syllables earlier.



These results could mean that the mechanical skills and brain processes for producing adult calls are boosted by social contact. Over time, the pup transitions from broad babbling to crisp, well-formed phrases.



Scientists have proposed that such maternal feedback helps the young strengthen vocal skills. Pups learn by comparing their own calls to the calls they hear, then adjusting until there is a match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-to-human-speech">Connections to human speech</h2>



Though humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-north-american-bats-face-extinction-risk-in-15-years/">bats</a> are worlds apart, both rely on extensive vocal imitation in early life. People have long studied infant babbling to find clues about how children master speech.



Some researchers think that babbling might serve <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29375276/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple goals</a>. It gives the infant a chance to practice forming sounds, and it can trigger extra bonding time with caregivers.



Bats might display a comparable loop. Pups try out different notes, the mother replies with movement or attention, and the pup is encouraged to produce more complex sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-babbling-sessions-and-complex-learning">Long babbling sessions and complex learning</h2>



The final number of syllables mastered by weaning did not directly link to how active each mother was. That aspect might depend more on how long pups keep babbling or how quickly they pick up new sound types.



Future work could explore whether mothers respond more often to specific syllables. That level of detail may reveal patterns of back-and-forth shaping that were not obvious in the broader analysis.



Scientists also wonder if close contact with motherly affection can spark hormone changes in pups. This might influence how quickly babbling matures, echoing theories in human child development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-bat-pup-babbling">Significance of bat pup babbling </h2>



These findings hint at a social element in mammalian voice learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/">Bats</a> share certain brain structures with humans, making them especially interesting for understanding speech origins.



The study offers a glimpse into how complex communication systems can appear in non-human mammals. It also opens the door to new ideas on how maternal cues guide early vocal practice.



Such knowledge can enrich our understanding of communication in the animal kingdom. It might even offer fresh perspectives on how humans first learned to talk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/99474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What secrets are hidden in the babbling of bats?

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending...

The,Theatre,Of,Aspendos,Ancient,City,In,Antalya

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in York, have uncovered the first direct physical evidence of gladiatorial combat between a human and fierce, wild animal. 



The breakthrough came through a close forensic analysis of bite marks found on one of the 82 robust male skeletons excavated at the site.



This discovery reshapes our understanding of Roman entertainment beyond the walls of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-romans-made-such-incredibly-durable-concrete-is-no-longer-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colosseum</a>. The cemetery first made headlines in 2010 when experts revealed that the men buried there were young, muscular individuals who had likely undergone intense physical training. 



Their skeletons also bore signs of violent trauma, and their unusual burial practices hinted at lives lived, and often ended, in combat.



However, until now, the idea that these men were gladiators had remained a compelling theory - lacking one final piece of evidence. That final piece came in the form of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion</a>’s bite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiator-combat-confirmation">Gladiator combat confirmation</h2>



Malin Holst, a lecturer in Osteoarchaeology at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> and managing director of <a href="https://yorkosteoarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Osteoarchaeology</a>, led the analysis that definitively linked the bite marks to a large feline predator.



“The bite marks were likely made by a lion, which confirms that the skeletons buried at the cemetery were gladiators, rather than soldiers or slaves, as initially thought and represent the first osteological confirmation of human interaction with large carnivores in a combat or entertainment setting in the Roman world,” she explained.



This new insight stems from research that began in 2004, when the first of these 1,800-year-old skeletons was excavated along a Roman road leading out of York. Experts determined that many of these individuals had come from different parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)" class="wp-image-1967179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)</figcaption></figure>



An analysis of their bones suggested high levels of physical strain and repeated injuries - markers typical of gladiators. The man in question was aged between 26 and 35 at the time of death. 



His skeleton, found buried with two others and overlaid with horse bones, bore evidence of a tough life - spinal issues likely from strain, inflammation in the lungs and thigh, and signs of early malnutrition that he had recovered from.



However, the lion bite - unhealed and fatal - was what sealed his fate. After death, he was also decapitated, a ritual observed in several other burials of the same period, though the cultural reasoning behind this remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-in-combat-with-gladiators">Lions in combat with gladiators</h2>



Professor Tim Thompson from <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a> in Ireland highlighted the significance of the discovery. “For years, our understanding of Roman gladiatorial combat and animal spectacles has relied heavily on historical texts and artistic depictions," he said.



"This discovery provides the first direct, physical evidence that such events took place in this period, reshaping our perception of Roman entertainment culture in the region,” he continued.



Analysis of the remains suggests the man may have been a Bestiarius, a type of gladiator tasked with fighting wild animals. These roles were often filled by volunteers or enslaved individuals. 



What’s particularly notable is that the combat involving this individual likely did not take place in Rome but in Roman York - a major provincial city. Although the city’s amphitheater has yet to be discovered, this evidence strongly suggests one existed.



“We often have a mental image of these combats occurring at the grand surroundings of the Colosseum in Rome, but these latest findings show that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/youth-sports-are-more-accessible-to-privileged-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sporting events</a> had a far reach, well beyond the center of core Roman territories,” Holst said. “An amphitheatre probably existed in Roman York, but this has not yet been discovered.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiators-combat-and-the-roman-empire">Gladiators, combat, and the Roman Empire</h2>



York’s importance as a political and military hub during the Roman period - home to influential figures including Emperor Constantine - meant it would have had the cultural infrastructure to support such spectacles. 



Gladiatorial games were not merely brutal displays; they were high-stakes entertainment, tied into the social and political fabric of Roman cities. Interestingly, despite their expendability, gladiators were valuable assets. 



Owners would invest in their success, and when they did die, some were given burial gifts to serve them in the afterlife, as seen at Driffield Terrace. 



Owners of gladiators would most likely not have wanted them to die, since they were expensive ‘sports people,’ similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/college-athletes-have-lasting-brain-changes-after-concussion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">footballers</a> today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-roman-history-in-the-north"><a></a>Rewriting Roman history in the north</h2>



According to David Jennings, CEO of <a href="https://yorkarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Archaeology</a>, this finding is crucial in expanding the story of the Roman world beyond its capital. 



“This latest research gives us a remarkable insight into the life - and death - of this particular individual, and adds to both previous and ongoing genome research into the origins of some of the men buried in this particular Roman cemetery,” he said.



“We may never know what brought this man to the arena where we believe he may have been fighting for the entertainment of others, but it is remarkable that the first osteo-archaeological evidence for this kind of gladiatorial combat has been found so far from the Colosseum of Rome, which would have been the classical world’s Wembley Stadium of combat,” Jennings added.



Visitors to <a href="http://www.digyork.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIG: An Archaeological Adventure in St Saviourgate</a> will soon have the chance to come face-to-face with history, as the lion-bitten skeleton will be displayed there alongside a reconstructed model of the gladiator’s face - bringing a forgotten chapter of Roman Yorkshire vividly back to life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319847" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First physical evidence found of gladiators fighting fierce animals in Roman arenas

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in...

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed with giants. Towering reptiles, thunderous birds, and hulking marsupials defined a wild and ancient world of sprawling rainforest ecosystems. Among these formidable creatures was&nbsp;Protemnodon, a now-extinct genus of giant kangaroo.



Despite its size - some individuals tipped the scales at 170 kilograms (375 pounds) - it wasn’t a long-range wanderer.



Instead, Protemnodon lived a curiously local life. New research reveals that these megafaunal marsupials stayed close to home, navigating only a small stretch of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> terrain. That fateful trait may have doomed them when the land began to dry. 



A study led by Christopher Laurikainen Gaete at the <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wollongong</a> uncovers how restricted mobility, climate change, and the loss of rainforest habitats converged to erase these kangaroos from the map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-kangaroos-stayed-close-to-rainforests">Giant kangaroos stayed close to rainforests</h2>



In the animal kingdom, large herbivores tend to move over vast areas to meet their dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-faces-its-biggest-legal-shift-in-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">needs</a>. Scientists use this trend to predict how extinct animals might have behaved. 



Based on this logic, Protemnodon, with its substantial mass, should have had a home range exceeding 11 square kilometers. The research team, using a regression model anchored in data from living macropods, estimated a predicted home range of 11.6 ± 5.8 km² (4.5 ± 2.2 square miles).



But when they examined fossilized teeth from eight individual Protemnodon collected from the limestone caves of Mt Etna in central Queensland, they found something surprising. The chemical signatures etched into these ancient teeth told a different story. 



Strontium isotopes, which reflect the geology of the area where an animal foraged, revealed the kangaroos fed within a narrow band of territory. Their enamel contained isotopic ratios matching only the local limestone of the Mount Alma Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-teeth-prove-they-lived-locally">Fossil teeth prove they lived locally</h2>



The findings relied on a cutting-edge approach. The researchers conducted strontium isotope analysis using laser ablation mass spectrometry. This technique allowed them to trace where each individual likely lived and ate during enamel formation.



Surprisingly, the vast majority of samples matched strontium levels from the immediate area <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surrounding</a> the Mt Etna caves.



Only one individual showed signs of a slightly wider movement pattern. This tooth, labeled WIGL8550, held isotope signatures more consistent with nearby formations like Alton Downs Basalt, suggesting a movement of about 1.5 km (0.9 miles) to the east or south.



However, the researchers can’t confirm whether this movement occurred in life or after death. One theory suggests scavengers, such as Thylacoleo carnifex or Sarcophilus, may have dragged the body to the cave after the animal died elsewhere.



