A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Researchers have identified a measurable link between events in the earliest days of embryo development and a person’s long-term health. 



Many people don't think much about what happens right after conception, yet those first steps can influence how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-formation-is-shaped-by-electric-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> stay strong over time.



In a recent study led by Professor Rebecca Robker from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>, scientists analyzed key components of DNA called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57794-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">telomeres</a>, which act like protective ends on each chromosome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-embryo-telomeres-protect-health">How embryo telomeres protect health</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Telomere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Telomeres</a> have a special <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.113.000485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA sequence</a> that shields our genetic material whenever cells split. They tend to shrink a little with each cell division, which is why older individuals often have shorter telomeres.



“Telomeres are the parts of chromosomes that influence growth and rejuvenation of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a>,” said Professor Robker. 



Not only do they affect how efficiently our bodies manage cellular renewal, but telomeres also connect with how we handle stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-inside-embryo-growth">Looking inside embryo growth</h2>



“Reduced telomere length can be caused by embryonic cellular damage,” said study co-lead Dr. Yasmyn Winstanley. 



The researchers found that the body’s condition at conception seems to shape how well these chromosomal ends develop. 



“There are specific types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-viral-dna-may-control-human-embryonic-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular damage</a> during the very first days of embryo development which cause the defect in the telomeres of the embryo. The process is highly responsive to signals from the mother’s body,” explained Dr. Winstanley. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-health-shapes-embryo-health">Maternal health shapes embryo health</h2>



Conditions such as obesity can raise the risk of having shorter telomeres <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27751173/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">at birth</a>. This has caught the attention of public health advocates because shorter telomeres in children can mean increased vulnerability to later challenges.



“Some babies are born with shorter telomeres than others, increasing their lifetime risk of chronic diseases associated with aging,” said Professor Robker. 



Offspring may inherit a greater susceptibility to problems linked to heart function and other metabolic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-kills-ocean-embryos-during-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-possible-break-in-the-chain">A possible break in the chain</h2>



“Until now it has not been clear how the length of telomeres is determined before birth,” said Professor Robker. 



But her group has demonstrated that pre-conception factors set off cellular signals that change how these protective caps are established.



“We provide proof-of-concept that DNA resetting can be modulated in embryos where it is deficient, using currently available drugs,” said Professor Robker. 



The researchers tested strategies to repair such damage in the embryo’s early hours.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drugs-restore-embryo-telomere-health">Drugs restore embryo telomere health</h2>



Therapies that support healthy <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1201940" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondria</a> inside eggs appear to help maintain or restore telomeres. Mitochondria drive cellular energy, and they also produce byproducts that can harm DNA when not balanced.



“Our identification of specific pharmaceutical compounds that can modulate telomeres during preconception and immediately following fertilization, means that there are therapeutic opportunities to optimise this biology,” explained Professor Robker.



The researchers are now working with <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/search/organization/Vitaleon%2520Pharma" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vitaleon Pharma</a> to develop these findings for fertility specialists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



“These findings highlight that the health of women and girls should be a major focus of public health policies,” said Dr. Winstanley. 



Public awareness around maintaining a healthy weight, balanced nutrition, and a supportive environment may therefore be key.



For many, the best start comes from paying attention to signs of metabolic strain. Experts advise timely monitoring of overall wellness, especially in individuals aiming to have children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Telomeres remain a vital puzzle in understanding why some people age well and others do not. 



Observing their behavior from the earliest stage can open possibilities to fine-tune approaches that offset <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-embryo-mortality-could-rise-by-71-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">damage</a> before a child is even born.



Continuing clinical trials may look at ways to guard or extend telomeres while an embryo forms. If the right interventions are offered in time, tomorrow’s children might enter life with robust cellular shields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-on-embryo-health">New insights on embryo health</h2>



This research has added new perspectives to the study of early development. Scientists hope it will lead to targeted treatments that support mother and child, especially when metabolic challenges arise.



Clinics offering reproductive services may eventually add telomere-based checks to their methods. Getting a snapshot of <a href="https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2977&amp;sectionid=254987027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maternal physiology</a> and egg health could help doctors suggest the next steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26561272/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life spans</a> have been edging upward over the past century, but not all extra years are disease-free. As more people recognize the link between a healthy pregnancy and better aging, demand for interventions might grow.



Practitioners see value in including telomere monitoring for prospective parents. Early findings about these chromosome ends could spark new ways to promote healthier outcomes from infancy through adulthood.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57794-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Mom's health shapes how well an embryo develops

Researchers have identified a measurable link between events in the...

For centuries, people have wondered how humans differ from other primates, particularly in terms of brain characteristics. 



Recent scientific advancements suggest that some neural pathways in humans function with unique connections not seen in chimpanzees or macaques.



In a recent study, researchers examined these specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain circuits</a> and found potential links to emotional regulation, social intelligence, and language capabilities. 



The research was led by Rogier Mars from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and Katherine Bryant from <a href="https://www.univ-amu.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aix-Marseille University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brains-process-emotions-uniquely">Human brains process emotions uniquely</h2>



Many <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2002.1099" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have pointed to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499919/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prefrontal cortex</a> as a major player in our capacity for focused attention, strategic thinking, and impulse control. 



The new data suggests that the neural regions governing emotions and interpersonal bonds also have remarkable features in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-genes-to-genius-what-makes-the-human-brain-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>.



Areas governing empathy, reading facial cues, and interpreting subtle social signals exhibit patterns of connectivity that appear notably different in our species. 



This could mean that group cooperation, moral reasoning, and emotional nuance are molded by unique brain pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prefrontal-cortex-and-beyond">Prefrontal cortex and beyond</h2>



Peer-reviewed research has linked the prefrontal cortex to a variety of higher-order functions, including planning and problem-solving. 



For decades, scientists assumed that these executive tasks primarily distinguished us from other primates.



Now, evidence indicates that other networks, particularly those involved with emotional learning, may be equally pivotal to our advanced behavior. The interplay between cognition and emotion adds another layer to the conversation about what makes us <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-human-and-chimp-brains">Differences in human and chimp brains</h2>



Chimpanzees share over 98% of our DNA, a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11170892/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fact</a> that highlights how closely related we are biologically.



Still, scans from a publicly accessible archive, which were collected prior to the 2015 guidelines by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Institutes of Health, reveal surprising differences in certain brain areas.



These structural distinctions include connections associated with communication, emotional depth, and social dynamics. By comparing chimpanzee, macaque, and human brains side by side, researchers can pinpoint pathways that might underlie our species’ unique traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifts-in-connectivity">Shifts in connectivity</h2>



Specialized circuits in the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/16799-temporal-lobe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temporal</a> and <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24628-parietal-lobe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parietal lobes</a> appear to handle processes such as combining sensory input, linking events to context, and supporting sophisticated language. 



By mapping these neural webs, scientists discover clusters of activity that seem exclusive to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>.



According to the researchers, these hotspots could account for our tendency to form complex social alliances, interpret subtle linguistic cues, and adapt to changing environments. 



When these findings are added to our understanding of the prefrontal cortex, the result is a bigger picture of how the human brain navigates everyday life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-networks-in-brain-set-humans-apart">Networks in brain set humans apart</h2>



Some neuroscience <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.00006.2011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a> relate language to specialized regions in the temporal lobe, where phonological and semantic processing occurs. 



This aspect of connectivity might underpin our ability to learn thousands of words, structure them into sentences, and convey intricate ideas with ease.



Strong language networks show how communication evolved beyond simple sounds. Researchers believe that these changes did not arise from a single “language gene” but from a reconfiguration of multiple interlinked neural systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-all-means">What it all means</h2>



“Our <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/02/23/JNEUROSCI.2017-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">results</a> counter models that assign primacy to prefrontal cortex for human uniqueness,” wrote Bryant and colleagues. Human's social and emotional wiring might be as influential to our humanity as the well-studied prefrontal cortex.&nbsp;



This perspective broadens our view of what makes us tick, giving new weight to the roles of empathy, social signaling, and emotional interplay in setting our species apart. It also emphasizes that the human story is about more than just rational thinking.



In the future, scientists may examine how these specialized connections develop over a lifetime and whether they shift in different cultures. Such research could reveal how malleable our brains are and how our capacity for compassion, language, and community evolves.



Each study provides a stepping stone for deeper inquiries into the complexity of our neural wiring. Findings like these remind us that the human brain is not defined by a single region, but by a tapestry of linked networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-another-perspective-on-evolution">Another perspective on evolution</h2>



Some anthropologists note that major shifts in diet, group size, and tool use likely influenced how certain networks in the brain matured over thousands of years. 



<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/204350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of early human fossils, coupled with comparative genetics, help fill in the timeline of when these anatomical transitions took shape.



By connecting fossil evidence with modern brain imaging, researchers might trace how environmental pressures pushed these specialized connections to develop. 



Examining ancient cranial remains could reveal if the capacity for intricate social behaviors and language co-evolved alongside changes in skull shape and brain volume.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/02/23/JNEUROSCI.2017-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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New brain pathways identified as being unique to humans

For centuries, people have wondered how humans differ from other...

Feathers did not arrive in nature as fully formed tools for flight. Their development began long before birds took to the sky. The fossil record tells a story that stretches back over 200 million years.



Now, with the help of genetic tools and carefully timed experiments, scientists can reawaken ancient traits inside of modern embryos.



This is not just about feathers. It's about how complexity arises, how it endures, and how biology protects the structures it builds. By reversing certain steps in feather <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-dinosaurs-to-birds-the-mysterious-origin-of-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">development</a>, researchers reveal a hidden resilience. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-development-before-birds">Feather development before birds</h2>



The earliest feathers didn’t help animals fly. Instead, they started as simple, hollow filaments. These "proto-feathers" likely emerged in some dinosaurs during the Triassic period, around 200 million years ago. 



There’s even evidence they may have evolved earlier, in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs nearly 240 million years ago.



Unlike modern feathers, proto-feathers had no central shaft, no branching barbs, and no follicle. But they still served a purpose. They helped with insulation and may have acted as colorful or patterned signals during social interaction. 



Over time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> shaped feathers into complex tools that now support everything from flight to waterproofing.



This progression - from basic filaments to branched, aerodynamic feathers - didn’t happen randomly. It followed a path written in genes, using signaling pathways shared across the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-hidden-in-bird-embryos">Clues hidden in bird embryos</h2>



Modern bird embryos offer a way to retrace this path. At the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a>, Professor Michel Milinkovitch and his team have explored the genetics of feather formation. Their lab focuses on how molecular signals drive the development of skin structures like scales, hair, and feathers.



One such signaling system, the Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) pathway, plays a crucial role in shaping feathers. In earlier studies, the team activated this pathway in chicken embryos. 



The result was remarkable - scales on the feet of the birds transformed into permanent feathers. That experiment proved how a single shift in signaling can alter skin identity.



But what would happen if the Shh pathway were blocked instead?



"Feathers, ancient and intricate, still hold secrets that science is just beginning to unlock," noted Rory Cooper, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-feather-development-recreated">Ancient feather development recreated</h2>



To investigate, the researchers injected a drug called sonidegib into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-inspire-improvements-in-airplane-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chicken</a> embryos on their ninth day of development.



This drug shuts down the Shh pathway by targeting a key protein called Smoothened. The timing was crucial - day nine is when feather placodes begin to form, marking the start of feather bud development.



The results were dramatic. Feather buds failed to grow and remained short and unbranched. The typical invagination that forms a feather follicle was absent. Instead, the skin developed smooth, hollow filaments - almost identical to proto-feathers seen in fossils.



This temporary block in development held until the fourteenth day. After that, something unexpected happened. Feather growth resumed on its own. Chicks that hatched had patches of bare skin, but over the next several weeks, those areas filled in with normal feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-how-feathers-recover">A closer look at how feathers recover</h2>



The researchers tracked development from embryo to hatchling using imaging and RNA sequencing. They confirmed that the Shh pathway was indeed suppressed. 



Key genes like Ptch1, Ptch2, and Gli1 were all turned down. These genes normally guide outgrowth, branching, and follicle formation. Blocking them prevented barbs and ridges from forming.



Microscopy revealed that in high-dose treatments, feather buds remained fused, stubby, and lacked branching. 



Follicle invagination - the folding-in of the skin to support feather roots - was completely absent. But despite all this, the system rebounded. By 49 days after hatching, the chicks showed normal feather coverage.



The only part that didn’t return to normal? The flight feathers. These specialized feathers, located on the posterior edge of the wing, failed to form correctly in high-dose embryos. 



Even weeks later, their positions were filled by smaller, contour-type <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a>. This indicated that some aspects of feather identity are locked to narrow developmental windows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



To verify that the observed effects were specific to Shh signaling, the team ran a second experiment. They combined the Shh-blocking drug with a Shh activator known as SAG. If feathers could be restored this way, it would confirm that both molecules act directly on the same pathway.



And they were. Chicks treated with both sonidegib and SAG developed normal feathers. Even when SAG was delivered one or two days after sonidegib, the feathers grew, branched, and invaginated as they should. 



Only late treatment - beyond day eleven - led to partial recovery. This showed that timing is everything in embryonic development.



"Our experiments show that while a transient disturbance in the development of foot scales can permanently turn them into feathers, it is much harder to permanently disrupt feather development itself," noted Michel Milinkovitch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-recover-scales-do-not">Feathers recover, scales do not</h2>



This recovery points to something fundamental about feathers. They grow from follicles that contain stem cells. These cells regenerate feathers cyclically throughout a bird’s life. 



In contrast, scales - like those on a bird’s foot - do not grow from follicles and cannot regenerate. That may explain why transformed foot scales remain feathers, while disrupted feathers bounce back.



Even at the gene expression level, this distinction is clear. After sonidegib treatment, the feathers showed temporary suppression of hundreds of genes tied to structure and shape - keratin production, signaling gradients, and branching formation. 



But the spatial map of feather follicles remained intact. Once signaling returned, so did the feathers.



Flight feathers, however, rely on precise placement and signaling levels during a short developmental window. If Shh signaling is missing at that moment, the opportunity is lost. The feather becomes ordinary, not aerodynamic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mechanisms-modern-precision">Ancient mechanisms, modern precision</h2>



The entire experiment rests on a principle called reaction-diffusion. It’s a model that explains how patterns like stripes, spots, and ridges form in living tissues. 



The Shh protein works as an activator, while another molecule, Bmp2, acts as its inhibitor. Together, they create a spatial map that tells cells where to grow barbs, shafts, or follicles.



By altering the Shh signal, scientists rewrote this map. The result: broad stripes of gene activity replaced the usual dotted pattern of feather placodes. This type of disruption aligns with theories on how feathers evolved from simpler, unbranched structures. 



Proto-feathers didn’t have a patterned map yet - just the beginnings of one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-development-and-evolution">Feather development and evolution</h2>



The study does more than recreate an ancient structure. It shows that feather development is built to recover from disruption. 



This makes sense from an evolutionary point of view. Feathers are essential to survival in many bird species. Evolution may have shaped them to resist failure - much like a city has backup systems to keep it running.



And yet, these systems remain open to change. By manipulating just one pathway, scientists can trigger a full shift in identity - from scale to feather. Or they can recreate traits that vanished millions of years ago.



It’s a reminder that the genetic blueprint of life is both sturdy and flexible. The key lies not in the parts themselves, but in the timing and tuning of their signals. Feathers evolved through such changes - and continue to teach us how form and function intertwine across deep time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Chicken embryos reveal secrets of early feather development

Feathers did not arrive in nature as fully formed tools...

Photo,Of,Fresh,Pistachios,On,A,Tree

California grows nearly all of the nation’s pistachios, producing 99% of the crop and contributing close to $3 billion annually to the state’s economy. 



Despite their value, pistachios haven’t received as much scientific attention as other crops - mainly due to the absence of a complete, high-quality genetic map. But that is finally changing.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> have created the most detailed genome sequence of the pistachio to date. 



The work opens the door to developing better pistachio varieties that are potentially more nutritious and resilient to climate change. 



Alongside the genome, the team also charted the full development cycle of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-nuts-every-day-does-not-cause-weight-gain-but-it-does-improve-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nut</a>, offering insights that could help farmers grow and harvest their crops more efficiently and sustainably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sharper-view-of-pistachio-genetics">A sharper view of pistachio genetics</h2>



While previous studies have sequenced pistachio DNA, the new genetic map stands apart for its depth and precision.



“The improvement in accuracy of the new reference <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> is like going from a hand-drawn map of a landscape to a satellite image from Google Earth,” said study co-author J. Grey Monroe, an assistant professor with the Department of Plant Sciences.



The team focused on the Kerman cultivar, the most widely grown pistachio variety in California. By zeroing in on this standard, the researchers made their findings directly relevant to commercial growers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-threatens-cold-loving-trees">Climate change threatens cold-loving trees</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/springtime-brings-greenery-and-dust-to-turkmenistan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pistachio trees</a> are famously tough. They handle drought and salty soil better than many crops. But they also have a weakness: they need cold winters to flower and produce nuts. 



Warmer winters in recent years, along with less fog in California’s Central Valley, have disrupted that process and reduced yields.



Since pistachio trees can live and produce nuts for up to 50 years, any decision about what to plant carries long-term consequences. With climate patterns shifting, growers are understandably worried about the future of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megafire-smoke-has-long-lasting-impacts-on-orchard-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchards</a>.



This is where the new genome map could help. It gives plant breeders a powerful tool to create new pistachio varieties that can adapt to warmer conditions while maintaining - or even improving - nut quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-flower-to-harvest">From flower to harvest</h2>



The research didn’t stop at the genetic level. The team also tracked how pistachios develop over time, identifying four key stages from flowering to harvest. This includes when the shell hardens and when the kernel inside grows.



“Knowing how the nut changes through development will help farmers make better decisions, like when to water their trees, leading to more sustainable pistachio production,” said study co-author Bárbara Blanco-Ulate.



This information could also help farmers better time their harvests and reduce losses from insects or fungal infections. 



Beyond the physical stages, the researchers also studied the genetic activity at each step, offering a full picture of how the nut grows and changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pistachios-with-enhanced-health-benefits">Pistachios with enhanced health benefits </h2>



Pistachios are known for being a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-pistachios-daily-proven-to-boost-eyes-vision-and-overall-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy snack</a> packed with protein and unsaturated fats. Now, researchers have pinpointed the specific genes and molecular pathways responsible for these benefits.



“We’re getting information about how all these nutritional characteristics are gained in pistachios and how we can improve that from a management perspective,” said Blanco-Ulate.&nbsp;



Understanding how nutrients build up in the nut over time could help producers fine-tune growing practices or even develop pistachios with enhanced health benefits and longer shelf life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-rooted-in-science">A future rooted in science</h2>



With this new genetic map and a clearer picture of how pistachios grow, researchers and farmers are better equipped to face the challenges of tomorrow. 



Whether it’s adapting to climate change or improving nut quality, California’s pistachio industry now has powerful new tools to work with - one gene at a time.



The implications go beyond scientific curiosity. As climate pressures intensify and global demand for nutritious, sustainably grown food rises, advances like these can help secure the future of an industry that supports thousands of jobs and contributes billions to the economy. 



From breeding better trees to optimizing harvest times, science is now firmly planted at the root of pistachio production.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70060" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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How pistachio DNA is shaping the future of farming

California grows nearly all of the nation’s pistachios, producing 99%...

