A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Seen through an orbiter’s camera, the flanks of Martian volcanoes and crater walls often look as if thick syrup once oozed down them and then became crusted with rouge‑colored dust. For years, scientists believed those viscous tongues formed from piles of rocky rubble lightly cemented by ice.



But analyses during the past two decades shifted that view, revealing that at least some debris‑mantled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/">glaciers</a> hold far more frozen water than stone.



Now, a new radar survey argues that purity is the rule rather than the exception: glaciers across both hemispheres are more than 80 percent ice.



The findings suggest that much of Mars once endured sustained glaciation and that vast, readily accessible reservoirs of water await future explorers.



Lead author Yuval Steinberg completed the work as a graduate student at Israel’s <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>. 



Steinberg's mentors and co‑authors, Oded Aharonson and Isaac Smith, are affiliated with the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, as well as with Weizmann and <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chaos-in-martian-ice-records">Chaos in Martian ice records</h2>



When Steinberg began combing through earlier literature, one pattern stood out - there was no pattern. Researchers had sampled different glaciers with different radar techniques and reported results in unmatched units.



“Different techniques had been applied by researchers to various sites, and the results could not be easily compared,” noted Smith. Some landmarks had never been probed, while others sported only partial analyses.



“One of the sites in our study had never been studied, and at two of the five sites we used, only partial analysis had been completed,” he said.



The team decided to impose order. They chose five debris‑covered glaciers scattered across the planet, including one fresh target, and processed all datasets the same way.



Key to their approach was <a href="https://sharad.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHARAD</a>, the Shallow Radar instrument aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. It beams 20 MHz radio pulses into the crust.



By measuring each glacier’s dielectric constant - how fast the radar wave travels through a material - and the loss tangent - how much energy the wave loses en route - they gathered key physical data. These values allowed them to infer the glacier’s subsurface composition.



Visual inspection alone reveals nothing because all debris‑laden glaciers look like drab pieces of soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-is-nearly-pure-everywhere"><a></a>The ice is nearly pure, everywhere</h2>



The surprise came when the radar math finished crunching. Whether perched near the equator or edging the mid‑latitudes, each glacier offered almost the same electrical signature.



That sameness implies a similar makeup: at least four-fifths ice by volume, capped by a veneer of rubble only a few meters thick that insulates the ice against thin, dry air.



“This is important because it tells us that the formation and preservation mechanisms are probably the same everywhere,” Smith said. 



The uniformity hints either at one planet‑wide glaciation or at multiple ice ages that occurred under nearly identical conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowfall-once-shaped-mars">Snowfall once shaped Mars</h2>



Mars today is so arid that water ice can survive near the surface only where temperatures remain low and the atmosphere’s pressure prevents sublimation.



If the new study is correct, the planet must have repeatedly produced enough snow or frost to build thick glaciers, later burying them in dust that has kept them intact for hundreds of millions of years.



Knowing the minimum purity of those glaciers lets climate modelers refine how much water circulated through the past atmosphere. It also helps them track how snowfall patterns shifted with the planet’s tilt and how global dust storms may have armored the ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-for-future-crews">Water for future crews</h2>



Purity also matters for future crews who may mine ice for drinking water, oxygen, and rocket fuel. Extracting liquid from dirty ice takes energy and filtration gear; chopping blocks of almost pure ice simplifies the job.



The five glaciers studied lie in diverse terrains, suggesting many candidate sites for human outposts. 



“We can conclude that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/">Mars</a> experienced either one widespread glaciation or multiple glaciations that had similar properties,” Smith said. 



“By bringing together these sites and techniques for the first time, we were able to unify our understanding of these types of glaciers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-more-hidden-ice-on-mars">Mapping more hidden ice on Mars</h2>



The researchers plan to extend their standardized survey to additional radar tracks. Each glacier tested refines global data and may reveal microclimates or local volcanic heating.



The method could even guide the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024EGUGA..2610754A/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Ice Mapper mission concept</a>, which would fly more advanced radar optimized for detecting shallow ice sheets.



The team revealed a planetary frozen archive beneath the dusty veneer - what first appeared to be sluggish, rock-rich flows. It records climate rhythms and beckons as a water source for the next great adventure in human exploration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103525002647?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Previously believed to be mostly rock, Mars' glaciers shown to be 80% pure ice

Seen through an orbiter’s camera, the flanks of Martian volcanoes...

Scuba diving does more than open a window onto coral gardens and kelp forests. According to the first comprehensive tally of its global economic footprint, the pastime injects between $8.5 billion and $20.4 billion into the world economy each year. It also supports up to 124,000 jobs across 170 countries.



The study gives ocean advocates a new set of hard numbers to argue that healthy seas are not just a moral imperative - they are a lucrative asset.



The new analysis builds on 2021 work that pegged Mexico’s dive tourism at roughly $725 million a year - nearly as much as the entire fishing industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dive-data-goes-global">Dive data goes global</h2>



Backed by the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a> and endorsed by the United Nations Ocean Decade, marine biologist Octavio Aburto-Oropeza of <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> created the Atlas Aquatica project to discover whether similar economic clout exists at the global scale.



The team compiled a database of more than 11,500 dive operators using Google Maps listings and PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) records, then cross-checked entries with local experts. An online survey drew 425 responses from businesses in 81 countries.



Economist Andrés Cisneros-Montemayor from <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> translated those answers into spending estimates: direct outlays on courses, boat charters, and gear rentals, plus indirect spending on hotels, meals, and transportation by the world’s nine to fourteen million recreational divers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dive-tourism-drives-billions">Dive tourism drives billions</h2>



The numbers surprised even seasoned researchers. Direct expenditures came in between $900 million and $3.2 billion a year. 



Add in ancillary spending, and the total swells to a figure of $8.5 billion to $20.4 billion. Eighty percent of dive-shop employees are local residents, a ratio that few mass-tourism sectors match.



“Scuba diving is pretty unique because it makes you spend time underwater,” said Fabio Favoretto, the Atlas Aquatica coordinator and a Scripps postdoctoral fellow.



“You can sail or surf above a dead ocean, but scuba divers notice if there are no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> - it’s really an activity that is dependent on the health of the system. That’s a positive for conservation because it makes divers allies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-divers-flock-to-protected-waters">Divers flock to protected waters</h2>



Roughly 70 percent of all marine dives happen inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs), a finding that aligns with earlier research showing that operators and clients will pay a premium for richer wildlife encounters.



Prior studies suggest that expanding MPAs could further boost revenue by attracting more visitors willing to pay higher fees for healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-food-webs-are-more-fragile-than-we-thought/">reefs</a>, seagrass meadows, and pelagic drop-offs.



“We show that diving generates a lot of income, and it does this without degrading the environment like extractive industries such as fishing or mining,” Aburto-Oropeza said.



“We hope that showing the scale of the economic impact from this activity will encourage policies that invest in diving by increasing marine protections.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-workforce-watching-reefs-decline"><a></a>A workforce watching reefs decline</h2>



Still, money alone cannot shield ecosystems. Most surveyed operators reported noticeable environmental degradation at their sites over the past decade.



That frontline perspective makes the sector a potential early-warning system for policymakers, provided governments invite dive professionals to the table. 



The authors call for standardized ecological monitoring protocols across the industry and for formal seats for operators in marine management bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-tourism-works">Eco-friendly tourism works</h2>



Dive tourism exemplifies what scholars call the “blue economy,” a vision in which coastal communities prosper by stewarding, not exploiting, marine resources.



“Unlike mass tourism operations that can harm local communities and marine environments, dive tourism, when managed well, can be economically viable, socially equitable, and environmentally sustainable,” said Anna Schuhbauer, the study’s lead author and a fisheries scientist at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a>.



Because divers fly in small groups, stay longer, and spend heavily on local services, the money sticks close to home. Their physical footprint - anchored moorings, low-speed boats, tanks that are refilled rather than discarded - remains comparatively light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-divers-a-voice">Giving divers a voice</h2>



Despite their economic heft, dive operators are often fragmented into tiny businesses with little say in coastal zoning or fisheries regulation. Atlas Aquatica aims to change that by helping shops form cooperatives.



Pilot cooperatives in Mexico and Italy are already pooling funds for reef restoration, lobbying for stricter fishing limits inside MPAs, and negotiating better safety and sustainability standards. 



The study recommends that governments recognize such groups as official stakeholders, giving them standing in decision-making processes that shape the underwater landscapes on which their livelihoods depend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profits-support-protection">Profits support protection</h2>



For decades conservationists have argued that protecting biodiversity can pay for itself. By attaching dollar values to bubbles, buoyancy, and fin kicks, the new report turns that slogan into measurable evidence.



Moreover, scuba divers’ preference for MPAs is supported by data showing that about 70 percent of all marine dives currently occur within MPAs. 



Policymakers weighing the short-term gains of mining or unregulated fishing against the steady flow of dive tourism dollars now have a clearer ledger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scuba-diving-s-future-outlook">Scuba diving’s future outlook</h2>



The researchers acknowledge gaps - their operator list, though vast, is not exhaustive; informal or unlicensed outfits are harder to track; and the pandemic temporarily suppressed travel numbers used in the analysis.



Even so, the conservative tone of their models suggests that the true economic contribution may be higher. Future studies will refine regional estimates, examine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-carbon-footprint-urban-farms-and-agriculture/">carbon footprints</a>, and test whether higher protection leads directly to higher earnings over time.



For now, the takeaway is straightforward: oceans brimming with life are a magnet for recreational divers, and divers, in turn, pump billions into coastal economies without extracting a single fish.



Recognizing that virtuous cycle could help steer global recovery funds, tourism strategies, and climate-finance projects toward smarter policies. These would support colorful reefs and dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-in-crisis-how-toxic-turf-algae-are-taking-over/">kelp forests</a> - a win for local jobs, national coffers, and, above all, the sea itself..



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports-sustainability/fulltext/S2949-7906(25)00131-4?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2949790625001314%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Cell Reports Sustainability</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scuba diving boosts conservation - and brings in billions

Scuba diving does more than open a window onto coral...

Coffee perks you up - but it could also be energizing bacteria, making them more resistant to antibiotics. This is the unexpected finding from a team of researchers led by Professor Ana Rita Brochado at the University of Würzburg.



The study shows that certain food ingredients, including caffeine, make some antibiotics work less effectively. This doesn’t mean caffeine kills antibiotics directly. But it does cause subtle changes inside bacteria like&nbsp;E. coli.



These changes can block antibiotic entry, helping the bacteria survive. You won’t feel anything after that cup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-reduce-frailty-in-aging-adults/">tea</a>, but the microbes in your gut might get more stubborn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-respond-to-chemicals">Bacteria respond to chemicals</h2>



Bacteria notice what’s around them. They don’t just sit there waiting to die.&nbsp;E. coli, for example, reacts to chemical signals in its environment by flipping certain genes on or off. This gives it more control over what gets in and out of the cell.



Professor Brochado’s team tested 94 substances: antibiotics, human drugs, and common food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-you-pour-coffee-changes-its-strength-and-flavor/">ingredients</a>. 



The researchers focused on seven genes that affect transport proteins - tiny pores and pumps that regulate flow in and out of bacteria. Change these proteins, and you change how much antibiotic reaches the inside.



Some changes were big. Others were tiny. But one thing was clear: bacteria don’t treat caffeine like background noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-gene-that-blocks-antibiotics">The gene that blocks antibiotics</h2>



The researchers found that caffeine activates a gene called Rob. Once Rob switches on, it sets off a chain reaction. Several transport proteins shift behavior, and the bacteria start blocking out antibiotics like ciprofloxacin.



“Caffeine triggers a cascade of events starting with the gene regulator Rob and culminating in the change of several transport proteins in&nbsp;E. coli, which in turn leads to a reduced uptake of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin,” explained Professor Brochado.



So <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-coffee-helps-prevent-heart-disease-and-diabetes/">caffeine</a> doesn’t kill antibiotics. It just makes it harder for them to get inside the cell. The bacteria do not become fully resistant - they just become harder to kill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-changes-how-bacteria-handle-antibiotics">Coffee changes how bacteria handle antibiotics</h2>



The research suggests that bacteria can adapt based on diet and environment, even without new mutations or resistance genes.



“Our data show that several substances can subtly but systematically influence gene regulation in bacteria,” noted study lead author Christoph Binsfeld, a PhD student in the Department of Microbiology at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/">University of Würzburg</a>.



The scary part? These effects don’t show up on standard resistance tests. You might think an antibiotic will work fine. But in your gut, after your morning coffee, bacteria might disagree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-doesn-t-faze-salmonella">Caffeine doesn't faze Salmonella</h2>



You might expect this caffeine effect to happen across similar bacteria. But it doesn’t. The team also looked at&nbsp;Salmonella enterica, a close cousin of&nbsp;E. coli. Same antibiotic, same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-flavor-can-be-improved-with-a-simple-trick/">caffeine</a>. 



In&nbsp;Salmonella, caffeine didn’t reduce drug uptake. The difference likely comes down to how each species controls transport proteins. One tweaks the gates and the other doesn’t.



This shows that resistance isn’t just about which genes bacteria have. It’s also about how they use them - and when.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-weakens-antibiotic-effects">Coffee weakens antibiotic effects</h2>



What Brochado’s team found isn’t classic resistance. There are no resistant genes being passed around and no permanent mutations. It’s something more flexible that bacteria can turn on or off.



Scientists call this “low-level” resistance. It’s temporary and subtle, but that doesn’t make it safe. It could help bacteria survive just long enough to cause a stubborn infection or evolve further resistance.



So, even though caffeine won’t make E. coli immortal, it might give it a fighting chance. And in medicine, even a small advantage can matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-affects-the-response-nbsp-to-antibiotics">Coffee affects the response&nbsp;to antibiotics</h2>



Bacteria like&nbsp;E. coli&nbsp;use regulators - proteins like MarA, SoxS, and Rob - to control responses. These proteins flip switches that change how transport proteins behave. In the study, Rob showed up more than expected.



Around one-third of all transcriptional changes involved Rob. That’s more than scientists thought. In many cases, Rob worked alongside MarA or SoxS. But in response to caffeine, Rob handled things on its own.



The researchers looked deeper and found something else. After caffeine exposure, over 200 bacterial proteins changed in abundance. That included proteins involved in building outer membrane pores. Less pore protein means fewer ways for antibiotics to get in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-complicates-drug-therapy">Coffee complicates drug therapy</h2>



“Such fundamental research into the effect of substances consumed on a daily basis underscores the vital role of science in understanding and resolving real-world problems,” said Dr. Karla Pollmann, President of the University of Tübingen.



If caffeine can influence antibiotic uptake, what about other compounds? What about patients drinking energy drinks or taking herbal supplements while on medication? These combinations might not be harmless.



Doctors might need to consider diet - including coffee - as part of treatment using antibiotics. Guidelines could eventually include not just dosage, but also what not to eat or drink during therapy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003260" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Coffee helps bacteria resist antibiotics in your gut

Coffee perks you up - but it could also be...

City life has always had a reputation for being fast. A new study shows just how much faster it's become. The researchers found that from 1980 to 2010, the average walking speed in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia rose by 15 percent. 



Meanwhile, the number of people lingering in public spaces dropped by 14 percent. Fewer people are slowing down to talk, relax, or meet others.



The research comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), Yale University, the University of Hong Kong, Michigan State University, and Harvard University. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-decades-of-data-reveal">What decades of data reveal</h2>



The team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-used-to-locate-sources-of-heavy-pollution/">machine learning</a> to analyze how public spaces are used differently today than they were 40 years ago.



The researchers worked with old footage captured by William Whyte, a well-known urbanist who spent the late 1970s and early 1980s studying public spaces in major cities. 



Whyte filmed four key spots: Boston's Downtown Crossing, New York’s Bryant Park, the steps of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and Philadelphia’s Chestnut Street. 



In 2010, researchers went back to those same locations at the same times of day to shoot updated footage for comparison.



“Something has changed over the past 40 years,” said MIT professor of the practice Carlo Ratti. “How fast we walk, how people meet in public space - what we’re seeing here is that public spaces are working in somewhat different ways, more as a thoroughfare and less a space of encounter.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-interactions-in-city-spaces">Fewer interactions in city spaces</h2>



The study used AI and computer vision to identify patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distracted-walking-texting-puts-pedestrians-at-risk/">pedestrian</a> behavior. One surprising constant: the number of people walking alone didn’t really change - from 67% in 1980 to 68% in 2010. 



At the same time, the percentage of individuals who entered a space and then joined a group dropped from 5.5% to just 2 percent. “Perhaps there’s a more transactional nature to public space today,” said Ratti.



That shift reflects how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-digital-technology-influence-our-sense-of-self/">technology</a> has changed the way we navigate social life. Plans are often made ahead of time, and people tend to move with more purpose through public spaces.



“When you look at the footage from William Whyte, the people in public spaces were looking at each other more,” said Ratti. 



“It was a place you could start a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brief-conversations-with-strangers-boost-life-satisfaction/">conversation</a> or run into a friend. You couldn’t do things online then. Today, behavior is more predicated on texting first, to meet in public space.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meeting-spaces-for-city-people">Meeting spaces for city people </h2>



Another possible reason for the shift? Starbucks - and places like it. Meeting up in an air-conditioned café is now the go-to move, far more appealing than hanging out on a hot or windy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-environments-and-sidewalks-improve-heart-health/">sidewalk</a>.



According to the study authors, the proliferation of coffee shops and other indoor venues may be pulling people away from lingering in outdoor public areas.



That’s a major change from 1980, when large coffee chains were rare or nonexistent. Now, those third spaces are everywhere - and they’re often designed specifically to draw people in and keep them there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-better-city-spaces">Designing better city spaces </h2>



The research doesn’t just document a shift - it could shape how cities are designed in the future. Planners might use these insights to rethink how public spaces are built and how people move through them.



“Public space is such an important element of civic life, and today partly because it counteracts the polarization of digital space,” said Arianna Salazar-Miranda of Yale University. “The more we can keep improving public space, the more we can make our cities suited for convening.”



The team hopes this is just the beginning. Building on this study, researchers aim to broaden their understanding of how people interact with public environments.



“We are collecting footage from 40 squares in Europe,” said Fabio Duarte of MIT. “The question is: How can we learn at a larger scale? This is in part what we’re doing.”



The future of public space may depend on learning from its past - and adjusting to how people use it today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424662122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fewer people are stopping to talk in city spaces

City life has always had a reputation for being fast....

The deep sea holds mysteries we’ve barely begun to understand. It’s vast, dark, cold, and alive with astonishing biodiversity. Beneath its crushing pressures lie mineral-rich fields containing metals that are vital to emerging technologies. 



These include cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese, which are crucial for electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and advanced electronics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targets-for-deep-sea-mining">Targets for deep-sea mining</h2>



Now, international companies are eyeing this remote frontier for large-scale mining. Their target is polymetallic nodules, potato-sized lumps that are scattered across the ocean floor, especially in the central Pacific. These nodules formed over millions of years. 



Some businesses claim they can harvest the nodules with little environmental damage. Scientists, however, are sounding the alarm. 



At a recent meeting of the International Seabed Authority (<a href="https://www.isa.org.jm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISA</a>) in Kingston, Jamaica, researchers presented troubling data. They questioned whether deep-sea ecosystems could ever recover from mining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jadarite-described-as-earths-kryptonite-twin-has-potential-to-replace-fossil-fuels/">disruption</a>. 



This conversation arrives as nations push forward to finalize rules for commercial seabed extraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mining-may-cause-deep-sea-damage">Mining may cause deep sea damage</h2>



The DEEP REST project, led by European scientists, has spent years examining seafloor restoration. “If we remove nodules from the seabed, we do not know what we lose, only that it's lost forever,” the researchers concluded.



Jozee Sarrazin, a researcher at the French Institute for Ocean Science (<a href="http://eulacfoundation.org/en/french-institute-ocean-science-ifremer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ifremer</a>), explained the scope of the problem. 



“So far, all the restoration operations we have attempted within our DEEP REST project have been short-term. And what we observed is that, in the given time, that is to say a few years, the ecosystems do not recover,” she said.



The DEEP REST team emphasized that the long-term prospects remain uncertain. “If restoration is possible, it will take a very long time, and at the moment we don't have the data to be able to say if that will be 100 years or 1000 years,” Sarrazin said.



These findings question the very foundation of the seabed mining industry's environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-investing-in-asteroid-mining-make-you-a-billionaire/">claims</a>. The damage may not just last centuries. It might never heal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-life-depends-on-nodules">Ocean life depends on nodules</h2>



Though hostile in appearance, the deep sea teems with life. Far from being barren, the abyss is likely home to millions of unknown species. Creatures survive without sunlight, relying instead on chemical reactions, organic matter from above, and symbiotic relationships.