In most other specimens, the teeth recorded a remarkably stable pattern. These kangaroos didn’t roam widely. They seemed to live and die within the same small patch of forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-gave-kangaroos-food-and-shelter">Rainforests gave kangaroos food and shelter</h2>



The study explored three main reasons why Protemnodon might have avoided long-distance travel. The first was environmental. 



For over 200,000 years, the Mt Etna region maintained a stable rainforest ecosystem. This lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> offered abundant food and shelter, meaning the kangaroos didn't need to search far for survival.



Second, the species’ feeding habits likely played a role. While modern kangaroos like Macropus are grazers, feeding on grasses across open landscapes, Protemnodon probably browsed. 



Its low-crowned teeth and long forelimbs suggest a diet of leaves, fruits, and soft vegetation, more easily found in dense forest environments. Browsers often have smaller foraging ranges compared to grazers of similar size, and this pattern seems to hold true here.



Third, locomotion appears to have been a limiting factor. Unlike their hopping cousins, Protemnodon may have moved on all fours. Its anatomy - including elongated forelimbs and robust humeri - points toward a quadrupedal gait.



This form of movement, although efficient in forests, restricts the speed and distance an animal can cover. Without the ability to hop long distances, these kangaroos were naturally more sedentary within rainforests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-disappear-so-do-the-giants">Rainforests disappear, so do the giants</h2>



These limited movement patterns became a fatal flaw when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> began to shift. Around 280,000 years ago, the once-stable rainforest began to decline. Increasing aridity transformed the landscape into dry woodlands. The thick vegetation Protemnodon relied upon began to vanish.



Because these kangaroos were so tightly tied to their habitat, they couldn’t adjust. They couldn’t migrate to find new rainforests. The kangaroos lacked both the physical capability and behavioral tendency to move long distances. In effect, they became stranded in an ecological trap. The resources they needed evaporated around them.



New dating methods, including thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) and uranium-thorium dating, confirmed that these individuals lived between 280,000 and 330,000 years ago. Their extinction coincided with the local collapse of rainforest ecosystems. 



Over time, the rainforest fauna of Mt Etna gave way to animals adapted to dry, open conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ideas-about-extinct-species">New ideas about extinct species</h2>



The implications of this research stretch beyond a single species, challenging the assumption that body size alone predicts home range in extinct animals.



Instead, the study suggests that environment, diet, and movement style must also be considered. The idea that Australia’s megafauna had flexible ranges similar to African elephants or North American bison may not apply across the board.



“Using data from modern kangaroos, we predicted these giant extinct kangaroos would have much larger home ranges. We were astounded to find that they didn’t move far at all, with ranges mirroring smaller modern kangaroo species,” said Laurikainen Gaete.



“These new isotopic techniques have blown our field wide open. Imagine ancient GPS trackers - we can use the fossils to track individuals and know where they moved, what they ate, who they lived with and how they died. It’s Palaeo Big Brother,” added Dr. Scott Hocknull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-giant-kangaroos">The fate of giant kangaroos</h2>



The Protemnodon case reveals how extinction can creep up slowly. The kangaroos didn’t die out in a dramatic, singular event - the loss of rainforests sealed their fate. 



Rather, they were slowly cornered by environmental changes they couldn’t outrun. Their highly specialized biology, once perfectly suited to rainforest life, became a burden.



These findings offer a cautionary tale. Species adapted to narrow niches are often the first to go when habitats shrink. For scientists studying extinction, understanding those ancient patterns helps anticipate what modern species might face as climate shifts intensify.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant kangaroos died out when rainforests disappeared

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed...

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors, but their habit of shining during daylight is still surprising to many. They refuse to hide and instead display bright spots, stripes, or swirling hues that some predators quickly learn to avoid.



Dr. Cedric van den Berg from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> and his team examined 45 species of <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/collage-nudibranch-colors" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nudibranch slugs</a> to see how color patterns might work as predator deterrents. 



The researchers looked at how certain slugs appear to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-slugs-use-sunlight-to-survive-just-like-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> with trichromatic vision, finding that being active under bright conditions helps highlight toxic or stinging defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-slugs-flash-bright-colors">Sea slugs flash bright colors</h2>



“Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slugs</a> use bright, contrasting color patterns to send messages to potential predators like ‘Don’t eat me, I’m poisonous,’” noted Dr. van den Berg.



Sea slugs often rely on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/aposematism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic signals</a>, which are bright or bold patterns that suggest they’re not worth a predator’s time.&nbsp;



Animals with chemical defenses, such as irritating toxins or stinging cells, appear to flaunt thick stripes or glowing spots. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma" class="wp-image-1966961"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Those colors can look intense to fish that rely on sight, so it’s a clear communication strategy in well-lit environments.



Nocturnal slugs, by comparison, usually stick to calmer patterns. Their prey time is after sunset, so they’re less likely to advertise threats that won’t be easily seen in the dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-avoid-slugs-that-shine-in-sunlight">Fish avoid slugs that shine in sunlight</h2>



The researchers used specialized imaging to simulate how these patterns register with a fish’s eyes. A quick flash of white or dark stripes against a colorful background can make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inspired-by-sea-slugs-microneedles-could-transform-health-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> think twice about an easy meal.



“We can even use the fingerprint to successfully classify the daytime activity of almost 90% of all the species we looked at,” said Dr. van den Berg. This suggests a strong link between how slugs look and when they move around each day.



Some slugs have more than just bright colors at their disposal. They also pack potent chemicals that might taste awful or damage a predator’s tissues on contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-strengthens-sea-slug-colors">Sunlight strengthens sea slug colors </h2>



Light is crucial for these color patterns to send the right message. Bold outlines or high-contrast spots fade in dim conditions, but under direct sun, the same hues scream for attention.



A fish that tries nibbling a slug with toxins might get a nasty mouthful. That experience can teach predators to avoid the next brightly spotted slug they see.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1s.webp" alt="Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis" class="wp-image-1966959"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists call these patterns and body outlines essential parts of the slug’s warning display. It’s like wearing a vibrant outfit that signals danger to those who might otherwise bite first and ask questions later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-chemicals-and-warning-colors">Toxic chemicals and warning colors</h2>



These creatures store or produce toxic compounds, depending on their diet and species-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. A few absorb nasty elements from what they eat, then load them into stinging cells on their backs.



Not all sea slugs rely on chemical deterrents, though. Some have mild or no toxins and instead hide or blend with the environment at night.



Other slugs team multiple strategies. One group even uses <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/showall/biolumin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent flashes</a>, but that tends to happen if they get harassed after dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-as-survival-strategies">Colors as survival strategies</h2>



Colorful warnings are common in reef environments filled with fish that spot <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/did-you-know/why-are-corals-so-colorful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright objects</a> from many angles. Sea slugs are only one example of creatures that play this card.



These slugs aren’t alone in teaching predators to step back. Some marine animals sport bright polka dots or bold stripes, but the principle is the same: let attackers know a nasty surprise awaits them.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae" class="wp-image-1966963"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Biologists are keen to see how these patterns might shift as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> conditions change. If waters get murkier or fish populations decline, it could alter what signals remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-colors-help-sea-slugs-survive">Bold colors help sea slugs survive</h2>



Future research may reveal more about how brightness levels in shallow waters affect slug survival. Since some species rely on colorful hints to broadcast their poison, changes in light could tilt the scales in favor of camouflage instead.



Learning more about daytime patterns might also explain how certain toxins develop. If a slug’s flashy outfit reliably stops attacks, chemical defenses might grow stronger over time.



It’s a balancing act. Slugs can’t be so bold that hungry predators want to test them, yet they have to be bold enough for the signal to stand out in daylight.



Studying sea slugs provides a glimpse of how clever visual signals shape daily routines. Their reliance on sunshine to amplify threats is a neat twist on survival.



Most species in this research project seem to embrace the idea of risking daylight for the payoff of a loud warning. The few that prefer darkness skip the bright stripes and trust stealth to keep them off the menu.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea slugs are very tiny, but they might also be the most beautiful creatures in the seas

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors,...

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests they might be less tolerant when rewards are split unequally. Researchers set out to see if these apes would walk away from deals that favored a partner and shortchanged them.



This insight emerges from the work of first author Kia Radovanović from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. A team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology collaborated on these trials to gauge bonobos’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> to unequal treats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-recognize-unfair-rewards-and-protest">Bonobos recognize unfair rewards and protest</h2>



Some experts use the phrase <a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/inequity-aversion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity aversion</a> for patterns in animals that refuse to cooperate when they get a raw deal. Human <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/114/3/817/1848113?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have noted how people often protest if someone else is given better benefits for the same effort.



Bonobos share close ties with people on the <a href="https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>. Their social lives revolve around interactions where resources and tasks are commonly exchanged. 



When tested in a token-exchange setting, they faced a scenario where one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">participant</a> got a higher-value treat, while the other settled for a lesser option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turn-down-free-snacks">Why turn down free snacks?</h2>



“We found that bonobos more often refused to participate when faced with inequitable rewards,” said Radovanović. This outcome goes against the idea that they simply expect the same tasty morsel and quit if disappointed.



There were instances where an automated contraption handed out the treats. Bonobos avoided interacting if the gadget gave them a lower reward, yet spared a friend something tastier. 



This trend did not appear to stem from dissatisfaction with the human caretaker but instead from the unequal handouts themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-unfairness-can-bonobos-tolerate">How much unfairness can bonobos tolerate?</h2>



Cooperative behavior in this species is often viewed as a key characteristic. Some pairs seemed more tolerant of small imbalances, especially if they had strong social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonds</a>.