Latimeria,Fish,Isolated,On,The,Black,Background

Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life and ocean creatures, one fish long believed to have vanished from our planet captured worldwide attention. 



This interest emerged from an unexpected finding that changed our perspective on what might still be lurking in the deep.



Before 1938, experts spoke of the coelacanth as a classic example of an extinct fish dating back more than 400 million years. Scholars concluded it had disappeared 65 to 70 million years ago. 



This assumption crumbled when a 32-year-old museum employee in East London, South Africa, examined a strange specimen brought by a local fisherman near the Chalumna River. The fish defied every existing category she knew.



Soon after, she contacted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._B._Smith" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor James Leonard Brierley Smith</a> of <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodes University</a> for advice. He confirmed that the fish was indeed a living coelacanth. 



That surprise discovery shifted the zoological narrative and demonstrated how the fossil record can be incomplete, especially when only a small number of individuals survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-fish-tale">Fascinating fish tale</h2>



In the eyes of many scientists, the coelacanth’s resurgence placed it into what is called a Lazarus taxon. The term refers to creatures that vanish from evidence, then reappear without warning. 



One telling moment from that occasion remains the telegram from Brierley Smith: “MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED.” 



No one anticipated those words, yet they confirmed something rare had surfaced.



After that event, more than a decade passed before another coelacanth turned up. In 1952, two fishermen in the Comoro Islands accidentally netted the second specimen, prompting renewed fascination among marine researchers. 



A further revelation followed in the 1990s, when experts identified a second species around the Indonesian archipelago. 



These examples carry the names <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-megacities-at-highest-risk-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Indian Ocean</a> coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae) and Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coelacanth-has-unique-physical-traits">Coelacanth has unique physical traits</h2>



This fish stands apart for its lobed pectoral fins, which appear to be an early link to vertebrates that eventually ventured onto land. These fins move in a synchronized pattern, allowing the fish to navigate underwater terrains. 



Unlike many other fishes, it also bears an unusual hinge in its skull, once a subject of speculation about how it might bite or process food.



Its coloration often blends with the rocky surroundings where it resides, offering a measure of cover in deep marine environments. 



The habitat provides sufficient shelter from predators, while the species’ low metabolism helps it survive on fewer resources. 



Scientists note that it rests in lava-cave recesses during daylight hours, an approach that likely shields it from hazards in open water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancestral-ties-to-land-creatures">Ancestral ties to land creatures</h2>



Researchers classify the coelacanth under the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-fish-like-fossil-finally-classified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group Sarcopterygii</a>, or lobe-finned fishes, which include lungfish and the earliest ancestors of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. 



Shared skeletal features, such as sturdy fin bones, point to a closer relationship with organisms that adapted to life on land. 



This connection is intriguing because it shows how certain aquatic traits can mirror structures later found in creatures roaming dry terrain.



Some studies suggest that the coelacanth’s rostral organ, located in its snout, may sense electrical signals from prey. 



That adaptation is reminiscent of strategies seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lobe-finned fish</a>, hinting at a link between modern species and those that made their way onto shore millions of years ago. 



Observers note that this hidden ability emphasizes how an ancient design can remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-stability-has-helped-coelacanths">Geological stability has helped coelacanths</h2>



The ancient environment of undersea caverns has changed little over vast stretches of time. 



Because of this stable setting, the coelacanth has not faced the intense pressures that other species might encounter in rapidly shifting habitats. 



Food sources may be limited, but the fish’s slow pace lessens its caloric needs.



Its specialized niche also guards it from fierce competition. Other oceanic predators seldom patrol these dark, quiet zones, giving the coelacanth space to endure without altering the basic features that first appeared centuries ago. 



This alignment between organism and setting reveals a powerful strategy: remain where the external world barely intrudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiring-story-of-adaptation-and-survival">Inspiring story of adaptation and survival</h2>



Many living forms adapt constantly to survive. By contrast, this fish’s story underscores how a creature can persist if external demands remain light and internal physiology fits the available conditions. 



Though it caused surprise among zoologists, the coelacanth itself quietly continued in an environment well-suited to its capabilities.



To many observers, it sparks discussions on biodiversity and the surprising ways life endures. While others might call it a relic, it is very much a survivor. 



Each sighting encourages experts to keep watching the deep sea, a region that may hold additional beings we once wrote off as extinct.



Scientists continue to investigate whether this fish harbors undiscovered traits. Each observation can add to our understanding of marine evolution. 



Observers hope that further study might shed new light on adaptations that remain hidden in dark, remote corners of the ocean.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-37849-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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World’s oldest fish was presumed extinct for 60 million years before being rediscovered

Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life...

In the face of climate change, forests have become more than green landscapes. They regulate temperatures, purify air and water, protect soil, and support biodiversity. 



Forests also absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in trees and soil, helping to reduce global warming.



Oceans do the same, but forests offer a land-based solution, one that we can manage directly. The idea of planting more trees has taken hold worldwide. But the story doesn’t end there.



Not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> offer the same benefits. Some grow quickly, others slowly. Some survive tough climates, others do well only in ideal conditions. 



The challenge for forest managers is figuring out which trees will trap the most carbon where they are planted.



The answer lies in matching tree traits with the land on which they grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-study-seeks-answers">A global study seeks answers</h2>



To explore this issue, researchers from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INRAE</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.agro-bordeaux.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bordeaux Sciences Agro</a>&nbsp;teamed up with global partners. The project brought together the&nbsp;French National Forest Office (<a href="https://www.onf.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ONF</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;French National Center for Private Forest Ownership (<a href="https://www.cnpf.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNPF</a>).



Together, they studied 223 tree species in 160 forest sites around the world. These included locations in Western Europe, the United States, Brazil, Ethiopia, Cameroon, and South-East Asia.



Each species was chosen to represent one of the world’s major forest biomes. The team focused on functional traits - specific characteristics that affect how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> grows, uses water and nutrients, and stores carbon. 



Their goal was simple yet ambitious: to identify which traits lead to better growth and carbon capture in real-world forest conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-beliefs-on-carbon-and-trees">Old beliefs on carbon and trees</h2>



For a long time, scientists believed that trees with acquisitive traits grew the fastest. These trees absorb resources like sunlight, water, and soil nutrients very efficiently. In controlled experiments, such as those in greenhouses, they outperform other trees in height, leaf size, and biomass.



Examples include maples, poplars, English oaks, and sessile oaks. These species have large leaves and long roots that gather nutrients quickly. Their leaves also contain large amounts of nitrogen, which supports rapid photosynthesis. All these features make them ideal candidates for storing carbon - at least on paper.



On the other side are conservative species. These trees invest less energy in fast growth. Instead, they survive by conserving internal resources like water and energy. Fir trees, downy oaks, and holm oaks fit this model. They usually grow more slowly but are better at handling environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprise-from-real-forests">A surprise from real forests</h2>



When the team took their research into real forests, their findings turned the old beliefs upside down. Under natural conditions in boreal and temperate zones, conservative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> actually stored more carbon and grew faster than acquisitive ones. That may seem surprising, but the explanation lies in how these forests function.



Boreal and temperate forests often have cold climates, poor soil, or both. In such settings, being efficient with internal resources becomes more important than fast nutrient absorption.



In tropical forests, the story changes again. These regions have ideal growing conditions - warm temperatures and high rainfall. Here, acquisitive and conservative species grow at similar speeds. Neither group holds a strong advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-trees-with-their-environment">Matching trees with their environment</h2>



The biggest lesson from this research is that one size does not fit all. You cannot plant fast-growing trees everywhere and expect success. Tree performance depends heavily on local soil and climate conditions.



In rich, well-watered environments, acquisitive species like maples and poplars will outperform others. They can absorb nutrients quickly and convert them into biomass, storing more carbon. But in dry, cold, or nutrient-poor conditions, conservative species shine. Oaks, firs, and pines may grow more slowly, but they store more carbon over time because they survive and grow when others cannot.



The study highlights the need for precision in reforestation efforts. Forest managers must consider each site’s unique conditions. Planting the right <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> in the right place is far more effective than planting the same fast-growers everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-trees-for-better-carbon-impact">Choosing trees for better carbon impact</h2>



This new understanding gives forest managers a sharper tool in the fight against climate change. They can now look beyond growth speed and consider how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree’s traits</a> interact with its environment. This leads to smarter choices and healthier forests.



Climate action often demands quick results. But nature does not always work that way. Sometimes the slow-growing, stress-tolerant tree is the one that captures the most carbon in the long run. 



With this knowledge, reforestation can become both more effective and more sustainable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08692-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Slow and steady tree growth wins the race for carbon capture

In the face of climate change, forests have become more...

The hidden interiors of Uranus and Neptune have long puzzled scientists who try to understand how these distant ice giants formed and evolved. 



Past proposals included the possibility of diamond rain falling through their cores or super-ionic water lurking beneath their bluish exteriors. 



Each idea sparked interest, yet questions persisted about the unusual nature of these planets’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> and internal structures.



Recent work proposes a different view. After many years of study and advanced computer simulations, a new theory suggests that materials in Uranus and Neptune could separate into layers as pressures rise. 



Burkhard Militzer, a professor of Earth and planetary science at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, has put forth a model that challenges older notions and draws on the principles of immiscibility - when substances refuse to mix, like oil and water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-layered-interiors-and-magnetic-fields">Layered interiors and magnetic fields</h2>



Militzer believes that under the extreme conditions found in the deep layers of these planets, ingredients such as water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), and ammonia (NH₃) behave in unexpected ways. 



“We now have, I would say, a good theory about why Uranus and Neptune have really different fields, and it's very different from Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn,” Militzer explained. 



“It's like oil and water, except the hydrogen-rich layer goes on top, and the heavier material stays below.”



His findings also align with magnetic field readings collected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decades-after-voyager-2-flew-by-uranus-we-finally-know-what-it-saw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Voyager 2</a> in the 1980s. Instead of a tidy, dipolar field like Earth’s, Uranus and Neptune show disorganized magnetic fields. 



Militzer’s model proposes that the water-rich layer under the atmospheres can move enough to create these irregular fields, while the deeper hydrocarbon-rich layer remains stable and resists mixing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-pressures-and-new-simulations">Extreme pressures and new simulations</h2>



Militzer used computer models to simulate conditions at pressures reaching 3.4 million times Earth’s atmospheric pressure and temperatures around 8,000°F. 



A decade ago, he ran calculations with 100 atoms but could not confirm layered separation. 



Recently, he expanded those simulations to 540 atoms, leveraging machine learning and stronger computing power. 



“One day, I looked at the model, and the water had separated from the carbon and nitrogen,” he said. “What I couldn't do 10 years ago was now happening.”



As depth increases, hydrogen is squeezed out of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-jupiters-clouds-not-ammonia-ice-leaves-astronomers-astonished/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane and ammonia</a>, creating a carbon-nitrogen-hydrogen fluid that sits below a water-rich zone. 



According to Militzer’s gravity calculations, this layering matches readings taken by Voyager 2 nearly 40 years ago. 



Beneath Uranus’ 3,000-mile-thick atmosphere, the model points to a 5,000-mile-thick layer of water-rich fluid. A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-is-more-gassy-less-icy-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon-rich layer</a> of similar thickness lies underneath, ending at a rocky core roughly the size of Mercury. 



Neptune follows the same layout but has a thinner atmosphere and a slightly larger rocky core, about the size of Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Ice giants comparable to Uranus and Neptune appear to be common in other star systems, where they are often referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neptune-like-exoplanets-atmospheres-interesting-earth-size-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-Neptune exoplanets</a>. 



“If other star systems have similar compositions to ours, ice giants around those stars could well have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/miranda-uranus-moon-may-have-hidden-ocean-possibly-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">similar internal structures</a>,” Militzer noted. 



He sees this model as a way to explain varied planetary magnetic fields beyond our solar neighborhood.



Militzer aims to collaborate with experimental physicists to test these concepts in the lab. 



By recreating the extreme conditions of water, methane, and ammonia in the right proportions, researchers could discover whether layers form on their own. 



He believes this work could confirm the immiscible behavior that sets the stage for the stability of these deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-moons-discovered-around-neptune-and-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary zones</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diamond-rain-is-cool-but-not-important">Diamond rain is cool, but not important</h2>



Talk of diamond rain and super-ionic water once captured imaginations, but Militzer’s simulations question those ideas. 



“If you ask my colleagues, ‘What do you think explains the fields of Uranus and Neptune?’ they may say, ‘Well, maybe it’s this diamond rain, but maybe it’s this water property which we call super-ionic,’” he said. 



“From my perspective, this is not plausible. But if we have this separation into two separate layers, that should explain it.”



Upcoming space missions might shed more light on the issue. A proposed NASA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-photos-of-uranus-from-hubble-and-new-horizons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trip to Uranus</a> could carry instruments to measure the planet’s vibrations through Doppler imaging. 



A non-mixing interior would jiggle in different ways than one with full convection. Militzer plans to use his computational model to predict those vibrations, offering a fresh way to confirm or refute his layered theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-uranus-and-neptune">What's next for Uranus and Neptune?</h2>



This perspective on Uranus and Neptune adds a personal dimension to the centuries-long quest to understand our solar system. 



Each discovery builds on a chain of data, from telescopes to spacecraft, and now advanced simulations. 



Militzer’s decade of effort offers an approach that explains how water and hydrocarbon fluids might settle into distinct bands deep inside these ice giants.



His findings suggest a layered format that explains their odd magnetic fields and gravitational measurements. 



The model supplies a framework for designing experiments, planning future probes, and even exploring how exoplanets might evolve. 



By identifying the presence of two immiscible layers - one water-rich and one made of highly compressed hydrocarbons - this theory marks another step toward unraveling Uranus and Neptune’s secrets, one simulation at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2403981121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Claim: Uranus and Neptune have oceans that are 5000 miles deep

The hidden interiors of Uranus and Neptune have long puzzled...

Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash something on the road that turns out to be an unprecedented scientific revelation. Well, that's exactly what happened to NASA's Curiosity Mars rover on May 30, 2024 when it struck sulfur.



While working its usual Martian shift, the rover stumbled upon, rather drove over, a rock and cracked it wide open, revealing a sight never before seen on Mars - a dazzling display of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-vallis_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">yellow sulfur crystals</a>.



This unexpected discovery was relayed to a team of astounded scientists, including Ashwin Vasavada, the Curiosity’s project scientist from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“Finding a field of stones made of pure sulfur is like finding an oasis in the desert. It shouldn’t be there, so now we have to explain it. Discovering strange and unexpected things is what makes planetary exploration so exciting," Vasavada enthused. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-sulfur-surprise-on-mars">Sweet sulfur surprise on Mars</h2>



The bright, odorless crystals found by Curiosity open a window into a new chapter of study. 



Researchers want to know what factors created this elemental form and how it can exist alongside other deposits that speak to the planet’s watery past.



Since October 2023, Curiosity has been rambling about in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfate-rich region</a> of Mars. Now, sulfates aren't exactly Martian novelties. 



These salts, formed as water evaporates, had been detected before, but only as constituents of sulfur-based minerals - mixtures of sulfur and other stuff. But this time, it was pure, elemental sulfur, a first of its kind.



What's so peculiar about this elemental sulfur? Well, contrary to the stinkiness associated with hydrogen sulfide gas, elemental sulfur is odorless. 



Its formation requires specific conditions not previously linked to this Martian location. Hence, the revelation of an entire field of bright, sulfur-laden rocks is indeed something to marvel at.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-as-a-signal-for-life-on-mars">Sulfur as a signal for life on Mars</h2>



Sulfur is an important element for understanding the potential for life, both on Earth and beyond. Certain microorganisms on our planet depend on sulfur compounds as an energy source. 



The presence of sulfur on Mars, even in forms discovered in earlier missions, has always raised questions about ancient habitats. 



Water influences the formation of sulfates, and water stands out as a critical ingredient for biology. 



Finding pure sulfur, though, points to specialized conditions that could expand possible scenarios for past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life on the Red Planet</a>.



Sulfur compounds also reveal information about Mars’s potential hydrothermal systems, volcanic activities, or ancient lakes and seas - habitats that might have supported life.



They are involved in chemical reactions that produce energy, a survival mechanism for some Earth microbes in extreme environments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-riftia-tubeworms-survive-on-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea hydrothermal vents</a>.



The identification of sulfur on Mars raises questions about the planet's historical habitability. It suggests a range of chemical environments that could have supported microbial life. 



While sulfur alone doesn't confirm the existence of life, its presence alongside other life-sustaining elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus strengthens the case for past life on Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-mount-sharp">Scaling Mount Sharp</h2>



Curiosity has climbed Mount Sharp for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than seven years</a>, examining its layered formations. 



Each layer represents a separate phase of the planet’s development, offering glimpses of ancient river networks, lake sediments, and shifting climates. 



Data show that different types of minerals, including sulfates, appear in these layers, hinting at cycles of evaporation and chemical alteration that occurred when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water was likely more plentiful</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-gediz-vallis-and-sulfur-crystals">Mars' Gediz Vallis and sulfur crystals</h2>



A site drawing particular interest is the Gediz Vallis channel. Researchers suspect it was shaped by water-driven events and landslides that left a jumble of rocks at the bottom. 



Findings suggest that both factors had a hand in the formation of these Martian landscapes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939362"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Becky Williams, a scientist with the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> in Tucson, Arizona, and deputy principal investigator of Curiosity’s Mast Camera, has studied these processes. 



“This was not a quiet period on Mars. There was an exciting amount of activity here. We’re looking at multiple flows down the channel, including energetic floods and boulder-rich flows," she explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drilling-for-more-sulfur-clues-on-mars">Drilling for more sulfur clues on Mars</h2>



Curiosity’s drill has stayed busy near the newly found sulfur field. On June 18, the rover created its 41st borehole in a rock called “Mammoth Lakes.” 



That powdered sample is now under scrutiny. Researchers hope to see if the elemental sulfur sits alongside compounds that might reveal the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical history of Mars</a>. 



Identifying the mixture of ingredients in the soil can shed light on previous hydrothermal processes, environmental conditions, or even the faint possibility of microbial life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-valles_wide-view_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939365"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The journey so far has been an adventurous one, with unexpected discoveries and valuable scientific data turning up at every corner. The team eagerly awaits what other surprises lay within the channel. 



Each new finding brings us a step closer to understanding the Martian history and whether the planet once harbored conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">favorable for life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



No single discovery confirms ancient life on Mars. Yet each sample broadens the view of what might have occurred on this neighbor world. 



The discovery of elemental sulfur on Mars enhances our understanding of our neighboring planet while stoking our curiosity about what else lies out there in the cosmos. 



The rover’s path offers new perspectives each time it rolls across unfamiliar terrain, revealing minerals that shouldn’t be there and sites that demand fresh explanation.



With every turn of its wheels, Curiosity encourages scientists to rethink prior assumptions and look forward to whatever else might be waiting in this dusty frontier.



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Curiosity rover cracked open a rock and may have settled the 'life on Mars' debate

Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash...

Particles,,Quantum,Entanglement,(quantum,Correlation),,Quantum,Mechanics.,3d,Illustration

In the past, events that took place in a flash were considered instantaneous. Yet modern experiments show that even when particles seem to shift in the blink of an eye, as with quantum entanglement, there are measurable intervals involved. 