Among these residents are sponges, soft corals, sea anemones, and countless microorganisms. They depend on the hard surface of polymetallic nodules to anchor themselves in soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gold-mining-causes-long-lasting-damage-in-the-amazon-rainforest/">sediment</a>. Without these nodules, many species cannot survive.



Matthias Haeckel, from the German research center GEOMAR, highlighted this critical dependency. “The fauna only exists in these areas because they need the hard substrate of the nodule to attach,” Haeckel said during his presentation of the MiningImpact project in Jamaica.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mining-causes-damage-to-sea-life">Mining causes damage to sea life</h2>



Mining techniques involve vacuuming up nodules while releasing plumes of sediment. These activities disturb a wide radius around each site. 



The MiningImpact study found that this approach decreases population densities and biodiversity while impairing ecosystem <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-impacts-marine-life-for-decades/">function</a>.



The nodules themselves are not replaceable within any human timeframe. “To make the story short, in the end, we're talking about recovery times of thousands of years,” said Haeckel. These timescales stretch far beyond any meaningful conservation plan.



The process does more than displace marine life. It affects how nutrients cycle, how species interact, and how habitats maintain balance. With no way to predict full outcomes, many researchers urge restraint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-damage-remains-despite-mining-trials">Damage remains despite mining trials</h2>



Some scientists are testing whether restoration can be engineered. “We designed artificial nodules made of deep-sea clay and we placed them at different sites,” noted Sabine Gollner, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Netherlands</a> Institute for Sea Research.



These nodules mimic the natural substrates that marine organisms need. But results take time. 



“When you take into account the slow growth rates in the deep sea, the slow processes, it will take quite some more years to find out if restoration is effective and to what degree,” Gollner noted.



Even with creative ideas and dedicated research, restoration remains hypothetical. No one can yet claim success at bringing back lost deep-sea ecosystems. And until long-term data become available, every mining operation risks doing irreversible damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-areas-should-remain-untouched">Some areas should remain untouched</h2>



One type of deep-sea habitat holds particular value: hydrothermal vents. These underwater geysers release heated, mineral-rich water through cracks in the seafloor. The ecosystems built around them are among the most unique on Earth.



Massive sulfide deposits near these vents are rich in metals, making them tempting targets for mining. But scientists caution that damage here would be catastrophic. 



“If we extract massive sulfides near active vents, we know what we lose, and we must prevent loss,” the DEEP REST study concluded.



These sites support specialized creatures found nowhere else. Their removal would erase entire evolutionary pathways. The vents also play a role in regulating global chemistry and microbial activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mining-rules-ignore-long-term-damage">Mining rules ignore long-term damage</h2>



The ISA continues negotiating the international mining code. Scientists urge that these rules must include restoration principles, but also acknowledge a hard truth. 



“It's good to include it but with a clear statement that at this moment in time, it cannot be taken into account to reach agreed environmental goals,” said Gollner. “For example, a contractor shouldn't be allowed to use that argument to mine a larger area.”



Until the world better understands the deep sea, calls for caution continue to grow. The rush for critical minerals may lead us to destroy what we do not yet comprehend. 



Mining the seafloor risks losing lifeforms and systems shaped over eons, all for short-term technological gain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead-for-the-deep">What lies ahead for the deep</h2>



The deep ocean holds scientific wonder, ecological value, and untapped biodiversity. Once disrupted, it may never return to its natural state. With mining rules still under negotiation, the time to ask hard questions is now.



Can we afford to treat the seafloor as a resource deposit? Or should we recognize it as a living system, still largely uncharted, and protect it accordingly? The world must decide before the damage becomes permanent.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08921-3">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep-sea ecosystems may never heal from mining damage

The deep sea holds mysteries we’ve barely begun to understand....

Climate change often appears gradual, but abrupt shifts may occur with little warning. Recent research reveals that sensitive subsystems - such as sea ice, permafrost, and rainforests - can suddenly tip into new states. 



These changes pose serious risks to ecosystems, water resources, and human populations.



"Abrupt shifts" refer to rapid, large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-winters-are-starting-to-look-more-like-spring/">changes</a> within a decade or less. These include sudden snow loss on the Tibetan Plateau, permafrost thaw, or sea ice collapse. Once triggered, these events may unfold faster than society can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-scientists-found-fast-changes">How scientists found fast changes</h2>



To detect these changes, the researchers applied Canny edge detection, a method from computer vision, to climate model data. The team scanned 82 environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-winters-are-no-longer-frozen-and-thats-a-problem/">variables</a> across 57 CMIP6 climate models.



The goal was to identify sharp changes in variables like sea surface salinity, snow cover, and carbon storage. 



Each model simulated a future where carbon dioxide rose by one percent per year for 140 years, reaching four times the pre-industrial level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-models-show-sudden-changes">Many models show sudden changes</h2>



The study from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> found that vulnerable regions included the Arctic, the Tibetan Plateau, and the North Atlantic subpolar gyre. In contrast, the Indian, West African, and South American monsoons remained relatively stable across most models. 



Subsystems showing more consistent abrupt changes included Arctic summer and winter sea ice, Antarctic sea ice, the North Atlantic subpolar gyre, land permafrost, and snow cover over the Tibetan Plateau.



Even systems not officially recognized as tipping elements experienced abrupt changes in several models, suggesting wider potential for sudden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-climate-will-permanently-change-by-2050-scientists-warn/">climate shifts</a> than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-cooling-in-the-north-atlantic">Fast cooling in the North Atlantic </h2>



Multiple climate models are detecting early signs of abrupt shifts in major Earth systems. In the North Atlantic subpolar gyre, surface waters are freshening and cooling, weakening ocean convection and disrupting currents like the AMOC. 



Twenty-four models showed abrupt temperature or salinity changes here - sometimes at just 0.5°C above preindustrial levels.



Over the Tibetan Plateau, 12 models showed rapid changes in snow-related variables. Upwelling shortwave radiation - a stand-in for albedo - shifted in 11 models, alongside sharp declines in snow depth and coverage. 



These changes could foreshadow glacier retreat, though most models don’t fully simulate glaciers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permafrost-and-forest-changes">Permafrost and forest changes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-becoming-a-source-of-global-warming/">Permafrost</a> in northern Asia may also thaw faster than expected. Nineteen models showed abrupt losses of frozen soil moisture across areas totaling over one million square kilometers (386,000 square miles), suggesting thawing could happen regionally even if localized shifts appear minor.



Even forests may not be immune. While slow to respond and harder to model, the Amazon and boreal forests showed sudden changes in vegetation indicators like leaf area index and carbon fluxes in up to five models, hinting at potential tipping points in these ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abrupt-sea-ice-changes">Abrupt sea ice changes</h2>



Sea ice showed some of the clearest abrupt shifts. Arctic summer ice, often seen as stable, experienced large abrupt shifts in 17 models. Winter sea ice showed abrupt losses in 21 models. 



Antarctic sea ice had fewer shifts, but 11 models showed area losses greater than 0.5 million square kilometers (193,000 square miles).



Barents sea ice, above Scandinavia and Russia, showed abrupt shifts in 43 models. Eighteen of them had large-area losses, beginning as early as 0.5°C above preindustrial levels. Two models had losses over 0.5 million square kilometers (193,000 square miles).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-heat-means-more-arctic-sea-ice-shifts">More heat means more Arctic sea ice shifts</h2>



The more a model simulated warming, the more abrupt shifts it showed. At 1.5°C, matching the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-withdraws-from-the-paris-treaty-as-trump-declares-energy-emergency/">Paris Agreement</a> limit, six of ten subsystems already showed sudden changes. This included the Arctic, North Atlantic, and Tibetan Plateau.



Models with higher climate sensitivity reached tipping conditions sooner. Shifts often happened between 0.5°C and 5°C, depending on the system.



Barents sea ice showed changes at lower warming than Antarctic sea ice or Arctic winter sea ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-abrupt-changes-may-be-missed">Some abrupt changes may be missed</h2>



Edge detection works well for fast transitions but misses slow-moving collapses. The models used do not simulate all systems fully, such as Greenland’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-in-antarctica-that-could-drown-cities-is-breaking-apart/">ice sheet</a>. So actual risks may be higher.



Also, fast warming in the models may mask slower but real-world patterns. The current CO₂ increase is slower than in the simulation, so future studies must adjust for that.



Even at 1.5°C of warming, many systems show abrupt shifts in multiple models. Monsoon systems may resist change, but polar and high-altitude regions respond fast.



This study does not predict precise tipping points, but it reveals just how close we might be. The next big change in our climate might not come gradually. It may hit all at once.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025AV001698" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AGU Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Abrupt collapse of Arctic sea ice may come with little warning

Climate change often appears gradual, but abrupt shifts may occur...

People with dementia often wait too long for a diagnosis. A new global study by UCL found that the average time from the first symptoms to diagnosis is 3.5 years. 



For early-onset dementia, the delay stretches to 4.1 years. These delays worsen access to care and lead to missed opportunities for support.



Researchers analyzed 13 studies from Europe, the US, Australia, and China, covering over 30,000 participants. They tracked the time from when symptoms first appeared - noticed by families or patients - to the formal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-confirmed-as-a-major-risk-factor-for-dementia/">diagnosis</a> by clinicians.



This is the first comprehensive review to measure this diagnostic gap across countries and dementia types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dementia-goes-undiagnosed">Why dementia goes undiagnosed</h2>



“Timely diagnosis of dementia remains a major global challenge, shaped by a complex set of factors, and specific healthcare strategies are urgently needed to improve it,” said lead author Dr. Vasiliki Orgeta from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/brain-sciences/psychiatry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Division of Psychiatry</a>.



Though early symptoms may appear subtle, many families delay action. People often mistake the signs for normal aging. In several countries, general practitioners refer patients to memory clinics, but often only after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-particular-sleep-stage-slow-wave-deep-is-most-important-for-preventing-dementia/">symptoms</a> become severe.



The diagnostic process itself is slow. Even in countries with established memory clinics, delays persist. On average, patients with frontotemporal dementia (FTD) waited 4.2 years. 



Those with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) faced a 3.6-year delay. The longest delays occurred in younger people with FTD, who waited 4.7 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-people-wait-longer">Young people wait longer</h2>



Younger patients face unique challenges. Their symptoms are unexpected and often misdiagnosed as stress or mental health issues. 



Two studies linked younger age directly to longer delays. Several others found that people with young-onset dementia saw multiple doctors before receiving a diagnosis.



Specialist services helped. In one Australian study, people who accessed a dedicated young-onset dementia clinic got diagnosed faster.



“Our work highlights the need for a clear conceptual framework on time to diagnosis in dementia, developed in collaboration with people with dementia, their caregivers, and supporters,” Dr. Orgeta added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waiting-for-dementia-diagnosis">Waiting for dementia diagnosis</h2>



Race, income, and education also played a role. One study from the US found that Black participants experienced longer delays compared to white participants.



This difference was partly due to income and education levels. Lower educational attainment and lack of insurance contributed to these diagnostic gaps.



Female patients, in some studies, were also more likely to wait longer. People without functional impairments tended to get delayed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">diagnoses</a> too. This shows that visible symptoms often trigger action - but subtle or early signs may not.



“Symptoms of dementia are often mistaken for normal aging, while fear, stigma, and low public awareness can discourage people from seeking help,” said study co-author Dr. Phuong Leung.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-type-of-dementia-often-missed">One type of dementia often missed</h2>



Frontotemporal dementia is harder to detect. It may present as behavioral or language issues rather than memory loss. In some studies, FTD patients were younger and had fewer memory symptoms than those with AD. This complexity caused doctors to misread symptoms or delay referrals.



“Within healthcare systems, inconsistent referral pathways, limited access to specialists, and under-resourced memory clinics can create further delays," said Professor Rafael Del-Pino-Casado from the University of Jaén in Spain.



"For some, language differences or a lack of culturally appropriate assessment tools can make access to timely diagnosis even harder.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speeding-up-detection">Speeding up detection</h2>



The review recommends setting up specialist services for young-onset dementia. These centers can reduce diagnostic delays and improve access to support. 



It also urges global efforts to improve training for doctors, awareness campaigns for the public, and policy frameworks to define acceptable diagnostic timelines.



“To speed up dementia diagnosis, we need action on multiple fronts," said Dr. Orgeta. "Public awareness campaigns can help improve understanding of early symptoms and reduce stigma, encouraging people to seek help sooner."



"Clinician training is critical to improve early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-is-a-growing-global-health-crisis-with-a-staggering-cost/">recognition</a> and referral, along with access to early intervention and individualized support so that people with dementia and their families can get the help they need."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-undiagnosed-dementia">Reducing undiagnosed dementia</h2>



Many people still believe dementia only affects older adults, a misconception that leaves younger patients undiagnosed and delays treatment, reducing quality of life.



The report calls for more large-scale studies and standard definitions of diagnostic intervals. Without accurate timelines, policy and planning efforts will fall short.



The authors argue for immediate investment in research, inclusive care systems, and better diagnostics. With the right steps, future generations could receive dementia diagnoses faster - and live better for longer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gps.70129" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dementia is going undiagnosed for years, especially in young patients

People with dementia often wait too long for a diagnosis....

Environmental concerns can sometimes feel especially urgent - and World Nature Conservation Day is one of those times. 



Observed each year on July 28, this occasion serves as a reminder of the vital role nature plays in our lives and how fragile that support has become.



Forests purify the air we breathe. Rivers nourish ecosystems and communities alike. But the balance is shifting. Temperatures are rising, habitats are shrinking, and pollution is spreading. These changes signal an urgent need for action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-conservation-nbsp-around-the-world">Nature conservation&nbsp;around the world</h2>



Though people have protected nature for centuries, the official celebration of this day began in the late 1900s. It arose in response to rapid environmental loss.



Since then, the initiative has grown worldwide. <a href="https://wildlifeday.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communities</a> hold awareness campaigns and workshops. People plant trees and attend talks. The core message stays the same. A healthy planet means a healthy future for all.



Nature’s health determines our survival. We depend on clean air, fertile soil, and fresh water. Nature gives us food, medicine, and mental peace. 



If ecosystems collapse, everyone suffers. World Nature Conservation Day is not about charity or good intentions. It is about preserving what keeps us alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-tools-for-wildlife-protection">Smart tools for wildlife protection</h2>



Nature is under threat, and illegal hunting remains one of the most serious dangers. Species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/">elephants</a> are often targeted for their tusks - putting entire populations at risk of extinction.



To stop this, experts have created a smart tool called PoachNet. It’s a digital system that uses artificial intelligence (AI) and GPS location data.



PoachNet studies patterns and predicts where poachers are most likely to strike next. The system then alerts local conservation teams, so they can act quickly and protect the animals.



This approach demonstrates how technology can protect wildlife before harm occurs. PoachNet isn’t just reactive - it’s proactive, working to stop threats before they happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-nature-conservation">A new era of nature conservation </h2>



Protecting animals isn't only about keeping them safe from harm. It also means learning how they live, move, and interact with their environment. Recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-caribou-movement-patterns-can-transform-conservation/">caribou research</a> is a good example of this idea in action.



Scientists are using GPS tracking devices to study individual caribou. These trackers show where each animal travels over time. 



What the experts discovered is that not all caribou move the same way. Each group has its own pattern, and that means each group needs a different kind of protection.



This research helps conservationists design special paths, called migration corridors, so caribou can move safely across the land. It also helps keep them away from busy roads and industrial areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guarding-the-oceans">Guarding the oceans </h2>



Protecting the ocean is difficult, especially because it's so large and hard to monitor. Marine conservation often struggles with enforcing rules, like fishing bans, in remote areas. Many people believe it’s too hard to stop illegal activity in such vast waters.



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-marine-protected-areas-working-satellites-reveal-the-truth/">recent research</a> shows that ocean protection is possible. Scientists studied over 1,000 marine protected areas using satellites and artificial intelligence (AI). These tools helped them track ship movements, even those trying to hide.



The researchers discovered that in places with strict fishing bans, illegal activity dropped. The radar technology detected hidden ships, and this allowed for better enforcement. The results prove that smart tools can make a big difference



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tagging-rays-to-help-save-them">Tagging rays to help save them</h2>



Conservation sometimes means learning about animals we rarely see. Rays are one such example. They move in ways that make them hard to track. 



For a long time, scientists couldn't follow rays closely because old tracking devices would fall off too soon.



That problem changed with the creation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-endangered-rays-a-new-chapter-in-marine-conservation/">new biologging tags</a>. These tags are advanced tools that include cameras, sensors, and machine learning. They stay attached longer and collect detailed information.



With these tools, scientists now know where rays swim, how they find food, and how they interact with other rays. This information helps create better marine protection plans, such as safe zones where rays can live without threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-world-nature-conservation-day">Significance of World Nature Conservation Day </h2>



Every action taken to protect nature - whether it involves tracking the hidden journeys of rays or studying the migration of caribou - plays an important role. No effort is too small when it comes to preserving the delicate balance that supports all life on Earth.



World Nature Conservation Day 2025 serves as a powerful reminder that protecting nature is not just about preserving beauty or wildlife. It is directly connected to our own future, health, and stability. When we care for nature, we care for ourselves.



The latest conservation research - from animal protection to smart ocean monitoring - shows how compassion and innovation can go hand in hand. We’re entering an era where conservation is no longer passive but dynamic, creative, and action-driven.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Nature Conservation Day 2025: A healthy future for all

Environmental concerns can sometimes feel especially urgent - and World...

About half of the dogs in the United States are overweight. That might not surprise you if your pup constantly begs for treats. But the reasons behind canine obesity go deeper than a dog’s appetite.



A recent study by scientists at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, in collaboration with the Dog Aging Project, points to a more complicated picture.



The study suggests that dog obesity is shaped by a complex mix of factors including breed, living environment, food motivation, and whether it’s the owner or the veterinarian who recognizes the issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breed-influences-dog-obesity-risk">Breed influences dog obesity risk</h2>



The researchers looked at data from dog owners and veterinarians, using survey responses and medical records to track patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canine-personality-traits-are-not-strongly-influenced-by-breed/">canine</a> weight. One major takeaway: breed groups matter.



Dogs from active breed groups - like retrievers, spaniels, and setters - were about 10% more likely to have a strong drive for food than other dogs.



“Our study confirmed that dogs in the sporting group - which in our study group were largely Labrador retrievers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-retrievers-and-all-dog-breeds-will-live-longer-lives-thanks-to-science/">Golden retrievers</a> - have a greater likelihood to have high food motivation,” said Dr. Kate Creevy, Dog Aging Project chief veterinary officer. 



“Given that these are two of the most common breeds in the U.S., it is vital that both veterinarians and dog owners understand the diet management strategies necessary for achieving a healthy weight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-environment">The role of environment </h2>



The study didn’t just stop at breed. Where a dog lives - and who it lives with - matters too. Dogs in urban areas and those in multi-dog homes were also more likely to have higher food motivation.



“It’s likely that these factors influence the amount of exercise that dogs get in addition to their access to food,” Creevy said. “Some dogs may seek food out of boredom, which may increase in environments where exercise and enrichment are less available." 



"Additionally, owners with multiple dogs may choose certain feeding practices - including free feeding - out of convenience, which can lead to more food being available.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-and-managing-a-dog-s-weight">Tracking and managing a dog's weight</h2>



Interestingly, the team also found that owners were more likely to watch their dog’s weight if they personally believed their dog was overweight. But if a vet noticed the weight issue and the owner didn’t, the owner was less likely to take action.



This disconnect might come down to a lack of familiarity with body condition scores (BCS) - a common tool vets use to assess fat accumulation in dogs.



“A BCS plays a key role in helping veterinarians communicate with owners about their dog’s weight, which is why we need to continue increasing use of these scores,” Creevy said. 



“Studies have shown that owners of dogs that are active in sports are more likely to know how to assess BCS, which suggests that owner motivation may play a role in learning how to apply BCS to help their dogs maintain a healthy weight.”



Even though it is standard practice, the study found that about a third of vet records didn’t include a BCS in the past year. That missing data can make it harder to track and manage a dog’s weight effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-weight-is-hard-even-for-dogs">Losing weight is hard - even for dogs</h2>



Knowing a dog is overweight is one thing. Helping them slim down is another. According to Creevy, previous research has shown that weight loss interventions for dogs are not always successful, especially if they’re not followed consistently.



“Sometimes there are issues in communication between the veterinarian and the owner, and given what we learned from this study, it’s also possible that some breeds require even stricter feeding practices," noted Creevy.



Weight loss plans that aren’t tailored or consistently followed can easily fall apart. That’s why expert guidance - and a plan that works for both the dog and the owner - is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-obese-dogs">Protecting obese dogs</h2>



If you think your dog may be overweight, the best step is to talk to an expert. A veterinarian can assess your dog’s body condition, suggest feeding guidelines, and help you create an exercise routine that makes sense for your pet.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/">Overweight dogs</a> are prone to numerous health problems, including skin disease, diabetes, and arthritis,” Creevy said. 