The closer pairs of bonobos sometimes accepted the mismatch without walking away. These differences in how each ape responds hint that personal relationships might play a role in how big a difference in goodies they are willing to allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-chimps-and-unfair-rewards">Bonobos, chimps, and unfair rewards</h2>



Unlike bonobos, chimpanzees in similar tests often show refusal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> that seem tied more to the person handing out the food than to fairness itself. 



When chimpanzees received lesser rewards, they reacted more strongly if the distributor was a human instead of a machine. That suggests they may be expressing frustration with the person, not necessarily protesting the unfairness of the trade.



Bonobos didn’t follow that same pattern. Their refusals were strongest when a machine was involved and their partner still got something better. 



This detail sets them apart and raises the possibility that bonobos might have developed a clearer internal barometer for fairness, while chimpanzees may lean more toward social expectations or experimenter-based cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-tests-to-explore-fairness-in-apes">More tests to explore fairness in apes</h2>



Fair-minded behavior might develop from social structures that value harmony.



"This study provides new insights into how fairness may have evolved, but further research is needed,” said Daniel Haun, Director at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



Researchers continue to plan follow-up tasks that offer group-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> and broader test groups. They hope to see whether living conditions or group composition shape each individual’s perception of what is or is not an acceptable share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-value-rewards-and-fairness">Bonobos value rewards and fairness</h2>



People once believed that only humans show strong objections when rewards are lopsided. Bonobo evidence suggests some apes may notice these imbalances too. 



This pattern could reinforce cooperation over time, because no one wants to keep playing with a partner who always gets the bigger prize.



These observations add a new perspective on how a sense of fair play might have taken shape in diverse primate lineages. Focusing on bonobos’ responses could clarify the complexities of social ties and resource division in living groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bonobos-fix-unfairness-themselves">Can bonobos fix unfairness themselves?</h2>



Researchers propose testing different tasks where bonobos can actively equalize outcomes. Deeper analysis may also reveal if other apes respond similarly in varied settings. 



Questions remain about how environment and familiarity influence the readiness to leave an unfair arrangement.



If bonobos keep showing that they can detect and reject unequal rewards, the idea of fairness in non-human species grows stronger. That could shift how we talk about morality and ethical conduct in the broader animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobos say no to unfair trades, even if it costs rewards

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests...

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of thumb: species that live over huge swaths of territory and boast large populations are usually safer from extinction than creatures confined to small patches of habitat. 



However, a new global analysis of roughly 1,500 bird species has revealed that there's no comfortable rule when it comes to climate change.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, shows that a wide geographic footprint can hide an unexpectedly narrow dependence on climate. In a warming world, that hidden fragility could make certain familiar birds surprisingly vulnerable.



“Because that region is so big, species that occupy it tend to have large populations and large geographic range sizes - two characteristics that are often associated with lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> risks,” explained Carlos Botero, an associate professor of integrative biology and senior author of the study.



“The problem here is that because many of those species are adapted to a very narrow range of climates, those seemingly large populations can be quite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">susceptible</a> to collapse when climate patterns begin to change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-paradox-from-the-arctic"><a></a>A paradox from the Arctic</h2>



One of the clearest examples comes from the Arctic, where a single broad climatic regime stretches across thousands of miles. The Bohemian waxwing is emblematic: its breeding distribution spans an immense arc from Scandinavia to Alaska.



Yet the Arctic’s uniform environment means that the waxwing’s entire life cycle is tied to cold temperatures and consistent snow cover. Even minor warming or shifts in precipitation could push the species outside its comfort zone - no matter how far it can fly within that chilly belt.



In their analysis, Botero’s team contrasted the waxwing with the chestnut-crowned laughingthrush. The laughingthrush is restricted to a sliver of montane forest in Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring parts of Asia - an area a fraction of the waxwing’s extent.



But the Himalayan foothills expose that small-ranged bird to a wider palette of temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> patterns throughout the year. The laughingthrush therefore occupies a broader “climate niche,” potentially giving it more room to maneuver as conditions shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-brains-and-climate-specialization">Bird brains and climate specialization</h2>



The surprises did not stop with range maps. Analyses also revealed an unexpected relationship between brain size and climate flexibility. 



Larger-brained birds, long celebrated for their resourcefulness, tended to be the very species most tightly wedded to specific climate regimes. “Larger brain sizes correlate with more flexible behavior, so `big-brained birds are usually expected to be more adaptable,” Botero said. 



“However, it turns out that many big-brained birds are climate specialists - meaning that they have evolved to thrive in very particular climate types and may therefore also be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-are-more-at-risk-from-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to climate change than we expected.”



Why would an animal capable of problem-solving and tool use paint itself into a narrow climatic corner? Botero and coauthor João Fabrício Mota Rodrigues (now at <a href="https://unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brazil’s University of Campinas</a>) suspect that cognitive prowess helps species exploit highly specific environments with great efficiency. 



Over evolutionary time, that specialization can lead to tight physiological tolerances - exactly the trait that becomes risky when the planet’s thermostat creeps upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-two-dimensional-climate-map"><a></a>Building a two-dimensional climate map</h2>



To quantify each species’ niche, the team merged two huge datasets. First came detailed range maps created from hundreds of thousands of sightings submitted by volunteer birders to the <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a> platform. 



Second, the researchers developed a simplified, yet powerful, climate classification that captures two axes of environmental hardship. The first axis - “temperature harshness” - rises as places become colder, more variable, and less predictable. 



The second - “xeric harshness” - ratchets upward with drier, more erratic rainfall. Plotting Earth’s land areas across those twin axes produced a two-dimensional climate space. 



Points near the center represent benign zones: warm, moist, and seasonally steady. Farther out lie the extremes: parched deserts, storm-prone tropics, or frigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-changing-tundra-landscapes-affect-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra</a>. 



By overlaying each bird’s distribution onto that grid, the researchers measured how much of the climate space the species actually uses. A small ellipse located at one edge of the diagram signals trouble. 



Birds confined to that limited set of conditions may find it hard to track shifting isotherms or precipitation belts. Conversely, a large swath cutting across multiple quadrants suggests climatic breadth and, potentially, resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-interactions-hidden-risks"><a></a>Hidden interactions, hidden risks</h2>



The latest study adds to a growing chorus urging conservation planners to reconsider single-factor threat lists. 



“We need to stop looking at individual risk factors in isolation, but evaluate how these complex factors combine,” Botero emphasized. “Sometimes, it is the unexpected interactions that matter most.”



Indeed, a species can check all the traditional “safe” boxes - huge range, big population, high intelligence - yet still sit on a climatic knife-edge. Arctic breeders are just one illustration. 



Tropical forest birds with large brains and tight humidity requirements could face similar hazards if droughts intensify. Even desert specialists might falter if rainfall becomes too unpredictable for reliable breeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-and-big-picture-insights">Citizen science and big-picture insights</h2>



According to Rodrigues, the analysis was made possible by citizen scientists. Data derived from eBird gave the experts an unprecedented global snapshot.



Without hundreds of thousands of observers recording where they saw even the most common species, they couldn’t have mapped climate niches with this precision. Such an approach is quickly becoming a backbone of ecological forecasting. 



By harnessing real-time, geo-tagged records from amateurs, researchers can update models as species ranges expand, contract, or fragment - often faster than traditional field surveys could manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-species-conservation">Smarter species conservation</h2>



Recognizing climate specialization where none was suspected may reshape conservation priorities. Agencies often triage limited funds toward charismatic, range-restricted species. 



But Botero’s work suggests that some cosmopolitan birds deserve equal attention, precisely because their “bigness” masks a slender climatic lifeline. Future investigations will probe whether similar patterns hold for mammals, reptiles, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>. 



For now, the message is clear: size - of range, of population, of brain - does not guarantee safety. In a rapidly changing climate, ecological nuance matters. 



Understanding that nuance could spell the difference between proactive protection and costly rescue missions when numbers suddenly plummet. As policymakers craft strategies for the coming decades, studies like this remind us that vulnerability isn’t always where we expect it. 



Sometimes it hides beneath vast northern skies, in flocks that seem abundant - until the weather shifts just a little too far, and the invisible boundaries of their climate niches close in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58815-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Big brains and wide ranges can't save birds from climate change

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the Lesser Goldfinch, go where conditions allow them to thrive. These tiny songbirds, once mostly limited to the Southwest, are now appearing in increasing numbers far north of their traditional range. What’s more surprising is the speed and consistency of this shift.



New research published in the journal Ornithology offers fresh insight into this striking expansion. It’s a story that touches climate, urbanization, and our relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. It’s also a reminder that sometimes, change isn’t just visible - it’s audible in birdsong that wasn’t there before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinch-surge-across-the-northwest">Goldfinch surge across the Northwest</h2>



The study comes from a collaboration between Washington State University (<a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=Washington+State+University&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. 



The researchers relied on observations submitted by everyday birdwatchers through two Cornell initiatives: Project <a href="https://feederwatch.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FeederWatch</a> and <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a>. These programs collect real-time data, creating a massive network of people watching and logging birds.



The analysis revealed that Lesser Goldfinch populations have grown dramatically between 2012 and 2022.



In Washington, the number rose by 110.5%. Idaho saw a 66.3% increase, while Oregon had a more modest but still notable 16.9%. These numbers suggest more than a seasonal visit. They point to full-scale colonization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-experience-sparks-a-major-discovery">Personal experience sparks a major discovery</h2>



For Mason Maron, the lead author of the study, the change wasn’t just academic - it was personal.