These findings spark questions about how electrons leave atoms or how entangled pairs form, opening avenues for precise control in various applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-in-attoseconds">Measuring in attoseconds</h2>



Scientists once assumed that an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrons-can-follow-neat-paths-even-in-chaotic-quantum-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron remained in orbit</a> around its nucleus and was then abruptly pulled away by a burst of light. 



A similar assumption held for particles that collided and became entangled without any noticeable time span. 



Today, attosecond-scale measurements allow researchers to scrutinize these events with remarkable detail. 



By tracking processes once believed to be immediate, scientists can better understand interactions that may influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-teleportation-communication-achieved-on-regular-internet-cables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum communication</a> and next-generation computing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-attoseconds-the-basics">Understanding attoseconds - the basics</h2>



An attosecond is an insanely tiny slice of time - just one-quintillionth of a second (that’s a 1 followed by 18 zeros). 



To put it in perspective, light can only travel about the width of a human hair in that time. 



Scientists use attoseconds to track the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electron-movement-seen-atomic-level-quantum-microscopy-material-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements of electrons</a>, which are some of the fastest things in the universe. 



It’s like having a super high-speed camera for the quantum world, letting researchers watch events that were once way too fast to even imagine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-scale-of-quantum-entanglement">Time scale of quantum entanglement</h2>



"You could say that the particles have no individual properties; they only have common properties," explains Prof. Joachim Burgdörfer from the Institute of Theoretical Physics at <a href="https://www.itp.tuwien.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Wien</a>. 



"From a mathematical point of view, they belong firmly together, even if they are in two completely different places," 



In work published in Physical Review Letters, he and collaborators from China show how quantum entanglement can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arise on ultrafast scales</a>.



"We, on the other hand, are interested in something else - in finding out how this entanglement develops in the first place and which physical effects play a role on extremely short time scales," says Prof. Iva Březinová. 



Rather than focus on preserving quantum entanglement, her team explores the birth of this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Their approach involves intense, high-frequency laser pulses striking atoms. 



The first electron is ejected from the atom and propelled away. Under certain conditions, the second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron also absorbs energy</a> and moves to a higher orbital. 



"We can show that these two electrons are now quantum entangled," says Burgdörfer. 



"You can only analyze them together - and you can perform a measurement on one of the electrons and learn something about the other electron at the same time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-entangled-at-birth">Entangled at birth</h2>



The timing of the escaping electron links directly to the state of the electron left behind. 



"This means that the birth time of the electron that flies away is not known in principle. You could say that the electron itself doesn't know when it left the atom," says Burgdörfer. 



"It is in a quantum-physical superposition of different states. It has left the atom at both an earlier and a later point in time."



If the electron that remains is in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-vibrating-atoms-tune-single-electron-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher-energy state</a>, the departed electron likely left earlier. If the remaining electron is in a lower-energy state, that departure happened later. 



On average, the difference is around 232 attoseconds, an incredibly short duration that the scientists believe can be tested in future experiments. 



"We are already in talks with research teams who want to prove such ultrafast entanglements," says Burgdörfer.



When an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron leaves an atom</a>, it spreads out like a wave. 



"It is a wave that spills out of the atom, so to speak - and that takes a certain amount of time," says Březinová. 



"It is precisely during this phase that the entanglement occurs, the effect of which can be measured later by observing the two electrons."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Knowing how entanglement begins at such tiny time intervals can shape efforts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum-based encryption and computing</a>. 



By pinpointing the moment when two particles become linked, future technologies might harness these correlations more effectively. 



Understanding the sequence of events could also help scientists refine methods of generating entangled pairs for secure data transfer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-entangled-electrons">Using entangled electrons</h2>



Many investigations have focused on preserving quantum entanglement. These results highlight that the creation of entanglement itself is equally important. 



Observing how two electrons become correlated on timescales of a billionth of a billionth of a second opens possibilities for experimental work. 



Researchers aim to verify these simulations in the lab, guided by the notion that quantum events unfold in ways once deemed too fast to measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-timing-in-the-quantum-realm">Precision timing in the quantum realm</h2>



These studies suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-fractal-pattern-predicted-50-years-ago-observed-in-lab-hofstadters-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum behavior</a> is not purely immediate. Instead, even processes that seem abrupt have definable periods during which entanglement takes hold. 



By zooming in on those intervals, scientists can gain insights into cause-and-effect in the quantum world. As laser technologies advance, the door opens to new measurements that capture the fleeting birth of entangled pairs. 



This line of exploration may reshape how we design future systems that rely on the delicate interconnections of quantum particles. 



It also underscores the importance of time-sensitive observations in unraveling complex interactions, suggesting that many so-called instantaneous events may hold untapped opportunities for quantum research. 



As further collaborations emerge, these attosecond-scale findings could spark new methods to manipulate and measure entangled states, paving the way for innovative paths in science and technology. 



Research teams worldwide are likely to build on these insights, examining how precise timing can refine quantum simulations and deepen understanding of particle interactions in next-generation devices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.163201" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Speed of quantum entanglement is measured, but it's too fast for humans to understand

In the past, events that took place in a flash...

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so long, everyone just assumes it's unbreakable? Well, a team of scientists is turning that notion on its head by proving wrong a key rule of organic chemistry.



Neil Garg, a distinguished professor of chemistry and biochemistry, is leading the charge to rewrite a fundamental principle that's been part of organic chemistry for the past hundred years.



In a recent study published in Science, Garg and his colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> revealed that Bredt's rule - a staple in chemistry textbooks since 1924 - might not be as ironclad as we've been led to believe.



But before we get into how they're shaking things up, let's take a step back and understand what this rule is all about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-bredt-s-rule">What exactly is Bredt's rule?</h2>



According to Bredt's rule, you can't have a double bond at the bridgehead position of a small, bridged ring system -- a kind of molecular structure that looks like two rings sharing some atoms. 



Imagine trying to fit a double bond in a tight space - it just doesn't work because the molecule becomes too strained and unstable.



In these small ring systems, the atoms are connected in such a way that there's not enough room for the flat shape of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">double bond</a>. 



The angles get all messed up, and the molecule would be forced into an awkward position. It's kind of like trying to bend a straight stick into a circle without breaking it - it just doesn't work that way.



Bredt's rule has been a guiding principle for chemists studying organic molecules, especially those known as olefins.



Olefins are compounds featuring a double bond between two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-molecules-that-store-carbon-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon atoms</a>, and they usually have a flat, planar structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-bredt-s-rule-upside-down">Turning Bredt's rule upside down</h2>



Garg's team decided to challenge that assumption. 



Instead of accepting the limitations imposed by this long-standing rule, they set out to prove that these molecules, called anti-Bredt olefins (ABOs), can indeed be created and used.



"People aren't exploring anti-Bredt olefins because they think they can't," Garg pointed out.



Using a clever approach, the researchers treated certain molecules known as silyl (pseudo)halides with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-water-fluoridation-still-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluoride source</a>. This reaction was designed to produce the elusive ABOs. 



Since these molecules are highly unstable and tend to fall apart quickly, the team included another chemical to "trap" them. 



This way, they could capture the ABOs long enough to study them and even use them to make new, valuable compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-abos-the-basics">Understanding ABOs - the basics</h2>



Anti-Bredt olefins, or ABOs, are a bit of a chemistry oddity. 



Normally, double bonds don’t like to hang out at the bridgehead position of a bicyclic compound - that’s where Bredt’s Rule comes in. 



It says that putting a double bond at a bridgehead is usually too strained, especially in small or medium-sized rings. 



The atoms just can’t line up the way they need to for a stable double bond. But anti-Bredt olefins break that rule. 



They do have a double bond at the bridgehead, and they manage to exist anyway - sometimes even with surprising stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



By showing that ABOs can be generated and utilized, the team is opening up new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drug discovery</a>.



"There's a big push in the pharmaceutical industry to develop chemical reactions that give three-dimensional structures like ours because they can be used to discover new medicines," Garg explained. 



The ability to create these unique molecular structures means scientists can explore a whole new realm of compounds that were previously off-limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-need-to-be-challenged">More "rules" need to be challenged</h2>



Garg's work doesn't just break a rule -- it invites the entire scientific community to rethink how we approach long-held beliefs. 



"We shouldn't have rules like this -- or if we have them, they should only exist with the constant reminder that they're guidelines, not rules. It destroys creativity when we have rules that supposedly can't be overcome," he said.



By challenging Bredt's rule, the team is advocating for a more flexible and innovative approach to chemistry. 



They're reminding us that science is always evolving, and what we consider impossible today might just be tomorrow's breakthrough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-needs-more-creativity">Science needs more creativity</h2>



What does this mean for budding chemists and researchers? 



It's a call to question assumptions and push boundaries. If a century-old rule can be upended, who knows what other "impossible" feats are within reach?



"What this study shows is that contrary to one hundred years of conventional wisdom, chemists can make and use anti-Bredt olefins to make value-added products," Garg noted. 



It's not just about breaking a rule; it's about expanding the toolkit scientists have to tackle some of the world's most pressing challenges, like developing new medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-garg-and-bredt-s-rule">What's next for Garg and Bredt's rule?</h2>



This discovery is a stepping stone to numerous possibilities in organic chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and basically any other field of study.



By demonstrating that ABOs can be both generated and trapped effectively, Garg's team has laid the groundwork for future research that could lead to significant advancements in medicine.



So, the next time you hear someone say, "You can't do that," remember that sometimes, all it takes is a fresh perspective and a willingness to challenge the status quo. 



Who knows? You might just be the one to rewrite the next chapter in the science books.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq3519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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100-year-old chemistry rule proven false, updating textbooks comes next

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so...

Out of all the planets in our solar system beyond Earth, most consider Saturn's beauty to be the most spectacular, with a set of rings that have inspired curiosity for hundreds of years. 



In the 17th century, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei described this distant world as having "ears," showing how limited his view was at the time. 



Even with basic tools, he sensed something unusual about the planet’s appearance, although he could not fully explain it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beauty-and-awe-of-saturn-s-rings">Beauty and awe of Saturn's rings</h2>



Modern telescopes and worldwide observatories have transformed our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-energy-imbalance-discovered-on-saturn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of Saturn</a>. They reveal swirling collections of ice and rocks orbiting the massive planet in broad arcs that we call rings. 



These ribbons of debris are more than a mere celestial decoration for us humans to admire; they shed light on the gravitational forces at work in our solar system.



By studying Saturn's rings, astronomers gain a better understanding of how cosmic particles behave when bound by gravity, and why their appearance changes when viewed from Earth. 



Jonah Peter, a doctoral student at Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (<a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CfA</a>), has focused on how Saturn’s moons affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-image-of-saturn-and-its-ring-spokes-from-the-hubble-space-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ring environment</a>.



His work connects the motions of this ring material to the broader story of our cosmic neighborhood, all of which is driven by a process known as orbital mechanics, or celestial mechanics. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-orbiting-planets-the-basics">Mechanics of orbiting planets - the basics</h2>



Orbital mechanics describes how bodies move under the pull of gravity. Planets circle the Sun, moons circle planets, and satellites stay in orbit around Earth. 



These paths depend on factors like velocity and orbital shape, all of which keep objects traveling in predictable loops.



Saturn’s tilt plays a role in how we see the rings. As the planet continues on its journey, our viewpoint changes over time. 



In some phases, the rings show off their full width. In others, they line up edge-on, turning into a thin band that seems ready to vanish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-saturn-s-rings-will-disappear">How Saturn's rings will disappear</h2>



A striking event called a "ring plane crossing" will occur on March 23, 2025. The rings will appear to have completely vanished because their thin edges will be aimed at Earth.



This alignment happens when Saturn’s tilt and location match up so that we no longer see the bright swath of particles head-on. Once the rings vanish from easy sight in March 2025, Saturn will look like a pale yellow sphere through most telescopes. A subtle line may be visible around the planet’s middle, but only through the most powerful telescopes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/saturns-rings_earth-view_ring-plane-crossing_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/saturns-rings_earth-view_ring-plane-crossing_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Rings A, B, C. You notice a large gap between the A and B rings. This is called the &quot;Cassini division&quot;. (See attached picture, where I've labeled the A, B, and C rings, along with the Cassini division.) There are other gaps in the rings at other places, but this one is the largest. the Cassini division (Hubble Space Telescope picture). Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1961796"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Rings A, B, C. You notice a large gap between the A and B rings. This is called the "Cassini division". (See attached picture, where I've labeled the A, B, and C rings, along with the Cassini division.) There are other gaps in the rings at other places, but this one is the largest. the Cassini division (Hubble Space Telescope picture). Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Some enthusiasts might miss the typical glow, yet there is a certain thrill in waiting for that grand display to reappear.



As Earth and Saturn shift positions, the rings will come back into full view around November 2025. The planet’s looping debris will stand out again, along with glimpses of its many moons. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megastorms-on-saturn-are-larger-than-the-earth-and-last-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This recurring pattern</a> reminds observers that our perspective can change, even when Saturn itself remains the same majestic world it has always been.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-and-structure-of-saturn-s-rings">Composition and structure of Saturn's rings</h2>



The rings are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-may-have-formed-after-two-icy-moons-collided/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">divided into sections</a> called the A, B, and C rings, plus a few fainter ones labeled D, E, F, and G. Between the A and B rings lies the Cassini Division, measuring around 2,982 miles wide. 



Scientists note that spaces like this can form when orbital motions and gravitational tugs clear out certain pathways.



These rings are not solid sheets. They're made of pieces that range from dust-size grains to lumps as large as buses. 



Some researchers think the rings sprang from a moon ripped apart by Saturn’s gravity. Others propose that leftover material from the planet’s formation helped craft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-now-know-the-age-of-saturns-rings-and-the-number-might-surprise-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these looping bands</a> more than four billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moons-and-their-gravitational-pull">Moons and their gravitational pull</h2>



Saturn hosts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-now-leads-the-solar-system-moon-race-with-145/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">at least 145 moons</a>. Some are called shepherd moons, and they drift near the ring edges. 



Their gravity holds ring particles in place, preventing them from scattering too far in one direction or another. This process helps the rings maintain their recognizable gaps and bands.



Beyond those shepherds, Saturn’s system includes larger bodies that have unique properties. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-moon-titan-has-shorelines-shaped-by-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The biggest, Titan</a>, is a place of ongoing study. It has an atmosphere mostly made of nitrogen. 



Scientists have also measured a magnetic field around Titan that, while weaker than Jupiter’s, surpasses Earth’s field in relative strength.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturn-s-mystery-and-majesty">Saturn's mystery and majesty</h2>



Galileo’s old remark about Saturn’s "ears" underscores how far we have come. Early astronomers had limited tools, yet they still glimpsed something remarkable. 



Modern instruments add detail, but the sense of wonder remains. Saturn shows how our solar system is filled with surprises that motivate fresh discoveries.



As amateurs and experts keep pointing their lenses skyward, they continue to find reasons to appreciate this planet’s evolving appearance. 



The rings may fade from view temporarily, but people know they will return. Each phase allows us to learn a little more about how cosmic objects behave and how life might emerge under new conditions.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023JE008236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JGR Planets</a>.



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Saturn's mesmerizing rings are disappearing this weekend

Out of all the planets in our solar system beyond...

In the scorching deserts of Namibia, Oman, and Saudi Arabia, scientists have discovered a curious feature in the rocks - thin, orderly tubes running through marble and limestone, possibly created by ancient microbes.



These structures don’t resemble any known geological process, and researchers believe they may be the work of an unidentified form of microbial life. If confirmed, this discovery could reshape our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how life adapts</a> to extreme environments.



The investigation began with scientists from <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU), who noticed the phenomenon during fieldwork in Namibia. Later analysis confirmed the presence of biological material inside the rocks.



“We were surprised because these tubes are clearly not the result of a geological process,” said Professor Cees Passchier of JGU, who first spotted the strange formations. “We don’t currently know whether this is a life form that has become extinct or is still alive somewhere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-millions-of-years-in-the-making">A puzzle millions of years in the making</h2>



The discovery was made in samples of ancient marble that formed when carbonate deposits were subjected to pressure and heat over hundreds of millions of years. The tiny micro-burrows line the edges of fractures inside the rock.



“We noticed strange structures in this marble that were not the result of geological events,” remarked Passchier.



The tubes are no wider than half a millimeter and can stretch up to three centimeters in length. They run parallel to each other in long bands, some spanning up to ten meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-highly-organized-patterns-in-the-rocks">Highly organized patterns in the rocks</h2>



Unlike erosion patterns that are typically left behind by wind or water, these formations appear highly organized, and hint at a biological origin. In some places, crusts of calcrete had formed around the edges of the bands, adding to their uniqueness.



The phenomenon was first observed in Namibia 15 years ago, but more recent samples have shown similar features in rocks from Oman and Saudi Arabia. The tubes in Oman appeared in limestone, while those in Saudi Arabia were found in marble.



In every case, the tunnels were filled not with empty space, but with fine calcium carbonate powder - suggesting that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-hitch-rides-on-winds-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microorganisms</a> may have extracted nutrients from the rock and left the residue behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-that-thrive-in-the-dark">Microbes that thrive in the dark</h2>



The research team from Mainz University collaborated with Dr. Trudy Wassenaar, head of Molecular Microbiology and Genomics Consultants, to explore the biological aspects of the formations. 



They suspect the tubes were created by endolithic microbes - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-called-protosterol-biota-lived-1-6-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> that live inside rock.



These types of microbes, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and lichens, are known to survive in some of the world’s harshest environments.



But there’s a twist: the structures are likely one or two million years old, and may have formed during a time when the desert climate was more humid. And while biological traces were found, the structures were too old to preserve any DNA or protein that could help identify the organism.



“What is so exciting about our discovery is that we do not know which endolithic microorganism this is," said Passchier. "Is it a known form of life or a completely unknown organism?”



The tubes are located deep inside the rock, far from any light source, meaning the life form must have existed without sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-microbes-and-earth-s-carbon-balance">Rock microbes and Earth's carbon balance</h2>



While the exact identity of the tunnel-making organism remains unknown, the implications could be far-reaching.



Microbial life that interacts with rock can influence the global carbon cycle by breaking down minerals and releasing carbon.



Professor Passchier said that while we do not know whether this form of life still exists, it could be important for the global carbon cycle. "It is therefore essential that the scientific community becomes aware of it."



If these microorganisms played a role in transforming calcium carbonate, they might have contributed to the Earth’s CO₂ balance in ways we don’t yet understand. 



Their potential influence on long-term climate regulation highlights the need for further investigation.



For now, the mystery remains buried in the rock. But with further study, these tiny tunnels might one day tell a much bigger story.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01490451.2025.2467417" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geomicrobiology Journal</a>.



Image Credit: ©: Cees Passchier



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Unknown life forms discovered living in marble and limestone rocks

In the scorching deserts of Namibia, Oman, and Saudi Arabia,...

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in the Southern Ocean, where any moment a torpedo-shaped penguin could appear, devouring thousands of your fellow krill at lightning speed. Now, new research suggests that even the faintest hint of penguin droppings in the water is enough to prompt krill into escape behavior.



“Here we show for the first time that a small amount of penguin guano causes a sudden change in the feeding and swimming behaviors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a>,” said Nicole Hellessey, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> in Maine.