“It is imperative that veterinarians develop a better understanding of canine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/">obesity</a> and whether it may be linked to social, environmental, or demographic factors so that we can give every dog the best possible quality of life.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/86/5/ajvr.24.11.0358.xml">American Journal of Veterinary Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why are so many dogs obese? A new study reveals the truth

About half of the dogs in the United States are...

You might sweat through a July afternoon, yet still feel drowsy right on schedule when evening falls. A new study shows that our internal clock stays on its 24-hour beat in the heat by subtly reshaping the daily rise and fall of gene activity.



The research was led by theoretical biophysicist <a href="https://ithems.riken.jp/en/members/gen-kurosawa">Gen Kurosawa</a> at the RIKEN Center for Interdisciplinary Theoretical and Mathematical Sciences (<a href="https://ithems.riken.jp/en">iTHEMS</a>) in Japan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-temperature-speeds-reactions">Why temperature speeds reactions</h2>



Most chemical reactions run faster as the thermometer climbs. This is because heat lets molecules collide more often.



Left unchecked, the basic physics would cause every cellular process to speed up. Yet organisms show temperature compensation, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-color-of-light-impacts-our-internal-clocks-and-circadian-rhythms/">circadian rhythm</a> nearly the same.



Biologists use something called a Q10 value to measure how temperature affects reactions. Even a small 10°F increase can double the speed of many biological processes, showing just how unlikely it is for a body clock to stay completely stable.



This mystery has intrigued scientists who study biological clocks for decades and drives ongoing research into what keeps them so precise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-the-body-clock-steady">Keeping the body clock steady</h2>



The classic explanation comes from scientist Colin Pittendrigh. In 1954, he noticed that fruit flies kept emerging right on schedule, even when he changed the temperature in their chambers.



Pittendrigh's observation convinced researchers that the body clock carries built-in brakes to counteract the thermal push.



Subsequent models invoked competing chemical loops that lengthen or shorten the cycle so their temperature responses cancel out. 



These ideas work in theory yet do not fully capture the fine details of real gene-expression curves recorded in animals and plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-clock-changes-shape">The body clock changes shape</h2>



Kurosawa’s team found that the key isn’t adjusting the speed of the cycle. Instead, they discovered that changing the shape of the rhythm - something they call waveform distortion - makes the difference.



At higher temperatures, messenger RNA (<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Messenger-RNA-mRNA">mRNA</a>) levels climb sharply, linger, then glide down more slowly. This stretches one side of the wave and squeezes the other.



The total area under the curve - an indirect measure of how much protein is made - stays the same, which helps keep the overall cycle length steady.



Viewed on a graph, the once-smooth sine wave becomes a lopsided sawtooth. That geometry alone delivers the needed timekeeping fix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-math-trick-explains-time-in-heat">A math trick explains time in heat</h2>



To explain how this imbalance keeps the cycle steady, the researchers used a math technique called the renormalization group method. This technique is usually applied to complex, chaotic systems like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientific-surprise-as-turbulence-mixing-dynamics-captured-using-quantum-computing/">turbulence</a>.



The method teases out the slow backbone of a complicated set of equations, showing that only the downturn of the wave needs to relax to counteract universal speed-ups.



Because the analysis is analytical rather than purely simulated, it offers clear testable predictions about which part of the waveform should stretch when the thermostat rises. 



The predictions line up with time-lapse luciferase recordings of clock genes in cultured cells, lending extra weight to the math.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-clocks-match-the-model">Animal clocks match the model</h2>



Fruit flies, mice, and even bread mold fungi show the predicted skew when they grow in warmer rooms, matching the model line for line. 



Heat-pulse <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9528772/">experiments</a> also shift PER and TIM proteins in the direction the theory foresees, confirming that proteins follow the mRNA wave.



In flies carrying the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7481773/">perL mutation</a>, the distortion is exaggerated and the period actually lengthens, highlighting how a single genetic tweak can upset the balance. That mutant teaches researchers where the tipping points hide in the molecular wiring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wave-shape-affects-sleep-and-shiftwork">Wave shape affects sleep and shiftwork</h2>



A sturdier but less responsive clock sounds good until you cross several time zones or work overnight. 



Modeling work suggests that as the waveform grows more distorted, the range of light signals that can reset the clock narrows, making jet lag and shift-work fatigue harder to shake.&nbsp;



“The degree of waveform distortion in clock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tens-of-thousands-of-hidden-dark-genes-discovered-in-humans/">genes</a> could be a biomarker that helps us better understand sleep disorders,” Kurosawa said. 



Ignoring shape may explain why some experimental drugs that tweak reaction rates never made it to the clinic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-and-light-warp-rhythms">Heat and light warp rhythms</h2>



Changes in the shape of the body clock’s rhythm also affect how it responds to winter darkness and bright summer light - suggesting a possible molecular link between temperature changes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunlight-plays-a-critical-role-in-human-sleep/">seasonal mood shifts</a>.



Insects enduring broad temperature ranges show sluggish adjustments because a heavily distorted wave resists dawn cues - a possibility raised by field <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26120562/">studies</a> on temperature-trained flies.&nbsp;



A distorted wave in January may tell migratory birds when to head south or signal bees to forage later in the day. That knowledge could guide design of smart lighting systems that change spectrum and intensity as temperatures shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-shape-to-treatment-options">From shape to treatment options</h2>



Researchers now need to pin down the enzymes that slow the evening slide of clock mRNA and hunt for drugs that can nudge that process. 



The experts also want to learn whether age, diet, or genetic variation affects how easily the waveform bends. That could open paths to more tailored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circadian-medicine-light-therapy-could-help-millions-of-heart-patients/">chronotherapy</a>.



Answering these questions will also clarify whether waveform signatures can serve as early warning markers for metabolic disease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013246">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human body clocks distort time to stay on schedule in the heat

You might sweat through a July afternoon, yet still feel...

Mesopelagic fish, living hundreds of meters below the surface, play a quiet but powerful role in carbon cycling. 



A new study confirms that deep-sea fish excrete carbonate minerals, just like their shallow-water relatives. Their massive biomass and physiological traits make them a critical but overlooked part of ocean chemistry.



Researchers from the University of Miami <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosenstiel School</a> studied the blackbelly rosefish, a deep-sea species that tolerates lab conditions. They confirmed it produces ichthyocarbonate - a mineral excreted by the intestines to maintain salt and water balance.



“Mesopelagic fish live in deep, cold, high-pressure environments, and until now, it was unclear if they produced carbonate like shallow water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> do - or at what rate,” said Martin Grosell, lead author of the study. 



“This study is the first to confirm that they do and that the mechanisms and characteristics of ichthyocarbonate formation are remarkably consistent across depths.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-fish-produce-carbonate">Deep-sea fish produce carbonate </h2>



At 6°C, mirroring its native depth, the blackbelly rosefish excreted carbonate at about 5 mg/kg/hour. This aligns with predictions from previous models that connect metabolism, temperature, and depth.



The study also tested how carbonate formation resists change. Even when held in laboratory settings far from their original pressure conditions, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-removes-key-nutrients-from-marine-ecosystems/">fish</a> continued producing carbonate. This suggests the process is robust and not sensitive to depth-induced pressure changes.



Carbonate excretion comes from the gastrointestinal tract. It’s driven by ion transporters that move bicarbonate into the gut. There, it reacts with calcium and magnesium to form solid minerals. These are expelled into seawater and can later dissolve or sink.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-fish-and-carbon-cycling">Deep fish and carbon cycling</h2>



The researchers examined the carbonate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/">composition</a> of the blackbelly rosefish. They found that it matched the mineral makeup found in shallow-water species. Magnesium-rich calcite dominated, with minor aragonite and other forms. These materials dissolve at different rates, affecting their fate in the water column.



The uniformity suggests that regardless of where fish live, their carbonate waste behaves similarly once expelled. This means deep-sea fish can contribute to upper-ocean carbonate chemistry even if they dwell much deeper.



“This research fills a major gap in our understanding of ocean chemistry and carbon cycling,” said Amanda Oehlert, co-author and assistant professor. 



“With mesopelagic fish playing such a significant role, their contribution to carbonate flux - and how it might change with warming oceans - deserves greater attention.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-engineers-of-the-ocean">Chemical engineers of the ocean</h2>



By verifying carbonate production in mesopelagic fish, this work supports broader carbon flux models. Until now, those models included deep fish as contributors, but lacked direct measurements. This new data gives them firmer footing.



“These results offer strong support for global models of fish-derived carbonate production, which had assumed - but not verified - that mesopelagic species contribute at similar rates,” Grosell said. “Mesopelagic fish aren’t just prey; they’re chemical engineers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unseen-impacts-of-fishing-trawling-fuels-climate-change/">ocean</a>.”



The study also suggests that mesopelagic fish could influence carbon export. Their carbonates may either dissolve near the surface or fall deeper, adding to seafloor sediments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-carbon-budgets">Implications for carbon budgets</h2>



Carbonates affect seawater alkalinity and pH buffering. Fish-sourced minerals, especially from deep waters, could impact how oceans respond to acidification and warming. 



These particles interact with dissolved carbon and influence chemical stability at depth. The study’s results could help refine Earth system models used to forecast these changes.



The researchers stress that ichthyocarbonate is not trivial waste. It is a steady mineral output with wide-scale consequences. It travels, dissolves, or settles, shaping carbon flow through ocean layers. With up to 94% of global fish biomass living in mesopelagic zones, their contributions matter.



Understanding when and where this mineral is released is key. It could improve predictions of long-term carbon storage.



"Ichthyocarbonate release by individual fish is episodic and under sophisticated endocrine control, but we know very little about the timing and frequency of release, offering an important area for future research," concluded the study authors. 



The study was funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> and the University of Miami. The findings are published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/14/jeb249834/368610/Osmoregulation-by-the-gastro-intestinal-tract-of" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish in the deep sea help power the ocean's carbon cycle

Mesopelagic fish, living hundreds of meters below the surface, play...

The Gobi Desert just gained another actor in its cast of Late Cretaceous characters. Paleontologists have unveiled Shri rapax, a stocky, two legged predator with a body that stretched only about 6.5 feet (2 meters) but had some serious weaponry. 



Unearthed after a winding journey through private collections, and eventually repatriated to Mongolia, the fossil shows a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">creature</a> that roamed dune laced lakeshores between 75 and 71 million years ago. 



Its most arresting feature is a thumb claw measuring 3.1 in (nearly 8 cm) long, which is almost double that of a similarly sized Velociraptor.



Andrea Cau, an independent Italian paleontologist who led the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2530148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">description</a>, worked alongside scientists from the Royal Belgian Institute of <a href="https://www.naturalsciences.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Sciences</a> and North Carolina State University (<a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCSU</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shri-rapax-hunted-with-hands-not-feet">Shri rapax hunted with hands, not feet</h2>



The hands of this new <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/dromaeosauridae.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dromaeosaurid</a> are 150 percent more robust than those of Velociraptor, even though the two raptors share a comparable body length.



Digital scans reveal thick finger bones capped by an oversized claw with an outer curve that is 162 percent the length of the supporting phalanx - this is a proportion unmatched among known raptors.



“The rapacious features we see in the hand signal a predator that relied on pure grip strength rather than slashing kicks,” said Cau.



By contrast, the famous sickle-shaped toe claw of Velociraptor is better suited to quick, repeated strikes. Shri rapax appears to have shifted that killing focus to its thumbs, thus freeing its feet for balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-claws-helped-grab-bigger-prey">Big claws helped grab bigger prey</h2>



Team member Tsogtbaatar Chinzorig noted that the middle claw’s 3.1 inch (8 cm) span “likely enabled it to grasp and restrain relatively large prey.”



Modern birds of prey offer a parallel: talons grow disproportionately bigger in species that tackle animals heavier than themselves, a link confirmed by biomechanical <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0007999" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> on eagle and hawk feet.



Applying that principle to Shri rapax suggests that these dinosaurs targeted bigger and bulkier prey than the lizards or small mammals favoured by many Gobi <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-suggests-early-dinosaurs-were-larger-than-we-thought/">carnivores</a> of similar size.



Its stout skull, digitally reconstructed from CT data, hints at a bite built to finish the job once those powerful hands locked on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-fought-prey-face-to-face">It fought prey face to face</h2>



The bones come from the Djadokhta Formation, a wind blown world that also preserved a Velociraptor locking jaws with a ceratopsian named Protoceratops. 



Those desert showdowns often ended badly for predator and prey alike, as the famous “fighting dinosaurs” pair demonstrates.



Shri rapax brings a fresh twist to that narrative. Instead of pouncing with toe talons, it may have wrestled stocky herbivores face to face, anchoring itself with those muscular thumbs while delivering short, crushing bites.



That strategy could explain why its pubic bones tilt slightly less backward than in Velociraptor - a more upright stance may have helped brace against struggling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">prey</a>.



Arm bones also show enlarged muscle scars, especially for the biceps, hinting at strokes powerful enough to reel opponents inward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shri-rapax-lived-with-many-desert-raptors">Shri rapax lived with many desert raptors</h2>



The discovery of Shri rapax adds to the already dense concentration of mid-sized theropods in the Gobi fossil record. 



At least three, closely related raptor species now appear to have shared overlapping environments within the Djadokhta Formation, each with different adaptations to prey size, skull strength, and forelimb anatomy. 



That level of ecological diversity in a single predator guild is rare in modern ecosystems, making the Late Cretaceous Gobi a unique case for studying niche partitioning.



Its presence also challenges previous assumptions about faunal turnover between Mongolian formations. 



While many Djadokhtan and Baruungoyotan species appear in different sedimentary contexts, the morphological similarities and close phylogenetic ties between Shri rapax and Shri devi suggest that geographic or environmental barriers, not just time, may have shaped their evolution.&nbsp;



More precise dating and fossil finds could help clarify whether these raptors coexisted or followed each other in rapid succession.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-evolved-differently-from-its-cousin">It evolved differently from its cousin</h2>



Morphological analyses place Shri rapax as the sister species of Shri devi, named in 2021 from rock layers a few million years younger. 



The two share short snouts but diverge sharply in limb anatomy, suggesting niche partitioning within a single raptor lineage.



Broader <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-024-02222-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> of raptor skull shapes show that bite mechanics, not just claws, steer dietary specialization across the group. Shri rapax fits that trend, pairing a reinforced jaw with hardware built for grappling.



Its discovery also undercuts the idea that all mid-sized Gobi predators hunted in the same way. Even among close cousins, evolution seems to have encouraged experimental toolkits to avoid competition.



Future field seasons will test whether additional Shri remains turn up alongside fossils of armored ankylosaurs or juvenile ceratopsians, the prey most logically matched to a hand first hunting style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-raptor-science">What it means for raptor science</h2>



Shri rapax reminds researchers that predatory dinosaurs were not defined solely by iconic toe claws. Hands, skulls, and tails combined in unique ways to solve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/">ecological</a> puzzles.



The find highlights how repatriated specimens can rewrite textbooks, years after they were first dug up. Because the fossil’s journey is now documented, it can legally anchor a new species and invite further study.



Its anatomy will likely enter computer models that explore strength limits of dinosaur limbs, helping scientists estimate muscle mass and pulling force. 



Those numbers could verify whether the thumb claw truly outperformed the famous foot claw in terms of absolute grip.



Finally, the discovery emphasizes the value of Mongolia’s desert sites, where fine sand and rapid burial continue to freeze dramatic moments of Mesozoic life in place for modern science.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2530148?scroll=top&amp;needAccess=true" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dinosaur discovered that killed with its thumbs instead of claws

The Gobi Desert just gained another actor in its cast...

Female gorillas adjust their aggression depending on their needs and group structure. This finding comes from a 25-year-long study by Nikolaos Smit and Martha Robbins. 



The research shows that female gorillas use simple but flexible rules, called aggression heuristics, based on risk and social dynamics.



"Animals that live in groups often compete for access to resources such as food and mates. The potential costs of this competition can drive the formation of hierarchies that determine priority of access to resources without superfluous conflicts," wrote the study authors. 



"Accordingly, individuals may choose strategically who they compete with, in order to minimize costs and maximize gains."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-gorillas-take-more-risks">Pregnant gorillas take more risks</h2>



The study includes data from five wild gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">groups</a> across Gabon and Uganda. The researchers found that most aggression comes from higher-ranking females targeting those just below them. However, 42% of aggression was aimed upward, toward more powerful females.



"Aggression, a proxy for competition, tends to increase when resources are limited and is usually directed toward lower-ranking individuals but can vary toward groupmates of different ranks, and variation is observed even within species," said lead author Nikos Smit from the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



Pregnant and lactating females showed more aggression toward higher-ranking groupmates. Among them, females in their third trimester took the most risk. These reproductive states require more energy, which may drive these females to act more boldly, especially when food is scarce.



Interestingly, lactating females, despite higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">energy needs</a>, were less aggressive toward powerful rivals than pregnant ones. This may reflect caution to protect their infants from retaliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorilla-aggression-and-risky-behaviors">Gorilla aggression and risky behaviors </h2>



Group makeup plays a big role in aggression direction. Female gorillas living in groups with more adult males tended to direct aggression toward more dominant females. This might be because male presence offers a protective buffer and reduces retaliation risks.



In contrast, in groups with more females, aggression was usually aimed downward. With more competition, females might prefer safer confrontations with weaker individuals.



These results show how gorillas balance risk and reward. "Overall, our results confirm that an individual's circumstantial needs and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">social</a> environment may influence individual decisions to engage in more risky behaviors such as aggression toward more powerful groupmates," said study senior author Martha Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weak-gorillas-use-light-aggression">Weak gorillas use light aggression</h2>



The researchers analyzed 6,871 aggressive interactions. Mild forms of aggression, such as vocalizations or vegetation pulling, were more common in upward aggression. Severe aggression, such as hitting or biting, was less frequent but present across the board.



The team quantified each aggressive act using a score. This score measured the difference in rank between the aggressor and the target. A high positive score meant a low-ranking female attacked a high-ranking one. A negative score meant aggression went down the hierarchy.



Mild aggression had higher average scores. This shows females prefer safer, non-escalating tactics when confronting stronger groupmates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-adjust-aggression-to-the-situation">Gorillas adjust aggression to the situation</h2>



This study reveals that female gorillas follow simple rules when managing conflict. These rules change with the number of males and females in the group, reproductive status, and other social factors.



The authors highlight that such flexible aggression strategies may not just apply to gorillas. Other species, including humans, may also shift behavior based on risk, reward, and group dynamics.



Their work adds to growing evidence showing that social animals, like gorillas, make strategic decisions. They do not just follow fixed species-wide instincts. Instead, they adapt based on the challenges they face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-transparency-and-broader-impact">Research transparency and broader impact</h2>



This study not only opens new questions about the evolution of social rules in primates but also makes its <a href="https://gitlab.com/nksmt/GorillaHeuristics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data and code</a> public.



Funded by <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Society</a> and several global conservation groups, this research highlights how long-term behavioral monitoring helps us understand animal societies and perhaps our own.



"Our study provides critical insights into the evolution of competitive behavior, showing that aggression heuristics, the simple rules that animals use to guide their aggressive interactions, are not simply species-specific but also dependent on the conditions that populations and individuals experience," noted the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/107093v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gorillas adjust their aggression based on risk and reward

Female gorillas adjust their aggression depending on their needs and...

A fossil dug up during the Civil War has spent more than a century mislabeled. Once thought to be a seaworm, it turns out the creature is something entirely different - and far more important.



It’s called Palaeocampa anthrax. And according to scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, it may be the first known member of its group to make the jump from sea to land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-sitting-in-a-museum-drawer">Fossil sitting in a museum drawer</h2>



The fossil was sitting in a drawer at Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology. Richard J. Knecht, a postdoctoral researcher from the University of Michigan, decided to take a closer look. 



What Knecht saw didn’t match the label. The creature wasn’t a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millipede-legs-grow-in-an-unexpected-way/">millipede</a>, or a caterpillar, or even a worm. It was a lobopod.



Lobopods are soft-bodied invertebrates that look like worms with legs. They’re considered ancestors of all arthropods - insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/">spiders</a>, and crustaceans. Until now, they were believed to be purely marine animals that lived over 500 million years ago.



But this fossil tells a different story. "This is the first evidence that we have that this group actually did leave the ocean," Knecht said. "Transitioning from a saltwater environment, even to a freshwater environment, is a major evolutionary step." 