"When I first arrived in eastern Washington I was pretty new to birding and Lesser Goldfinches were new to me. I was seeing groups of 30 or 40 at a time and I sort of assumed that was normal, until I started meeting local birders who said, '10 years ago we never had Lesser Goldfinches,’ so I started to investigate what was going on,” said Maron.



That moment of curiosity eventually led to this landmark study. It highlights how individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> can turn into powerful scientific discoveries, especially when supported by large-scale data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-are-moving-with-intention">Goldfinches are moving with intention </h2>



Lesser Goldfinches are not just randomly moving. The researchers discovered clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>.



"What's fascinating is how these birds are adapting to human-modified landscapes," said Maron. 



"They're not just moving north randomly - they're following specific corridors, particularly along rivers and through urban areas where temperatures are warmer and where both native and non-native plants provide food."



These zones offer warmer microclimates and a diverse range of food sources, making them ideal for expansion. The urban heat island effect plays a role too, buffering the birds from harsher northern winters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-linked-to-goldfinch-expansion">Factors linked to goldfinch expansion </h2>



The study pinpointed four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental factors</a> most closely linked with the birds’ expansion. Maximum annual temperature and rainfall topped the list. Urban development and proximity to rivers also played strong roles.



Although these birds often appear at backyard feeders, Maron and his team were surprised by one finding: bird feeders don’t make a meaningful difference in helping establish new populations.



"There wasn't really a significant association with bird feeders," Maron said. The first individuals to arrive in a new area might go to feeders because they provide easy to access food, but Maron explained that “it's not going to be enough to sustain a whole population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-act-as-goldfinch-highways-nbsp">Rivers act as goldfinch highways&nbsp;</h2>



Rivers stood out as essential channels. They don’t just provide water. They also bring life in the form of seeds, insects, and disturbed soil - perfect conditions for opportunistic birds like the Lesser Goldfinch.



"These rivers carry weedy plants and seeds really well," said Maron. "We, as people, like to live along the river, so we disturb the soil and that really creates this sort of chain of the perfect conditions for them."



This overlap between human settlement and bird habitat is not just a coincidence. It shows how species can align their movements with our built environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-in-new-regions">Stability in new regions</h2>



It’s one thing for a species to explore new territory. It’s another to settle in and grow. The researchers found that once goldfinches arrive, they tend to stay - and even thrive.



"Our results are suggestive of this species being able to pretty rapidly colonize new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>," said Jordan Boersma, co-author and research associate at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 



"It's not just that Lesser Goldfinches are exploring these new areas…they are moving in and typically turning into stable populations or even increasing populations."



This kind of success story is rare. Many species that encounter environmental change don’t survive, much less expand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southward-decline-mirrors-northward-growth">Southward decline mirrors Northward growth</h2>



Even as they thrive in the north, Lesser Goldfinches appear to be declining in the south. The Cornell Lab’s eBird Status and Trends project notes losses in the species’ traditional southwestern strongholds.



This suggests that the northward shift may not be a pure gain. Instead, it reflects an underlying pressure - possibly driven by heat, drought, or changing vegetation - that is making the southern part of their range less hospitable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nuanced-view-of-adaptation">A nuanced view of adaptation</h2>



While this study shows how adaptable the Lesser Goldfinch can be, the researchers urge caution in drawing wide conclusions. Most species are not so fortunate.



"What it really shows is that we know a lot of species are declining and struggling because of these changes. Some species can survive and adapt and do better, but it's not necessarily a trade-off," said Maron.



Adaptability varies. For every bird that expands, others may retreat or vanish. It’s a reminder that environmental change rarely distributes benefits equally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-moving-in-response-to-change">Goldfinches moving in response to change</h2>



Boersma sees deeper meaning in the goldfinch’s journey. "This species has proven remarkably adaptable to environmental change," he said. 



"Understanding how birds like the Lesser Goldfinch respond to climate change and urbanization helps us predict how other species might also be impacted."



Birds are sensitive indicators of ecological shifts. Watching them closely reveals how ecosystems are changing - sometimes before we notice anything else.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-public-participation">Power of public participation</h2>



None of this research would exist without everyday people recording what they see in their yards, parks, and neighborhoods. Through Project FeederWatch and eBird, citizens contribute millions of observations that build into something far greater than the sum of its parts.



"When we understand how wildlife responds to environmental change, we're better equipped to make informed decisions about urban planning, conservation, and climate adaptation," said Maron.



The goldfinches remind us that even small birds can carry big messages - if we’re paying attention.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ornithology/ukaf013/8116731?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Goldfinches are moving to new homes in unusual places

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the...

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely notice something missing - fewer buzzing bees, fluttering butterflies, or humming beetles. Across the globe, insect numbers are crashing.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small creatures</a> may not grab headlines like tigers or elephants, but they play vital roles in pollination, decomposition, and supporting ecosystems. Without them, life on Earth would unravel in quiet but devastating ways.



The concern isn’t new, but recent efforts to grasp the scale and causes of insect decline are painting a clearer, more complex picture. 



A research team at Binghamton University, State University of New York (<a href="https://www.suny.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY</a>), has taken a sweeping look at how scientists explain this crisis. Their work doesn’t just identify the usual suspects - it shows a deeply interconnected web of causes, some obvious, many ignored, and all urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-are-disappearing-fast">Insect are disappearing fast</h2>



In 2017, a shocking <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> revealed a 75% drop in insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in under 30 years. That single paper stirred a global scientific response, triggering waves of new research.



Scientists began investigating the reasons behind this collapse, with studies emerging across fields from agriculture to climate science.



Despite this burst of attention, understanding the full picture has remained elusive. Many studies focus on specific regions, stressors, or insect groups. 



This fragmented view has made it difficult to see how the various factors combine or overlap. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linked-causes-of-insect-population-loss">Linked causes of insect population loss</h2>



To capture the breadth of expert opinion, the <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton</a> researchers examined over 175 scientific review papers. These reviews included more than 500 hypotheses about why insects are disappearing. The team read and analyzed them all, building a network of over 3,000 linked ideas.



“It's really hard to talk to everybody about what everyone thinks. And so instead of getting 600 people into a room, we decided to take an approach where we read every paper that's either a review or a meta-analysis,” said Christopher Halsch, a post-doctoral researcher at Binghamton and lead author of the paper.



This network approach allowed them to trace how one cause leads to another. For instance, agriculture may lead to pesticide use, which harms insects. Urban sprawl might increase pollution and fragment habitats. 



Every driver connects to others, forming a dense mesh of stressors that influence insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agriculture-the-dominant-driver">Agriculture: The dominant driver</h2>



When the team looked at which drivers showed up most often, agricultural intensification topped the list. This includes land-use changes, monocultures, and pesticide applications. These practices reduce natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-uniquely-adapted-to-withstand-harsh-winter-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and expose insects to toxic chemicals.



But Halsch and his colleagues caution against seeing this as a simple ranking. Agricultural practices often interact with other forces, amplifying the damage. 



For example, land cleared for farming may also face climate pressures or pollution. One driver rarely acts alone.



The network map shows that stressors don’t exist in isolation. They create a feedback loop, where one issue triggers another. This interdependence complicates conservation, which often focuses on single threats or single species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-pressures-and-disappearing-insects">Climate pressures and disappearing insects</h2>



Among the other stressors, climate-related changes play a major role. Extreme precipitation, wildfires, rising temperatures, and seasonal shifts all affect insect life cycles, behavior, and habitats. But even within this broad category, complexity reigns.



Each climatic factor may worsen another threat. For example, hotter summers can increase pesticide use, while floods can destroy fragile habitats. These interactions mean that insects face stress from multiple fronts at once.



Despite the importance of these factors, many are still overlooked. The Binghamton study highlights that much of the scientific literature misses critical threats that aren’t easy to quantify or observe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-literature-misses-entirely">What the literature misses entirely</h2>



Perhaps the most startling finding was what the researchers didn’t find. Entire categories of known threats were nearly absent from the literature. Natural disasters, war zones, railways, and human intrusions - none appeared in any of the reviews examined.



“None of the papers mentioned natural disasters,” said Professor Eliza Grames, who was part of a recent <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/news/story/5386/20-of-butterflies-in-the-u.s-have-disappeared-since-2000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showing a 20% loss of butterflies in the United States.



“No papers looked at human intrusions and disturbance, or the effects of war on insects, or railroads.”



These threats are well known in biodiversity discussions. Yet, when it comes to insects, they vanish from view. This raises concerns about research blind spots and missed opportunities to address emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studies-mostly-focus-on-bees-and-butterflies">Studies mostly focus on bees and butterflies</h2>



Another problem is the overwhelming focus on bees and butterflies. These species are loved and easily recognized. They’re also valuable to agriculture, which means they attract research dollars and public support.



“Because people have focused so much on pollinators like bees and butterflies, we are limited in identifying conservation actions that benefit other insects,” said Grames.



This focus creates a loop. “Bees are agriculturally important and people care about them. So there is a lot of research priority towards funding research on bees. So you get this kind of feedback: if you prioritize research on bees, you learn more about bees," said Halsch.



Meanwhile, countless other insects remain poorly understood and unprotected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-broader-conservation-vision">Towards a broader conservation vision</h2>



Focusing on well-known species risks missing the bigger picture. The vast majority of insects aren’t pollinators. Many play roles in soil health, pest control, and nutrient cycling. Ignoring them puts entire ecosystems at risk.