Antarctic krill play a vital role in the Southern Ocean. They serve as a major carbon sink and provide food for a large array of species, from penguins to whales. 



By some estimates, approximately 700 trillion adult Antarctic krill still swim these frigid waters, though their populations have drifted further south over time, likely due to climate change, diminishing sea ice, and acidifying ocean conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-penguin-poop-to-krill-behavior">Linking penguin poop to krill behavior</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-poop-can-be-used-to-store-carbon-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a> are highly sensitive to chemical cues - from signals guiding them to food or potential mates to indicators of pollution. Hellessey and her colleagues sought to determine whether krill also react to the scent of predators. 



Their study zeroed in on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a>, the southernmost-breeding penguin species, which depend on Antarctic krill for 99.6% of their diet. An adult Adélie can consume as much as 1.6 kilograms of krill each day, and the global Adélie population collectively devours around 1.5 million tons per year.



Researchers aboard the vessels Laurence M Gould and Nathaniel B Palmer in the Bransfield Strait in late 2022 netted live Antarctic krill, which they then placed in aquaria at Palmer Station. 



Meanwhile, bird researchers had collected 78 grams of Adélie guano from a colony on Torgersen Island off the Antarctic Peninsula near Palmer Station. “Smells like rotten shellfish. Not pleasant to handle,” said Hellessey, describing the guano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abrupt-behavior-shifts-in-krill">Abrupt behavior shifts in krill</h2>



To test the krill’s reaction to the guano, the scientists ran trials using six to eight krill per five-minute session in a flume tank held at 1.5°C, with lights dimmed to simulate conditions at about 40 meters below the surface - the most productive layer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a>. 



Water flowed through the flume at either 3 centimeters or 5.9 centimeters per second, and it contained either algae alone, penguin guano alone, or both combined. Each setup was tested four times.



The researchers used two automated cameras to record the movements of four krill during each trial, capturing precise data on each animal’s 3D position as well as speed and swimming direction.



The data revealed that in control settings, krill generally practiced “rheotaxis,” swimming straight upstream against the current. 



But in the presence of Adélie guano, their behavior shifted abruptly: they began to vary their swimming speed more, reaching between 1.2 and 1.5 times their usual pace, and they performed three times as many turns - over an angle that was on average 1.4 times greater than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-make-sacrifices-to-avoid-penguins">Krill make sacrifices to avoid penguins</h2>



A second experiment showed that guano in the water caused krill to reduce their algae consumption by 64%, plunging from 12.7 micrograms of carbon per hour per krill to 4.6 micrograms. 



This indicates that the frequent changes in swimming direction came at a cost, making them less efficient at feeding.



The researchers interpreted these dramatic differences in speed and direction as part of an avoidance response. 



“Such behavior to escape from nearby penguins would greatly increase the krill’s odds of survival. And these odds would increase exponentially in a swarm, if their neighbors could detect the same cues and communicate the danger to each other,” Hellessey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-chemical-trigger">Investigating the chemical trigger</h2>



Though the team uncovered the behavioral shift, it is still unclear which specific compounds from penguin guano set off these alarms for krill.&nbsp;



“We hypothesize that Antarctic krill are avoiding the odor of ground-up krill and fish in the penguins’ guano. We thus expect krill to show similar swimming behaviors and suppressed feeding around seals, whales, and other types of krill predators in Antarctica,” Hellessey noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-signals-in-a-warming-ocean">Krill signals in a warming ocean</h2>



Given that these signals and their resulting behaviors occur in the often vast Southern Ocean, open-water conditions could dilute the cues and alter how krill respond. Moreover, warming oceans and acidification may alter how effectively these cues travel or how quickly the krill can respond.&nbsp;



“We don’t yet know how the ability of krill to sense these chemical cues and their escape behavior towards them might vary when diluted in open waters, or under global warming or ocean acidification conditions," said Hellessey. 



"Any changes to krill’s behavior could have major impacts on the future Southern Ocean, as Antarctic krill are a keystone species in this ecosystem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-broader-ecological-shifts">Predicting broader ecological shifts</h2>



Ultimately, this study adds an important layer to our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> in polar waters. As climate shifts reshape the Southern Ocean, understanding how krill perceive and react to predator signals may help predict broader ecological shifts.&nbsp;



If krill alter their movements and feeding drastically, it could influence entire marine food webs and carbon cycling processes - a reminder that even simple chemical cues can produce outsized effects on oceanic ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1508287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Just a whiff of penguin poop can send krill into a frenzy

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in...

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife behavior. A new study published in the journal Animal Behaviour reveals that Galápagos yellow warblers (Setophaga petechia aureola) grow more aggressive in response to traffic noise. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, found only on the islands, respond differently based on their proximity to roads.



​The study was led by researchers from <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a> and the <a href="https://klf.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konrad Lorenz Research Centre</a> at the University of Vienna. Using recorded bird songs and simulated traffic sounds, the team observed how warblers reacted in different territories.​



The results showed birds living near roads exhibited more aggression, while those farther away behaved more passively when exposed to the same noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-human-impact-on-islands">Growing human impact on islands</h2>



The Galápagos Islands lie over 500 miles off Ecuador’s coast. Once a quiet haven of biodiversity, the region now feels the strain of human presence. 



A rapid rise in population and tourism has increased the number of vehicles on roads. This shift transforms the once-isolated environment, bringing unexpected consequences for its native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



The Galápagos yellow warbler, a subspecies genetically distinct from its mainland relatives, serves as a biological indicator of this change. The researchers studied the birds on the islands of Floreana and Santa Cruz.



In both regions, vehicle noise prompted warblers to behave more aggressively, even on Floreana, where only around 10 vehicles are in use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-change-their-songs-near-traffic">Birds change their songs near traffic</h2>



The scientists tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird responses</a> by playing songs through a speaker, simulating a territorial intruder. Sometimes the sounds were paired with traffic noise. 



When this occurred near roads, birds became more aggressive - flying near the speaker and singing longer. In quieter areas, birds became less confrontational when noise accompanied the song.



This pattern suggests that long-term exposure matters. Warblers with more experience around noise adjusted their behavior in ways that could help maintain territorial control despite sound interference.



“Birds use song during territorial defense as an aggressive signal. However, if external noise such as traffic interferes with the signaling, effectively blocking this communication channel, increasing physical aggression would be an appropriate response,” noted Dr. Caglar Akcay, senior lecturer in behavioural ecology at Anglia Ruskin University.



The research suggests these birds are learning to adapt. Changes in song length and pitch help their calls rise above low-frequency traffic sounds. 



In all territories, birds raised the minimum frequency of their songs when traffic was present. This adjustment could improve their chances of being heard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-flexibility-and-conservation">Behavioral flexibility and conservation</h2>



The findings shed light on the unexpected reach of human activity. Even in the Galápagos - long seen as a sanctuary for natural evolution - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-breathing-in-plastic-what-does-that-mean-for-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> now must compete with the noise of progress.



“Our results show that the change in aggressive responses in yellow warblers occurred mainly near roads. Birds occupying roadside territories on both islands, and therefore having regular experience of traffic noise, may have learned to increase physical aggression when the territorial intrusion was accompanied by traffic noise,” said Dr. Akcay.



Beyond aggression, warblers demonstrate flexibility. They tweak their songs to cut through the clamor. These subtle changes show nature’s resilience, but they also signal a need for reflection.



“Our study shows the importance of considering behavioral plasticity in conservation efforts and developing strategies to mitigate the effects of noise pollution on wildlife. It also highlights the significant impact of human activities on wildlife behavior, even in relatively remote locations such as the Galápagos Islands,” noted Dr. Akcay.



Understanding this behavioral flexibility may guide future conservation. It reminds us that protecting biodiversity requires more than preserving land - it demands attention to the noise we bring with us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-noise-changes-birds-behavior">Traffic noise changes birds’ behavior</h2>



This study urges conservationists and policymakers to look beyond visible damage. Roads, buildings, and pollution are easy to spot. Noise, on the other hand, slips in silently, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> in less obvious ways. 



Yet its effects are clear. For the Galápagos yellow warbler, this may mean adjusting song and behavior just to be heard and understood.



The warbler’s story is a quiet warning: the modern world reaches even the most distant corners. If we are to protect these natural wonders, we must consider not only what we build, but what we sound like as we do.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Some birds get 'road rage' when exposed to traffic noise

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife...

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by comparing flightless species like chickens and ostriches, which walk on two hind legs, or predatory hawks and eagles with their keen senses and sharp talons, to small theropod dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Still, birds have diverged in crucial ways from their reptilian predecessors. One vital turning point was their development of larger brains, which spurred changes in skull size and shape.



Recent work by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a> demonstrates how these physical transformations affected how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> move and utilize their beaks to eat and interact with the world - adaptations that helped them become one of the most diverse lineages on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-nature-of-a-wiggly-skull">Complex nature of a “wiggly” skull</h2>



Unlike many other animals, modern birds, along with certain snakes and fishes, have skulls whose jaws and palates are not firmly fixed in place.&nbsp;



Alec Wilken, a graduate student in integrative biology at the University of Chicago and lead author of this new study, calls this kind of flexible anatomy “wiggly.” He notes that such a trait complicates attempts to understand its function.&nbsp;



“Just because you have a joint there, that doesn’t mean that you know how it moves. So, you also have to think about how muscles are going to be pulling on the joint, what kind of torque they have, and how other joints in the head limit the mobility,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-how-bird-skulls-evolved">Investigating how bird skulls evolved</h2>



Wilken first became involved in this project in 2015 while studying at the University of Missouri. 



There, Casey Holliday, an associate professor of pathology and anatomical sciences, had received support from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) to investigate how bird skulls, jaw muscles, and feeding mechanics evolved from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> lineage to modern birds.



Wilken contributed to the research by analyzing data from computer tomography (CT) scans of fossils and existing birds, as well as the skulls of other reptiles such as alligators. 



The gathered data then supported the creation of 3D models that track muscle positions, movements, and the physics of how they operate together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-modern-bird-skulls">Advantages of modern bird skulls</h2>



One distinctive feature of modern birds is referred to as “cranial kinesis,” which is the capacity to move different portions of the skull independently. This affords birds an evolutionary edge, letting them open or expand their palates and use their beaks in various ways.



“Having a wiggly head like this really gives them a lot of evolutionary benefits,” Wilken said. Parrots, for instance, employ their beaks to climb, while other birds break open tough seeds and nuts.&nbsp;



“In some ways, the beak functions like a surrogate hand, but being able to move the palate around while eating is also mission critical to helping them acquire food and survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-from-dinosaurs-to-birds">The path from dinosaurs to birds</h2>



From analyzing these 3D models, the scientists observed that as non-avian theropod dinosaurs developed increasingly larger brains and skulls, muscles shifted into arrangements that allowed for more mobile palates and jaws.&nbsp;



Consequently, these transformations increased muscle force and supported cranial kinesis in the majority of today’s birds.



“We see this cascade of changes that happened along the dinosaur to bird transition,” said Holliday. “A large part of it hinges upon when birds evolved a relatively large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. Just like in humans, bigger brains drive a lot of changes in the skull.”



Over time, paleontological findings have shown that the line between dinosaurs and birds is considerably blurred, especially since many dinosaurs sported feathers and some were capable of flight.&nbsp;



However, the scientists noted that truly flexible skulls and palates appeared later than species such as Archaeopteryx, leading them to speculate that cranial kinesis may turn out to be a key factor distinguishing modern birds from more primitive dinosaur-like birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-future-understanding">A blueprint for future understanding</h2>



While it is well established that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric reptiles</a> gave rise to the birds we now see flying overhead, the genetic and mechanical steps along that journey remain a topic of intense investigation.&nbsp;



This latest research strengthens the idea that the interplay between a bigger brain and skull modifications allowed birds to free up their jaws and palates, leading to vast ecological success.



Ultimately, the improved skull flexibility and diversified feeding methods among birds mirror the complicated interplay of evolutionary pressures that have continued since the time of dinosaurs.&nbsp;



The new study represents only one step in unravelling how birds learned to harness their beaks’ capabilities, and how earlier dinosaur species formed the foundation for today’s avian biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411138122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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‘Wiggly’ skulls helped birds evolve from dinosaurs

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by...

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish, Ferruaspis brocksi, from a site near Gulgong, in NSW, Australia.



This discovery, led by Dr. Matthew McCurry from the <a href="https://australian.museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> and <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a>, provides a rare glimpse into Australia’s ancient aquatic life. 



The fossil, which is estimated to be 15 million years old, preserves both the fish's stomach contents and its color patterns. The Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology has published the findings.



Ferruaspis brocksi belongs to the Osmeriformes order, which includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like the Australian Grayling and Australian Smelt.



It is the first freshwater smelt fossil found in Australia. The species was named in honor of Professor Jochen J. Brocks from the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>, who contributed to fossil discoveries at McGraths Flat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-evolution-of-osmeriformes">Tracing the evolution of Osmeriformes</h2>



Dr. McCurry emphasized that before the discovery of this fossil, scientists lacked evidence to confirm when Osmeriformes first arrived in Australia.



“The discovery of the 15 million-year-old freshwater fish fossil offers us an unprecedented opportunity to understand Australia’s ancient ecosystems and the evolution of its fish species, specifically the Osmeriformes group during the Miocene epoch, 11-15 million years ago,” McCurry said.



Without fossils, researchers could not determine whether these fish had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> significantly over time. This new find provides crucial evidence for understanding how they adapted to ancient Australian waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-the-fish-fossil-reveal">What did the fish fossil reveal?</h2>



The well-preserved fossil reveals fascinating details about the fish’s diet. The stomach contents show that it fed on various invertebrates, mainly small phantom midge larvae. 



This level of preservation is rare and helps scientists reconstruct past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> with greater accuracy.



“One of the fossils even shows a parasite attached to the tail of the fish. It’s a juvenile freshwater mussel called a glochidium. These juvenile mussels attach themselves to the gills or tails of fish to hitch rides up and down streams,” McCurry added.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1s.webp" alt="A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo" class="wp-image-1962871"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo</figcaption></figure>



The species’ name reflects its discovery in iron-rich rock. “Ferru” comes from the Latin word “ferrum,” meaning iron, while “brocksi” honors Professor Brocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-scientific-contribution">Honoring a scientific contribution</h2>



Professor Brocks expressed excitement about having this fossil species named after him.



“Collecting fossils at McGrath Flat is a highlight for me every year. Splitting the rust-red slabs of rock is like opening an ancient book, revealing the creatures that inhabited an Australian oxbow lake some 15 million years ago," exclaimed Professor Brocks.



"This little fish is one of the most beautiful fossils there, and finding the first vertebrate among the abundant plant and insect fossils was a real surprise. Having F. brocksi named after me is a real joy.” 



The McGraths Flat fossil site continues to provide remarkable insights into prehistoric life, and contributes to a better understanding of Australia’s ecological past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-the-fish-s-coloration">Revealing the fish’s coloration</h2>



Dr. Michael Frese from the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a> and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a> highlighted another exciting aspect of the research - the ability to determine the fish’s color pattern.



“The fish was darker on its dorsal surface, lighter in color on its belly and had two lateral stripes running along its side,” Dr. Frese said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1s.webp" alt="A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma" class="wp-image-1962873"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma</figcaption></figure>



Using a powerful microscope, scientists identified melanosomes, which are tiny structures responsible for producing color. 



While melanosomes have helped reconstruct the colors of ancient feathers, this is the first time they have been used to determine the color pattern of a long-extinct fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-site-of-exceptional-fossil-preservation">Site of exceptional fossil preservation</h2>



Professor Kris Helgen, Director and Chief Scientist at the Australian Museum Research Institute, praised the ongoing research at McGraths Flat.



“Dr. Matt McCurry’s work at the McGraths Flat fossil site has been outstanding. This is one of many discoveries made at this site, which continues to play a significant role in advancing our understanding of Australia’s evolution during the Miocene era.”



McGraths Flat is one of the rare fossil sites in Australia classified as a "Lagerstätte" - a site with exceptionally well-preserved fossils. 



Located in the Central Tablelands of NSW, it offers a unique window into an ancient rainforest ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-do-fish-fossils-reveal-about-ancient-australia">What do fish fossils reveal about ancient Australia?</h2>



Dr. McCurry explained that fossils from this site, dating back 11 to 16 million years, show that the region was once a temperate, wet rainforest teeming with life. 



These discoveries help scientists reconstruct ancient landscapes and understand the biodiversity of prehistoric Australia.



The initial McGraths Flat expedition in 2017 received funding from a descendant of Robert Etheridge, a renowned English palaeontologist who played a crucial role in developing the Australian Museum’s collections. 



Etheridge launched a series of scientific expeditions that continue today, ensuring that Australia’s rich fossil heritage remains a key focus for researchers.



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi is another milestone in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient species</a> thrived and adapted in Australia’s evolving landscapes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



Image Credit: Salthy Dingo



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Stomach contents preserved after 15 million years in fish fossil

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish,...

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza virus is mutating to evade immune defenses in mammals following prior infection or vaccination.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Charlotte</a>, emphasizes the growing threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">H5N1</a> to both agriculture and public health.



“H5N1 can infect avian and mammalian livestock and jump to humans,” the authors wrote. highlighting that new strains appear increasingly resistant to existing antibodies. This evolution, they caution, suggests that older vaccine formulas may lose effectiveness.



“This study shows a trend of weakening binding affinity of existing antibodies against H5 isolates over time, indicating that the H5N1 virus is evolving immune escape from our therapeutic and immunological defenses,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-shifts-in-bird-flu-virus">Rapid shifts in bird flu virus</h2>



By running large-scale computational models of specific viral proteins binding with neutralizing antibodies, the research team discovered “an overall worsening in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-found-powerful-antibodies-that-neutralize-all-covid-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> affinity to more recent H5N1 isolates.”&nbsp;



“If one makes an H5N1 vaccine with a previous vaccine candidate virus, the vaccine will have less efficacy, based on our measurements of how much the virus has evolved in recent years,” explained lead author Colby T. Ford, a visiting scholar at UNC Charlotte’s <a href="https://cipher.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks</a> (CIPHER).



Conducted under the guidance of assistant professor Richard Allen White III, and CIPHER co-director Daniel Janies, the UNC Charlotte team joined forces with <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) researchers Rafael Jaimes III and Phillip J. Tomezsko to explore how the H5N1 virus is adapting so quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-zoonotic-risk">Mounting zoonotic risk</h2>



Analyzing 1,804 antigen-antibody interactions, the researchers examined how the virus’s hemagglutinin subunit changed from 1996 to 2018.&nbsp;



By applying high-performance computational techniques, they tracked the virus’s “antigenic drift” - small cumulative mutations that hamper the effectiveness of immune defenses from earlier infections or vaccines.



The new measurements of how much the bird flu virus has evolved in recent years confirmed that H5N1 is becoming less recognizable to established antibodies.



“These results indicate that the virus has potential to move from epidemic to pandemic status,” wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-across-multiple-species">Emergence across multiple species</h2>



Though H5N1 has primarily circulated in birds, it has jumped to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-h5n1-marine-mammals-spreading-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> and, rarely, to humans.&nbsp;



In the past year, the virus was found in dairy cattle in at least 17 U.S. states, and the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) reported 70 human cases, including one fatality, in the United States since January 2022.&nbsp;



Worldwide, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>, H5N1 has been linked to 466 human deaths since 2003.