"Any time you find a group that made this transition, it's not just insightful, it's really important evolutionarily to try to understand how this happened." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misidentified-for-over-a-century">Misidentified for over a century</h2>



Since it was first discovered, this lobopod fossil has been misclassified multiple times. Photos of it have appeared in scientific studies, but no one realized what it truly was.



"When the specimen was first discovered, lobopods didn't even exist as a group," said Knecht. "This is an example of why revisiting older specimens can be of real value." 



"Even specimens that are iconic and super well known provide an opportunity to make big discoveries just by viewing them with new techniques and fresh perspectives." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-all-came-down-to-the-spines">It all came down to the spines</h2>



This particular lobopod doesn’t look like much at first glance. It resembles a fuzzy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-caterpillars-defend-their-territory-without-a-fight/">caterpillar</a>, with tiny spines and bristles running down its body.



But when examined more closely, it stands apart from other lobopods. Most lobopodian spines grow in a pattern like stacked cones. Palaeocampa anthrax’s spines don’t. They’re segmented like bamboo, each one ending in a flat, turret-like tip.



Then came the real surprise: orange halos around the tips of the spines. That unusual feature led the team to ask a new question - was this lobopod fossil leaving behind a chemical clue?



To answer that, Knecht teamed up with Nanfang Yu, a physicist at Columbia University. Using infrared spectroscopy, they found fossilized molecules at the tips of the spines. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-strategy-suits-dry-ground">Defense strategy suits dry ground</h2>



These molecules weren’t found anywhere else on the lobopod fossil or the surrounding rock. This pointed to a startling possibility: the creature might have secreted chemicals from the tips of its spines - possibly for defense.



"If I were to place a chip on the table, I'd say this organism was probably more terrestrial or amphibious, specifically because of that tip. It makes more sense in an aerial rather than a subaqueous environment," Knecht said.



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/divers-discovered-tiny-sea-creatures-clavelina-that-resemble-swimming-panda-bear-skeletons/">sea creatures</a> with spines use them to inject toxins. But if a defense mechanism simply leaks from the tip, it wouldn't work well underwater. It would just wash away. That kind of system makes a lot more sense on land or near land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-shot-fossil-find">A long shot fossil find</h2>



Finding a soft-bodied fossil like this is rare. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">Invertebrates</a> don’t have bones, and their bodies decompose fast. To preserve one, it must die in just the right conditions - usually in oxygen-poor water with fine sediment that covers the body almost immediately.



That’s what makes sites like Mazon Creek in Illinois and Montceau-les-Mines in France so valuable. These sites, known as Lagerstätten, preserve fossils in exceptional detail. And that’s where Palaeocampa anthrax was found.



The fossil is one of only two lobopods from the Carboniferous period. It's also the youngest known example of its kind - and potentially the first to show evidence of life outside the sea.



"It's like winning the lottery not once, but three times. First, that the site existed at all; second, to have this level of preservation; and third, to then find it over 300 million years later," Knecht said. "It's a series of statistical miracles."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-fossil-matters">Why this fossil matters</h2>



This fossil does more than correct a case of mistaken identity. It shows that lobopods - some of the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-worm-comes-back-to-life-after-46000-years/">ancestors</a> of insects and spiders - may have begun exploring land far earlier than anyone thought.



It also proves the value of looking at old things in new ways. A mislabeled fossil, sitting in a drawer for 150 years, just rewrote a chapter of life’s story on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08483-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Richard J. Knecht



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Forgotten fossil is reshaping the theory of evolution on land

A fossil dug up during the Civil War has spent...

Up to now, scientists have followed sharks, turtles, and even albatrosses by strapping recorders to their bodies, yet most rays have slipped through that technological net. 



Biologging - attaching tiny sensors that record movement, sound, and surroundings - has thrived in other species, but rays’ smooth skin and fin-like bodies limited most attempts to just a few hours.



The whitespotted eagle ray, a six and a half foot wide coastal predator, is listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/42564343/2924463" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>). 



Dr. Matt Ajemian of Florida Atlantic University’s <a href="https://www.fau.edu/hboi/">Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute</a> led a team that finally built a tag that can track rays for up to 60 hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-eagle-rays-are-hard-to-track">Why eagle rays are hard to track</h2>



Studying rays in the wild is tougher than tracking sharks. Their flat bodies lack a sturdy dorsal fin for clamps, and their skin feels almost velvety, so adhesives and darts fail fast.



Many species migrate across reefs, lagoons, and shipping lanes, meaning any tag must survive swift turns and strong cross currents.



Fieldwork is further hampered by conservation rules that limit handling time, leaving researchers mere seconds to attach equipment.



Because of these hurdles, less than ten published studies have reported fine scale behavior of pelagic rays, compared with hundreds of sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-new-tag-works">How the new tag works</h2>



The Harbor Branch team nested a camera, motion sensors, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hydrophone.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrophone</a>, satellite pinger, and acoustic beacon inside a package smaller than a paperback and lighter than one pound.



Silicone suction cups hold the tag to the ray’s head, but the breakthrough was a soft strap that loops through the animal’s spiracles, the small breathing holes behind each eye, adding grip without piercing skin.



“Our goal was to create a system that could be applied in seconds, stay on during natural behaviors, and collect rich, multi dimensional data,” said Ajemian. Attachment now takes about eight seconds on a gently restrained ray.&nbsp;



In sea trials off Bermuda, ten tagged rays kept their devices for an average of 21 hours, and one individual carried it 59.2 hours, three times longer than previous ray tags.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-eagle-rays-do-underwater">What eagle rays do underwater</h2>



Video showed the fish cruising over seagrass, coral rubble, sand flats, and reef ledges - dives that matched depth readings down to 72 feet.



“We’ve shown that complex behaviors, like the crunching of clams, can be identified using sound and movement data alone, even without video,” noted doctoral researcher Cecilia Hampton. 



Audio captured the distinct crack of crushed clams, confirming feeding bouts even when the camera switched off to save battery. Motion logs revealed rhythmic wingbeats while swimming and chaotic bursts during bottom digging before prey capture.



The tag also filmed brief meetings with other eagle rays and a curious barracuda, hinting at social and predator prey links that surface observers rarely see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-reads-ray-movements">AI reads ray movements</h2>



Every second, the tag’s accelerometer and gyroscope, parts of an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), recorded 50 data points per axis.



A supervised Random Forest model trained on one ray’s footage correctly labeled “swimming” 99.6 percent of the time and picked out “browsing” and “digging” behaviors with useful accuracy.



Similar machine learning approaches already classify accelerometer data in cattle and narwhals, showing the method scales across species.



As training libraries grow, future tags may drop the camera entirely, extending battery life while still logging every clam crunch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-endangered-eagle-rays">Saving endangered eagle rays</h2>



Eagle rays help control conch and clam populations, yet bycatch, coastal construction, and targeted fisheries have pushed <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/04/19/2024-08340/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-90-day-finding-on-a-petition-to-list-the-whitespotted-eagle-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numbers</a> down 50 to 79 percent in three decades.



Knowing where and when rays feed lets managers draw smarter no take zones and adjust dredging schedules to avoid peak foraging periods.



The new tags revealed long stays around inlet passes, data that could guide boat speed limits in those hotspots.



They also showed night time visits to shellfish farms, backing earlier acoustic surveys that hinted at after dark foraging on cultured clams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-tracking-eagle-rays">What’s next for tracking eagle rays</h2>



Slimmer sensor suites and longer life releases could turn rays into mobile habitat monitors, sampling noise, temperature, and water quality across coastal grids.



Other smooth skinned species, such as cownose rays and manta rays, share similar spiracle shapes, so minor tweaks may spread the method throughout the family and even to small sandbar skates.



Biologging on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80744-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bluefin tuna</a> recently recorded a dramatic orca attack, proving that tags can chronicle entire food web interactions.



Combining these broader community insights with the new ray data could finally reveal how predators, prey, and habitats interact along tropical coastlines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://animalbiotelemetry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40317-025-00416-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Biotelemetry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tracking endangered rays: A new chapter in marine conservation

Up to now, scientists have followed sharks, turtles, and even...

Coral reefs have long been seen as flexible and resilient - bustling underwater cities where species can shift diets, share space, and adapt to change. But a new study challenges that assumption. 



The research reveals that many reef animals are far less adaptable than expected, relying on narrow energy pathways linked to specific food sources. In other words, these creatures may live side-by-side, but they aren’t eating from the same buffet.



Led by scientists at the University of Rhode Island’s <a href="https://web.uri.edu/gso/">Graduate School of Oceanography</a>, the study focused on three common species of snapper in the Red Sea: Lutjanus kasmira, L. ehrenbergii, and L. fulviflamma. 



All three were believed to be generalist predators, able to switch diets and thrive on a mix of prey. But when researchers tracked what these fish were really eating, the results told a different story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-each-fish-has-its-own-menu">Each fish has its own menu</h2>



The team used a high-resolution method called compound-specific stable isotope analysis of amino acids (CSIA-AA). 



This technique lets scientists trace how carbon and nitrogen - key building blocks of life - move through an ecosystem over time. It’s not a short-term look at diet; it’s a long-term window into how energy flows.



What they found was striking: Lutjanus kasmira fed almost entirely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/">plankton</a> drifting in the water column, L. ehrenbergii was tied to food chains rooted in macroalgae on the seafloor, and L. fulviflamma relied mainly on energy drawn from coral-based systems.



“When you dive on these beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-value-of-coral-reefs-in-the-red-sea/">Red Sea reefs</a>, one of the first things that you’ll notice is these snapper species schooling together in perfect synchrony. We would never have guessed that each had carved out its own unique niche within these complex, biodiverse reef food webs,” said Professor Kelton McMahon.



These species aren’t opportunistic feeders hopping from one source to another. They’re loyal to specific food channels. And it’s not just the snappers - entire food webs are locked into these narrow lanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-or-nothing-coral-food-webs">All or nothing coral food webs</h2>



In most ecosystems, we expect redundancy - multiple species doing similar jobs, drawing from shared resources. This overlap can make a system resilient. If one part fails, others can fill in.



But on these reefs, that overlap is missing. The study shows energy moves in what the team calls “vertical silos.” Each silo begins with a different primary producer - phytoplankton, macroalgae, or coral - and ends with specific predators.



“It’s one thing to see a species or two specializing on a specific food item, but to see entire food chains of potentially dozens or even hundreds of species form tight relationships connected to a single primary producer (e.g., macroalgae) when equally tasty coral is just inches away fundamentally reshapes how we think about biodiversity of coral reefs,” said McMahon.



That rigid structure comes with risk. If one primary producer is lost - say, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/">bleaching</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/">overfishing</a>, or warming seas - it could disrupt the entire chain that depends on it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-in-reef-food-webs">Patterns in reef food webs</h2>



The research came from McMahon’s Ocean Ecogeochemistry Lab at URI, which studies how food moves through ecosystems and how animals’ diets reveal deeper environmental patterns. 



The lab uses CSIA-AA to go beyond what an animal ate last week - it helps reveal what’s sustained them over time.



“People have used isotopes to understand food webs for nearly a century, where they turn an organism into a single isotope value," said McMahon. 



"I’ve spent my career developing knowledge and tools to isolate and analyze all individual compounds within complex organisms, unlocking a metabolic history of organisms in a way we have never done before."



"That gives us the power to track where different sources of energy come from, and, in doing so, reveal patterns in the food web we couldn’t see before."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-with-advanced-tools">New insights with advanced tools</h2>



The samples used in this study were collected over 15 years ago. But the analytical tools didn’t yet exist to make sense of them - until now.



“I collected these samples 15 years ago as a postdoc at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology,” shared McMahon. 



"The data were there, but I didn’t yet have the tools or perspective to make sense of it in a meaningful way." 



"Sometimes, you have to let an idea sit until the knowledge and methods mature enough to be impactful. Finally, I feel prepared to handle this work in the way it deserves, and the outcome definitely rewarded that patience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-complex-ecological-problems">Solving complex ecological problems </h2>



This research opens up a new way to look at ecosystems - not just reefs, but possibly kelp forests, deep-sea environments, and coastal systems too. 



The team plans to apply this approach to other habitats and use DNA metabarcoding to better understand which prey are powering these energy silos.



“I get excited about opening up access to knowledge that people have been seeking for a long time,” said McMahon. 



“In my lab, we don’t specialize on a system or species; we’ve worked in Antarctica with penguins, on ancient human diet in MesoAmerica, and locally with the burgeoning jonah crab fishery."



"Our goal is to develop tools that solve vexing ecological problems, and make sure diverse people and approaches are effectively brought together.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225007948">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Coral reef food webs are more fragile than we thought

Coral reefs have long been seen as flexible and resilient...

For wild animals, survival may come down to the split-second decision to bolt or stay put when danger appears. A new study traces that choice to a tiny cluster of neurons deep in the midbrain.



By comparing two closely related deer mouse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-brains-reveal-big-differences-among-species/">species</a>, the team showed that evolution simply tunes the sensitivity of this hub rather than rebuilding the whole defensive network. 



Forest-dwelling Peromyscus maniculatus flee at the faintest hint of a hawk, while open field Peromyscus polionotus remain statues until the threat becomes overwhelming.



Study co-lead Felix Baier of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> teamed up with Karl Farrow at the Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (<a href="https://vib.be/nl#/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VIB</a>) in Leuven to identify the neurons involved in the brain's survival switch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-senses-different-instincts">Same senses, different instincts</h2>



Predators strike in milliseconds, yet landscapes differ. Animals can easily take cover in a brushy habitat, but not necessarily on the prairie. 



As a result, deer mice have evolved opposite default settings, even though their eyes and ears register danger with equal fidelity.



Baier’s group confirmed this by showing identical activity in the optic tract and superior colliculus of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> during low intensity “shadow” stimuli. Only the behavior diverged, proving the sensory side was not the source of the split.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-switch-controls-fear-response">Survival switch controls fear response </h2>



Attention then turned to the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG), a cigar shaped nucleus already known to initiate escape in laboratory mice. 



Neuropixels probes - silicon shanks carrying hundreds of electrodes - recorded each spike while looming discs simulated an aerial predator attack.



In forest mice, a single loom sparked a volley in dPAG neurons that paralleled running speed. Open field cousins showed only a muted dPAG murmur even when their feet finally flew, meaning the threshold for firing was set far higher.



“We were surprised to find that evolution acted in a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/">brain</a> region, downstream of peripheral sensory perception,” said Baier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-switch-in-other-animals">Survival switch in other animals</h2>



The dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) has long been known as a key hub for defensive behavior in mammals. 



In lab mice and rats, stimulating this region can trigger running, jumping, or even vocalizations. In humans, analogous brainstem structures help process intense fear and panic.



By focusing on the dPAG, the researchers tapped into a deeply conserved circuit. Yet the study shows that even hardwired regions like this one can be tweaked to meet local demands. 



That finding challenges the assumption that core survival systems are biologically fixed across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-midbrain-different-reactions">Same midbrain, different reactions</h2>



Next, the team used optogenetics to nudge the hub. Flash activating excitatory cells in the forest species made them sprint even when the arena was calm. 



The same light caused prairie mice to decelerate or halt, as though the stimulation felt more like a brake than a gas pedal.



When researchers used chemogenetics to dampen activity in the brain’s escape hub, forest mice began behaving like their prairie relatives - waiting longer and needing a stronger threat signal before reacting.



The reverse manipulation never flipped prairie mice into hyper skittish mode, highlighting their raised internal threshold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midbrain-tweaks-when-to-escape">Midbrain tweaks when to escape</h2>



Such fine grained tuning matches recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982224007450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showing that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GABA</a> rich neurons in dPAG set the “go/no go” point for escape. 



In the new study, inhibitory cells lit up strongly in the forest species but stayed mostly quiet in the prairie species, hinting that evolution dialed inhibition rather than altering excitatory drive.



Other animals deploy similar tricks. In zebrafish, threat avoidance ensembles in the <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/64934" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dPAG</a> scale with distance from a predator. That parallel supports the idea that central thresholds, not peripheral sensitivity, often decide which hard wired action rolls out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-shapes-the-survival-switch">Habitat shapes the survival switch</h2>



The two mouse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/">species</a> occupy very different landscapes shaped by predation risk. In brushy forests, motion attracts less attention than freezing, since cover is nearby. 



On open plains, stillness may be the best way to avoid being spotted by aerial predators. These constraints likely drove selection for divergent midbrain response thresholds.



Shifting the escape threshold in a central node like the dPAG may offer an efficient solution. Rather than overhauling sensory input or building a new circuit, evolution simply adjusts how soon a threat triggers action. 



This flexibility may also explain why such neural adaptations can arise repeatedly in separate species facing similar pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-human-fear">What it means for human fear</h2>



The findings add to a growing picture in which survival circuits come with built-in sliders that natural selection can nudge. That economy may explain why species thriving in wildly different niches still share a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">neural</a> architecture.



The findings also have medical relevance: overactive defensive circuits are linked to panic and anxiety disorders in humans. 



Discovering that a single midbrain hub can adjust its sensitivity opens up potential strategies for recalibrating fear responses without dulling sensory perception.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09241-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Survival switch in the brain controls when animals flee or freeze

For wild animals, survival may come down to the split-second...

A fossilized creature that lived more than 500 million years ago is turning the origin story of spiders and scorpions on its head. Scientists now say that its brain structure indicates arachnids may not have evolved on land, as was previously believed, but rather in the oceans. 



This bold idea comes from a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and King’s College London. The team examined an ancient arthropod fossil and found surprising similarities to modern spiders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-indicates-arachnid-origins">Fossil indicates arachnid origins</h2>



Spiders, scorpions, and their kin - collectively known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/">arachnids</a> - have barely changed in the past 400 million years. 



Arachnids have reigned as top arthropod predators on land, and their fossil record strongly suggested that they evolved and diversified in terrestrial ecosystems.



The team studied a rare fossil of Mollisonia symmetrica, which has long been considered an early marine chelicerate in the same broader group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horseshoe-crabs-view-the-world-through-compound-eyes/">horseshoe crabs</a> (Limulidae) and is closely related to the arachnids. 



The assumption had always been that <a href="https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/fossils/mollisonia-symmetrica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mollisonia</a> was part of an ocean lineage that led to land-based arachnids, but only much later on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-fossil-had-a-spider-s-brain">Ocean fossil had a spider's brain</h2>



According to the researchers, this didn’t hold up under closer scrutiny. Instead of looking like the nervous system of a horseshoe crab, Mollisonia's brain was like that of a modern spider. 



Its nervous system included a distinct, radiating layout of ganglia - clusters of nerve cells - and an unsegmented brain that sendt signals to pincer-like front limbs. This unexpected configuration is a clue.



"It is still vigorously debated where and when arachnids first appeared, and what kind of chelicerates were their ancestors, and whether these were marine or semi-aquatic, like horseshoe crabs," said Professor Nicholas Strausfeld, lead author of the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-arachnid-brain-structure">Modern arachnid brain structure</h2>



Mollisonia had a two-part body: a broad carapace at the front and a segmented tail-like trunk at the back. 



Some researchers have compared this body shape to that of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-the-first-ancestors-of-scorpions-and-spiders/">scorpion</a>. But nobody expected this creature to have anything close to a modern arachnid brain structure.



The Mollisonia nervous system had five pairs of ganglia in the prosoma (the front part of the body) for controlling the five limb pairs. That same layout is seen in spiders today.



The fossil also revealed short nerves that extend from the brain to a set of claw-like appendages - similar to the fangs in modern arachnids. 



While the nerve connections to the chelicerae come from the rear of the brain in crabs, these connections come from the front of the brain in Mollisonia (and all modern spiders).



"It's as if the Limulus-type brain seen in Cambrian fossils, or the brains of ancestral and present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/">crustaceans</a> and insects, have been flipped backwards, which is what we see in modern spiders," said Professor Strausfeld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-spider-brain">Advantages of the spider brain</h2>



This flipped brain may be the reason that spiders are so good at what they do - stalking, pouncing, and spinning intricate webs.



"This is a major step in evolution, which appears to be exclusive to arachnids," said Frank Hirth of King’s College London. 



"Yet already in Mollisonia, we identified brain domains that correspond to living species with which we can predict the underlying genetic makeup that is common to all <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/arthropods/">arthropods</a>."



Hirth suggested that this reversal creates neural shortcuts, making a spider's brain better at coordinating fast and precise movements.



"The arachnid brain is unlike any other brain on this planet and it suggests that its organization has something to do with computational speed and the control of motor actions," said Professor Strausfeld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ocean-predators-to-land-hunters">From ocean predators to land hunters</h2>



Arachnids may have had a head start when it came to surviving on land.



The first land animals were probably insect-like and millipede-like arthropods. But a Mollisonia-like ancestor may have made the transition too - and then turned its attention to those early pioneers.



"We might imagine that a Mollisonia-like arachnid also became adapted to terrestrial life making early insects and millipedes their daily diet," said Professor Strausfeld.