“One of the important points we're trying to make in the paper is that conservation actions overly biased towards certain insects or certain stressors will likely be negative for many other insects,” said Halsch. 



“If we focus too much on bees and butterflies and their conservation, we will miss a lot of other species, most of them in fact.”



The way forward, the researchers argue, is to adopt broader, more inclusive strategies. This means managing not just individual drivers, but their connections. It requires recognizing unseen threats and correcting biases in funding and focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crisis-of-disappearing-insects">The crisis of disappearing insects</h2>



Insects don’t inspire awe like whales or wolves. But their absence would mark the collapse of ecological foundations. This new research urges us to look beyond the familiar, to notice what the data - and our eyes - often miss.



By weaving together 3,000 hypotheses into a single map, the Binghamton team has made one thing clear: insect decline is a many-headed crisis. 



Addressing this issue of disappearing insects will take more than targeted fixes. It will take a shift in how we view the smallest lives on Earth - and how much we’re willing to do to protect them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf034/8115312?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Insects are still disappearing - and there are hundreds of reasons why

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely...

Chimpanzees,Couple,Sharing,Fruit

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a new discovery may be rewriting what we know about the social lives of our primate cousins. A team of researchers, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, has documented a rare behavior: wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> eating and sharing fermented fruit that contains alcohol.



The finding, captured using motion-activated cameras, offers intriguing evidence that chimpanzees may not only consume ethanol naturally found in fruits but do so in a way that strengthens their social bonds. This echoes human traditions of sharing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> during communal feasts.



“For humans, we know that drinking alcohol leads to a release of dopamine and endorphins, and resulting feelings of happiness and relaxation,” said lead author Anna Bowland, from the Center for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We also know that sharing alcohol - including through traditions such as feasting - helps to form and strengthen social bonds. So - now we know that wild chimpanzees are eating and sharing ethanolic fruits - the question is: could they be getting similar benefits?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-behavior-caught-in-the-act">Chimpanzee behavior: Caught in the act</h2>



The footage showed chimpanzees engaging with large, fibrous African breadfruit that had begun to ferment, naturally developing ethanol levels. Across ten recorded instances, chimps of various ages and sexes were seen actively sharing the fruit, sometimes ignoring larger, unfermented pieces in favor of smaller, fermented ones.



Two adult females, Chip and Até, opted for a ripe, alcoholic piece over a more substantial one. In another case, adult males Mandjambé and Gary approached a breadfruit with aggressive posturing, before Mandjambé laid claim to a piece. Though the initial interactions were tense, others nearby, including Bobby, also joined in and sampled the fruit.



The alcohol content of the fruit, measured at up to 0.61% alcohol by volume (ABV), is relatively low - roughly comparable to a light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-were-drinking-beer-in-china-over-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beer</a>. But as chimpanzees consume large amounts of fruit daily, the cumulative intake could be significant.



“They can feed on kilograms of the stuff every day. It’s probably analogous to us sipping on a light beer,” said senior author Kimberley Hockings, a lecturer at the University of Exeter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-sharing-alcoholic-fruit">Chimpanzees sharing alcoholic fruit</h2>



This isn’t the first time scientists have observed chimpanzees consuming alcohol. In 2015, Hockings and her colleagues published research showing that chimps in West Africa had learned to steal palm sap from human containers - sap that had undergone natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>. 



Some chimps even appeared tipsy afterward, delaying nest-building and displaying mischievous behavior. However, in the latest observations, there’s no evidence that the chimps reached a level of inebriation. 



The researchers note that becoming visibly drunk would likely impair a wild chimpanzee’s ability to survive, making such behavior evolutionarily disadvantageous. Still, the attraction to fermented fruits raises fascinating questions about cognition, behavior, and the potential benefits of mild alcohol consumption.



“Chimps don’t share food all the time, so this behavior with fermented fruit might be important,” said Hockings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-feasting-traditions">Fruit feasting traditions</h2>



The study explores the idea that our own traditions of communal eating and drinking may have ancient evolutionary roots. The researchers propose that the behavior seen in chimpanzees today could represent an early form of “feasting.”



“We need to find out more about whether they deliberately seek out ethanolic fruits and how they metabolise it, but this behavior could be the early evolutionary stages of feasting,” Hockings said. “If so, it suggests the human tradition of feasting may have its origins deep in our evolutionary history.”



The notion that humans aren’t alone in their penchant for alcohol isn’t entirely new. Biologists have speculated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> may have been drawn to fermented fruits both for their energy content and their intoxicating effects.



Recent genetic evidence supports this, revealing a molecular adaptation in the common ancestor of African apes that improved ethanol metabolism. Such adaptations may have allowed ancient species, including humans and chimpanzees, to safely consume small amounts of alcohol as part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-seek-out-alcoholic-fruit">Do chimpanzees seek out alcoholic fruit?</h2>



Though the dataset is small - just 10 filmed instances - the findings open the door to a new area of primate research. 



Future studies may explore whether chimpanzees intentionally seek out fermented fruits, how their digestive systems process ethanol, and whether such behavior is widespread or localized to specific populations.



Hockings believes that more discoveries may be just around the corner. The number of observations was small but they could lead to an explosion of research into the topic, she argued.



At the very least, the study offers a glimpse into the social dynamics of chimpanzees and the complex behaviors they exhibit - ones that may not be so different from our own. 



Thus, perhaps chimpanzees feasting on alcoholic fruit provide a mirror to the earliest roots of human sociability - bonding over a shared snack and, possibly, a mild buzz.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00281-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chimpanzees share alcoholic fruit to increase social bonding

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a...

In the forests of Madagascar, few animals command attention quite like lemurs - especially when it comes to questions of social hierarchy. 



In many lemur species, it is the females that rule the roost. They dominate food, take prime spots, and often chase, bite, or hit males who get in their way. 



Yet new evidence shows that this aggressive matriarchy is not universal among lemurs, and the key difference may lie in how their brains deploy a single hormone: oxytocin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-equality-and-oxytocin-receptors">Gender equality and oxytocin receptors </h2>



A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> takes a close look at seven species in the genus Eulemur. Some of these species, such as the blue‑eyed black lemur, operate under rigid female dominance, while others, like the collared lemur, live in more egalitarian groups.



By mapping oxytocin‑binding sites in the animals’ brains, the researchers discovered an intriguing pattern: lemur societies that are more equitable between the sexes possess a denser network of oxytocin receptors. This is especially true in a brain region that governs fear, anxiety, and aggression.



“It’s more of an even playing field,” said first author Allie Schrock, who completed her PhD in evolutionary anthropology at Duke. Her remark contrasts with blue-eyed black lemurs, where dominant females control males through intimidation and strength.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemur-queens-rule-the-canopy">Lemur queens rule the canopy</h2>



Dominant females in species like the blue‑eyed black lemur do not confine their aggression to maternal defense or resource scarcity. They wield authority even when circumstances are calm, reinforcing status through spontaneous acts of aggression. 



According to senior author Christine Drea, a professor of evolutionary anthropology at Duke, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamines-role-in-male-aggression-fades-with-fighting-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> in these females is often entirely unprovoked, simply to remind others who’s in charge.



“Males let females have priority access to whatever they want,” Drea said. This arrangement places males perpetually on the defensive, ceding first rights to fruiting trees, coveted shade, or safe resting platforms. 



Though unusual to humans, these social structures are common in lemurs - except for notable deviations in the Eulemur genus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-rewires-lemur-behavior">Oxytocin rewires lemur behavior</h2>



To understand how some Eulemur species shed female domination for gender parity, the team turned to preserved brain tissue housed at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center</a>. These samples came from naturally deceased, flash-frozen lemurs - a vital resource given Madagascar’s endangered primates.



Using autoradiography, a high‑resolution imaging method, the researchers traced where oxytocin molecules could bind throughout the brain. Oxytocin, popularly dubbed the “love hormone,” is well known for its role in mammalian bonding, trust, and social recognition.



The surprising discovery was that egalitarian lemurs had significantly more oxytocin receptors than their female‑dominated cousins. The density spike was most pronounced in the amygdala, a neural hub for emotion regulation.



This pattern suggests that animals with more oxytocin “targets” in emotional centers may experience a dampening of aggression across both sexes, creating conditions favorable to equal status. Rather than males meeting female hostility blow‑for‑blow, the entire group becomes somewhat less confrontational.



For Drea, the data indicate that egalitarian species achieved gender parity by becoming less aggressive towards others overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-neuroscience">Implications for human neuroscience</h2>



The study slots neatly into a broader conversation about oxytocin’s influence on lemur social behavior.



In humans, variations in oxytocin signaling have been tied to spectrum disorders such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>, as well as to patterns of aggression and anxiety. The Duke study shows tiny chemical shifts in receptors can drive major social changes over evolutionary time.



Scientists have already documented an “oxytocin paradox” in which the hormone can foster in‑group bonding but also fuel suspicion or aggression toward outsiders. 



The lemur findings offer a new perspective. When oxytocin receptors increase in brain areas that reduce fear or promote calm, the hormone’s bonding effects may spread more widely. This could help ease social hierarchies rather than intensify them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-million-year-experiment">A million‑year experiment</h2>



Genetic evidence indicates that egalitarian Eulemur species diverged from their more dictatorial relatives within the past million years. That is lightning‑fast in evolutionary terms - and hints moderate adjustments in oxytocin pathways may be sufficient to trigger a social overhaul. 