Between January 2022 and March 2025, the CDC also documented 12,510 H5N1 outbreaks among wild birds within the U.S., virus detections in 51 jurisdictions and 166,417,923 affected poultry.



Such widespread, cross-species infections strongly indicate that avian influenza can be considered a pandemic among animal populations, raising fears of a future human pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-flu-vaccination-and-public-health">Birds flu vaccination and public health</h2>



In discussing how to avert the looming threat, the authors argue that a new approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a> development may be needed.&nbsp;



These findings indicate that once the bird flu virus modifies itself significantly, older vaccines will have less efficacy, making it essential to develop and regularly update H5N1 vaccines reflecting the virus’s continuous genetic changes.



Furthermore, the study’s results highlight the power of high-performance computing in mapping viral evolution. By integrating AI-based protein folding with physics-based simulations, researchers can anticipate changes in viral structure and better inform policy decisions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-s-potential-for-pandemic-status">Bird flu’s potential for pandemic status</h2>



With H5N1 already widespread among wild birds and expanding its foothold in mammalian hosts, the virus’s cross-species jumps present a significant concern.&nbsp;



According to the experts, more robust monitoring, updated vaccination strategies, and ongoing computational analyses will be crucial in mitigating a potential outbreak.&nbsp;



As Janies concluded, computational modeling can help experts “tune our intuition to the right approaches” for vaccine design and intervention strategies before a fast-adapting virus gains an uncontrollable edge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBioMedicine</a>.&nbsp;



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Bird flu virus is rapidly evolving to evade immune defenses

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza...

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns starfish is often singled out for its ability to chomp through living coral at staggering rates.



<a href="https://scispace.com/pdf/the-acanthaster-phenomenon-1fnwsb66cy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have puzzled over this starfish’s boom-and-bust population cycles, which can leave once-colorful coral communities in serious trouble.



Crown-of-thorns starfish numbers can spike quickly, damaging reefs from Australia to other parts of the Indo-Pacific. 



Previous explanations have focused on shifting ocean conditions or lack of predators, yet a recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> highlights a surprising group that appears to gobble up young starfish before they mature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-crabs-help-control-starfish-numbers">Small crabs help control starfish numbers</h2>



“Using our newly developed eDNA techniques to detect COTS, we found COTS DNA in the guts of seven species of decapod caught across more than 1,000 km of the Great Barrier Reef. Plus we found fewer crabs in areas prone to COTS outbreaks,” said study senior author Dr. Sven Uthicke from the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> seem to carry pockets of these small <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/decapod" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decapod creatures</a>, which are ten-legged crustaceans that often lurk in cracks and under rubble. 



The researchers found that their absence in certain spots matched places where starfish outbreaks flared up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-eat-young-starfish">Crabs eat young starfish </h2>



“Consuming <a href="https://www.gbrbiology.com/2022/05/26/juvenile-crown-of-thorns-starfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">juvenile COTS</a> is a highly effective way to reduce COTS populations because, not only are they removed before they can start feeding on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a>, but they can be removed in large numbers because they are so small,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Small starfish tend to spend time hiding in rubble and among broken coral fragments. The researchers discovered that crusty guardians live in those same hiding spots, and their diets sometimes include juvenile starfish.



“It’s a numbers game. Some of the crabs can eat 20 juveniles a day, whereas fish or triton may eat one adult every few days or per week,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Differences in how often these crabs show up across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> may explain why some sections avoid major starfish invasions.



By using <a href="https://iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/environmental-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA</a> (environmental DNA) methods, scientists found proof of starfish consumption without needing direct observation. Targeting scraps of genetic material helps capture hidden feeding patterns that traditional surveys might overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-reef-implications">Wider reef implications</h2>



Scientists suspect that fewer small cryptic predators could give young starfish a better chance of surviving to adulthood. Removing juveniles early on may hold the key to keeping starfish populations in check.



A single decapod crab might appear harmless, yet large groups can collectively remove countless baby starfish. This kind of steady predation could halt population spikes before they cause coral damage.



Hidden crabs bring renewed attention to natural pest control on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a>. Managers usually track adult starfish as they munch their way across corals, but juveniles slip below the radar and can later emerge en masse.



Marine experts believe many reef inhabitants remain poorly understood. The study suggests these overlooked animals could influence overall coral health by feeding on starfish in ways that bigger predators might not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crab-populations">Protecting crab populations </h2>



Decapod crabs rely on healthy, structurally complex habitats. When reefs degrade, key crab hideouts disappear, leading to fewer opportunities for them to find and eat juvenile starfish.



Scientists note that preserving coral rubble habitat might help maintain crab populations. Extra protective measures could make a difference, especially in places that have experienced intense fishing or widespread coral decline.



Future work may look at what drives crab populations up or down and whether certain types of rubble or coral attract more crabs. Researchers might also see if artificial reefs provide enough shelter for these decapods to flourish.



Insights like these can improve management. Rather than focusing solely on adult starfish, officials could encourage conditions where small crustaceans thrive and reduce problems before they start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sign-of-hidden-connections">A sign of hidden connections</h2>



Crustaceans are not the only puzzling factor in starfish control, yet their impact sparks curiosity about other nooks and crannies of reef life. Everything from tiny worms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> bacteria may hold clues.



Each new finding reminds us that reefs are webs of interactions with many unsung heroes. Understanding these links may be essential for long-term reef survival.



Researchers suggest that bolstering small predator populations could be a smart tactic in starfish management. Keeping these animal communities strong may help reefs bounce back faster when facing constant stress.



Local conservation groups already invest in large-scale starfish culls, but it may be easier to back up that work by maintaining conditions for crabs and other protective critters. The goal is to strike a balance that curbs harmful sea star numbers without disrupting other species.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tiny crabs protect reefs by eating baby crown-of-thorns starfish

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns...

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data about marine environments. This data helps monitor human activities, such as fishing, pollution, and noise disturbances from boats and construction, providing insights into their impact on marine life.



A recent study from Kobe University highlights the importance of integrating data from different sources to create an “Internet of Animals” with open-access standards.



Human activities affect marine life in multiple ways. Fishing, industrial waste, and underwater construction alter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and disrupt ecosystems. 



“There is a wealth of oceanographic data from research vessels, drifting buoys and satellites," said Professor IWATA Takashi, an animal ecologist at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>.



"But due to technological and economic constraints, there are many observation gaps and some areas are inaccessible to humans, such as under sea ice or during harsh weather.” 



Understanding how these changes impact individual animals is difficult, making it challenging to design effective conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biologging-window-into-animal-experiences">Biologging: Window into animal experiences</h2>



Attaching small sensors, cameras, or tracking devices to wild animals is known as biologging. Scientists originally used biologging to study animal behavior and movement patterns. Now, it also helps analyze environmental changes affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“We try to minimize the impact this has on the animals by keeping the overall weight of the devices to less than 3% of the animal’s body weight, or even less than 1% for larger animals, and many researchers keep developing smaller and smaller devices," explained Iwata.



This method allows researchers to gather data without disturbing natural behaviors.



Biologging follows a Lagrangian observational method, meaning it moves with the animals, offering insights that fixed observation platforms like satellites or buoys cannot provide. It records a variety of environmental parameters, including temperature, salinity, and oxygen levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-biologging-research">Advancements in biologging research</h2>



The researchers reviewed the latest advancements in biologging. Their analysis showed that biologging has improved typhoon forecasts, revealed differences in how turtle species react to plastic waste, exposed illegal fishing, and influenced the design of bird-friendly offshore wind farms.



“This review showed that while biologging alone is insufficient, it can fill in the gaps in existing knowledge," said Iwata.



"It provides a new type of data that differs from the wide-area environmental information obtained from earth observation satellites and other sources to tackle a broad range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental issues</a>."



Combining biologging with other research methods offers a more complete understanding of marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-ocean-warming-and-pollution">Tackling ocean warming and pollution</h2>



Biologging offers a crucial tool for tracking ocean warming. By attaching GPS loggers to seabirds and marine mammals, scientists can measure ocean currents, wind patterns, and temperature changes over time. These observations have helped improve climate models and typhoon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracking</a>.



Plastic pollution remains a major concern, especially its impact on marine life. Cameras attached to sea turtles have captured floating plastic bags, providing direct evidence of pollution in marine habitats. 



Loggerhead turtles swim past plastic, while green turtles sometimes mistake it for food. Such species-specific behaviors help shape targeted conservation strategies.



Chemical pollution also threatens marine ecosystems. Persistent organic pollutants accumulate in seabirds and marine mammals, serving as bio-indicators of contamination. Tracking these animals allows scientists to monitor pollution levels across different ocean regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-fishery-management">Challenges in fishery management</h2>



Overfishing and bycatch pose significant threats to marine biodiversity. Biologging helps identify migration routes and breeding grounds for fish species like tuna and cod. This information supports more sustainable fishing policies.



Additionally, biologging has revealed that some marine animals, such as seals and whales, actively seek out fishing vessels to feed on discarded fish. This behavior increases the risk of entanglement and vessel collisions. 



Understanding these interactions can help develop better deterrent strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-marine-protected-areas">Conservation and marine protected areas</h2>



Noise pollution from shipping and offshore wind farms disrupts marine animals, particularly cetaceans that rely on echolocation. 



Biologging has demonstrated that naval sonar and shipping noise affect whale behavior, influencing feeding and migration patterns. Some studies have proposed raising turbine heights to minimize risks for seabirds.



Biologging also plays a key role in marine protected area (MPA) management. Data collected from tagged predators such as sharks and seals help determine whether existing MPAs effectively cover important habitats. 



Studies in the Ross Sea and British Indian Ocean Territory have confirmed that MPAs contribute to the conservation of top marine predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-internet-of-animals">A global "Internet of Animals"</h2>



The full potential of biologging depends on worldwide cooperation. 



“The full potential of biologging can only be realized through increased global collaboration and data sharing, enabling the integration of data across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, regions, and environmental contexts,” noted Iwata.



The researchers propose creating an “Internet of Animals,” where experts worldwide share biologging data to study marine life on a larger scale.



However, global data access and standardization remain major challenges. The Japanese research team calls for greater collaboration among scientists and data-sharing platforms to overcome these barriers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-biologging-s-reach">Expanding biologging’s reach</h2>



Iwata hopes this research will encourage more scientists to explore biologging. 



“If we can promote the sharing of biologging data through this paper, I hope to not only recruit more researchers to this field but also to so open up new angles that we haven’t yet envisioned,” he said.



“Researchers are not experts in social implementation, but in recent years, I have seen various issues being solved by sharing data in a data-driven society. It was an enjoyable task to think of ways to return the power of data to society.”



This study was conducted in collaboration with a researcher from <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waseda University</a>. By promoting biologging and data-sharing, researchers hope to build a stronger foundation for marine conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772735125000265?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water Biology and Security</a>.



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Biologging: Animals are recording human impact on the ocean

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data...

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating creatures - the kangaroo. Unique among large animals, kangaroos depend on hopping as their main form of locomotion.



This method of locomotion, known as saltation, allows them to cover vast distances with efficiency and speed. But how did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-kangaroos-changed-their-diets-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> develop this distinctive way of moving?



Understanding their evolutionary history requires looking at their ancestors, particularly the musky rat-kangaroo, the only macropodoid that does not hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kangaroo-relatives-that-don-t-hop">Kangaroo relatives that don't hop</h2>



Amy Tschirn is a PhD student and researcher in the <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/college-science-engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Science and Engineering</a> at Flinders University, and co-lead author of the study.



"The musky rat-kangaroo, as the most primitive living macropodoid (a group that includes kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos and bettongs), can offer insight into evolution within the group, including the origin of bipedal hopping locomotion,” said Tschim.



“As the only living macropodoid that doesn’t hop, the musky rat-kangaroo provides a crucial insight into how and when the iconic hopping form of locomotion evolved in Australia.”



Studying the musky rat-kangaroo helps scientists understand how early macropodoids moved before developing bipedal hopping. 



This tiny marsupial, found in the dense rainforests of Queensland, may hold the key to unlocking the evolutionary steps that led to modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protemnodon-kangaroo-fossils-may-explain-their-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musky-rat-kangaroos-in-the-wild">Musky rat-kangaroos in the wild</h2>



To study the movement of musky rat-kangaroos, researchers observed them in their natural habitat in the Atherton Tableland, a region in far-northern Queensland. 



By filming adult muskies in the wild, they documented how these animals move and whether any form of hopping appeared in their locomotion. The findings revealed something remarkable.



Unlike any other marsupial that moves on all fours, musky rat-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-kangaroos-of-the-past-didnt-hop-they-walked-on-all-fours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> use a distinct style of movement called a "bound" or "half-bound" gait. This means their hindfeet move together in synchrony rather than alternating as in most quadrupedal animals. 



This movement pattern is unusual among marsupials and could provide crucial insight into how macropodoids transitioned toward hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-quadrupedal-movement">Role of quadrupedal movement</h2>



Observations also confirmed that musky rat-kangaroos never hop, even when moving at their fastest speeds. This means that hopping likely developed later in macropodoid evolution.



“There remains no evidence of hopping in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-wallace-line-a-natural-border-that-no-species-crosses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Even when travelling at high speeds, muskies always use quadrupedal gaits, never rearing up on just their back legs,” said Harvard’s Dr. Peter Bishop, co-lead author of the research paper.



“These results support the hypothesis that a shift to an asymmetric-gait-dominant locomotor repertoire was a functional prerequisite in the evolution of bipedal hopping in macropodoids.”



Since musky rat-kangaroos lack the ability to hop, scientists believe that the transition toward bipedal movement must have started with an intermediary stage. The bounding gait of these small marsupials may represent a stepping stone in this evolutionary process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bounding-led-to-hopping-in-kangaroos">Bounding led to hopping in kangaroos</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo's movement patterns align with previous studies on quadrupedal Australian marsupials. 



Many use symmetric gaits at lower speeds and shift to asymmetric gaits at higher speeds. Unlike most, however, the musky rat-kangaroo exclusively uses asymmetric gaits, even at slow speeds.



Research suggests that early macropodoids likely adopted a bounding gait before transitioning to bipedal hopping. Small potoroids, close relatives of kangaroos, demonstrate this transition by using both quadrupedal bounding and bipedal hopping at different speeds. 



This pattern hints that bounding could have been the crucial precursor to the hopping behavior seen in modern kangaroos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-structure-and-the-kangaroo-hop">Body structure and the kangaroo hop</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo also retains several physical traits that distinguish it from true hopping macropodoids. Its forelimbs and hindlimbs are proportionally closer in size compared to kangaroos, which have much longer hindlimbs adapted for hopping. 



The musky rat-kangaroo also has a mobile first toe, something absent in larger macropodoids. These features suggest that its anatomy is better suited for quadrupedal movement, making it unlikely to develop hopping.



Studies on limb proportions across marsupials and rodents indicate that animals capable of bipedal locomotion generally have shorter forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs. 



The musky rat-kangaroo falls somewhere in between, suggesting it represents an early stage in macropodoid evolution before the full transition to bipedal hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-bounding-to-hopping">From bounding to hopping</h2>



The transition from quadrupedal movement to bipedal hopping remains one of the most intriguing mysteries of kangaroo evolution. By studying the musky rat-kangaroo’s anatomy and locomotion, researchers can piece together the story of how hopping emerged.



“These results signal a potential pathway to how bipedal hopping evolved in kangaroos. Perhaps it started with an ancestor that moved about on all fours like other marsupials, then an animal that bounded like the muskies, and finally evolved into the iconic hopping kangaroos we see in Australia today.”



This suggests that early macropodoids may have first adopted bounding gaits, allowing them to generate forward momentum using their powerful hind legs. 



Over time, as these animals became more specialized, they may have started relying solely on their back legs, leading to the development of true hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-kangaroo-evolution-studies">Future of kangaroo evolution studies</h2>



The research, published in Australian Mammalogy, provides an important foundation for future studies on kangaroo evolution. 



While the mystery of hopping is still being unraveled, fossil discoveries from early macropodoids could provide more clues about how and when kangaroos made the final leap into bipedal hopping.



Scientists also hope to answer another key question: why did hopping kangaroos grow so much larger than rodents, which also use saltation? Understanding this could reveal more about the evolutionary pressures that shaped Australia’s unique wildlife.



By continuing to study living species like the musky rat-kangaroo and examining fossils from early kangaroo ancestors, researchers move closer to understanding one of the most distinctive adaptations in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



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How did the kangaroo learn to hop? Insights from its smallest relative

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating...

World Frog Day is more than just a date on the calendar - it’s a global wake-up call. For 265 million years, frogs have hopped through Earth’s ever-changing landscapes. 



They outlived dinosaurs, weathered ice ages, and adapted to shifting climates. Yet today, despite their incredible resilience, frogs stand on the brink of disaster.



These small, unassuming creatures do far more than fill the air with their evening croaks. They control insect populations, provide food for countless predators, and serve as nature’s bioindicators because they are sensitive to environmental changes long before these become crises. 



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> start disappearing from an ecosystem, it’s a sign that something is deeply wrong.



Pollution, deforestation, climate change, and the deadly chytrid fungus are driving entire species to extinction at an alarming rate. 



If frog populations continue to decline, the consequences will be catastrophic. Ecosystems will become unbalanced, food chains may collapse, and Earth will lose one of its most ancient inhabitants.



That’s why&nbsp;World Frog Day, observed every&nbsp;March 20&nbsp;since&nbsp;2014, is important. It shines a spotlight on these amphibians, raises awareness about their plight and urges action before time runs out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-frogs-matter">Why frogs matter</h2>



Frogs are key players in natural ecosystems. As predators, they feast on mosquitoes, flies, and agricultural pests, helping control populations that could otherwise spiral out of balance.



Without them, farmers would struggle with increased infestations, and diseases spread by insects could become even harder to manage.



On the flip side, frogs themselves are prey for countless creatures; birds, fish, reptiles, and even some mammals rely on them as a food source. If frogs disappear, so do many of the animals that depend on them, which would trigger a domino effect throughout the ecosystem.



Then there’s their role as bioindicators. Healthy frog populations signal healthy environments. But declining frog populations indicate bigger issues - polluted waters, rising temperatures, or habitat destruction, for example. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-are-facing-many-threats">Frogs are facing many threats </h2>



Despite their adaptability, frogs face an uphill battle for survival, with habitat destruction being the primary threat.



Wetlands are commonly drained for urban expansion and forests are cut down to make way for agriculture. Rivers and lakes are polluted with industrial waste and pesticides. Every time humans encroach on these habitats, frog populations shrink a little more.



Pollution is another major issue. Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> absorb water directly through their porous skin, they have no defense against toxins in their environment. Pesticides used in farming leach into nearby ponds and streams, poisoning frogs from the outside in.



Then there’s the chytrid fungus, a disease that has devastated amphibian populations worldwide. It attacks their skin, and prevents them from absorbing water and essential nutrients. Entire species have been wiped out in mere decades by this devastating fungus. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-making-things-worse">Climate change is making things worse</h2>



As if habitat loss and pollution weren’t enough, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> are also battling the effects of climate change. 