These early arachnid predators may have helped push insects to evolve wings to fly away from danger.



"Being able to fly gives you a serious advantage when you're being pursued by a spider," noted Professor Strausfeld. "Yet, despite their aerial mobility, insects are still caught in their millions in exquisite silken webs spun by spiders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-under-the-microscope">A fossil under the microscope</h2>



To capture the tiny details of Mollisonia’s nervous system and brain, Professor Strausfeld spent time at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. 



The fossil was photographed under different lighting conditions, using polarizing filters and magnification to capture features invisible to the naked eye.



Still, the researchers needed to be sure this wasn’t just a coincidence - a case of two unrelated animals evolving similar traits.



To rule that out, David Andrew, a former University of Arizona graduate student now at Lycoming College, ran a statistical comparison. He analyzed 115 neural and anatomical traits across both living and extinct arthropods.



The results were clear: in terms of its nervous system, Mollisonia sits right next to modern arachnids on the evolutionary tree.



Other Mollisonia-like fossils haven’t been preserved well enough to check for similar spider brain features. But if they had the same nervous system structure, their descendants could explain the many arachnid species we see today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00822-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222500822X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny fossil rewrites the origin story of spiders

A fossilized creature that lived more than 500 million years...

Fresh tracks stamped into 76 million-year-old mud are telling a new story about dinosaur society in southern Alberta. A densely packed patch of footprints shows several species strolling together - a first for the Late Cretaceous rock record.



The find comes from the Skyline Tracksite in Dinosaur Provincial Park, a place famous for skeletons but almost bare of tracks until now. 



“It was incredibly exciting to be walking in the footsteps of dinosaurs 76 million years after they laid them down,” explained Dr. Brian Pickles of the <a href="http://University of Reading https://share.google/UMmU9VV6QueLRAS46">University of Reading</a> who helped unearth the assemblage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-walked-together">Dinosaurs walked together</h2>



The slab is no bigger than two parking spaces, yet it preserves thirteen footprints from horn frilled ceratopsian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">dinosaurs</a>, a probable ankylosaurid, three prints from two large tyrannosaurid carnivores, and one dainty track from a small meat eater. 



All of the tracks head in nearly the same direction and sit on the same mud layer, evidence that the animals passed by within hours, perhaps minutes, of one another.



Because the ceratopsian imprints sit shoulder to shoulder with equal spacing, the team suspects the animals were moving as a coordinated group. 



Such orderly trackways match earlier monodominant bonebeds from Styracosaurus herds in the same formation, strengthening the case that horned dinosaurs traveled together for much of the year.



Mixed herds are rare even in footprints; earlier prints show single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-suggests-early-dinosaurs-were-larger-than-we-thought/">species</a> gatherings or solitary walkers. 



The Canadian site therefore widens the behavioral picture, hinting that plant-eaters of different builds could coordinate their movements when the landscape demanded it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-prints-followed-dinosaurs">Predator prints followed dinosaurs</h2>



Two tyrannosaur prints slice across the herbivore lane, as if the hunters were pacing the herd from a safe distance. 



The three-toed marks, about 18 inches long, resemble footprints from the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bellatoripes fredlundi trackway</a> farther north that first suggested tyrannosaurs sometimes moved in pairs or packs.



Whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">predators</a> shadowed the plant eaters that day is unknown, yet their presence offers a motive for banding together. 



In modern savannas, zebras often merge with wildebeest to dilute risk and borrow their neighbors’ sharp senses; studies in the Serengeti show vigilance drops for both species inside mixed herds.



Applying that logic to the Cretaceous, stocky ankylosaurs with clubbed tails could add armor, while horned ceratopsians contributed sheer numbers and vision at different heights. Together they might have complicated the hunting plans of a predator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-as-time-capsules">Footprints as time capsules</h2>



The prints sit in a thin mudstone band deposited when a winding river abandoned its channel, leaving a shallow lake that dried in patches. 



Foot pressure pushed watery clay aside, building raised rims still visible today. The overlying sand quickly buried the impressions, and iron minerals later cemented the layer into a rust colored bench.



Because steep badland slopes erode about one tenth of an inch each year, the rocks seldom expose flat bedding planes where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/">tracks</a> show up. 



The team’s “search image” looking for those iron-rich rims peeking above softer sandstone has already revealed several more tracksites in the park, suggesting many prints went unnoticed for decades.



With portable GPS gear, the researchers mapped every depression, then photographed the surface in overlapping grids to create a precise 3D model. 



The digital replica lets scientists measure stride length, toe angles, and the subtle suction cups left when feet pulled free, all without further damaging the fragile layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-prints-are-fragile-and-rare">Dinosaur prints are fragile and rare</h2>



Dinosaur tracks are far more vulnerable than bones. While skeletons can fossilize deep underground and survive eons of erosion, footprints are surface impressions that vanish quickly if not buried and preserved under the right conditions. 



Even once exposed, the thin ironstone layers that hold them can flake apart within months due to wind, rain, and temperature swings.



Researchers also face difficulties in identifying which dinosaur made which track, especially when skeletal features overlap between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">species</a>. 



For instance, distinguishing between ceratopsian and ankylosaurid tracks can be tricky without clear impressions of both front and hind feet. This uncertainty limits how precisely behavior can be inferred from fossil footprints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-discovery-matters">Why the discovery matters</h2>



Until now, signs of dinosaur social life rested largely on mass death bonebeds or long, single species trackways. 



The Skyline Tracksite adds the missing piece: it captures different herbivores walking side by side - a behavior that parallels today’s large mammal guilds that share both grass and predators.



The trackway also reminds field crews to rethink “empty” rock. Dinosaur Provincial Park has yielded more than 400 articulated skeletons, yet typical tracks were thought absent. 



Recognizing the tell tale mud rims may transform ichnology in the Canadian badlands and other steep terrains carved from Late Campanian river deposits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0324913" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dinosaur tracks reveal tyrannosaurs stalking their prey

Fresh tracks stamped into 76 million-year-old mud are telling a...

With over 2.8 billion fungal DNA sequences from 130 countries, scientists have produced the first high-resolution global maps of underground mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi support ecosystems by transporting nutrients, capturing carbon, and protecting plant health. 



Yet, over 90 percent of this underground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">biodiversity</a> lies outside protected areas. That makes these vital ecosystems vulnerable to environmental damage.



The data powers a new interactive platform called the Underground Atlas. This tool helps anyone explore fungal biodiversity from Ethiopia to Brazil, and from Tasmania to West Africa. 



These maps expose not only diversity but also rarity, revealing patterns previously hidden from view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-underground-fungi-matter">Why underground fungi matter</h2>



Mycorrhizal fungi form massive underground networks that interact with nearly every plant. 



These fungal systems capture more than 13 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year - about a third of global fossil fuel emissions. They help crops grow, rebuild forests, and regulate water cycles.



Still, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/">fungi</a> remain missing from major conservation plans. That absence is dangerous. When these networks get disturbed, forests regenerate more slowly, crops suffer, and entire ecosystems unravel.



“For centuries, we've mapped mountains, forests, and oceans. But these fungi have remained in the dark,” said Dr. Toby Kiers of Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (<a href="https://www.spun.earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPUN)</a>.



“They cycle nutrients, store carbon, support plant health, and make soil. When we disrupt these critical ecosystem engineers, forest regeneration slows, crops fail, and biodiversity aboveground begins to unravel."



"This is the first time we're able to visualize these biodiversity patterns - and it's clear we are failing to protect underground ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maps-show-fungi-need-protection">Maps show fungi need protection</h2>



The research team used machine learning to build predictive maps from their vast dataset. These maps reveal fungal richness and rarity at a global scale, down to one square kilometer. 



Less than 10 percent of biodiversity hotspots appear in protected areas, exposing a huge gap in global conservation strategy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/fungi_global-underground-system_map_credit-SPUN_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/fungi_global-underground-system_map_credit-SPUN_1s.webp" alt="High-resolution map of from SPUN's Underground Atlas showing predicted arbuscular mycorrhizal biodiversity patterns across underground ecosystems. Bright colors indicate higher richness and endemism. Credit: SPUN" class="wp-image-1979248"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">High-resolution map of from SPUN's Underground Atlas showing predicted arbuscular mycorrhizal biodiversity patterns across underground ecosystems. Bright colors indicate higher richness and endemism. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SPUN</figcaption></figure>



This work is the first large-scale scientific product of SPUN. The group launched in 2021 with the goal to map and protect Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/">fungal networks</a>.



"For too long, we've overlooked mycorrhizal fungi. These maps help alleviate our fungus blindness,” explained Dr. Merlin Sheldrake of SPUN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tool-to-explore-underground-fungi">A tool to explore underground fungi</h2>



Now, SPUN offers a powerful new tool: the Underground Atlas. It allows researchers, policymakers, and conservationists to explore biodiversity anywhere on Earth. 



“The idea is to ensure underground biodiversity becomes as fundamental to environmental decision-making as satellite imagery,” noted Jason Cremerius of SPUN.



Users can locate biodiversity hotspots, identify rare fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-unique-fungi-partnerships-that-help-them-survive/">species</a>, and support restoration work. The tool can inform the placement of conservation areas, especially in biodiversity-rich regions that remain unprotected.



“These high-resolution maps provide quantitative targets for restoration managers,” said Dr. Alex Wegmann from <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Nature Conservancy</a>. “Restoration practices have been dangerously incomplete because the focus has historically been on life aboveground.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-legal-shield-for-fungi">No legal shield for fungi</h2>



According to the researchers, the data could help shape climate and biodiversity laws. For example, Ghana’s coast hosts a vital underground fungal hotspot - yet this coast erodes by two meters each year. If left unprotected, this fungal diversity could vanish into the sea.



“Underground fungal systems have been largely invisible in law and policy,” said César Rodriguez-Garavito of NYU. “These data are incredibly important in strengthening law and policy across all of Earth's underground ecosystems.”



SPUN has built a global dataset of 40,000 samples covering 95,000 fungal taxa. The organization partners with more than 400 scientists and 96 “<a href="https://www.spun.earth/expeditions/underground-explorers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Underground Explorers</a>” from 79 countries. These teams now sample remote regions - from Bhutan and Mongolia to Ukraine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-depends-on-these-networks">Future depends on these networks</h2>



Despite the achievements, scientists have sampled just 0.001% of Earth's surface. SPUN needs more data to improve maps, define restoration goals, and identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">endangered</a> fungal communities. 



“These maps reveal what we stand to lose if we fail to protect the underground,” said Dr. Kiers.



To protect Earth’s underground biodiversity, collective action is essential. Researchers can partner with SPUN to expand data collection and improve the accuracy of fungal diversity maps. 



Conservationists should use these insights to design strategic interventions and prioritize high-value ecosystems. Policymakers need to recognize the critical role of underground fungi by including them in biodiversity and climate frameworks. 



The public can explore the <a href="https://www.spun.earth/underground-atlas/mycorrhizal-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Underground Atlas</a> to better understand this hidden world and support ongoing efforts. Funders play a key role by investing in the next phase of global fungal exploration and restoration.



To see the hidden world beneath your feet, visit the Underground Atlas and help protect the life that sustains ours.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09277-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Underground fungi networks that sustain all life on Earth are in danger

With over 2.8 billion fungal DNA sequences from 130 countries,...

A new discovery in the Grand Canyon is giving scientists a closer look at some of Earth’s earliest animals. This stunning find includes fossils of soft-bodied creatures from more than 500 million years ago. 



These aren’t just any fossils - they offer a rare glimpse into how early animals lived, fed, and evolved during a time of rapid biological change.



The fossils were found in rocks that date back to the Cambrian explosion. This period, between 507 and 502 million years ago, marks when many of the major animal groups first appeared.



Intense competition and evolutionary innovation marked this window in time. For the first time in this famous national park, scientists have found exceptionally preserved remains of soft-bodied animals, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/">mollusks</a>, crustaceans, and even fragments of their last meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-microscopic-fossil-treasure">A microscopic fossil treasure</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> led the study. They collected rock samples during a 2023 expedition along the Colorado River in Arizona. 



"We collected a total of 29 samples of diverse shale lithologies, ranging from massive to fissile, gray to purple, and with various degrees of weathering and dolomitization," the team noted. 



The researchers brought the samples back to their lab, where they dissolved the rocks using hydrofluoric acid. After running the sediment through sieves, they uncovered thousands of tiny fossils.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/grand-canyon_fossil-treasure-trove_sea-creatures_500-million-years_credit-Mussini_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/grand-canyon_fossil-treasure-trove_sea-creatures_500-million-years_credit-Mussini_1s.webp" alt="A treasure trove of exceptionally preserved early animals from more than half a billion years ago has been discovered in the Grand Canyon, one of the natural world's most iconic sites. The rich fossil discovery – the first such find in the Grand Canyon – includes tiny rock-scraping mollusks, filter-feeding crustaceans, spiky-toothed worms, and even fragments of the food they likely ate. Credit: Mussini et al." class="wp-image-1979240"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A treasure trove of exceptionally preserved early animals from more than half a billion years ago has been discovered in the Grand Canyon, one of the natural world's most iconic sites. The rich fossil discovery – the first such find in the Grand Canyon – includes tiny rock-scraping mollusks, filter-feeding crustaceans, spiky-toothed worms, and even fragments of the food they likely ate. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mussini et al.</figcaption></figure>



“These rare fossils give us a fuller picture of what life was like during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">Cambrian</a> period,” said first author Giovanni Mussini, a Ph.D. student in Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences. 



“By combining these fossils with traces of their burrowing, walking, and feeding - which are found all over the Grand Canyon - we’re able to piece together an entire ancient ecosystem.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-animals-had-wild-ways-to-eat">Early animals had wild ways to eat</h2>



The level of preservation is remarkable. Although the fossils weren’t fully intact, the researchers were able to identify structures like spiky teeth, scraping tools, and feeding limbs. These features show how the creatures once lived.



Scientists usually see this kind of fossil preservation only in places like the Burgess Shale in Canada or China’s Maotianshan Shales.



Some of the most surprising finds were animals with complex feeding tools. "These were cutting-edge ‘technologies’ for their time, integrating multiple anatomical parts into high-powered feeding systems,” said Mussini.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/grand-canyon-fossils_priapulids-speies_Kraytdraco-spectatus_credit-Rhydian-Evans_1.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/grand-canyon-fossils_priapulids-speies_Kraytdraco-spectatus_credit-Rhydian-Evans_1s.webp" alt="A new species of priapulids, also known as penis or cactus worms, which were widespread during the Cambrian but are nearly extinct today. The Grand Canyon priapulid had hundreds of complex branching teeth, which helped it sweep food particles into its extensible mouth. Due to the size of the fossil and its exotic rows of teeth, the researchers named this new animal Kraytdraco spectatus, after the krayt dragon, a fictional creature from the Star Wars universe. Credit: Rhydian Evans" class="wp-image-1979242"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new species of priapulids, also known as penis or cactus worms, which were widespread during the Cambrian but are nearly extinct today. The Grand Canyon priapulid had hundreds of complex branching teeth, which helped it sweep food particles into its extensible mouth. Due to the size of the fossil and its exotic rows of teeth, the researchers named this new animal Kraytdraco spectatus, after the krayt dragon, a fictional creature from the Star Wars universe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Rhydian Evans</figcaption></figure>



Among the fossils were tiny crustaceans resembling modern brine shrimp. They had grooves around their mouths lined with hair-like structures and molar-like teeth that allowed them to grind food efficiently.



Tiny grooves and fossilized food particles near their mouths gave clues about what they were eating. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-feeding-variety">Fossils reveal feeding variety</h2>



The fossils also showed slug-like mollusks with chains of teeth similar to modern garden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snails-defy-death-and-revive-through-evolution/">snails</a>. This suggests they scraped algae or bacteria from rocks.



A priapulid worm - commonly known as a cactus worm - stood out as the most unusual creature, with complex rows of branching teeth. 



The researchers named it Kraytdraco spectatus, inspired by the krayt dragon from the Star Wars universe.



“We can see from these fossils that Cambrian animals had a wide variety of feeding styles used to process their food, some which have modern counterparts,” said Mussini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perfect-conditions-to-evolve">Perfect conditions to evolve</h2>



Half a billion years ago, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grand-canyon-fossils-reveal-secrets-of-the-cambrian-explosion/">Grand Canyon</a> area was much closer to the equator. It was a place where shallow, oxygen-rich waters met just the right amount of sunlight and nutrients. 



This balance provided ideal conditions for early animals to evolve and experiment with new traits.



“Animals needed to keep ahead of the competition through complex, costly innovations, but the environment allowed them to do that,” said Mussini. “In a more resource-starved environment, animals can’t afford to make that sort of physiological investment."



"It’s got certain parallels with economics: invest and take risks in times of abundance; save and be conservative in times of scarcity." 



These fossils show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">early animals</a> weren’t just surviving - they were adapting, experimenting, and thriving.



Thanks to their preservation in the fine-grained rocks of the Grand Canyon, we now have a clearer image of an ancient ecosystem that helped shape the diversity of life we see today. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv6383" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grand Canyon was a 'Goldilocks zone' for evolution of the earliest animal life on Earth

A new discovery in the Grand Canyon is giving scientists...

The ocean is far from quiet at night - especially near coral reefs, where a steady crackle rolls through the water. A new study shows that this natural sound can help scientists judge whether reefs are bouncing back after heat stress.



Researchers <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> that the clicks of small crustaceans known as snapping shrimp reveal how much living coral remains on the reef. The louder and higher-pitched the crackle, the healthier the coral cover is likely to be.



A team led by Xavier Raick from Cornell University’s K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">lab</a> placed underwater recorders around Moorea, a volcanic island in French Polynesia.



The researchers compared acoustic data gathered before the severe coral bleaching episodes of 2016 and 2019 with recordings made two years after the second heatwave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-for-coral-recovery">Listening for coral recovery</h2>



Each snap from these shrimp is incredibly loud, and when many of them are together, their clicking becomes the main sound heard on the reef at night. 



Because sound travels farther than light underwater, the team could “hear” reef structure long after dusk had forced divers back to shore.



“The high frequency sounds, mainly during the night, of snapping shrimp can be used as a real indicator of coral resilience,” said Raick. 



His group analyzed thousands of five-minute audio clips with specialized software, looking for peaks in the nightly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-shrimp-evolved-an-extraordinary-skill-that-lets-them-see-in-the-dark/">shrimp</a> chorus.



Sites inside <a href="https://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> produced stronger high-frequency crackle after bleaching than nearby unprotected reefs. That pattern matched diver surveys showing more surviving coral colonies within protected boundaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrimp-sounds-and-coral-health">Shrimp sounds and coral health</h2>



Snapping shrimp live in crevices formed by large coral heads, and their numbers increase as three-dimensional habitat grows. 



Earlier <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0135733" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in Moorea found that habitats rich in branching Acropora corals had the loudest high-frequency sound signatures.



When warm water kills coral tissue, those hideouts erode, and shrimp populations decline within months. The resulting dip in acoustic energy gives scientists a rapid, noninvasive way to track losses that might otherwise require dozens of daylight dives.



Reef sound also matters to the next generation of organisms. Experiments have shown that free-swimming coral larvae steer toward recordings of healthy reefs, choosing them over silent or degraded habitats.



If the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-homing-smell-chemicals-their-navigate-underwater/">shrimp</a> chorus fades, fewer larvae may settle, slowing recovery and locking reefs into a downward spiral. That feedback makes acoustic monitoring a practical early-warning system for managers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-reefs-signal-damage">Quiet reefs signal damage</h2>



Raick’s team focused on hours when human observers rarely work. At night, visibility drops, but the shrimp chorus grows, offering a clean signal free from boat traffic and diver bubbles.



Two years after the bleaching, protected reefs on Moorea still had stronger, higher-pitched shrimp sounds, while unprotected reefs had weaker, lower-pitched ones. 



This suggests there were fewer or smaller shrimp in the damaged areas.



Protection status mattered even though the bleaching heat stress hit the whole island. Global analyses show that well-enforced marine protected areas with at least five key design features can increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/">fish</a> biomass eight-fold compared with lightly regulated zones.



By giving corals a break from anchor damage and overfishing, MPAs may preserve the structural complexity shrimp need, allowing reefs to rebound faster after thermal events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-cost-reef-monitoring-tool">Low-cost reef monitoring tool</h2>



Traditional reef assessments rely on scuba teams that sample a few quadrats during daylight, leaving vast areas and all nighttime hours unobserved. 



Passive acoustic monitoring runs recorders continuously for weeks at a fraction of the cost of repeated dive campaigns.



A single hydrophone package can log more than 100 days of data on one set of batteries, and the hardware fits in airline luggage. Analysis pipelines, once limited to specialists, now use open-source algorithms that flag shrimp snaps in minutes.