“We have a natural experiment right here,” Schrock said. He added that closely related species provide a powerful test case for linking neurobiology and behavior.



Researchers will study how oxytocin receptors relate to group size, social habits, and the length of pair bonds. “There's a lot more that we can learn from lemurs about how the brain regulates behavior,” Schrock emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-lemur-society">The story of lemur society</h2>



Though lemurs occupy only a sliver of the world’s biodiversity, their social quirks resonate widely. 



Understanding how neurochemical circuitry shapes aggression and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperation</a> could inform conservation strategies. It can also improve welfare in captive primates, and even shed light on human behavioral disorders. 



For endangered species, understanding social harmony can aid reintroduction efforts by reducing conflict and improving survival.



In the end, lemurs remind us that social structures - whether matriarchal dominance or egalitarian negotiation - do not exist in a vacuum. They are built on biochemical foundations that evolution can remodel. 



As scientists continue to uncover those hidden mechanisms, the story of lemur society becomes a window into the delicate interplay between brain chemistry, behavior, and the bonds that hold communities together.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0647">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hormones influence power and peace in lemur society

In the forests of Madagascar, few animals command attention quite...

In a quiet corner of the Ecuadorian Andes, a chorus of frogs has sparked a global conversation about environmental justice. These aren’t just any amphibians from Ecuador - they’re symbols of resistance, biodiversity, and legal innovation.



In a recent paper, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/instituteforagroecology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont’s Institute for Agroecology</a> and international collaborators explore how Ecuador’s pioneering constitutional recognition of the Rights of Nature is changing the way we think about law, justice, and the planet.



The study presents Ecuador as a test case for reimagining governance systems in favor of both people and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-amphibians-massive-impact">Tiny amphibians, massive impact</h2>



At the heart of this story is the Resistance Rocket Frog - Rana Cohete Resistencia - named by residents of Intag Valley to embody the united effort to protect their land. Though small and seemingly inconspicuous, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> amphibians from Ecuador became co-plaintiffs in a landmark lawsuit that halted large-scale mining in their habitat.



Supported by community members, biologists, lawyers, and activists, the frogs helped establish one of the most influential legal precedents in Earth system law.



“Translating the Constitutional Rights of Nature into concrete conservation measures is a powerful tool to prevent species extinction in areas threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a>,” said Andrea Terán, an Ecuadorian biologist and co-author of the study.



“Large-scale mining concessions are concentrated in the Andes and their foothills, overlapping with regions of high amphibian endemism and richness. Therefore, having a mechanism to halt this extractive economic model opens the door to exploring alternative relationships with nature and sustainable economic models that support life in the long term.”



Ecuador’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is staggering: the country ranks ninth among the world’s most biologically rich nations, home to as many as 20,000 plant species, nearly 700 amphibians, and over 450 types of mammals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frogs</a>, in particular, are considered critical ecological indicators due to their acute sensitivity to pollutants, making them a powerful symbol of environmental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognition-of-nature-s-rights">Recognition of nature's rights</h2>



In 2008, Ecuador became the first country in the world to constitutionally recognize the Rights of Nature, granting ecosystems the legal right to “exist, persist, maintain and regenerate.” Unlike traditional environmental laws, which regulate harm through permits and limits, Rights of Nature laws treat ecosystems as legal subjects, not objects. 



This shift allows non-human life to be represented in court as plaintiffs. In the Llurimagua mining case, legal teams successfully argued on behalf of the forest ecosystem and the species within it, using Ecuador’s constitutional protections.



“In the case of Llurimagua, as explained in the article, the practical applicability of the rights of Nature is demonstrated, showing that these are not merely symbolic declarations but rights with real-world legal effects,” said Mario Moncayo, one of the attorneys on the case.



“The recognition of the rights of nature has allowed individuals and communities to exercise them directly, establishing relevant precedents in the protection of nature.” The legal precedent set by these victories has inspired environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-health-and-environmental-justice-the-push-for-electric-trucks-in-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">justice</a> advocates around the world.



According to Carlos Varela Arias, a constitutional law professor and co-author of the paper, this framework will enable the design of new strategies and global governance mechanisms to adapt human systems to those of nature, allowing for our survival and peaceful coexistence with the natural environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-standard-for-nature-s-rights">A global standard for nature's rights?</h2>



The Ecuadorian model is already echoing beyond its borders. Bolivia’s Mother Earth Law, New Zealand’s legal personhood for the Whanganui River and Te Urewera, and Canada’s recognition of First Nations’ land rights all draw on similar legal reasoning.



Cases in Mexico, India, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, and the United States reflect the growing influence of this movement. To institutionalize these advances, the paper outlines three fundamental dimensions of effective Rights of Nature legislation:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Intrinsic worth: recognizing nature’s value independent of human utility.</li>



<li>Guiding principle: using Nature’s rights to steer legal and political decisions.</li>



<li>Enforceability: holding states and citizens legally accountable for harm.</li>
</ol>



The authors also identify the Escazú Agreement - a legally binding treaty signed by 23 Latin American countries including Ecuador. The treaty acts as a promising regional tool to reinforce these rights and protect environmental defenders. 



Despite its ratification in 2021, threats to activists remain dire. According to <a href="https://globalwitness.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Witness</a>, over 2,100 nature defenders have been murdered globally in recent years, with 70% of those killings occurring in just four Latin American countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legal-innovation-and-indigenous-wisdom">Legal innovation and Indigenous wisdom</h2>



“The Rights of Nature is a strong and inspiring idea that started in Ecuador,” said Amaya Carrasco Torrontegui, senior author of the paper and a University of Vermont affiliate. “This approach encourages us to see Nature not just as a resource, but as something alive and deserving of care - drawing on Indigenous wisdom and the idea of Pachamama, or Mother Earth.”



Lead author Carlos Andres Gallegos-Riofrío emphasized the transformative potential of these legal frameworks. “A key lesson - especially the coalition that advanced the Llurimagua case - is that there are real alternatives for governing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-systems-critical-all-life-on-verge-total-collapse-paris-agreement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth system</a>." 



"These alternatives, to become truly transformative, need society’s active engagement. Only then can they serve as critical tools to help local communities stop activities that harm both people and Nature, globally preventing us from continuing to cross the planet’s safe operating boundaries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-andes"><a></a>Lessons from the Andes</h2>



The success of Ecuador’s Rights of Nature movement demonstrates the power of local activism, coalition-building, and a bold rethinking of legal norms. It also highlights the potential of a “tiny avatar” - like the rocket frog - to symbolize much larger battles over climate, biodiversity, and justice.



With mining blocked in three major projects in the Intag Valley and courts upholding the rights of ecosystems in multiple landmark cases, Ecuador’s approach is proving that environmental justice doesn’t always start in global halls of power. It can also begin in a small village, a forested valley, or the determined leap of a tiny frog.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589811625000199?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Governance</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Does Mother Nature have rights? A tiny frog has joined the fight

In a quiet corner of the Ecuadorian Andes, a chorus...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, now we know what it was

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum...

Nature lovers worldwide are turning to EarthSnap, the AI-powered identification app that can instantly recognize over 2 million plants, animals, bugs, birds, and more. 



Built by the team behind Earth.com with over 15M monthly visitors, EarthSnap has quickly gained traction among outdoor enthusiasts looking for a smarter, more interactive way to explore and understand the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-earth-month-with-earthsnap">Celebrate Earth Month with EarthSnap</h2>



With the official rollout timed for April in celebration of Earth Month, EarthSnap invites users across the globe to reconnect with nature and explore biodiversity like never before. 



As environmental awareness reaches a peak during this globally recognized month, EarthSnap offers a powerful, tech-driven way to engage with the planet and share discoveries with others.



With its advanced AI, EarthSnap allows users to identify species in seconds simply by snapping a photo. 



The app goes beyond just identification - offering an extensive database filled with detailed insights, a search function for learning more about specific species, and an interactive SnapMap where users can explore identified species from around the world. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-connection-with-nature">A deeper connection with nature</h2>



As more people seek deeper connections with nature, EarthSnap has emerged as a must-have tool for hikers, travelers, gardening enthusiasts and anyone curious about nature.



"EarthSnap is redefining how people interact with the world around them," said Eric Ralls, CEO of EarthSnap and Earth.com. 



"With over 15 million visitors to Earth.com each month, we've seen firsthand the growing demand for accessible, AI-driven tools that make nature exploration easier and more engaging. EarthSnap brings that vision to life.”



EarthSnap is more than just an identification app - it’s a global hub for nature lovers. 



The EarthSnappers Community allows users to share their discoveries, engage with fellow outdoor enthusiasts, and contribute to a growing database of species observations. 



Whether it’s a rare orchid spotted on a mountain trail or a never-before-seen bird in a backyard, EarthSnap makes it easy to document and discuss nature with a like-minded community.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earthsnap.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/EarthSnap_feature-graphic_press-release_V3s.webp" alt="EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here." class="wp-image-1966695" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-features-driving-earthsnap-s-popularity">Key features driving EarthSnap’s popularity</h2>



● AI-Powered Identification: Instantly recognize over 2 million plants and animals by snapping a photo.



● Search &amp; Learn: Look up species by name to access detailed facts and insights.



● Global SnapMap: Explore photos of identified species from users worldwide.



● Personalized Snap Collections: Save and organize nature discoveries in a digital library.



● Cross-Platform Accessibility: Access all saved photos and data on both mobile and desktop.