Rising temperatures have thrown off their breeding cycles, causing unpredictable shifts in their life stages. Some species, accustomed to stable seasonal patterns, now struggle to find mates or lay eggs at the right time.



Extreme weather events have also taken a toll. In some areas, prolonged droughts have dried up breeding ponds before tadpoles have had a chance to develop. In others, flooding has swept away entire populations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fight-to-save-the-frogs">The fight to save the frogs</h2>



Despite the grim outlook, conservationists aren’t giving up. Around the world, dedicated researchers and volunteers are working to preserve frog habitats, restore wetlands, and develop captive breeding programs for endangered species. 



In some cases, frogs have been reintroduced into the wild after their populations were nearly wiped out - a small but hopeful sign that efforts can make a difference.



One of the most effective strategies has been the creation of protected areas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a> can thrive without human interference. These conservation zones shield frogs from pollution, deforestation, and urban expansion, giving them a fighting chance at survival. 



Scientists are also working to combat the chytrid fungus, testing anti-fungal treatments that could slow or stop the spread of infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-frog-day">Take action on World Frog Day</h2>



World Frog Day 2025 presents us with a chance to take action. Across the globe, events will highlight the importance of frog conservation, from educational programs at zoos, to hands-on habitat restoration projects.



The Little Rock Zoo in Arkansas, for example, is set to host special exhibits and talks about amphibian protection. Schools and nature organizations will also join in, organizing workshops and field trips to explore local frog populations.



But you don’t need to attend an event to make a difference. Learning about the different species of frogs in your region is a good start. Avoiding pesticides and herbicides in your garden helps protect their habitats. Creating a frog-friendly space with native plants, small ponds, or log shelters can provide much-needed refuge.



If you want to do more, consider supporting conservation organizations. Donations help fund research, breeding programs, and habitat restoration efforts. Volunteering for local environmental groups can also put you on the frontlines of conservation work.



You can even virtually adopt a tree frog through the <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/species-adoptions/red-eyed-tree-frog?srsltid=AfmBOorRwjDH5ydXRC_2hQV_O2f5MO1PjHWAutpoeSOhQp7kn7mTcs6P" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-world-without-frogs">A world without frogs?</h2>



The loss of frogs isn’t just an ecological disaster - it’s a warning. Their decline signals deeper problems in our environment, problems that will eventually affect humans too. 



If frogs disappear, it means our water is more polluted, our ecosystems are out of balance, and the natural world is in crisis.



World Frog Day reminds us that their survival is tied to our own. By protecting them, we protect ourselves and the planet we share. Whether it’s through education, activism, or simple everyday choices, everyone can contribute to this effort. 



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World Frog Day 2025: Protecting nature’s tiny guardians

World Frog Day is more than just a date on...

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon leafcutter ants (Atta sexdens). These ants not only exhibit social immunity - the ability to detect and remove pathogens to protect their colony - but also appear to remember past infections and respond more aggressively to familiar threats.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a> (UNESP), reveals that leafcutter ants can recognize a pathogenic fungus they have previously encountered, even 30 days after the initial exposure. 



When re-exposed, they intensify their cleaning behaviors and recruit more workers, a phenomenon researchers suggest could be considered a form of “social immune memory.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-superorganism-s-defense-mechanism">A superorganism’s defense mechanism</h2>



“If we think of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> as a superorganism, these behaviors would be like the immune system,” said first author Aryel Goes, a former bioscience student at UNESP. “In the same way that our defense cells attack invaders, such as viruses and bacteria, the workers fight infections that could harm the colony.”



The study shows that, unlike individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune systems</a> in animals, ants respond to infections collectively.&nbsp;



“What we’re showing is that the social immune system of ants can store information about previous infections with the same pathogen, a phenomenon seen in our immune cells, but which occurs at a behavioral level in ant colonies,” Goes said.



To test this idea, the researchers conducted several experiments to observe how ants responded to repeated exposures to the same pathogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-stronger-response-to-familiar-threats">A stronger response to familiar threats</h2>



In one experiment, the team exposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant colonies</a> to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after a month. The ants' response became significantly stronger over time, with the most intense reaction occurring at the 30-day mark. 



More ants participated in cleaning activities, both grooming themselves and removing the harmful fungus from the fungi they cultivate for food.



Lemon leafcutters belong to a group of ants that maintain a mutualistic relationship with fungi, cultivating them inside their colonies as a food source. In return, the fungi provide essential nutrients for the ants.



As part of the study, researchers tested four different pathogens - two harmful to the ants themselves and two that targeted their cultivated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In another experiment, the scientists exposed separate colonies to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after 60 days. This time, the ants' responses were noticeably weaker compared to those that encountered the pathogen after 30 days.



“Unlike our immune system, which in some cases responds expressively to a specific pathogen even many years after initial exposure, ants’ social immune memory has a shorter time frame, so they need to be constantly exposed to the pathogen for the information to persist,” explained Goes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-recognize-specific-pathogens">Do ants recognize specific pathogens?</h2>



The researchers also tested whether the ants' memory-like response was pathogen-specific. In a third experiment, they exposed the ants to one pathogen, then introduced a different pathogen after seven days. The ants' response to the second pathogen was much weaker than their reaction to the original one.



The following week, the researchers reintroduced the first pathogen. While the ants reacted, their response was only moderate - similar to their first encounter with the pathogen, but far less intense than when the pathogen had been reintroduced after 30 days.



Rodrigues suggested that this behavior could be a strategy to prevent accidentally spreading a new pathogen within the colony. “One hypothesis is that the lemon leafcutter reduced its hygienic response to avoid spreading the new pathogen to the rest of the colony.&nbsp;



This is because cleaning altruism, in which ants lick each other to get rid of pathogens, can also spread new contaminants. That’s why they would have been more careful with a second infection that was completely new to the colony,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-respond-to-unknown-substance">Do ants respond to unknown substance?</h2>



To ensure that the ants’ response was indeed triggered by pathogens and not simply by exposure to an unfamiliar substance, the researchers applied a harmless solution to five colonies as a control.&nbsp;



The ants in this group showed the weakest response of all the experiments, suggesting that the ants can distinguish between different substances and respond more aggressively to harmful pathogens.



The study raises the possibility that social immunity in leafcutter ants could increase the efficiency of pathogen removal, improving the colony’s overall survival. However, more research is needed to determine whether this actually qualifies as a form of immune memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-pest-control">Implications for pest control</h2>



Leafcutter ants, including Atta sexdens, thrive in open environments and have adapted well to agricultural landscapes, making them a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest</a> in monoculture farming.&nbsp;



Their strong cleaning behaviors pose a challenge to biological control methods that rely on natural pathogens rather than chemical pesticides.



“Lemon leafcutters are adapted to open areas, so they benefit from monocultures and are a pest. Their cleaning behavior is one of the obstacles to effective biological control without the use of chemical insecticides. Understanding the social immunity of leafcutters can help to develop more effective and ecologically correct controls,” Rodrigues concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Leafcutter ants remember past infections, strengthening colony defenses

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon...

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an unusual trait in thorny skates in the North Atlantic. 



In some parts of their range, these fish appear in two distinctly different sizes, regardless of their sex. Researchers were unable to determine the cause of this phenomenon - until now.



A new study led by Jeff Kneebone and a team from the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has finally solved the mystery, thanks in part to unexpected disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-longstanding-conservation-puzzle">A longstanding conservation puzzle</h2>



The size discrepancy among thorny skates has been noted for nearly a century, but the issue became especially significant in the 1970s when their populations began to plummet. Suspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a> as the main culprit, authorities implemented a strict fishing ban on thorny skates and barndoor skates in 2003.



“The barndoor skate rebounded to the point where they’re now allowed to be harvested again, but for whatever reason, the thorny skate has remained low, despite 20 years of protection,” said Kneebone, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.neaq.org/conservation-and-research/anderson-cabot-center-for-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anderson Cabot Center for Ocean Life</a> at the New England Aquarium.



Data from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> indicates that thorny skate populations have declined by 80% to 95% in some regions, particularly in the Gulf of Maine and Canadian waters off the Scotian Shelf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-thorny-skates">The mystery of thorny skates </h2>



Thorny skates have an extensive distribution, ranging from South Carolina to the Arctic Circle and across to Europe and Russia. However, the size variation appears to be unique to North American waters; in the Arctic and Europe, thorny skates only appear in one size.



“No one could understand what the deal was with these skates,” said study co-author Gavin Naylor, director of the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/sharks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Program for Shark Research</a> at the Florida Museum of Natural History. 



Researchers had previously analyzed thorny skate DNA, searching for genetic differences between the two size variants, but found nothing.&nbsp;



“The big forms are twice the size, and it takes them 11 years to reach adulthood. The small forms are mature by the time they’re six years old. There’s got to be genetic differences.”



Naylor believed a more detailed genetic analysis could uncover the answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-hundreds-of-thorny-skates">Samples from hundreds of thorny skates </h2>



Previous attempts to solve the mystery involved sequencing short DNA fragments from a small number of individuals.&nbsp;



While a reasonable approach, Naylor suspected it had failed because not enough of the genome had been examined. Instead, he proposed a gene capture method, an intensive approach that collects DNA sequences from thousands of genes across an organism’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>.&nbsp;



This would require analyzing samples from hundreds of thorny skates to gather a comprehensive dataset.



Researchers from around the world responded to Naylor’s request for samples, providing more than 600 tissue specimens spanning much of the Northern Hemisphere and helping him prepare for an extensive lab analysis.



Then, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 pandemic</a> shut down lab operations, halting their work indefinitely.



At that point, postdoctoral researcher Shannon Corrigan devised an alternative plan. Instead of conducting a labor-intensive gene capture study on hundreds of skates, they would sequence the full genome of just a handful - four or five individuals. While less comprehensive, it would still allow them to search for significant genetic differences.



It was a gamble. If the genome sequencing approach failed, the team would have used up their funding with no results.



“It was a Hail Mary,” Naylor said. But it paid off. In fact, had they stuck with the original plan, “we would have missed it entirely.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-key-genetic-difference">A key genetic difference</h2>



The breakthrough came when lead author Pierre Lesturgie analyzed the genome - comprising 2.5 billion base pairs. As he sifted through the data, he noticed something unusual.



“There was a large region on chromosome two that we thought was weird. Since it was behaving in a way we didn’t understand, we considered removing it from the analysis,” Lesturgie said.



Initially, he suspected the anomaly was a sequencing error and worried it might skew their results. But before discarding it, Naylor recognized a pattern - it resembled a gene inversion, where a segment of DNA is flipped in the opposite direction.



Gene inversions are common across many species, including humans, but they rarely result in such dramatic physical differences. Still, the team decided to check if this inverted DNA sequence was present in both small and large thorny skates.



It wasn’t. Only the larger skates had the inversion. They had finally uncovered the genetic basis for the size difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Now that scientists understand why thorny skates appear in two distinct sizes, Kneebone believes they can develop more effective conservation strategies.&nbsp;



The next step is to study the skates' life histories more closely - something that has been challenging due to the difficulty of distinguishing between the two types.



“We could identify the large males and females because they’re bigger than anything else,” Naylor said. Both large and small males develop distinctive long claspers on either side of their tails when they reach maturity.&nbsp;



“So when you’ve got a small male with large claspers, we know it’s an adult. But we can’t do anything with the small females because we don’t know whether they’re just babies on their way to getting big.”



This has complicated research on the species. “The big question has always been, what do the life histories of the two morphs look like? Currently, they’re not discriminated in the stock assessment, so a thorny skate is a thorny skate is a thorny skate,” Kneebone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



Even with this discovery, thorny skates are still struggling in parts of their range, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. One potential factor is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



Current evidence suggests that the two size variants may have difficulty interbreeding in areas where populations are declining. Warming ocean temperatures could be exacerbating this natural reproductive barrier.



The Gulf of Maine has experienced some of the fastest ocean warming on the planet, with sea surface temperatures rising at a rate faster than 99% of the world's oceans. This has already led to significant ecological changes, such as the collapse of cod fisheries.



Scientists are now investigating whether climate change is disproportionately affecting thorny skates compared to other skate species in the region.



“We’re trying to use the best available science to make decisions about how to best manage and sustain populations,” Kneebone concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56126-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Illustration by Jorge Machuski



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DNA twist reveals why some thorny skates grow twice as large

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an...

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A new study from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign examines how heat stress affects U.S. dairy farms. 



The researchers found that high temperatures and humidity lead to a 1% annual decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk yield</a>. Smaller farms suffer more than large ones, which can adopt management strategies to reduce the effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-heat-on-dairy-cows">Impact of heat on dairy cows</h2>



Study co-author Marin Skidmore is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics at the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>.



“Cows are mammals like us, and they experience heat stress just like we do. When cows are exposed to extreme heat, it can have a range of negative physical effects,” explained Professor Skidmore.



"There is an increased risk of infection, restlessness, and decreased appetite, which leads to a decline in milk yield. For dairy producers, the heat impact is a direct hit on their revenue.”



The team studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-types-of-plant-based-milk-are-linked-to-mental-disorders-like-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk production</a> data from nine Midwest states. They analyzed over 56 million cow-level records from 18,000 dairy farms between 2012 and 2016. The researchers adjusted milk data for protein and fat content to better assess milk quality, which determines its market value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-and-dairy-quality">Heat stress and dairy quality</h2>



“Previous studies have focused on fluid milk yield. But in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dairy</a> marketing system, milk is sold on components. When you calculate revenue, it’s not just about how many gallons of milk, but whether it’s high-quality milk with high protein and fat content,” Skidmore said.



The researchers linked milk production records with daily temperature and humidity data. They used temperature-humidity index measurements to gauge how much heat stress cows experience. High heat and humidity make it harder for cows to cool down, leading to reduced milk production.



On average, 1% of annual milk yield is lost to heat stress. That translates to about 1.4 billion pounds of milk over five years for the farms in the study. Based on average milk prices, these losses amount to roughly $245 million in revenue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-farms-suffer-more">Smaller farms suffer more</h2>



Most of the losses occur on low- and moderate-stress days, which happen more often. 



However, extreme heat days have a much greater impact, causing more than twice the dairy milk loss per cow compared to moderate-stress days.



Smaller farms experience the greatest financial burden. The researchers found that herds with fewer than 100 cows lost an average of 1.6% of their annual milk yield. Though these farms contributed less than 20% of the total output in the study, they accounted for 27% of total damages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-combat-heat-stress">Strategies to combat heat stress</h2>



Producers can take steps to reduce heat stress. Open barn sides, fans, and sprinklers can help cool cows. 



“There are a number of different adaptive methods, but there is no silver bullet. You can install more sprinklers and sophisticated ventilation systems. You could change the timing of calving to avoid these warmer periods, but that incurs other risks, and it is a complex issue,” noted Professor Skidmore.



Lower levels of heat stress can be managed with current techniques. Large farms experience minimal losses at those levels. However, when temperatures and humidity rise beyond a certain point, no mitigation strategy is fully effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-projections-and-policy-needs">Future projections and policy needs</h2>



The researchers projected milk yield losses through 2050 using predictions from 22 climate models. The findings suggest extreme heat days will become more common, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-may-transmit-bird-flu-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> yield losses could increase by 30%.



If dairy production remains a priority, small farms will need additional support. Professor Skidmore emphasized the importance of financial incentives to help farmers adopt heat mitigation strategies. Further research will also be necessary to manage extreme heat stress.



“If there's interest in continuing to have a healthy and robust small dairy production presence in the U.S., that probably will require financial incentives to help farmers implement mitigation strategies, as well as investments in further research on how to manage the highest levels of heat stress,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919225000259?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Policy</a>. The research was funded by a Center for the Economics of Sustainability Seed Grant.



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Extreme heat makes dairy cows produce less milk

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A...

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the United States. Since its first detection in 2014, this invasive pest has spread across at least 18 states, wreaking havoc on vineyards, orchards, and nursery industries. 



The damage caused by lanternflies threatens agricultural businesses and the environment, pushing scientists to find effective management strategies.



Traditionally, chemical insecticides have been the primary tool for controlling these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. However, reliance on chemical solutions comes with risks, including pesticide resistance and unintended harm to beneficial species. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have been exploring alternative solutions, looking toward nature’s own pest controllers for answers. 



Their study highlights the role of native insect predators in reducing spotted lanternfly populations. The findings suggest that these natural enemies could provide a sustainable and long-term approach to managing the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-predators-of-spotted-lanternflies">Natural predators of spotted lanternflies</h2>



Scientists at Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences conducted extensive research to determine which natural predators could help control spotted lanternflies. 



They focused on insects already present in the United States, hoping to identify species that could effectively hunt and reduce lanternfly numbers without the need for chemical intervention.



The team examined the feeding behavior of various predators, including spined soldier bugs, Carolina mantises, and Chinese mantises.



These insects, already known for preying on agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>, showed promise in targeting spotted lanternflies. The research suggests that conserving these beneficial predators could serve as a natural and environmentally friendly method for reducing lanternfly populations.



“Our study shows that several native and naturalized predators can consume spotted lanternflies effectively,” said lead researcher and doctoral candidate Anne Johnson, who conducted the study with Kelli Hoover, professor of entomology. 



“By leveraging natural enemies already in the environment, we hope to develop a sustainable, low-impact approach to managing this invasive species that will complement other control methods.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-with-chemical-control-methods">Challenges with chemical control methods</h2>



Current efforts to control spotted lanternflies primarily rely on insecticides. While effective in the short term, these chemicals pose significant risks. 



Over time, pests can develop resistance, making chemical treatments less effective. Additionally, insecticides can harm non-target species, including beneficial insects essential for maintaining ecological balance.



Johnson emphasized that biological control, which utilizes natural predators to regulate pest populations, offers a more sustainable alternative. 



By promoting predator populations, researchers hope to reduce dependence on chemical interventions and create a longer-lasting solution to the lanternfly problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-defenses-of-the-spotted-lanternfly">Natural defenses of the spotted lanternfly</h2>



In its native habitat in southeastern Asia, the spotted lanternfly has natural predators, including parasitic wasps that help regulate its numbers. 



However, introducing foreign species into a new environment requires extensive environmental impact studies and regulatory approvals, which can take years to complete. The <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> and university researchers are currently conducting these studies to assess potential risks and benefits.



One of the challenges researchers faced was understanding whether U.S. predators could effectively hunt lanternflies. Some invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> develop natural defenses that make them unappealing or even toxic to potential predators.



“The spotted lanternfly’s ability to sequester toxins from its preferred host, the tree of heaven, raises concerns about its vulnerability to predators,” Johnson said. 



“We hypothesized that the spotted lanternfly might harness the tree’s bitter-tasting chemical compounds as a defense mechanism that could protect them against predation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-efficiency-in-controlled-settings">Predator efficiency in controlled settings</h2>



To evaluate the effectiveness of different predators, Johnson and Hoover tested ten generalist species, including spined soldier bugs, praying mantises, wheel bugs, lady beetles, and lacewings. Each predator was placed in an enclosure with either 25 spotted lanternfly nymphs or 10 adults for a week.



The results showed that spined soldier bugs and two praying mantis species were the most successful at reducing lanternfly populations. Regardless of the lanternflies’ life stage, these predators actively hunted and consumed them.