Nighttime audio also bypasses shallow-water hazards such as currents and low visibility that can limit diver safety. 



Managers get a continuous record that reflects both biological change and illegal activity like dynamite fishing, which shows up as low-frequency blasts.



For Caribbean reserves already stretched thin, deploying acoustic recorders during the warmest months could reveal early bleaching impacts, long before divers notice paling colonies or dead fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrimp-chorus-offers-hope">Shrimp chorus offers hope</h2>



Listening alone will not stop coral decline. Average intervals between mass bleaching events worldwide have shrunk from once every 27 years in the 1980s to less than six years today.



Climate-driven heat remains the root cause, and no amount of acoustic monitoring can compensate for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/">rising temperatures</a>. Yet a cheap sensor that tracks resilience can guide triage, steering limited restoration funds to reefs that still crackle at night.



“It’s a story on one island and needs to be repeated in other parts of the world,” noted Raick. He wants to expand the approach beyond Moorea. 



Future work will test whether regional shrimp species differ in acoustic signatures and whether artificial soundscapes could lure coral larvae back to damaged reefs.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241938">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How shrimp sounds can diagnose the health of coral reefs

The ocean is far from quiet at night - especially...

Millipedes rarely make headlines. Their many legs and secretive lifestyles keep them in the background. Yet a closer look reveals something extraordinary. These ancient arthropods produce chemical compounds that may lead to new therapies for neurological disorders and pain relief.



Emily Mevers and her team from <a href="https://www.vt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> recently isolated new molecules from the secretions of Andrognathus corticarius. This millipede species was discovered on campus in Stadium Woods.



The new molecules include two rare classes of alkaloids - andrognathanols and andrognathines. The findings demonstrate how millipede compounds may help with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pain-relief-breakthrough-as-scientists-discover-a-safer-non-addictive-approach-trpv1/">pain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-compounds-found-in-millipedes">Rare compounds found in millipedes</h2>



Millipede chemistry belongs to a narrow lineage. Only species from the subterclass Colobognatha produce terpenoid alkaloids. This group includes four species-rich orders. Among them, Platydesmida stands out for its structural diversity.



Earlier research focused on just one order, Polyzoniida. But more recent studies revealed that Platydesmida millipedes produce a much wider variety of complex alkaloids. Some of these compounds are structurally unique in the animal kingdom.



Andrognathines&nbsp;have a chemical structure made of two connected rings. One ring has five atoms, and the other has six. Together, this makes a "5,6-heterocyclic core." Attached to this core are small chemical groups called&nbsp;ester side chains, which help the molecule interact with other substances.



Andrognathanols&nbsp;are even more complex. Their core structure connects four rings in a pattern labeled&nbsp;6,6,6,5&nbsp;(based on the number of atoms in each ring). What makes them special is that they contain&nbsp;seven continuous stereogenic centers. 



That means there are seven spots in a row where the 3D shape of the molecule can flip, making it highly detailed and difficult to recreate in the lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipede-chemicals-may-target-pain">Millipede chemicals may target pain</h2>



Each compound was carefully analyzed using high-resolution liquid chromatography and NMR techniques. The scientists noted key mass fragments that indicated differences between andrognathines and other millipede alkaloids.



These compounds form part of the millipede's defense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-drugs-target-zombie-cells-to-relieve-back-pain/">strategy</a>. When disturbed, the animal releases the secretions through ozopores on its sides. The alkaloids affect ant behavior, causing them to freeze or slow down. This is a likely defense tactic.



But that is not all. Some andrognathanols showed structural similarities to pumiliotoxins. These molecules are known to act on sodium channels in nerve cells. That similarity raised hopes for possible biomedical uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipede-secretions-change-ant-behavior">Millipede secretions change ant behavior</h2>



The researchers tested the secretions' effects on ants (Aphaenogaster sp.), a predator often found near these millipedes. During controlled assays, ants exposed to these compounds exhibited prolonged freezing behavior compared to control groups.



The compounds did not significantly change how long ants stayed near the chemical source. But their altered movement hinted at neural interference, possibly through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/">receptor</a> modulation.



Every mature&nbsp;A. corticarius&nbsp;millipede secretes these alkaloids in large amounts. Their secretion quantity correlates with body size and the number of ozopores. These are small glands that release the compounds when the millipede is threatened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-millipede-compounds-target-pain">Some millipede compounds target pain</h2>



The findings are hopeful because of the Sigma-1 receptor. This receptor helps regulate pain and neuroplasticity. It is also linked to diseases such as Alzheimer’s and neuropathic pain.



Previous research found that similar compounds from another millipede,&nbsp;Ischnocybe plicata, potently bind to Sigma-1. That work sparked interest in millipede alkaloids as potential drug candidates.



Mevers’ team tested two andrognathines and three andrognathanols. Compound 1 showed mild binding to Sigma-1, with some selectivity over Sigma-2. Others showed less activity. But their unique structures and neuroactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-women-experience-more-chronic-pain-than-men/">effects</a> still make them promising.



“These compounds are quite complex, so they're going to take some time to synthesize in the lab,” said Mevers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millipedes-and-future-pain-drugs">Millipedes and future pain drugs</h2>



The path from chemical discovery to drug approval is long. First, scientists must replicate the molecules in the lab. Then they can test their effects on human cells and animal models. 



Eventually, these efforts may lead to treatments for chronic pain or neurodegenerative diseases.



Millipedes, with their fossil record stretching back to the Cretaceous, may soon help modern medicine. Their secretions are not just defense tools. They are blueprints for the next generation of drugs.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.5c08079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Millipede chemicals may unlock a new generation of drugs

Millipedes rarely make headlines. Their many legs and secretive lifestyles...

What dinosaurs ate has long fascinated scientists. Now, fossilized teeth tell the story in surprising detail. By analyzing chemical traces in tooth enamel, researchers have uncovered distinct diets among Late Jurassic dinosaurs.



A study from The University of Texas at Austin shows that different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/">species</a> did not just live side by side. They also had unique food preferences. These eating habits helped them thrive together without competing for the same plants.



Calcium isotopes in enamel carry chemical fingerprints from ancient meals. Different plants, and even plant parts like bark or buds, leave different traces. This evidence reveals which dinosaurs ate what and how their diets shaped their ecosystem.



“The idea is that they were all eating different things, and now we have found proof of that,” said study lead author Liam Norris, a recent doctoral graduate from UT’s <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dinosaurs-lived-together">How dinosaurs lived together</h2>



Norris studied fossils from a single deposit at Carnegie Quarry in northeast Utah. This site, rich with bones from herbivorous and carnivorous species, likely formed during an intense drought. Its rapid fossil preservation made it ideal for comparing diets across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-poop-reveals-the-diet-of-dinosaurs-200-million-years-ago/">species</a> living at the same time and place.



The herbivores in the study included Camarasaurus, Camptosaurus, and Diplodocus. Carnivores included the Allosaurus and the croc-like Eutretauranosuchus. 



Norris collected enamel samples from 17 individual animals, either accessed in the field or loaned by local museums. At the Jackson School, he conducted isotope analysis with support from co-authors John Lassiter and Aaron Satkoski.



Professor Rowan Martindale called the site “a unique paleontological gem.” The research deepens our understanding of ancient ecosystems and dietary preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-eating-dinosaurs-had-different-diets">Plant-eating dinosaurs had different diets</h2>



Earlier theories assumed large herbivores ate from different vertical zones of the forest canopy. But Norris found that diet separation was more nuanced. For example, Camptosaurus favored soft, nutritious plant parts like leaves and buds. 



Camarasaurus preferred conifers and tougher, woody plant tissues. Diplodocus had a more varied menu of low-lying ferns, horsetails, and coarse materials.



“This differentiation in diet makes sense with what we see from the morphology of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-fossil-reveals-fruit-eating-mammal-from-the-dinosaur-age/">animals</a>: the different height, the different snout shape. Then, we bring in this geochemical data, which is a very concrete piece of evidence to add to that pot,” said Norris.



These findings support the idea that long-necked dinosaurs had flexible necks allowing them to reach different plant levels. Instead of competing, they targeted specific vegetation patches suited to their anatomy and energy needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-choices-of-carnivore-dinosaurs">Diet choices of carnivore dinosaurs</h2>



The two carnivores in the study, Allosaurus and Eutretauranosuchus, showed overlapping isotope values, suggesting some dietary similarities. But subtle differences hinted at distinct prey choices and ecological roles. 



Allosaurus, a large bipedal predator, likely hunted herbivorous dinosaurs, including Camptosaurus and other smaller or juvenile plant-eaters within the same region. Its size, jaw structure, and teeth suggest active predation or scavenging of large-bodied prey.



Eutretauranosuchus, in contrast, was smaller and more crocodile-like. Its isotope signature indicates it may have consumed fish or small terrestrial vertebrates, likely along rivers or shallow wetlands. 



The hunting strategy and habitat of Eutretauranosuchus likely differed greatly from the Allosaurus, reducing competition between the two carnivores despite their coexistence.



These dietary contrasts reflect ecological separation shaped by behavior, anatomy, and environment. Such distinctions help reconstruct predator-prey dynamics within this Jurassic ecosystem. 



The overlapping yet diversified food chain reveals how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-have-evolved-to-eat-ants-and-termites-12-different-times-since-the-dinosaurs/">balance</a> existed even during environmental stress, such as the severe drought that led to the rapid fossil preservation at Carnegie Quarry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-dinosaurs-shared-one-ecosystem">Many dinosaurs shared one ecosystem</h2>



The fact that so many massive animals thrived together points to a lush, productive ecosystem teeming with plant life. Their dietary specialization hints at a world where resource use was efficient and competition was minimal.



“It’s really just more proof that this ecosystem was as spectacular as we thought it was,” Norris said.



The study offers not just a clearer view of dinosaur life and diet but also a method for understanding other prehistoric ecosystems through geochemistry. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018225003888?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Jurassic dinosaurs had specialized diets to coexist peacefully

What dinosaurs ate has long fascinated scientists. Now, fossilized teeth...

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are showing real impact, not just promises. A large-scale global study proves that strong legal bans on industrial fishing in fully and highly protected MPAs are effective. 



Despite perceptions that poaching is common due to weak enforcement, the evidence now shows otherwise.



Researchers examined 1,380 MPAs that prohibit industrial fishing. Across these areas, the average presence of vessels was one per 20,000 square kilometers during satellite flyovers. That is nine times less than in unprotected zones. 



This gap highlights the strength of legal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pharmaceutical-pollution-changes-the-behavior-of-atlantic-salmon/">protection</a> when backed by data and technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-reveal-hidden-fishing-boats">Satellites reveal hidden fishing boats</h2>



The study combined data from Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). AIS provides signals from vessels, while SAR detects ships even when they try to stay hidden. 



Machine learning models processed five billion AIS signals and thousands of SAR images.



SAR revealed vessels in MPAs where AIS showed nothing, especially in Southeast Asia. It also confirmed the absence of industrial fishing in 91 MPAs. This shows that SAR fills AIS blind spots and adds accuracy. 



In many cases, even MPAs with detected vessels had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corals-are-absorbing-human-drugs-and-not-just-in-shallow-water/">fishing</a> on fewer than 3% of imaged days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-areas-had-minimal-fishing">Most areas had minimal fishing </h2>



The bulk of fishing effort came from a few well-known MPAs. The Chagos Archipelago saw around 2,700 hours of fishing annually. 



South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park each had around 900 hours per year.



Other sites like Camargue in France, Cape Canyon in South Africa, and Marado Island in Korea recorded 275 to 450 hours. 



However, most MPAs showed no or minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-rivers-are-highly-saturated-with-human-antibiotics-helping-bacteria-develop-resistance/">activity</a>. About 78.5% of them recorded less than one day of fishing per year, and over 1,000 had no detected activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-is-no-longer-unchecked">Fishing is no longer unchecked </h2>



To compare differently sized MPAs, researchers used fishing effort per 100 square kilometers. 



The highest density was in Marado Island at 18 hours per day per 100 square kilometers. Yet the global average across all MPAs was only 0.0004 hours per day. That is nearly negligible.



Some of the high-effort areas are small, so even a few vessels skew the density. For instance, Korean MPAs with only 2 km² imaged showed high density, but just 6 to 18 total vessels were detected. 



These findings help correct public perceptions that industrial fishing remains unchecked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-fishing-zones-are-quiet">Most fishing zones are quiet</h2>



The analysis builds confidence in MPA protections. The radar detected no vessels in 25% of MPAs. 



In those with activity, vessels appeared on just 3% of imaging days. Also, SAR found vessels in 163 MPAs where AIS showed nothing, proving its critical role.



“The ocean is no longer too big to watch. With cutting-edge satellites and AI, we’re making illegal fishing visible and proving that strong marine protections work,” said Juan Mayorga, co-author and scientist at <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/our-programs/pristine-seas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristine Seas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-marine-protected-areas-seem-weak">Why marine protected areas seem weak</h2>



Many still believe MPAs are just legal statements on paper. That view stems from two issues: weak regulations and poor enforcement. 



Some MPAs legally allow industrial fishing or only exist as designations with no real action. Others are difficult to patrol.



But this new research solves an old puzzle. It focuses only on MPAs with the strictest bans and uses implementation dates, not just legal designations. This avoids errors where fishing occurred before rules took effect. 



The study also reduces confusion caused by phaseout periods, such as the five-year gap in Palau’s marine sanctuary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-fishing-slips-into-protected-zones">Some fishing slips into protected zones</h2>



While protections work, they are not perfect. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">activity</a> may reflect legal exceptions or data errors. For example, certain fleets had sunset provisions allowing temporary fishing. 



Small-scale fishing, often legal, can also affect ecosystems but remains mostly invisible to SAR if vessels are under 15 meters long.



“Because strictly protected marine areas discourage illegal fishing, fishes are far more abundant within their boundaries, they produce many more babies, and help replenish surrounding areas,” said Enric Sala, co-author and founder of Pristine Seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-may-not-apply-everywhere">Results may not apply everywhere</h2>



One key question remains: Are MPAs truly reducing fishing, or were they placed in low-activity zones? The paper suggests both might be true. 



Of the few MPAs with pre- and post-implementation data, most already had low fishing. Yet Palau showed a dramatic drop from 51,000 hours to just 215 hours annually after full protection. That suggests strong rules can reduce fishing pressure even in active areas. 



Future MPA planning should consider whether protections are going where demand to fish is already low. Otherwise, the results may not scale as hoped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-protected-areas-work">Marine protected areas work</h2>



The study proposes a scalable way to monitor oceans. Integrating real-time satellite detections with AI models offers an efficient, low-cost solution. 



The research supports the idea that MPA enforcement creates deterrence. The more likely vessels are to be caught, the less likely they are to fish illegally.



“By using satellites to track fishing vessels, countries can predict the locations of illegal activities and target patrol efforts, saving both manpower and money,” said Jennifer Raynor, lead author from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt9009" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Are marine protected areas working? Satellites reveal the truth

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are showing real impact, not just...

Wildlife crime scenes rarely feature fingerprints or cameras. Instead, investigators are turning to bits of tissue, feathers, and soil-stained knives that hide genetic clues linking poachers, poisoned bait, and endangered animals.



A study from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> detailed a toolkit that pulls those clues together and makes them stick in court.



Dr. Gila Kahila Bar-Gal of the Koret School of Veterinary Medicine is leading the work, and her team’s methods are already changing how rangers collect evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-crimes-are-often-overlooked">Wildlife crimes are often overlooked</h2>



Wildlife trafficking ranks among the five largest illicit trades worldwide, generating up to $23 billion each year. Its profits rival narcotics and arms, yet detection rates remain low.



Biodiversity loss accelerates when poachers target endangered species already stressed by habitat loss or climate change. The endangered mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-call-to-save-mongolian-gazelles-from-habitat-loss/">gazelle</a>, for example, has fallen to roughly 5,000 animals in its last habitat in Israel.



Poisons add a second, silent threat. Forty-five percent of griffon vulture injuries or deaths documented in Israel from 2010 to 2021 were linked to carbamate or organophosphate toxins. 



Population surveys now count only about 230 wild birds, down from several hundred just two decades ago. 



Because a single carcass can kill a flock of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/">scavengers</a>, every unsolved poisoning undermines years of conservation work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-at-the-crime-scene">Genetic clues at the crime scene</h2>



Traditional autopsies stop at cause of death. Wildlife forensics asks a tougher question: Who is responsible? The first layer uses mitochondrial DNA markers to name the endangered species even when the sample is degraded or mixed. 



Kahila Bar-Gal’s team relies on two short gene fragments, 16S and CytB, to cross-check results and avoid false matches.



After species comes identity. The lab amplifies Short Tandem Repeats, tiny, highly variable stretches of nuclear DNA, to build an individual genetic profile. 



A five-dye, 22-STR panel has shown it can spot just 10 percent of a target species in a mixed sample.



“Our protocols are designed to be accurate and practical, because saving a species often comes down to solving forensic cases,” said Kahila Bar-Gal. 



Researchers run each profile against a local DNA library built from both wild and domestic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-poachers-caught-through-dna">Wildlife poachers caught through DNA</h2>



Case records released with the study read like a detective novel. Rangers once raided a desert camp after spotting fresh ibex horns. 



Twenty-one blood-stained knives and shirts all pointed to Nubian ibex, not goats, ending the hunters’ main defense.



A second file describes gazelle poachers who let trained dogs do the killing. Swabs from each dog’s muzzle carried mountain-gazelle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/">DNA</a>, while dog hairs in the suspect’s pickup matched the animals seized onsite. 



That chain of evidence supported criminal charges even though the carcass itself was never recovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-vulture-poisoning-mystery">Solving a vulture poisoning mystery</h2>



The most dramatic case involved seven griffon vultures that collapsed after feeding on a goat laced with pesticide. STR analysis proved the meat in a vulture’s crop came from the same goat carcass found nearby.



Although the herd owner escaped indictment - since the goat’s profile differed from his animals - the link let prosecutors treat the poisoning as an intentional wildlife crime rather than an accidental spill.



“When a vulture is found poisoned or a gazelle is killed out of season, you’re not just looking for a suspect, you’re often dealing with mixed evidence that may include multiple species, some protected, some not,” explained Kahila Bar-Gal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-local-dna-libraries-matter">Why local DNA libraries matter</h2>



Global databases such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/">GenBank</a> hold millions of sequences, but many lack precise location data or quality control. Using the wrong reference, researchers can mistake a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/">vulture</a> feather from Galilee for one from Spain



Israel’s wildlife lab avoids that pitfall by curating voucher specimens from every region and by adding common livestock breeds. 



The approach means rangers can tell a wild Nubian ibex from a feral hybrid and can rule out claims that confiscated meat came from someone’s goat.



Other countries have begun to copy the model, especially in Africa’s bushmeat hotspots and in Southeast Asian ports where reptile skins move through freezers by the ton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-endangered-species-with-science">Saving endangered species with science</h2>



Kahila Bar-Gal wants faster turnarounds. Portable sequencers that read long DNA fragments in the field could shave weeks off an investigation and let rangers link samples before suspects disappear.



Policy work matters too. INTERPOL estimates that wildlife crime funds organized networks that also traffic weapons and people. Convictions backed by genetic proof raise the risks for traffickers and can shift the cost-benefit calculus.



The study recommends expansion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> genetic surveys in poisoning hotspots, tighter controls on agricultural pesticides, and forensic training for customs agents. 



Those steps will not restore every lost vulture, but they can keep future carcasses from becoming lethal bait.



Wildlife crimes once hinged on eyewitnesses willing to testify. Today, molecules tell the story. Each cell recovered from a knife blade or scavenged bone now speaks for endangered species that cannot.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1525957/full">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife crime cases can be solved with genetic forensics

Wildlife crime scenes rarely feature fingerprints or cameras. Instead, investigators...

Hair and feathers transformed the way animals lived - providing insulation, enabling flight, and offering a means of display. In birds and mammals, these features are known to arise from complex genetic programs. 



Reptiles, however, were believed to lack such sophisticated structures. That view is now being challenged. A remarkable fossil from the Middle Triassic reveals a small, tree-dwelling reptile adorned with a tall, feather-like crest.



Named&nbsp;Mirasaura grauvogeli, this creature lived about 247 million years ago. It had a slender bird-like skull, a long tail, and a striking dorsal display. 



New fossils from France show that&nbsp;Mirasaura’s skin structures weren’t just decorative. They evolved from a genetic toolkit present in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">early</a> amniotes, well before feathers or hair ever appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mirasaura-had-odd-skin">Mirasaura had odd skin</h2>



Two nearly complete skeletons and over 80 isolated skin fragments reveal an upright crest of overlapping appendages. 