As Earth Month continues to inspire a global appreciation for the natural world, EarthSnap is providing a timely solution for those eager to deepen their understanding of biodiversity and participate in meaningful environmental engagement.



With AI-powered tools, a vast species database, and an engaged global community, EarthSnap is setting a new standard for how people interact with nature.



EarthSnap is now available for download on <a href="https://apps.apple.com/us/app/plant-animal-id-earthsnap/id1590178460" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iOS</a> and <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.earthsnap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Android</a>. To learn more, visit <a href="https://earthsnap.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap’s website</a>.

Nature enthusiasts are flocking to EarthSnap for plant and animal ID

Nature lovers worldwide are turning to EarthSnap, the AI-powered identification...

When a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named SuBastian dropped into the frigid waters near the South Sandwich Islands on March 9, the scientists watching the video feed expected fascinating footage of deep‑sea life. What they did not anticipate was history.&nbsp;



At roughly 600 meters (1,968 feet) below the surface, the ROV’s cameras recorded a transparent juvenile colossal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni). This is the first time this legendary species has ever been observed alive in its natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-centennial-surprise">A centennial surprise</h2>



The timing could not have been more fitting: 2024 marks one hundred years since zoologists first described and named the colossal squid, a member of the glass‑squid family Cranchiidae.&nbsp;



After a century of piecing together its existence from beaks found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm‑whale</a> stomachs and the occasional adult cadaver tangled in fishing gear, researchers finally have moving images of a live individual.



“It's exciting to see the first in situ footage of a juvenile colossal and humbling to think that they have no idea that humans exist,” said Kat Bolstad from <a href="https://www.aut.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auckland University of Technology</a>, one of the experts who verified the find. 



“For 100 years, we have mainly encountered them as prey remains in whale and seabird stomachs and as predators of harvested toothfish.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colossal-squid-in-every-sense">Colossal squid in every sense</h2>



Even as a youngster, the squid measured nearly 30 centimeters (one foot) long. As adults, these giants are thought to reach seven meters (23 feet) and tip the scales at up to 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds), making them the heaviest invertebrates on Earth.&nbsp;



Yet they remain among the least understood marine animals. Juveniles like the one filmed are nearly transparent; with maturity they darken and lose that ghostly clarity.



Adult colossal squids - possibly exhausted or dying - have occasionally surfaced on fishing lines, but until now none had been witnessed alive in the abyss where they thrive.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://youtu.be/lzPoG9H8Hlo?si=8us1wTJU1egTZVjn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/colossal-squid_Mesonychoteuthis-hamiltoni_Schmidt-Ocean-Institute_1s.webp" alt="*Click image to launch the video.* This is the first confirmed live observation of the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, in its natural habitat. The team on Schmidt Ocean Institute’s Research Vessel Falkor (too) captured footage of the 30-centimeter-long squid (nearly one foot) at a depth of 600 meters (1968 feet) using their remotely operated vehicle SuBastian during an Ocean Census flagship expedition searching for new marine life. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1966667"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">*Click image to launch the video.* This is the first confirmed live observation of the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, in its natural habitat. The team on Schmidt Ocean Institute’s Research Vessel Falkor (too) captured footage of the 30-centimeter-long squid (nearly one foot) at a depth of 600 meters (1968 feet) using their remotely operated vehicle SuBastian during an Ocean Census flagship expedition searching for new marine life. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute *Click image to launch the video.*</figcaption></figure>



Dr. Aaron Evans, an independent authority on glass squids, helped confirm the juvenile’s identity. One key clue was a set of hooks located midway along each arm - distinctive hardware that differentiates M. hamiltoni from similar glass‑squid species.&nbsp;



Apart from those arm hooks, juveniles of several glass‑squid lineages can look remarkably alike: clear bodies, large eyes, and a pair of long feeding tentacles sporting sharp terminal hooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-breakthrough-leads-to-another">One breakthrough leads to another</h2>



The March discovery was not the research vessel’s only brush with squid lore. On January 25, during an earlier expedition to the Bellingshausen Sea near Antarctica, Falkor (too) scientists had filmed Galiteuthis glacialis, known as the glacial glass squid, alive and undisturbed for the first time.&nbsp;



That sighting came as the team surveyed the seafloor where a Chicago‑sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ecosystem-sea-creatures-never-before-seen-revealed-antarctica-iceberg-breakup/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> had calved from the George VI Ice Shelf. At 687 meters (2,254 feet) down, the transparent squid floated with its arms loose above its head - the so‑called “cockatoo pose” typical of glass squids.



“The first sighting of two different squids on back-to-back expeditions is remarkable and shows how little we have seen of the magnificent inhabitants of the Southern Ocean,” noted <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s executive director Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Fortunately, we caught enough high‑resolution imagery of these creatures to allow the global experts, who were not on the vessel, to identify both species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-voyage-of-discovery">A collaborative voyage of discovery</h2>



Both encounters occurred aboard the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s research vessel Falkor (too), equipped with the ROV SuBastian and supported via satellite telepresence by taxonomists around the world.&nbsp;



The 35‑day cruise that netted the colossal‑squid footage served as the flagship expedition of Ocean Census, the largest global mission to discover marine life.



“It's incredible that we can leverage the power of the taxonomic community through R/V Falkor (too) telepresence while we are out at sea,” said expedition chief scientist Michelle Taylor from the <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Essex</a>.&nbsp;



“The Ocean Census international science network is proud to work together with the Schmidt Ocean Institute to accelerate species discovery and expand our knowledge of ocean life, live online with the world's science community.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-catalog-of-firsts">A growing catalog of firsts</h2>



SuBastian has rapidly become one of the world’s premier vehicles for squid discovery. In 2020, it filmed the enigmatic Ram’s Horn Squid (Spirula spirula) alive for the first time. 



In 2024, before the colossal‑squid milestone, it captured another first‑ever video of a deep‑sea squid in the genus Promachoteuthis. A fifth suspected first is currently under expert review.



“These unforgettable moments continue to remind us that the Ocean is brimming with mysteries yet to be solved,” Virmani said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-colossal-squid-sightings">Significance of the colossal squid sightings</h2>



Beyond the thrill of seeing elusive creatures, such footage provides valuable clues about life histories, behaviors, and ecosystems that were once purely speculative. 



Observing a juvenile colossal squid confirms its depth range and offers hints about its developmental stages. 



Similarly, viewing G. glacialis in the wild helps scientists understand how glass squids position themselves in the water column, interact with predators, and potentially respond to changing ocean conditions.



These findings come at a time when the Southern Ocean is undergoing rapid environmental change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice‑shelf</a> calving, warming waters, and shifting currents could reshape food webs. Documenting present‑day biodiversity is crucial for detecting future alterations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-images-of-deep-sea-life">Upcoming images of deep-sea life</h2>



The researchers now plan to analyze the new video frames for details such as muscle movements, fin strokes, and eye orientation - data points that, when compared with dead specimens, can illuminate how these squids hunt and evade predators.&nbsp;



The experts also hope to revisit the South Sandwich trench system to deploy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA) samplers that might capture genetic traces from larger, unseen individuals.



For the public, these deep‑sea cameos kindle imagination. Once the stuff of sailor legend, colossal squids are no longer merely mythic giants - they are living animals caught on camera, navigating a twilight realm six football fields beneath the waves.



As technology pushes boundaries, the ocean continues to reveal that its most dramatic stories have yet to be told.



The <a href="https://oceancensus.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census</a> is a partnership between the Schmidt Ocean Institute, the <a href="https://en.nippon-foundation.or.jp/what/projects/ocean/ocean-census" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nippon Foundation‑Nekton Ocean Census</a>, and GoSouth (a consortium led by the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Plymouth</a>, <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research</a>, and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>).



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Living baby colossal squid captured on video for the first time ever

When a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named SuBastian dropped into...

The Endangered Species Act (ESA), long regarded as a cornerstone of U.S. environmental policy, is facing a dramatic reinterpretation. Federal agencies have proposed the removal of habitat changes from the definition of “harm” to endangered and threatened species. 



This move, conservation groups warn, could accelerate extinctions by allowing logging, mining, construction, and other development to proceed unimpeded in sensitive areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-protections-face-a-major-shift">Wildlife protections face a major shift</h2>



Since the ESA was enacted in 1973, regulators and courts have treated the term “harm” broadly. Under the existing framework, an activity that destroys or degrades the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-could-help-protect-30-of-atlantic-ocean-habitats/">habitat</a> of a listed species can be deemed unlawful even if the action is not intended to kill or harass individual animals.



The <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> (FWS) and the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Marine Fisheries Service</a> (NMFS) now argue in their newly released proposal that habitat loss should not count as “harm” because it differs from the direct targeting of wildlife - referred to in the statute as “take.”



The agencies’ notice, recently made public and slated for official publication in the Federal Register, states that the act’s prohibition on “take” was never meant to cover changes to the landscape. Agency lawyers argue the ESA uses other tools, like critical habitat designations, to protect spaces species depend on.



If that interpretation is finalized, private landowners and industry operators could no longer be held liable under the ESA for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clearing forests</a>, draining wetlands, or reshaping shorelines so long as they claim no intention to injure protected animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-could-have-dire-consequences">Changes could have dire consequences</h2>



The announcement drew swift rebuke from environmental organizations. Noah Greenwald, who directs endangered species work at the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Biological Diversity</a>, noted that habitat destruction is the biggest cause of extinction.



Greenwald argued that the proposed rule “cuts the heart out of the Endangered Species Act.” It does this by removing a key safeguard that has blocked or modified countless development projects over the past half‑century.