Eight-spined soldier bugs proved particularly efficient. They hunt in groups, allowing them to attack and consume prey more effectively. In controlled experiments, these bugs eliminated all lanternflies in their enclosures within three to four days. 



Additionally, researchers found that the predators consumed spotted lanternflies regardless of whether they had fed on tree of heaven or alternative host plants.



“These findings are fascinating because they suggest that natural predators could be incorporated into integrated pest management strategies,” Johnson said. “By conserving and encouraging populations of these beneficial insects, we may be able to reduce the use of chemical controls.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-lanternfly-predators">Observations of lanternfly predators </h2>



Before conducting their controlled experiments, researchers gathered data from community science efforts. 



From 2020 to 2022, Johnson invited the public to report sightings of birds and insects preying on spotted lanternflies. Through social media platforms like Facebook, nearly 2,000 reports were collected. These observations provided scientists with valuable clues about which predators to study in greater detail.



This collaboration between researchers and the public helped confirm that native insects could be effective in spotted lanternfly control. While anecdotal reports do not replace laboratory testing, they offer useful insights that can guide future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-standalone-solution">Not a standalone solution</h2>



While the study’s findings are promising, Johnson and Hoover stress that predator-based control methods should not be seen as a standalone solution. 



The next phase of research will involve field experiments to assess how well these predators perform in natural environments where variables such as weather, prey availability, and habitat conditions play a role.



“While these insects could help keep spotted lanternfly populations in check someday, we recognize that their impact may be limited by consistent presence of sufficient prey and the use of insecticides that can also kill these generalist predators,” Hoover said. 



“Therefore, they should be considered part of a broader integrated pest management strategy rather than a standalone solution.”



Johnson recommends that those interested in additional management techniques consult Penn State Extension’s Spotted Lanternfly Management Guide, which provides practical solutions for controlling the pest. The guide is available for download from the extension website.



The research was a collaborative effort, bringing together experts in entomology and ecology. The study was co-authored by Sara Hermann, a professor of arthropod ecology at Penn State.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-025-10138-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arthropod-Plant Interactions</a>.



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Native insects can lead the battle against the spotted lanternfly

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the...

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts have shown promising results. A major review of over 67,000 animal species highlights both the successes and the urgent need for action. 



The study, based on data from the IUCN Red List, emphasizes that targeted measures can bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> back from the brink of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-needs-urgent-conservation-efforts">Biodiversity needs urgent conservation efforts</h2>



The world is losing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> at an alarming rate. About 28% of over 160,000 assessed species are threatened with extinction.



Human activities have put nearly one million species at risk. However, conservation efforts can succeed when backed by evidence-based strategies.



A team led by the University of Cambridge, in collaboration with IUCN, BirdLife International, and other institutions, examined whether conservation measures improved species' survival.



They found that efforts such as habitat protection, breeding programs, and legal protections have helped many species recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-boosts-biodiversity-recovery">Conservation boosts biodiversity recovery</h2>



“We found that almost all the species that have moved from a more threatened category to a less threatened category have benefitted from some sort of conservation measures. It’s a strong signal that conservation works," said lead author Ashley Simkins, a PhD candidate at Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Zoology</a>.



While no single solution fits all cases, some patterns emerge in successful conservation stories. Many recovering species live in isolated areas, such as islands, where conservation efforts can be fully implemented. 



These strategies include habitat restoration, breeding programs, and reintroductions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-stories-in-wildlife-recovery">Success stories in wildlife recovery</h2>



Despite the biodiversity crisis, several species have made remarkable recoveries through conservation efforts. The Iberian lynx, once the world’s most endangered cat, has grown from a few hundred individuals to a few thousand. 



The kākāpō, a flightless parrot from New Zealand, has benefitted from dedicated recovery programs. The European bison, which was hunted to extinction in the wild in the early 20th century, now roams parts of Eastern Europe due to sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Marine species have also seen dramatic recoveries. Humpback and blue whales, once on the brink of extinction due to commercial whaling, have made a comeback following international bans on whaling. 



Challenges remain, however, considering that six times more species are currently declining than improving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventative-conservation-measures">Preventative conservation measures</h2>



Conservation researchers stress the importance of proactive measures over emergency interventions. 



“Humans have gotten pretty good at what could be considered ‘A&amp;E’ conservation – focusing on species at very high risk of extinction,” said Simkins. 



“What we’re less good at is preventing species from becoming threatened in the first place. We need to move beyond treating the symptoms of biodiversity loss and start addressing the root causes.”



Preventative conservation is often more cost-effective and successful in the long term. Protecting habitats, controlling invasive species, and regulating human activities can help species before they reach critical endangerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-community-led-conservation-efforts">Community-led conservation efforts</h2>



Researchers emphasize the importance of collaborative conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a>.



In Papua New Guinea, conservationists worked with local communities to replace tree kangaroo hunting with sustainable farming and fishing. This approach benefited both people and wildlife.



“It’s vital that we as conservationists are working with stakeholders, rather than dictating to them, whether that’s an Indigenous community in Papua New Guinea or a farmer in Somerset,” said Simkins. 



“Conservation doesn’t have to be a zero-sum game – there are compromises that can benefit both the natural world and human society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-to-save-biodiversity">Conservation to save biodiversity </h2>



Despite constant reports of wildlife decline, conservation efforts continue to make a real impact. 



“In this climate of constant stories about wildlife declines and insufficient political action to protect nature, it’s important to realise that there are also many success stories and that conservation efforts are making a real, demonstrable impact in the world,” said co-senior author Dr. Silviu Petrovan. "Conservation works if given the chance.”



Study co-author Dr. Stuart Butchart, Chief Scientist at <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdLife International</a>, noted that this research sheds light on which actions to save species have been effective, and what interventions are needed.



“Governments need to turn their words into actions and rapidly scale up efforts to save species from extinction and help populations to recover. Safeguarding our natural heritage for future generations depends upon this," said Dr. Butchart.



“Almost everyone will have their own favourite example of a conservation success story, whether it’s the bald eagle in North America or the red kite in the UK,” said Simkins. 



“We need joint action to ensure these positive stories aren’t the exception – they’re the norm.”



The research received support from the Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>), part of UK Research and Innovation (<a href="https://www.ukri.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKRI</a>).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003051" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Conservation success stories offer hope for biodiversity

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts...

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often his favorite meal. From backyard coops to commercial farms, poultry farming has shaped human civilization and food culture. National Poultry Day, celebrated every year on March 19, is a tribute to the industry, the farmers, and, of course, the birds themselves. 



Whether you enjoy a hearty chicken dinner or prefer eggs at breakfast, this day highlights the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/">role of poultry</a> in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-importance-of-poultry">Origins and importance of poultry</h2>



Poultry farming has deep historical roots, dating back thousands of years. Chickens are believed to have originated from wild jungle fowl in Southeast Asia and were domesticated over 8,000 years ago. 



Early civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, recognized the value of these birds for their meat and eggs. As trade routes expanded, poultry spread across the globe, becoming a crucial food source in many cultures.



In the United States, poultry farming began with European settlers in the 16th century. Chickens, turkeys, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> were raised in small flocks to provide eggs and meat for families. 



During World War II, poultry became even more significant as beef and pork were rationed, leading to an increase in chicken consumption. 



Over time, poultry farming evolved from small backyard operations to a massive industry that feeds millions of people worldwide. Today, poultry remains a primary source of affordable, high-protein food, with the U.S. producing nearly nine billion chickens annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-celebrate-poultry-in-every-form">A day to celebrate poultry in every form</h2>



National Poultry Day is the perfect occasion to enjoy a variety of poultry dishes. Breakfast can start with eggs, omelets, or turkey bacon. Lunchtime offers opportunities to indulge in chicken sandwiches, grilled turkey, or duck salads. 



By dinnertime, options expand to roast chicken, fried chicken, or even a flavorful pheasant stew. Poultry is one of the most versatile meats, prepared in countless ways, including grilling, roasting, frying, sautéing, steaming, and baking.



Beyond its culinary appeal, poultry is also a healthier alternative to red meat. Chicken and turkey, in particular, are lower in fat and cholesterol, making them excellent choices for those looking to maintain a balanced diet. 



The high protein content supports muscle growth, while essential nutrients like B vitamins, iron, and zinc contribute to overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fun-facts-about-poultry">Fun facts about poultry </h2>



Poultry is more than just food - it’s a world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-preservation-method-slows-down-bacterial-growth-in-meat-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating creatures</a> with unique traits. Chickens may not be known for their flying abilities, but they can take short, low flights to escape predators. 



Ducks, on the other hand, are built for water, with waterproof feathers coated in a special waxy oil. This natural adaptation allows them to stay dry even while floating for hours.



Male and female poultry also have distinct names. A male duck is called a drake, while a female is a hen. Similarly, a male chicken is a rooster, and a female is a hen. 



Groups of birds have unique collective names as well. A group of chickens is known as a brood or peep, while a group of ducks in the water is called a paddling.



If ducks take flight, they form a flock, and once they land on the ground, they may be referred to as a brace or badling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-celebrate-national-poultry-day">How to celebrate National Poultry Day</h2>



People celebrate National Poultry Day in various ways, depending on their love for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>. Some take the opportunity to cook their favorite poultry dishes, while others use the day to try new recipes. 



Traditional meals like herb-roasted turkey, chicken enchiladas, and turkey pot pie gain popularity as people experiment with flavors. Those interested in sustainable living might consider visiting a local poultry farm to see firsthand how these birds are raised.



Restaurants and food establishments also join the celebrations, offering special poultry-themed menus. Some communities organize events where people can learn about poultry farming, nutrition, and even backyard chicken keeping. 



On social media, food lovers share their best poultry meals with the hashtag #NationalPoultryDay, showcasing creative ways to prepare chicken, duck, and turkey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legendary-poultry-festival">A legendary poultry festival</h2>



One of the biggest National Poultry Day celebrations happens in Versailles, Ohio. 



This small town has hosted a Poultry Festival since 1951, transforming what began as a local event into a nationally recognized celebration. Originally a one-day gathering, the festival expanded into a weekend-long event by 1962.



Each year, thousands of visitors flock to Versailles to indulge in delicious poultry dishes, enjoy live music, and participate in fun activities. 



One of the festival’s highlights is the world's largest omelet cook-off, where chefs prepare an enormous omelet using hundreds of eggs. The event also features barbecue pits, beer tents, and poultry-themed contests.



Beyond the festivities, the <a href="https://www.versaillespoultrydays.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Versailles Poultry</a> Festival plays an important role in the local community. The event generates funds for maintaining Heritage Park, a 40-acre space with sports fields, ponds, and shelter houses. 



Over the past decade, the festival has donated more than $700,000 to various charities, making it a celebration that gives back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-national-poultry-day-matters">Why National Poultry Day matters</h2>



National Poultry Day is more than just an excuse to enjoy a good meal. It is a day to recognize the farmers who dedicate their lives to raising poultry, ensuring a steady supply of eggs and meat for people around the world. 



It also highlights the importance of sustainable farming practices, humane animal care, and the nutritional benefits of poultry consumption.



As the global population continues to grow, poultry farming will remain a crucial part of food security. The efficiency of poultry production compared to other livestock makes it a vital source of protein for millions of people. 



So, on March 19, take a moment to savor your favorite poultry dish, share your love for chicken, turkey, or duck, and celebrate the birds that have been feeding humanity for centuries.



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National Poultry Day 2025: Honoring the birds that feed the world

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often...

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments all over the world. They have long been considered to show fixed behavioral patterns, for example feeding on a diet of bacteria and other microbes.



However, new research has revealed that they switch to predatory behavior if suitable prey (such as other nematode worms) are available in the environment. This indicates that their behavior is far more adaptable than previously thought.



Over multiple generations, these tiny organisms demonstrated a striking ability to shift entirely to a predatory lifestyle, based on environmental exposure to suitable prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-develop-predatory-instincts">Nematodes develop predatory instincts</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bio.mpg.de/2923/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen</a> conducted an experiment spanning 101 generations of nematode worm lineages in which the worms were exposed to alternative food sources.



The dietary shift led to a complete transformation in their behavior, with all test lines adopting 100% predatory tendencies, and demonstrating an unprecedented level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability</a>. Interestingly, the change in diet was also accompanied by a change in the form of the mouth, with a wider mouth being associated with a predatory diet.



The rapid and consistent response contradicts the idea that predatory traits are fixed and highlights the profound role of environmental influence in shaping behavior and evolutionary pathways over extended periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-pass-down-predatory-traits">Nematodes pass down predatory traits</h2>



The study also explored how nematodes retain behavioral changes across generations. Researchers found that at least five generations of exposure were required to establish lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-animal-evolution-start-with-predatory-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory behavior</a>. 



This suggests that organisms can inherit environmental responses, which could have implications in other species beyond nematodes. It potentially reshapes perspectives on adaptation and the plasticity of behavioral traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micrornas-and-adaptation">MicroRNAs and adaptation</h2>



A deeper look into the genetic mechanisms behind this shift revealed the involvement of microRNAs. The miR-35 family, in particular, played a key role in passing down behavioral traits by interacting with the EBAX-1 gene. 



This discovery links genetic regulation to behavioral shifts, and offers a new perspective on how species adapt and evolve over time.



“This research opens new avenues in the understanding of behavioural plasticity,” said Shiela Quiobe, doctoral researcher and first author of the study.



“This discovery was completely unexpected, and now it’s exciting as we’re just scratching the surface in understanding the microRNAs' mechanisms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-beyond-the-individual">Evolution beyond the individual</h2>



The implications of these findings extend beyond nematodes. Dr. Ralf Sommer, Director of the Department of Integrative Evolutionary Biology and lead author of the study, highlights the study's significance.



“The long-term environmental induction experiment is a novel approach in the context of phenotypic plasticity to show that environmental responses can be important for longer evolutionary periods.” 



“The fact that we see a phenomenon where you really need multi-generational exposure to induce such memory indicates that there might be more crosstalk between ecology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-law-of-nature-explains-the-evolution-of-everything-that-exists-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>,” he added.



These results challenge traditional views on evolution and predatory strategies, emphasizing the importance of ecological factors in shaping genetic adaptations. 



They suggest that environmental pressures play a more active role in guiding evolution than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-impact-of-environmental-changes">Lasting impact of environmental changes</h2>



The study raises intriguing questions about the mechanisms behind this inherited predatory behavior. 



Scientists plan to conduct follow-up research to investigate the molecular targets of microRNAs and identify the bacterial agents responsible for triggering this adaptation. 



Understanding these processes could provide new insights into the long-term impact of environmental changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nematodes-use-chemistry-to-survive-and-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-theory">Implications for evolutionary theory</h2>



The findings from this study challenge long-held assumptions about evolution, particularly the balance between genetic determinism and environmental influence. 



Traditionally, evolutionary changes have been viewed as slow, being driven by random mutations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> over thousands or millions of years. However, this research suggests that behavioral shifts can emerge much more rapidly when organisms experience sustained environmental pressure.



The discovery that nematodes require multiple generations of exposure before fully adopting a predatory lifestyle highlights the role of epigenetics in shaping evolutionary paths. 



It also raises the question of how other species might exhibit similar inherited behavioral adaptations in response to environmental changes. Could this mechanism explain shifts in feeding behaviors, migration patterns, or survival strategies in larger organisms?



Understanding how microRNAs contribute to behavioral plasticity could also have applications in biotechnology and medicine.



 If similar regulatory pathways exist in other species, scientists may be able to manipulate gene expression to influence adaptive traits, potentially aiding in conservation efforts or even addressing neurodevelopmental disorders linked to gene regulation.



This study paves the way for future research into the interplay between environment, genetics, and behavior, and offers new perspectives on how organisms evolve in response to their surroundings.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu0875">Science Advances</a>.



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Nematodes can rapidly shift to predatory behavior for survival

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments...

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary. It has brown feathers, a slender beak, and a characteristic strut like other doves. 



Compared to Cuba’s colorful parrots, it might seem unremarkable. However, this bird has long puzzled biologists. Scientists have struggled to determine its origins, how it arrived on the island, or what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> it is related to.



For the first time, researchers have sequenced the bird’s DNA to uncover its history. Instead of clear answers, they found more confusion.



“This species has been an ornithological enigma for a very long time,” said Jessica Oswald, a Florida Museum of Natural History consultant staff affiliate and lead author of the study. 



“We focused on this dove species because we were anticipating an odd result that may help us understand the complex biogeography of the Caribbean. We did not anticipate it being so unique from an evolutionary perspective relative to anything else.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-evolutionary-lineage">A unique evolutionary lineage</h2>



Scientists once believed the blue-headed quail dove was related to doves and pigeons from Central and South America. Some features, however, seemed more similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> from Australasia. Recent genetic analysis has disproved both theories.



The study shows that this dove is not closely related to species in Australia or the Americas. Instead, it stands apart from all known doves and pigeons.



“This species is even more evolutionarily distinct than the dodo was,” Oswald said. The dodo, also a type of dove, had at least one close relative, the Rodrigues solitaire, before both went extinct.



DNA evidence, along with fossil analysis, suggests that the blue-headed quail dove’s lineage may be as old as 50 million years. In comparison, humans and chimpanzees diverged just 5 to 6 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-caribbean-extinctions">The history of Caribbean extinctions</h2>



Oswald conducted this research as part of a broader <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> initiative to understand bird extinctions in the Caribbean.



About 12% of all Caribbean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have disappeared since humans arrived. These include a nearly four-foot-tall giant owl, over a dozen parrot species, a raptor larger than a bald eagle, a flightless ibis that fought with its wings, and a condor with a powerful bite.



Scientists have struggled to determine how these extinct birds relate to modern species. Oswald developed new methods to extract and sequence DNA from fossils, helping connect extinct and living birds.



Early tests on a Caribbean cave rail fossil revealed a previously unknown evolutionary link to birds in Africa, New Guinea, and New Zealand. A later study showed that a parrot, now restricted to Hispaniola, once lived across the Caribbean before human activity reduced its range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-is-nearing-extinction">Cuban dove is nearing extinction</h2>



Though not extinct, the blue-headed quail dove faces serious threats.



“There are 1,000 mature individuals of this species left in Cuba. It is threatened by overhunting by people, habitat loss and invasive species like cats. It’s very much on the brink,” Oswald said.



Due to its rarity, no one had sequenced its DNA before. Most specimens in North American museums were collected decades ago, making DNA extraction difficult. 



Oswald used a technique she developed for fossils, applying it to a toe pad from a specimen collected in 1958, and anxiously awaited the DNA results.



“She called me up and said, ‘Are you sitting down?’ I thought she was going to tell me they didn’t get any good sequencing and had no data, but it was just the opposite,” said study co-author David Steadman, former curator of ornithology at the Florida Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-museum-specimens">Value of museum specimens</h2>



Steadman spent decades witnessing advancements in DNA technology. He sees this study as proof that museum collections remain vital for modern research.



“It’s another instance of the importance of museums and the long-term maintenance of specimens. As ancient DNA techniques have improved, we find that fossils, historical and modern specimens are even more useful than before.”



Oswald and Steadman were surprised by the results. Other Caribbean doves have known origins, with ancestors from North, Central, or South America. The blue-headed quail dove, however, remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-may-be-the-last-of-its-kind">Cuban dove may be the last of its kind</h2>



“It’s a relictual species and has probably been in the Caribbean for a long time. Cuba is an old island,” Steadman said.