These are not feathers, but they resemble them in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">form</a>. Each appendage had a narrow central ridge and two distinct curved layers on either side.



Unlike bird feathers,&nbsp;Mirasaura’s structures didn’t branch into barbs. Instead, they formed continuous surfaces with delicate ridges, or rugae, along their lengths. 



SEM scans show these features were not stiff scales. Their flexible, wrinkled texture suggests they bent easily, maybe to catch light or motion.



"The fact that we have discovered such complex skin appendages in such an ancient group of reptiles sheds a new light on their evolution," said Dr. Stephan Spiekman, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="http://www.naturkundemuseum-bw.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beautiful-mirasaura-crest-was-for-show">Beautiful Mirasaura crest was for show</h2>



The skull was just 17 millimeters long and had large, forward-facing eyes. These features suggest excellent depth perception that is useful for a life in trees. The snout was mostly toothless and likely helped it pick insects out of bark.



Mirasaura’s body was long and barrel-shaped. Its limbs were adapted for grasping, and its claws were large and curved. It was agile, able to cling to branches much like a monkey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_changes-family-tree_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_changes-family-tree_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction and illustration of Mirasaura in its natural forested environment, hunting insects. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1979068"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction and illustration of Mirasaura in its natural forested environment, hunting insects. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



The crest sat right above a noticeable hump in the spine. This area may have supported the upright posture of the appendages, giving&nbsp;Mirasaura&nbsp;its showy backline. Researchers rule out flight or insulation. Instead, the crest likely played a role in display.



"Mirasaura grauvogeli shows us how surprising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-predatory-marine-reptile-identified-as-a-completely-new-species-traskasaura-sandrae/">evolution</a> can be and what potential it holds," said Professor Rainer Schoch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-like-pigments">Feather-like pigments</h2>



Some preserved tissue on the crest contains fossilized melanosomes. These tiny pigment carriers resemble those found in bird feathers, not in reptile scales or mammal hair. Analysis shows a wide variety in shape, common in feathers, rare in scaly skin.



"The melanosomes found in Mirasaura soft tissues are more similar in shape to those found in extant and fossil feathers than melanosomes found in mammalian hair and reptilian skin," noted Dr. Valentina Rossi.



This could mean&nbsp;Mirasaura&nbsp;displayed some form of coloration, perhaps even patterns for mating or recognition. Still, no color has been confirmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reptile-with-a-similar-crest">A reptile with a similar crest</h2>



The only other reptile with a similar dorsal crest is&nbsp;Longisquama insignis, another Triassic diapsid. Like&nbsp;Mirasaura, it had long, midline skin appendages. The two are now confirmed to be close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/">relatives</a> in the group Drepanosauromorpha.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_fossil_credit-Stephan-Spiekmann_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/ancient-reptile_Mirasaura-grauvogeli_fossil_credit-Stephan-Spiekmann_1s.webp" alt="A fossil from the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Germany, preserving the skeleton of Mirasaura. Credit: Stephan Spiekmann" class="wp-image-1979072"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A fossil from the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Germany, preserving the skeleton of Mirasaura. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Stephan Spiekmann</figcaption></figure>



The similarities between their crests, including bilateral symmetry, a central axis, and consistent patterning, suggest a shared origin. 



Still, their appendages are not feathers. They evolved separately, shaped by similar genetic programs but on different paths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mirasaura-rewrites-reptile-family-tree">Mirasaura rewrites reptile family tree</h2>



Mirasaura pushes back the origin of <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/verts/archosaurs/drepanosauromorpha.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drepanosauromorpha</a> by nearly 20 million years. These reptiles, previously known only from the Late Triassic, now have roots in the early Middle Triassic.



Phylogenetic analysis places Mirasaura outside the major modern reptile lineages. It lived before lizards, crocodiles, or birds. It was not part of Sauria, the group that includes all living reptiles. This makes its advanced skin structures even more surprising.



‘Mirasaura provides the first direct evidence that such structures actually did form early on in reptile evolution, in groups <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">not closely related</a> to birds and extinct dinosaurs,’ said Dr. Spiekman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-evolution-in-reptiles">Skin evolution in reptiles</h2>



Louis Grauvogel collected fossils in Alsace starting in the 1930s. Among them were pieces of&nbsp;Mirasaura, though no one recognized them at the time. 



In 2019, the Grauvogel family donated the collection to the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart. There, researchers uncovered this unexpected gem.



The name&nbsp;Mirasaura grauvogeli&nbsp;means “Grauvogel’s wonder reptile.” This ancient climber, with its feather-like crest, changes what we know about skin evolution in reptiles. It shows that nature can invent similar solutions in distant lineages, again and again.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09167-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil discovery of a 'wonder reptile' rewrites the history of evolution

Hair and feathers transformed the way animals lived - providing...

Magellanic penguins are expert navigators. A new study shows they don’t just head straight home from foraging trips. They ride ocean currents and tides, save energy, and grab snacks along the way.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> and Swansea University tracked 27 adult penguins returning to their colony in Argentina. 



The results showed that penguins don’t follow the shortest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-penguins-navigate-the-ocean-secret-strategy-revealed/">path</a>. Instead, they adopt curved, S-shaped routes shaped by tidal flows. These winding paths help them conserve energy and find more food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-ride-ocean-currents-to-save-energy">Penguins ride ocean currents to save energy</h2>



The researchers analyzed GPS and compass data combined with ocean current models. This revealed a clever strategy. 



“In calm water, they headed straight for home, but when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/">currents</a> were stronger, they allowed themselves to drift sideways. This made their journey longer, but less tiring.”



These paths aren’t random. Penguins adjust their heading to balance effort and direction. The team developed travel vector models to track how birds moved with or against currents. 



When needed, penguins angled their swims to work with water movement. This created more efficient ground movement, even if the direction wasn't perfectly straight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-while-floating-home">Feeding while floating home</h2>



Along these ocean current-driven, drift-friendly paths, penguins often dove deep to hunt. Most kept diving for prey during nearly 80% of their return trip. 



Dive depth and prey capture activity decreased as the penguins neared the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-may-disappear-in-our-lifetime/">colony</a>, showing a transition from feeding to focused homing.



“The penguins were observed diving and foraging for food during much of their return journey,” said Professor Wilson from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. 



“As they got closer to the colony, they became more focused and swam more directly, often arriving within just 300 metres of their original departure point, an impressive level of accuracy after journeys of up to 75km.”



These dives weren’t random. Penguins often deviated from a straight path to hunt, showing opportunism in action. The strategy paid off. They traveled efficiently without needing to swim straight the whole time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-use-a-flexible-ocean-route-nbsp">Penguins use a flexible ocean route&nbsp;</h2>



The study tested whether penguins used either a simple straight-line strategy or a complex angle-correction approach. 



“Actually, penguins do neither! Their approach is more flexible," said Professor Wilson. "They seem relaxed about being at sea, sometimes swimming with the current even if it doesn’t take them directly to their nest. Occasionally, they shoot past the colony and down the coast.”



Instead of fighting the flow, penguins accept some drift. The tides in San Matías Gulf alternate directions every 12 hours. This helps balance out sideways drift across the full journey. By planning loosely around this cycle, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-poop-helps-form-clouds-that-could-slow-antarctic-warming/">penguins</a> avoid constantly battling currents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-penguins-sense-ocean-currents">How penguins sense ocean currents</h2>



Penguins likely don’t see land for most of their return. So how do they know where they are?



“Penguins seem able to determine when they are in a current and roughly how strong it is. They also appear to understand the tidal cycle, that water moves first in one direction and then reverses," said Professor Wilson. 



"If they’re carried too far by the incoming tide, they seem to know they’ll be brought back by the outgoing tide later.”



The study suggests that the penguins don’t rely on seabed features or landmarks. Instead, they may use a mix of compass orientation, smell, and detection of flow against their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-artificial-nests-help-save-african-penguins/">body</a>. 



Some penguins returned at night, meaning vision alone can’t explain their precise homing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-currents-help-more-than-they-hurt">Currents help more than they hurt</h2>



The team ran simulations where penguins always swam straight home. These "naïve" agents, which ignored the effects of ocean currents, often missed their target by many kilometers. 



Real penguins, with their flexible strategy, consistently returned within 300 meters of their starting point. This accuracy shows that adjustment, not stubborn straight-line effort, is key.



Swimming against ocean currents costs energy. Penguins avoid that by letting the ocean currents carry them when helpful and correcting only when needed. The study measured energy use using an “ease of transport” score, like a fuel-efficiency rating.



Penguins’ real-life paths scored better than the theoretical “optimal” path when overall energy use was considered. They sacrificed some directness for efficiency and still ended up close to home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-animals-may-use-similar-strategies">Other animals may use similar strategies</h2>



These findings reveal just how well Magellanic penguins manage complex conditions. Their strategies may also reflect how other marine animals, like turtles or seals, adapt to changing seas.



As ocean conditions shift with climate change, species that adjust their movement patterns, like these penguins, may have the best chance of thriving. 



The penguins' flexible, energy-smart behavior could inspire new ways to understand marine navigation across species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002981" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why penguins ride the currents instead of swimming straight home

Magellanic penguins are expert navigators. A new study shows they...

Doflane's,Octopus,Is,A,Bright,Lilac,Color,With,Tentacles,And

Imagine reaching for a cup and feeling as though your hand is moving, only to discover it's not your hand, but a rubber replica being touched in sync with your real, hidden hand. You still react, convinced the fake rubber hand is yours. 



Humans fall for this trick every time, and now we now know that octopuses fall for it, too.



In a surprising study, scientists found that these famously alien-like creatures respond just like humans and other mammals when exposed to this sensory illusion. 



Their brains, which are vastly different from ours, still make the same mistake. That suggests a deeper commonality in how ownership of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">bodies</a> is understood by living minds, regardless of how those minds are built.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-rubber-hand-trick-shows">What the rubber hand trick shows</h2>



The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810014000336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rubber hand illusion</a> was first demonstrated in the 1990s. It involves hiding a person’s real hand behind a screen while a fake rubber hand is placed in full view.



When both hands, real and fake, are stroked simultaneously, the brain starts to link the sensations to the fake hand. 



Eventually, the person begins to feel ownership of the rubber hand. Pinch the fake one, and the person flinches. Later studies showed that mice were also fooled by the same trick. 



The illusion appeared to tap into a widespread brain function that integrates vision, touch, and body awareness into a unified sense of self. But these animals are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">mammals</a>, like us.



Their brains share much of our architecture. So scientists naturally asked: What about creatures with entirely different neural setups?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-octopus-brain-sees-its-arms">How the octopus brain sees its arms</h2>



Octopuses are unlike any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">creature</a> on Earth. They have nine brains - one main brain and eight smaller ones, one in each arm. Their nervous systems are highly distributed.



An arm can even move independently after being severed. This structure makes their cognition incredibly difficult to compare to ours. Still, they’re known for cleverness, problem-solving, and even mischief.



So when researchers at the <a href="https://www.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Ryukyus</a> in Okinawa, Japan, set out to test whether octopuses would fall for the rubber hand illusion, the scientific community took notice. 



If octopuses could be fooled too, it would mean their brains also create a kind of body image, despite the alien wiring.



That would change how we understand intelligence and body awareness across the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-fake-arm-test-fooled-octopuses">How the fake arm test fooled octopuses</h2>



Sumire Kawashima and Yuzuru Ikeda led the study. They worked with six captive, plain-body octopuses (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34664913/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Callistoctopus aspilosomatis</a>). 



Each was placed in a tank with an opaque barrier that blocked its view of one arm. Above this hidden arm, a fake octopus arm made of soft gel was placed. The fake arm looked natural and matched the posture of the real one.



A researcher then stroked both arms, the real hidden one and the fake, visible one, at the same time using plastic calipers. 



This synchronized stimulation mimicked the human <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3125296/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rubber hand illusion</a>. After eight seconds, they pinched the fake arm with tweezers and observed how the octopus responded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-reaction-to-fake-arm">Octopus reaction to fake arm</h2>



The reactions were clear and strong. All six octopuses showed defense responses when the fake arm was pinched. 



Some changed color, some pulled back their arms, and others tried to escape. These are all natural behaviors that octopuses use when they sense danger.



But when researchers removed the synchronized stroking, or when the fake arm did not match the posture of the real one, the illusion failed. No defense responses occurred. The octopus no longer saw the fake arm as part of it’s own body.



This result was striking. The illusion worked only when the visual and tactile cues matched perfectly. 



That means the octopus brain was combining multiple types of information to build a sense of its own body. In that moment, the fake arm became real.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-scientists-learned">What the scientists learned</h2>



For co-author Yuzuru Ikeda, the study offers a glimpse into both the power and limits of brain function. 



“The illusion would suggest the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/">octopuses</a> to anticipate and predict, which is advantageous for survival,” he said. 



“On the other hand, this ability arises as a side effect of a mistake or conflict of processing in the brain and is also a flaw.”



In other words, this illusion is a double-edged sword. The same brain function that helps predict and react to the world can also misfire. And yet, this mistake reveals how sophisticated the octopus’s sense of self may be.



Sumire Kawashima believes the findings push octopuses into an even more important role in neuroscience. 



“Our findings suggest the octopus may be an important model for studying the evolution of the sense of body ownership,” she said. 



This places octopuses alongside mammals as useful subjects for understanding consciousness and cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-insights-on-animal-consciousness">More insights on animal consciousness</h2>



Peter Godfrey-Smith, a philosopher of science at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>, has long studied octopus minds. He was surprised by the results.



“It suggests that octopuses have quite a rich body image,” he said. “I am struck by the fact that the ‘posture incongruence’ condition worked as it did: the octopuses did not see the rubber arm as their own in that case, despite the stroking.”



His reaction highlights just how unexpected this discovery is. Even subtle mismatches between the real and fake octopus arm broke the illusion. 



That level of precision points to a complex internal model of the body, something many did not expect to find in a species so different from ours.



This experiment offers more than just an odd glimpse into animal behavior. It challenges deep assumptions about how minds work. 



If both humans and octopuses can be tricked into adopting a fake limb, then perhaps the roots of self-awareness are older and more widespread than we believed.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/f8ajPpO0qyY?si=bqvoTJMnNYjC4M8x
</div></figure>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00592-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current&nbsp;Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Octopuses are tricked by the 'rubber hand illusion' like humans, suggesting self-awareness

Imagine reaching for a cup and feeling as though your...

For years, the deep ocean has been painted as Earth’s final frontier - a shadowy, silent place that is cut off from the rest of the world. But new research is showing that this picture isn’t quite right. 



Life in the deep sea may not be as cut off as we thought. In fact, it’s connected - really connected.



A sweeping new study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/">brittle stars</a> - those spiny, ancient relatives of starfish - have quietly been traversing entire oceans for millions of years. They’ve been linking ecosystems across the globe, from Iceland to Tasmania, all without anyone noticing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-the-unexpected-world-travelers">Meet the unexpected world travelers</h2>



Brittle stars are found on every ocean floor, from the sunlit shallows to the abyssal plains more than 11,500 feet down. They’re tough, old creatures, with some lineages dating back over 480 million years.



Brittle stars are also surprisingly mobile - in their own way. While they don’t swim, fly, or walk great distances, their larvae do the traveling. 



The larvae are packed with yolk, which keeps them alive for a long time as they drift slowly along deep-sea currents. This gives them a passport of sorts - one that lets them cross enormous distances and eventually settle in completely different parts of the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-connected-in-the-deep-sea">Life connected in the deep sea</h2>



What makes this discovery so surprising is how different it is from what we know about life in shallow water.&nbsp;



In coastal and surface ecosystems, temperature acts like a boundary. It shapes where marine animals can live and where they can’t. Warm-water species stay in the tropics, while cold-water species stay near the poles.



But in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/only-001-percent-of-earths-deep-seafloor-has-ever-been-directly-observed/">deep sea</a>, the temperature doesn’t change much. It stays cold, quiet, and relatively stable. That stability makes it easier for deep-sea species to spread out over huge distances and still survive.



Study lead author Dr. Tim O’Hara is the senior curator of marine invertebrates at <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a>.



“You might think of the deep sea as remote and isolated, but for many animals on the seafloor, it’s actually a connected superhighway,” said Dr. O'Hara.



“Over long timescales, deep-sea species have expanded their ranges by thousands of kilometers. This connectivity is a global phenomenon that’s gone unnoticed, until now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-brittle-stars">Secrets of brittle stars</h2>



This was the most comprehensive look yet at brittle stars and how they’ve moved around the planet. The researchers analyzed DNA from 2,699 specimens stored in 48 natural history museums around the world.&nbsp;



The samples were collected during 332 research expeditions, some of them decades old.



The team discovered that many brittle star species in one part of the world are closely related to those in another. For example, species found off southern Australia are genetically similar to those living off the coast of the North Atlantic - half a world away.



“These animals don’t have fins or wings, but they’ve still managed to span entire oceans,” said Dr. O’Hara. “The secret lies in their biology - their larvae can survive for a long time in cold water, hitching a ride on slow-moving deep-sea currents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-connected-deep-sea-is-vulnerable">The connected deep sea is vulnerable</h2>



Despite how connected the deep sea appears, it’s not all the same. Different regions still have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/">unique species</a>, shaped by extinction events, environmental changes, and geological features on the seafloor.&nbsp;



In some places, brittle star populations have been isolated for long periods. In others, they’ve migrated far and wide.



That’s where the concern starts to grow. The deep sea might be connected, but it’s also vulnerable.



“It’s a paradox. The deep sea is highly connected, but also incredibly fragile,” said Dr. O’Hara. “Understanding how life is distributed and moves through this vast environment is essential if we want to protect it, especially as threats from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/">deep-sea mining</a> and climate change increase.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-system-in-the-ocean">A global system in the ocean</h2>



Much of the genetic material used in this research came from museum collections - some stored for decades before being used in this study.&nbsp;



The study brought together more than 40 institutions, including natural history museums, universities, and marine science organizations. 



“This is science on a global scale,” said Lynley Crosswell, CEO and Director of Museums Victoria. “It demonstrates how museums, through international collaboration and the preservation of biodiversity specimens, can unlock new knowledge about our planet’s past and help shape its future.”



This discovery doesn’t just reshape how we think about brittle stars. It forces us to rethink how life works in one of the most mysterious parts of our planet.&nbsp;



The deep sea isn’t a quiet, disconnected wasteland. It’s a global system - one that’s more dynamic and more at risk than we ever knew.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09307-1">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep sea life is more connected than we ever realized

For years, the deep ocean has been painted as Earth’s...

Guineafowl,-,Chicken

Animals often work together to survive. But taking the lead, even for birds, comes with pressure. The results of a new study&nbsp;show that leadership causes noticeable physiological strain on wild birds.



Professor Damien Farine from <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Australian National University</a> explained how animal groups decide what direction to take.



“We already have evidence of how this decision-making can work - it’s like a voting process. So, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-could-vanish-in-the-next-century/">individuals</a> might start to move away from the group in the direction they want to go to find food and if they get enough support, the group follows. Alternatively, if no one follows then they fail and return to the group.”



The study revealed something surprising. While many animals can lead, doing so takes a toll. Guineafowl trying to influence the group’s direction showed significant spikes in heart rate. These increases were much higher than those seen from movement speed alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physiological-strain-of-bird-leadership">Physiological strain of bird leadership </h2>



The real cost came when leaders faced resistance. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">birds</a>' heart rates climbed most sharply when they acted against group consensus. Low directional agreement among other group members made it harder to lead.



“It is noticeable when they're trying to do something that very few individuals in their group would want to do. They also experience a much higher heart rate when they fail to lead in these situations,” noted study co-author Dr. James Klarevas-Irby.



Guineafowl that attempted to guide reluctant peers felt the highest stress. When they failed, their stress markers increased further. Heart rate variability, a stress indicator, also dropped during these moments, signaling physiological strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-being-in-a-group-is-stressful">Being in a group is stressful</h2>



<a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00825-5#mmc3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Just moving with the group</a>, without leading, raised stress. This added physiological load came not just from walking, but from maintaining group cohesion. The birds’ heart rates were higher when they moved in sync with others, compared to walking alone.



This supports a relatable idea. “Most of us can relate - it's like when you’re with a bunch of friends and you’re trying to decide where to go for dinner, and you really want to go to a particular restaurant but most of your friends want to go somewhere else,” said Dr. Klarevas-Irby.



Interestingly, the birds didn’t need to move dramatically faster to lead. But when they tried and failed to influence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-migrate-without-riding-the-wind/">group</a>, the cost was steep. 



Heart rates rose by up to 115 beats per minute in high-conflict situations, compared to just 0.4 beats per minute from increased speed alone. This means the emotional cost of failed influence was over 200 times higher than the physical cost of walking faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-group-positioning">The role of group positioning</h2>



The researchers initially believed that a bird’s location within the group - especially being on the outer edge - would have a strong impact on its stress levels. 