“If (you) say harm doesn't mean significant habitat degradation or modification, then it really leaves endangered species out in the cold."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rule-threatens-decades-of-progress">The rule threatens decades of progress</h2>



Greenwald also pointed to two high‑profile examples that currently depend on habitat protections: the northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest’s old‑growth forests and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-the-panther-day-protecting-floridas-big-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida panther</a> in the state’s shrinking swamplands. 



Greenwald warned the new policy lets loggers and developers act freely if they claim any wildlife harm was unintentional.



<a href="https://earthjustice.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthjustice</a> attorney Drew Caputo echoed those concerns. He said the rule “threatens a half‑century of progress in protecting and restoring endangered species,” listing bald eagles, gray wolves, Florida manatees, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a> as beneficiaries of the existing interpretation. 



“Destroying a forest, beach, river, or wetland that a species relies on for survival constitutes harm to that species,” he said, citing decades of legal precedent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supreme-court-s-role-in-the-esa">Supreme Court’s role in the ESA</h2>



The current definition of “harm” has already survived judicial scrutiny at the highest level. In the 1995 case Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the government’s inclusion of habitat modification within the scope of “take.” That decision has guided agency practice ever since.



Patrick Parenteau, an emeritus professor at the <a href="https://www.vermontlaw.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vermont Law and Graduate School</a> who has argued endangered species cases, noted that reversing course now raises questions of legal consistency. 



Opponents may argue the agencies shouldn't abandon a Supreme Court-backed definition without strong new evidence if they finalize the Endangered Species Act rule.



Because the existing standard has been in place for decades, landowners and federal planners have used it to conserve “many, many millions of acres of land,” according to Parenteau. 



Removing habitat from the definition of “harm” could upend scores of conservation plans negotiated between agencies and private stakeholders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-species-in-hawaii">Endangered species in Hawaii</h2>



Hawaii may feel the impacts more acutely than anywhere else. Although the islands cover less than one percent of U.S. land area, they host roughly 40 percent of all species listed under the ESA. 



Maxx Philipps, Hawaii and Pacific Islands director for the Center for Biological Diversity, warned that weakening habitat safeguards will accelerate Hawaii’s extinction crisis. 



Philipps also said it will destroy the biological and cultural heritage of the islands, highlighting one example, tiny native bees that pollinate coastal dune plants.



Development has already fragmented the few remaining stretches of shoreline. If development proceeds without habitat review, she said, bees and other shoreline species - including green sea turtles - could see their last refuges disappear. 



“Habitat is life, right?” she asked. “And without it, there is no recovery and without recovery, there is only extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lawsuits-begin-agencies-remain-silent">Lawsuits begin, agencies remain silent</h2>



The <a href="https://www.doi.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of the Interior</a>, which oversees FWS, declined to comment, referring inquiries to the agency. 



Officials also noted that the proposal will soon appear in the Federal Register, opening a 30‑day window for public input.



Environmental advocates are already preparing litigation. Caputo said groups like Earthjustice will challenge the rule if it becomes final, arguing that the administration’s narrow interpretation conflicts with the statute’s language and the Supreme Court’s guidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removing-habitat-protections">Removing habitat protections </h2>



Supporters of the rule change - including industry associations representing forestry, mining, and farming - contend that private landowners have shouldered disproportionate burdens under the ESA. They argue penalizing habitat changes hurts development and may prompt landowners to clear areas before species are discovered.



Critics counter that streamlined approvals come at the expense of irreplaceable ecosystems and the species dependent on them.



The debate underscores a broader tension within environmental law: balancing economic opportunity against the preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. Though Congress could revise the ESA’s habitat rules, past efforts have failed under both Republican and Democratic control.



As a result, the practical meaning of “harm” often hinges on regulatory interpretation and judicial review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-the-endangered-species-act">Future of the Endangered Species Act </h2>



If the proposed rule to the Endangered Species Act takes effect after the comment period, it would mark one of the most significant shifts in ESA enforcement in decades. 



Conservation organizations predict a surge of lawsuits aimed at reinstating the broader definition of “harm.” They also worry about immediate on‑the‑ground consequences as businesses test the new limits. 



For researchers and advocates vested in species recovery, the stakes could not be higher: without habitat to return to, plants and animals already on the brink may have no path back from the edge.



As Philipps put it, preserving habitat is the foundation for recovery. The ESA’s future hinges on public comments, agency decisions, and expected legal challenges in the months ahead.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Endangered Species Act faces its biggest legal shift in decades

The Endangered Species Act (ESA), long regarded as a cornerstone...

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back millions of years. Deep within Earth’s mantle, shifting rock and molten heat have nudged continents, created barriers, and shaped migration paths for creatures across the planet.



The link between these buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> and species of ancient wanderers has captured the attention of researchers.



Among them is Thorsten Becker, a professor at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin, who has helped piece together new insights about the deeper forces that affected how species were able to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-forces-reshaped-continents">Mantle forces reshaped continents</h2>



Earth’s mantle churns with slow but significant motion that can alter the planet’s surface. Gradual sinking of cooler rock and rising of hotter material create a convection system that fuels changes in crustal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elevation</a> and shapes coastlines.



Scientists have found that a towering plume of heated rock may have reached the surface around 30 million years after it began brewing in the depths. 



By 20 million years ago, the upward push on land in what is now the Arabian Peninsula had reorganized seas and formed a passage between Africa and Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-uplift-created-a-land-bridge">Mantle uplift created a land bridge</h2>



This arc of dry ground broke a 75-million-year pattern of isolation for the African continent. Animals such as elephants, giraffes, and cheetahs made use of the open route, traversing miles of emerging terrain to explore and settle new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



“The shallow seaway closed several million years before it otherwise likely would have due to these specific processes - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mantle-convection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle convection</a> and corresponding changes in dynamic topography,” said Eivind Straume, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NORCE Norwegian Research Centre and The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research.



Once mantle uplift had created the land bridge, entire groups of mammals made journeys that altered the genetic paths of today’s species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-human-ancestors">Impact on human ancestors</h2>



Long before modern times, primates roamed Asia. A branch of these primates moved into Africa before returning when the land bridge fully emerged. That dual migration shaped the fate of the lineages that survived and evolved in later epochs.



“It’s an example of how the long-term convective evolution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> talks to the evolution of life,” said Straume. Many researchers believe this timing allowed certain primates in Africa to flourish while their relatives died out elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-shifts-altered-earth-s-climate-patterns">Mantle shifts altered Earth's climate patterns</h2>



Closure of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-70652-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tethys Sea</a> transformed ocean currents and sparked broader shifts in temperature patterns. 



The disappearance of marine passageways altered how water circulated between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific, changing conditions across northern Africa and central Asia.



Warming ocean waters also set the stage for more significant seasonal temperature swings. Some <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/386788a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have linked these shifts to intensified monsoon patterns that brought heavier rains to parts of Asia while promoting dryness in the Sahara.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-uplift-and-the-sahara">Earth's mantle uplift and the Sahara</h2>



As landmasses rose and air circulation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> evolved, the Sahara grew drier. The shift from lush zones to desert terrain introduced a new barrier to animal movement. This drying also encouraged adaptation and migration in species seeking water sources or cooler climes.



Over time, the Sahara came to dominate much of north Africa. The new upland surfaces of Arabia, shaped by rising rock, channeled wind and moisture patterns away from former coastal areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives-from-geological-models">New perspectives from geological models</h2>



Scientists are working with advanced simulations to connect deep Earth processes to events at the surface. These models help illustrate how flows of hot rock influence crustal uplift and seafloor changes. They also provide details on how ocean basins, deserts, and mountain ranges evolved.



“This study has relevance to the question of ‘How did our planet change, in general? What are the connections between life and tectonics?’” noted Becker.



By stitching together multiple lines of evidence, teams can outline how events far below the surface have rippled through layers of geological and biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-routes-and-biodiversity">Animal routes and biodiversity</h2>



Large mammals that migrated between continents not only diversified their habitats but also interacted in ways that drove evolutionary shifts. 



Elephants, for instance, faced new landscapes and climates that challenged them to adapt. Giraffes and rhinoceroses found novel feeding grounds and survived despite new predators and competition.



Such exchanges left imprints on the genetic makeup of today’s mammal populations. Species that once had limited ranges across Africa or Asia soon encountered new ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-consequences-for-life">Lasting consequences for life</h2>



The land bridge created by mantle-driven uplift gave early primates and other animals opportunities to branch out. Over millions of years, these varied lineages left evidence in fossils and modern DNA.



Researchers continue to uncover how changing geography shaped not just migrations but also the survival strategies of multiple species.



Those pathways often ran in tandem with major climatic shifts. The interplay of plate collisions, mantle upwelling, and fluctuating sea levels set the stage for both expansions and extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-exploration-of-hidden-dynamics">Further exploration of hidden dynamics</h2>



Cutting-edge technology, from seismic imaging to deep-sea drilling, supports the study of how hidden geological processes link to surface environments. 



By incorporating detailed uplift models into paleoclimate reconstructions, geoscientists can refine their understanding of ocean currents and rainfall patterns.



With each new discovery, puzzle pieces fall into place. The uplift that once closed ancient seaways still influences today’s wind and precipitation cycles, reminding us that Earth’s lower layers remain busy behind the scenes.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00653-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Activity in Earth's mantle created a land bridge that animals traversed

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back...

species in Margaritidae

News coming your way