This expectation comes from the “selfish herd” theory, where individuals on the outside are thought to face more danger from predators and therefore higher stress.



Central positions, in contrast, are often considered safer but may come with their own challenges, like the need to respond to more social interactions or scramble for space.



However, the data showed something different. Birds on the edge did not show much higher stress than those in the center. In fact, both central and peripheral positions caused only slight changes in heart rate and heart rate variability. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-burden-of-leadership">Physical burden of leadership </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">changes</a> were real but small. They were also much less significant than the stress caused by trying to lead the group.



Contrary to long-standing theories, where a bird stands in the group matters far less for its stress levels than whether or not it is trying to lead others.



Leadership, especially under conflict, placed a far greater physiological burden on birds than spatial position ever did. This is one reason that not all birds want to lead. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-don-t-always-lead">Birds don’t always lead</h2>



Leadership, while rewarding when successful, is risky when others disagree. Individuals weighed the cost of guiding others against staying safe in the middle of the group.



The authors argue that leadership isn’t a fixed trait. It’s more likely a conditional strategy. A bird might choose to lead today and follow tomorrow, depending on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">situation</a>.



This study shows that the effort of guiding peers isn't just social, it’s physical. The stress that comes with being a leader may help explain why animals, including humans, switch between leading and following roles.



Group living has its benefits - but trying to control the group comes at a cost, even for birds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00825-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Leadership can be incredibly stressful, even for birds

Animals often work together to survive. But taking the lead,...

In ant colonies, caste means everything. A queen grows wings, lays eggs, and lives a life of reproduction. A worker stays wingless, handles all the labor, and rarely reproduces. But how do ants end up with such different fates when they all start out the same?



For a long time, scientists knew that both genes and the environment played a role in shaping ant castes. What wasn’t clear was how the two interacted - or whether body size and caste could be separated.



A new study from scientists at <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a> shows that body size plays a key role in determining caste. Larger ants tend to develop queen-like traits, while smaller ones become workers.



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-genes-show-how-evolution-created-perfect-teamwork/">genes</a> also set the rules by determining when, and if, a particular size tips the balance toward becoming a queen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queens-aren-t-just-bigger-ants">Queens aren't just bigger ants</h2>



A queen is not just a large worker ant. That distinction is critical. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-have-a-secret-weapon-to-slow-down-aging/">Queens</a> don’t just grow bigger - they sprout wings, develop complex eyes, and grow large ovaries to lay eggs. Workers don’t. 



And yet, in many ant species, queens and workers come from the same genetic background. It’s one of the clearest examples of how the same genome can lead to very different outcomes.



This kind of flexibility is called developmental plasticity. Female ants, in particular, are a great model to study how environmental cues - like food, temperature, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queen-behavior-changes-based-on-social-environment/">social surroundings</a> - shape the development of an organism.



Some scientists had suggested that in ants, body size and caste might be decoupled, just like in fruit flies and other insects where environmental signals influence specific traits without necessarily affecting overall size. But ants seem different. In most cases, caste traits and body size go hand in hand.



“It’s a hotly debated topic, at least among ant biologists,” said Patrick Piekarski, a postdoctoral researcher at Rockefeller's Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior. 



“We wanted to resolve this question, by determining whether it is possible to uncouple size from something like ovary development or eye development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-the-clonal-raider-ant">Meet the clonal raider ant</h2>



The team used a special kind of ant to get answers: the clonal raider ant, <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01576-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ooceraea biroi</a>. These ants reproduce asexually, producing genetically identical offspring. They also go through their life stages in sync, which makes them perfect for controlled experiments.



The clonal raider ant doesn’t have traditional queens. Instead, some individuals - called intercastes - develop queen-like features. 



They’re larger, have more developed ovaries, rudimentary eyes, and even the beginnings of wings. These intercastes serve as stand-ins for queens in the study.



“We work with this unusual ant species because, otherwise, we would not be able to control the genotype of the ant,” explained <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/988-daniel-kronauer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Kronauer</a>, the Stanley S. and Sydney R. Shuman Professor at Rockefeller.



“With clonal raider ants, we can do the equivalent of a massive identical twin study to determine how the environment impacts the adult phenotype.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-sets-the-stage-for-queen-ants">Environment sets the stage for queen ants</h2>



The first part of the study tested how much the environment affects caste. 



The researchers kept the ants' genetics the same and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/">changed their surroundings</a>. They varied food supply, temperature, and even the types of ants that cared for the larvae.



Each of these changes impacted how the ants developed - but only by influencing their final size. For example, less food meant smaller ants, which almost always became workers. 



But if a larva reached a certain size, it still developed queen-like features, even under harsh conditions.



Size, it turned out, was the switch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-still-pull-the-strings">Genes still pull the strings</h2>



Then the team flipped the question. What happens when ants have different genes but grow up in the same environment? Here’s where it got interesting.



Ants from a genetic line labeled “M” grew smaller on average than the ones from line “A.” But when M ants and A ants were the same size, M ants were more likely to develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/">queen-like traits</a>. 



In other words, genes didn’t just affect how big an ant got - they changed the significance of that size.



“An interesting illustration of that is that you have certain genotypes that start to look more queen-like at smaller body sizes,” Piekarski says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-paths-same-size">Two paths, same size</h2>



The big takeaway? Size still predicts caste, but genes determine the rules for what size counts as “queen material.” 



Some ants are genetically wired to tip into queen-like development at smaller sizes. Others need to grow bigger before that switch is flipped.



“If some environmental factor affects caste, it will affect size too. It can’t induce change in one and not the other,” commented Piekarski. 



“As far as we can tell, no matter which environmental variable you manipulate, the relationship between ant body size and caste remains unchanged and is instead genetically encoded.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-social-roles">Evolution of social roles</h2>



Understanding how body size ties into caste is about more than measuring ants. For Kronauer, this research is part of a much bigger picture.



“One of our goals is to understand how an insect society functions,” Kronauer explains. “Studying how individuals differentiate in a colony can inform our understanding of the types of caste systems, from queens to workers to soldiers, that can evolve in the thousands of ant species out there.”



His lab sees ant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/">colonies</a> as <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(08)01676-X.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superorganisms</a> - living systems that are made up of many individuals, each playing a role. 



The more we understand how those roles develop, the better we can grasp the biology of cooperation, division of labor, and even the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">evolution of complex societies</a>.



“The brains of a queen and a worker are quite different, and this is correlated with striking differences in behavior,” Kronauer stated. 



“Workers leave the nest to forage, take care of the larvae, build and expand the nest; the queen mostly just mates and lays eggs."



Identifying how body size relates to becoming a queen ant or a worker opens the door to understanding how social roles, brain function, and colony dynamics develop and evolve together.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501716122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How do ant colonies crown a queen? Scientists found out

In ant colonies, caste means everything. A queen grows wings,...

Ancient marine fossils from North Greenland have shed light on a major misidentification. A creature once thought to be an early squid relative is not a cephalopod at all. New research shows it is actually linked to arrow worms, or chaetognaths. These creatures swam in Earth's seas more than 500 million years ago.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, the Korean Polar Research Institute, and the University of Copenhagen. 



The team examined 25 fossils of a mysterious creature called a nectocaridid. Once believed to be an ancient cephalopod, it had a squid-like shape that puzzled scientists for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arrow-worm-fossil-found-in-greenland">Arrow worm fossil found in Greenland</h2>



The fossils came from Sirius Passet, a site known for exceptional preservation. Located in North Greenland, this fossil bed holds delicate remains from the Early Cambrian period, around 518 million years ago.



“Sirius Passet is a treasure trove of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-worm-comes-back-to-life-after-46000-years/">fossils</a> from the Cambrian Explosion. We not only find delicate soft-bodied fossils but also their digestive systems, musculature and sometimes even their nervous system,” noted Dr. Jakob Vinther from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>.



Fifteen years ago, a paper based on Burgess Shale fossils proposed that nectocaridids were cephalopods related to octopuses and squids. That claim confused many in the field.



“It never really made sense to me, as the hypothesis would upend everything we otherwise know about cephalopods, and their anatomy didn’t closely match cephalopods when you looked carefully,” said Dr. Vinther.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nervous-system-holds-the-answer">Nervous system holds the answer</h2>



As more fossils emerged, researchers noticed something unique. Many specimens had their nervous systems preserved in mineral form. This was a key breakthrough.



“We discovered our nectocaridids preserve parts of their nervous system as paired mineralised structures, and that was a giveaway as to where these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worm-fossil-helps-solve-an-evolutionary-mystery/">animals</a> sit in the tree of life,” said Dr. Vinther.



Soon after, the team found fossils of arrow worms, which helped solve the mystery. One clear feature made the connection possible: the ventral ganglion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ganglion-links-to-arrow-worm-fossil">Ganglion links to arrow worm fossil</h2>



This ventral ganglion is a nerve mass found on the underside of living arrow worms. It is unique to their group and sometimes gets replaced with phosphate minerals during decay, making it fossilize well.



“These fossils all preserve a unique feature, distinct for arrow worms, called the ventral ganglion,” noted Dr. Tae-Yoon Park from the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Institute</a>.



That discovery gave the team the final clue they needed. “We now had a smoking gun to resolve the nectocaridid controversy. Nectocaridids share a number of features with some of the other fossils that also belong to the arrow worm stem lineage,” said Park.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arrow-worm-fossil-only-looked-like-squid">Arrow worm fossil only looked like squid</h2>



Despite their similarity to squids, nectocaridids were not related. Their streamlined shape was simply an adaptation to swimming. 



“Many of these features are superficially squid-like and reflect simple adaptations to an active swimming mode of life in invertebrates, just like whales and ancient marine reptiles end up looking like fish when they evolve such a mode of life,” Park explained.



This means evolution shaped their bodies for speed and stealth, and similarities with squids were not due to a shared ancestor or genetic heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-antennae-and-stealth">Eyes, antennae, and stealth</h2>



One of their most remarkable features is their eyes. These ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-dna-is-changing-how-we-understand-evolution/">creatures</a> had complex eyes whereas today’s arrow worms can barely detect light direction.



“Nectocaridids have complex camera eyes just like ours. Living arrow worms can hardly form an image beyond working out roughly where the sun shines,” said Dr. Vinther. 



“Our fossils can be much bigger than a typical living arrow worm and, combined with their swimming apparatus, eyes and long antennae, they must have been formidable and stealthy predators."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-carnivorous-diet">Evidence of carnivorous diet</h2>



The team found direct proof of their predatory nature. Some fossils had remains of Isoxys, a type of swimming arthropod, in their digestive tracts. This shows they hunted and consumed other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-worms-feasted-on-the-bones-of-giant-marine-animals/">marine animals</a>.



The new species has been named&nbsp;Nektognathus evasmithae. It honors Professor Eva Smith, Denmark’s first female law professor and a defender of human rights.



“My decision to name our fossil after Eva, is that this animal was a smart and stealthy fighter just like she is,” Dr. Vinther concluded.



Ultimately, this discovery changes our view of early marine food webs and the evolution of modern sea predators.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6990">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: Bob Nicholls



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ancient 'squid' turned out to be something else entirely

Ancient marine fossils from North Greenland have shed light on...

The "Iguanas from Above" project brought together nearly 14,000 volunteers to count endangered Galapagos marine iguanas. These reptiles, found only in the Galapagos Islands, are facing many threats. Counting them from the ground is difficult due to the inaccessible terrain.



To overcome this, researchers at <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a> launched a drone-based survey. They then invited the public to analyze these aerial images online. 



“This expands the role of citizen science, provides significant support for researchers, and offers a valuable opportunity to actively engage people in conservation topics,” noted Dr. Amy MacLeod, who leads the campaign.



This effort resulted in more than 1.3 million classifications across nearly 58,000 images. Each image was reviewed up to 30 times. The goal was not just participation but reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iguanas-traveled-5000-miles-from-north-america-to-fiji/">population</a> estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-methods-for-counting-iguanas">Best methods for counting iguanas</h2>



To ensure reliability, scientists compared volunteer results with expert evaluations. A gold standard dataset of 4,345 images served as the benchmark. 



Volunteers achieved 68-94% detection accuracy. They were more likely to miss iguanas than to add extra individuals by mistake.



Rather than use a majority vote, the team applied a minimum threshold method. If five or more volunteers agreed on iguana presence, the count was accepted. This method improved accuracy, especially when images were complex or crowded.



Clustering methods, especially HDBSCAN, performed best for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/">counting</a> iguanas. It grouped volunteer marks to identify individual iguanas more reliably than other approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accuracy-of-volunteer-counts">Accuracy of volunteer counts</h2>



The success of volunteer counts depended heavily on image quality. During the first project phase, drone images had poor focus and lighting. 



These issues led to frequent undercounting. Later phases used clearer images, which resulted in higher accuracy.



Volunteers had trouble distinguishing iguanas from dark volcanic rocks. This was especially true for small or well-camouflaged iguanas. When image quality was high, count differences between volunteers and experts narrowed considerably.



Even with better images, undercounting remained common. Researchers found that when many iguanas were in a single frame, volunteers often reported fewer than were actually there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-made-people-join-or-quit">What made people join or quit</h2>



Not all volunteers contributed equally. Most submitted fewer than 50 classifications. But a small group, known as “super volunteers,” completed thousands. Some volunteers preferred staying anonymous, yet still showed high dedication.



Feedback from surveys revealed what discouraged participants. Blank images - photos without any iguanas - reduced motivation. Blurred images and difficult terrain also caused fatigue. Repetition made the task less engaging for some users.



Still, the volunteers’ dedication proved strong. One contributor analyzed every image in all three phases. Many were driven by the desire to help science rather than by any external rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-the-iguana-counts-reliable">Are the iguana counts reliable?</h2>



The research team tested whether removing inputs from anonymous or inexperienced users would improve results. They found it reduced the number of useful classifications and sometimes harmed accuracy.



While using more classifiers per image might seem helpful, it did not always increase reliability. The key was balancing quantity with quality and giving more weight to the counts of skilled participants.



The HDBSCAN method gave the most consistent results. It required fewer assumptions and handled spatial data better. It also offered a base for future machine learning models that could automate parts of the work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-smarter-monitoring-system">Toward a smarter monitoring system</h2>



This project confirms that volunteers can help count iguanas, but still tend to undercount. The team plans to apply correction factors for future population estimates. They aim to use the data to update the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a> and improve conservation plans.



They are also testing whether volunteers can identify reproductive behaviors, such as males in breeding colors or lekking sites. These insights could enrich understanding of marine iguana ecology.



Moving forward, the researchers will integrate machine learning into the workflow. AI models will be trained using volunteer data. These tools may help detect iguanas and filter out empty images. The hope is to create a semi-automated pipeline for faster and cheaper monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-impacts-and-future-vision">Wider impacts and future vision</h2>



This method could apply to other hard-to-monitor species in remote areas. Online platforms like <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooniverse</a> show that people worldwide are eager to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">conservation</a> science.



The combination of drone surveys and crowdsourced analysis can reshape how we approach large-scale wildlife monitoring. According to the researchers, if experts alone had analyzed the images, it would have taken decades.



Now, with volunteer help and upcoming AI tools, they aim to complete a full population survey of the Galapagos marine iguana by 2026. The project is still live, and anyone can join to help protect this unique species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-08381-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

People around the world are helping save Galapagos iguanas

The "Iguanas from Above" project brought together nearly 14,000 volunteers...

Hawaiian field crickets once relied on their mating calls to attract partners. Over recent decades, most males have lost this ability due to a mutation called “flatwing." The mutation changed the wing shape of males, silencing their songs. 



While this adaptation has helped the male crickets avoid a deadly parasitoid fly, the change has also reshaped their social interactions.



Previous research was focused on how the flatwing mutation affected male-male or male-female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-crickets-hide-in-ant-colonies-without-being-caught/">dynamics</a>. But recently, attention has shifted to the less studied space of female-female interaction. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.1007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a> explores what happens between females when song disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interactions-of-female-crickets">Interactions of female crickets </h2>



In animal behavior studies, researchers often focus on male competition or female mate choice. In non-social insects like crickets, female-female interactions have long been overlooked. 



Yet these interactions can influence mating patterns, reproductive strategies, and even evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-juvenile-crickets-cannot-survive-the-strain-of-human-noise/">outcomes</a>. The new research highlights how females engage in social behavior beyond direct reproduction. 



Females in many species assess competitors, monitor social status, or respond to environmental cues. These patterns are complex and not limited to higher animals like primates or ants.



Crickets, although not social in the traditional sense, offer many opportunities for female interaction. Females often gather around calling males. This can lead to chance encounters, competition, or cooperation - depending on the context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flatwing-affects-female-crickets-too">Flatwing affects female crickets too</h2>



The flatwing mutation only alters male wings but still influences females carrying it. Female carriers show changes in gene expression and physical condition. This suggests the mutation could influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/">social behavior</a> indirectly.



The researchers, including study lead author Ana Drago, designed an experiment to explore this idea. They used pure-breeding lines of flatwing and normal-wing females. 



Pairs were matched or mismatched by genotype and observed under two conditions: presence or absence of male song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-crickets-and-antennal-contact">Female crickets and antennal contact</h2>



Among all behaviors recorded, antennal contact was the most frequent. This gentle, investigative interaction involves using antennae to explore another cricket’s body. Females did this more often and for longer when male song was playing.



This pattern held even stronger when both females shared the same genotype. Flatwing pairs, in particular, showed a sharp rise in interaction under song. This suggests that both environmental and genetic factors shape social behavior.



"Intrasexual female social behavior was common, expressed by 86.5% of individuals. Females primarily engaged in antennal contact, which is reasonable to interpret as detection and assessment behavior," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-cricket-behavior">Changes in cricket behavior</h2>



Calling song is a key environmental signal. It can trigger phonotaxis (movement toward sound) and may raise general alertness. In the experiment, exposure to song led females to become more socially active.



This was not just a passive result of increased movement. Females maintained contact for longer durations, suggesting something more than mate search.



These interactions might help assess the partner’s condition or status. Chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">cues</a>, such as cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs), could play a role here. CHCs provide information about maturity, health, and mating history in many insect species.



CHC profiles in T. oceanicus are sexually dimorphic. Females may use them to determine the sex and fitness of another individual. If song primes females to expect mates nearby, it makes sense they would increase social investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biting-and-mounting-are-rare">Biting and mounting are rare</h2>



Biting, a form of aggression, occurred in about 13% of female crickets. Song made biting more likely but did not increase its frequency. This suggests females escalate rarely, possibly only after extended interaction. 



Unlike males, females did not show pre-bite displays. They targeted legs and abdomens rather than heads.



Sexual behavior among two females was even rarer. Only two mounting attempts occurred, both under song and between same-genotype pairs. One was accepted. 



The low frequency may reflect the female’s stronger sex recognition or a lack of behavioral overlap with male courtship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-and-song-shape-interaction">Genes and song shape interaction</h2>



The researchers also investigated indirect genetic effects and genotype-by-environment interactions - situations where one individual’s genetic makeup influences the behavior of another. 



In pairs with the flatwing genotype exposed to song, female behavior showed greater variability, indicating this genotype may be more socially sensitive.



This aligns with previous research showing increased plasticity in flatwing males. The song environment interacted with both the focal and partner genotype. Together, these shaped how much and how long females interacted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-crickets-affect-male-success">Female crickets affect male success</h2>



Flatwing males avoid parasitism by staying silent. But their success depends on female choice. If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-dominance-in-primates-is-more-common-than-we-thought/">female behavior</a> changes based on genotype and social context, it may affect male survival indirectly.



"The reproductive success of flatwing males is inherently tied to female mate choice, which has been suggested to potentially be a stronger factor than flatwing satellite behavior in reducing parasitism risk," explained the researchers.



"It is therefore possible that female-female social behaviors indirectly influence parasitism risk, though this requires further study."



In dense populations, where female encounters are more frequent, these patterns could have a major impact. 



The silence that protects males may also reduce the social complexity among females, reshaping communication and competition across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-silent-crickets-stay-social">Even silent crickets stay social</h2>



Crickets may be quieter today, but their social worlds are not silent. Female-female cricket interactions, once ignored, now offer clues to how evolution plays out in subtle, indirect ways. 



By exploring these relationships, researchers uncover how behavior, genetics, and environment blend to shape even the smallest creatures’ lives.



"The results of this study urge that future research pays due attention to any sex that may be understudied in a given system. This is crucial to uncover intrasexual social, sexual and aggressive behaviors that may subsequently affect intersexual dynamics," concluded the researchers.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

When male crickets go silent: How females adapt and respond

Hawaiian field crickets once relied on their mating calls to...

species in Ptychatractidae

News coming your way