The dove's origins remain uncertain. It may be the last survivor of an ancient lineage, as genetic evidence suggests, or an isolated offshoot of another dove species stranded in Cuba long ago.



Despite its preference for ground living, its ancestors likely had the strong flight ability that allows doves and pigeons to spread across vast distances.



“There are some groups of birds that are spectacular dispersers, one being pigeons and doves. They just get up and go,” Oswald said. “Many are particularly good dispersers because they eat a lot of fruit and sometimes have to move large distances to look for fruiting trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-cuban-dove">The future of the Cuban dove</h2>



The blue-headed quail dove remains an evolutionary puzzle. While its origins are uncertain, its future is even more precarious. 



With its population dwindling, conservation efforts may be the only way to prevent it from following the dodo into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>.



Researchers from multiple institutions contributed to this study, including Bret Boyd from&nbsp;<a href="https://lifesciences.vcu.edu/directory/boyd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Commonwealth University</a>, Avery Szewczak and Julie Allen from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biol.vt.edu/People/Faculty.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, Michelle LeFebvre and Rob Guralnick from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, and Brian Stucky from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0464" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: Florida Museum photo by Kristen Grace.



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Rare dove is not related to any other birds we know today

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary....

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees, the most self-aware of the great apes. However, new research suggests that gorillas may possess similar levels of self-awareness, even though they typically fail the well-known mirror test.



A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, the University of Vienna, and the University of Amsterdam studied chimpanzees and gorillas at Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem.



The study indicates that gorillas are able to identify their own bodies as barriers, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-gorillas-can-form-lasting-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-mirror-test">Rethinking the mirror test</h2>



One of the most common ways scientists measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-awareness</a> is through the mirror test. In this test, an animal receives a small mark on its body that it can only see by looking in a mirror. If the animal touches or tries to remove the mark, it suggests they recognize their reflection.



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> works well, but it's not suitable for all animals," said study co-author Jorg Massen. "Some animals don't rely much on vision and may dislike looking at faces. These species might fail the mirror test even if they are self-aware."



Gorillas are one such species. They usually score poorly on the mirror test, possibly because they tend to avoid direct eye contact. 



Looking in a mirror may feel unnatural or uncomfortable for them. But does this mean they lack self-awareness? Massen and his team decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-seem-to-be-self-aware">Gorillas seem to be self-aware</h2>



To explore body awareness in gorillas, the researchers designed a new test. In the experiment, both gorillas and chimpanzees had to open a box lid to retrieve food.



However, in some cases, the box was placed on a pole, forcing the animal to sit on the lid itself. To get to the food, they had to realize their own body was blocking access.



"This is a basic form of body awareness. In humans, this develops at around 1.5 years old," explained Massen.



The results were striking. Both gorillas and chimpanzees figured out the task equally well. "What stood out was that both species quickly realized they needed to move off the box to open it," said Massen.



"This shows they were aware of their own bodies as an obstacle. So the fact that gorillas usually perform poorly in mirror tests doesn't mean they lack self-awareness."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-self-aware-gorillas">Significance of self-aware gorillas </h2>



Massen and his team argue that scientists should expand their approach to studying self-awareness in animals. 



"Thanks to this body awareness test, we now know more about the inner life of gorillas, which may be richer than we previously thought, or at least had scientific evidence for," said Massen.



Using different types of tests could also shed light on how self-awareness evolved. Some scientists believe self-awareness emerged early in the common ancestors of humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. 



Others think it may have developed separately in different ape species. Ongoing studies aim to determine whether chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, and other primates share the same kind of self-awareness.



"It's possible that apes have a similar type of self-awareness, but it could also be quite different. By combining different tests, we can better understand these differences," noted Massen.



This study also challenges how we define self-awareness. "Animals we often consider 'less intelligent' may actually have more complex thoughts than we imagine," Massen added.



By looking beyond the mirror test, scientists may uncover deeper insights into how animals understand themselves - and, ultimately, how human self-awareness evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-self-awareness-in-apes">Evolution of self-awareness in apes</h2>



The results of this research generate new questions regarding the development of self-awareness in great apes.



If gorillas are able to exhibit body awareness comparable to chimpanzees, yet fail mirror tests, then it may be that various species present self-awareness in different ways. This questions the long-standing theory that mirror recognition is the absolute indicator of an animal’s self-awareness.



Some experts propose that self-awareness is a spectrum, not an all-or-nothing personality. While chimpanzees might be expert visual self-recognizers, gorillas may be more dependent on spatial and physical self-awareness, which would just be as crucial for survival in their native habitats.



By expanding the ways that research is conducted, scientists can get a better idea of how various species perceive themselves and their environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatolog</a>.



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Are gorillas self-aware? New research challenges old assumptions

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees,...

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are showing a surprising genetic resistance to a virus that has weakened their species for generations. 



Scientists have discovered that some of these koalas have developed a unique genomic immunity to the retrovirus that suppresses their immune system and makes them more vulnerable to infections like chlamydia and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-infected-with-a-virus-that-causes-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> and UMass Chan Medical School made the discovery while studying koala populations in different regions. 



The findings, published in the journal Cell, could be a key step in efforts to protect one of Australia’s most iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-hidden-immunity">Koalas’ hidden immunity</h2>



Koalas infected with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-retroviruses-have-been-found-in-koalas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retrovirus</a> are at a higher risk of chlamydia, which has devastated populations in Queensland and New South Wales. 



The virus has also been linked to lymphomas that have caused significant mortality in captive koalas. 



However, scientists found that about 30% of koalas in the Sunshine Coast hinterland have a genetic adaptation that suppresses the virus.



“What we found is that there is a single genetic switch that has been activated in about 30% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-now-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">koala population</a> in the Sunshine Coast hinterland, suppressing the retrovirus,” said Professor Keith Chappell, a virologist at the Australian Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology. 



“This is in contrast to what we found in the population on the Gold Coast, where this adaptation is almost completely absent.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-defense-spreading-over-time">A natural defense spreading over time</h2>



The study, led by research fellow Dr. Michaela Blyton, suggests that this adaptive genomic immunity functions similarly to how an immune system strengthens after exposure to pathogens. 



“Because this 'genomic immunity' can be inherited, the discovery suggests koalas with the trait could be used in breeding programs to reduce the susceptibility of other populations to the retrovirus, like on the Gold Coast,” said Dr. Blyton.



The researchers also found evidence that this adaptation is spreading through the northern koala population, though it will take generations to fully establish itself across the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-opportunity-to-study-evolution">A rare opportunity to study evolution </h2>



Professor Chappell explained that retroviruses can alter the genetic code of a species over time. In humans, about 8% of DNA comes from retroviral infections that occurred over millions of years.



In contrast, the koala retrovirus only entered the marsupial’s genome a few thousand years ago, which is considered very recent in evolutionary terms.



“Out of all the species on the planet, this is the only one where we can see a genetic response to a retrovirus in real time, rather than looking at responses to things that got into the genome millions of years ago,” said Professor Chappell.



“This allows the researchers to study exactly how these iconic critters are responding - it’s actually a pretty amazing situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-adaptations-of-koalas">Genetic adaptations of koalas</h2>



At the University of Massachusetts, Professor William Theurkauf had spent decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> and their genetic responses to genome invaders. 



When he learned about the koala research, Professor Theurkauf saw clear parallels with his work and an opportunity for collaboration.



Despite the vast differences between fruit flies and marsupials, both studies shed light on how species develop genetic defenses against viral threats.



This trans-Pacific partnership has helped scientists gain deeper insight into how koalas are adapting at the genetic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-stronger-koala-populations">Building stronger koala populations</h2>



The researchers caution that while the retrovirus is not the most immediate threat to koalas, understanding this genetic adaptation could improve conservation efforts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat destruction</a> and climate change remain the biggest dangers to koala populations.



By identifying populations with a natural resistance to the retrovirus, conservationists can develop targeted strategies to enhance the species' resilience against disease.



Koalas with this trait may be better suited for repopulation efforts in areas where disease has significantly reduced their numbers.



This discovery could lead to breeding programs that prioritize koalas with this genetic resistance, helping to build stronger populations that are less vulnerable to disease. 



Scientists are now eager to explore whether similar adaptations exist in other koala populations across Australia, potentially opening new doors for conservation strategies in the years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425001916" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Koalas in Queensland show signs of immunity to deadly retrovirus

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are...

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin hummingbird chick deep in Panama’s rainforest. The tiny bird, smaller than a pinky finger, was covered in brown fuzz. 



When they approached, the chick twitched and shook its head, displaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-found-nesting-in-colonies-have-completely-defied-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> they had never seen in birds before. This movement resembled a poisonous caterpillar found in the same region.



Taylor, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, and his team described this mimicry in a paper published in the journal Ecology.



“We know so little about what nesting birds do in the tropics,” said Falk, the paper’s first author and a postdoctoral fellow in Taylor’s lab. "But this could be a very common thing if we had dedicated more efforts to observe and discover new things about the natural world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-survival-strategies">Hidden survival strategies</h2>



White-necked Jacobin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> are common in Central and South America. Males have shimmering blue and green feathers, while females have muted green plumage.



The tropical rainforest poses many dangers for small birds, with predators such as snakes, monkeys, birds, and insects. Studies suggest bird chicks in the tropics face higher predation risks than those in temperate forests.



During a trip to Soberanía National Park in 2024, Falk might have uncovered how these tiny hummingbird chicks survive. Despite regularly observing adult Jacobins at his feeders, he had never seen their chicks or nests. 



That changed when co-authors Michael Castaño and Sebastian Gallan-Giraldo found a female Jacobin incubating an egg near a forest trail. The nest, no bigger than Falk’s palm, blended seamlessly with its surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-chick-moves-like-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird chick moves like a caterpillar</h2>



The researchers observed the nest for a month and saw the chick hatch. 



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, which are born naked, this chick had long brown feathers that made it resemble the nest material. Then, they noticed its strange jerking behavior. Scientists had never recorded such behavior in any hummingbird species.



“I started texting a video to people and asking them, ‘What does this look like?’” said Taylor. “And invariably, they said, ‘That looks like a caterpillar.’ It was very exciting.”



On the chick’s second day, a predatory wasp hovered over the nest while the mother was away. The chick twitched its body and swung its head from side to side, mimicking a caterpillar. A few seconds later, the wasp flew away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-other-species">Lessons from other species</h2>



Falk and Taylor couldn’t help but think of another study. That one was about a bird, the cinereous mourner chick, living in the Amazon. It didn’t just look different - it had an unusual trick.



Covered in bright orange feathers, it closely resembled a toxic caterpillar. When disturbed, it shook its head just like the real thing.



Curious, the researchers turned their attention to Panama’s caterpillars. What they found was striking. Many were covered in brown hairs that weren’t just for show. Those tiny spikes could cause excruciating pain, even death, to predators. 



And just like the hummingbird chick, some of these caterpillars had a habit of shaking their heads when they sensed danger. Was the tiny bird copying them? It certainly seemed possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-mimics-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird mimics a caterpillar </h2>



This mimicry strategy, where a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmless species</a> imitates a dangerous one, is called Batesian mimicry. It is common in butterflies and snakes. For instance, non-venomous milk snakes resemble venomous coral snakes to deter predators.



“A lot of these really classic examples of Batesian mimicry involve butterflies mimicking other butterflies, or snakes mimicking other snakes. But here, we have a bird potentially mimicking an insect, a vertebrate mimicking an invertebrate,” Taylor said.



Though the study was based on a single observation, the team hopes to test their theory by placing artificial chicks with different appearances and behaviors in nests to see which ones avoid predation. They also encourage birdwatchers and citizen scientists to document more hummingbird nests.



“Our perception of the natural world is very biased by our own thoughts about what could be possible,” Taylor said. “It’s incredible what we can discover, but we really have to think broadly.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70060" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Hummingbird chick mimics a toxic caterpillar to evade predators

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin...

Young,Golden,Retriever,For,A,Walk,With,His,Owner.,Dog

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like a chore. College life piles on exams and assignments, leaving many people feeling overwhelmed. A new study shows that playing with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly dog</a> for just 15 minutes can lighten that emotional load.



The research was led by senior investigator Dr. Jaruwan Khonmee from <a href="https://www.cmu.ac.th/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiang Mai University</a> in Thailand and included 122 students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-bond-with-humans-the-basics">How dogs bond with humans - the basics</h2>



There’s something incredibly special about the bond between dogs and humans - it goes way beyond companionship. 



Dogs don’t just live alongside us; they tune into our moods, read our body language, and somehow just get us. 



They know when we’re happy, when we’re stressed, when we need a nudge to go outside or a quiet moment to breathe. And we respond in kind. 



We learn to understand their barks, their tail wags, their little quirks. It’s not just loyalty - it’s this deep, wordless connection built on trust, time, and a whole lot of shared experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-help-lower-stress">Dogs help lower stress</h2>



<a href="https://archive.org/details/psychologicalstr0000laza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stress</a> is a feeling of mental tension triggered by tough situations, and it can drain your energy before you realize it. Over time, stress can harm your mood, focus, and physical health in multiple ways.



College students often juggle challenging courses, part-time work, and new social circles. When responsibilities pile up, anxiety can creep in and catch people off guard.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2485862/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cortisol</a> is a hormone that climbs when you’re tense and goes down when you’re relaxed. Lowering it can support better heart function and clearer thinking under pressure.



That’s where a quick session of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine interaction</a> steps in to break the cycle. A wagging tail or a nudge from a friendly snout can act like a natural mood lifter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-helped-students">How dogs helped students</h2>



In this project, students had their heart rates, saliva samples, and stress surveys measured before and after interacting with dogs. 



The researchers observed significant drops in both physical and emotional stress markers once the session ended.



Compared to just moments earlier, students’ self-reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress levels</a> decreased by 33.5% after hanging out with the pup. This quick drop demonstrates how a little interaction can go a long way.



Some participants chose to cuddle or chat with the dog, while others offered treats or toys. Even short bursts of play were enough to see a noticeable shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-reduce-stress-levels">Dogs reduce stress levels</h2>



“Even brief interactions with dogs can significantly reduce stress levels among university undergraduate students,” concluded the researchers. 



They noted that stress hormones in the dogs themselves appeared to drop over time, suggesting shared benefits.



Fecal tests indicated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pups</a> had lower cortisol a week after these sessions. This finding points to the possibility that dogs might also feel relaxed when spending time with attentive humans.



Crucially, none of the six dogs used were certified therapy animals. Their friendly nature alone seemed enough to help students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-relief-through-genuine-connection">Stress relief through genuine connection </h2>



Researchers have spent years examining the human-animal bond. One <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279314X14072268687808" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> found that petting a calm dog cannot only slow heart rate but also quiet the mind.



A good-natured pup provides social interaction without the same judgment people fear in formal therapy settings. Students can feel understood without having to explain every feeling or worry.



These canine sessions may work in part because they tap into <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/co-regulation-helping-children-and-teens-navigate-big-emotions-202404033030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional co-regulation</a>, where two living beings calm each other. It’s less about a clinical approach and more about genuine connection.



That sense of warmth can reassure students who hesitate to seek human counseling. A dog’s presence often feels comforting, making it easier to let go of anxious thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-outcomes-for-students">Encouraging outcomes for students</h2>



Not every campus has the resources to bring in certified therapy animals. This study shows that friendly, well-behaved pets might offer help even if they lack formal training.



Some universities have started hosting dog visits during final exams to give frazzled students a break. In many cases, just a few minutes can revive a tired mind.



Researchers stress the importance of ensuring dogs enjoy the interaction. Signs of anxiety or discomfort in pets could prevent the positive effects.



Preparing a calm environment, offering treats, and supervising the sessions can keep everyone happy. It’s a balancing act that respects both human and canine comfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-with-dog-visits">Managing stress with dog visits</h2>



Experts want to know if repeated dog sessions can bring lasting improvements. Longer studies might track stress relief over entire semesters to see if the benefits accumulate.



Some researchers wonder if these visits spark additional gains, like boosted motivation or a steadier mindset. Others are curious whether multiple short sessions are better than one extended visit. 



Further studies are needed to determine the ideal balance for ongoing stress management.



College life is not about to slow down, but dog visits seem promising for easing at least some of the mental load. Quick, simple sessions can offer a breather when books and deadlines pile high.



These findings encourage schools and organizations to consider how a wagging tail might bring calm to busy people. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318777" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Petting a dog is the easiest way to reduce stress without medication

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like...

Not all great hammerhead sharks are long-distance travelers. In fact, some prefer to stick close to home. 



Recent research focusing on sharks near Andros Island in the Bahamas has revealed that while some great hammerheads are known to migrate vast distances, others appear to settle down, likely because the local environment already meets their needs. 



This discovery could help improve conservation efforts for this critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-sharks-study-reveals-hidden-crisis-of-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> species.



The study was led by Tristan Lee Guttridge, director of <a href="https://www.savingtheblue.org/?srsltid=AfmBOopD-gfmsVvvpjjjgw_pZcwXw0DuEAkFdxsThf_tvfMhnr_N9qE-" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saving the Blue</a>, in collaboration with researchers supported by Discovery’s Shark Week.



The team focused their efforts on the Bahamas, especially around Andros Island, an area largely unexplored in terms of great hammerhead activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-tracking-in-the-bahamas">Shark tracking in the Bahamas </h2>



“When we started this study there was little to no information about great <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-hammerhead-sharks-hold-their-breath-to-stay-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hammerheads</a> in the central Bahamas and no information about their habitat use at Andros, which has one of the largest fringing reefs in the world and arguably has the most pristine flats habitats in the wider Caribbean,” explained Guttridge. “We had no answers to simple questions like, what do these sharks eat?”



Until now, most shark tracking in the Bahamas focused on areas like Bimini, known for its seasonal shark visitors. However, the role of Andros Island in the sharks' life cycle remained a mystery. 



Scientists wanted to find out if the island served as a year-round habitat, a feeding ground, or even a potential mating site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tagging-tracking-and-shark-science">Tagging, tracking, and shark science</h2>



Between March 2020 and June 2024, the team captured 22 great hammerhead sharks in locations that matched their known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> preferences.



Using baited block rigs, they carefully caught the sharks, assessed their health, and recorded key data like sex and size. 



Muscle biopsies were taken for isotope analysis, and seven sharks were equipped with satellite trackers. Because great hammerheads are sensitive to stress, only the healthiest individuals were tagged.



The researchers didn’t rely on their captures alone. They also included opportunistic sightings, compiling a total of 78 shark encounters between 2018 and 2024. Most of these were large juveniles or adults.



Sightings spiked in January through March, with a second increase in June and July. Two of these sightings suggested recent mating, pointing to the island’s importance as a possible breeding ground.



Some sharks were even recaptured in the exact same areas years later, showing a surprising degree of site fidelity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shark-s-preferred-neighborhood">A shark’s preferred neighborhood</h2>



The sharks didn’t use the island randomly. They favored eastern waters just off the northern and central coast of Andros, consistently returning to a relatively small 400-square-kilometer area. 



Other popular spots included edge habitats near steep reef drop-offs, where prey was abundant.



But if the sharks ventured too far south or past the northern tip of the island, they were more likely to keep moving. 



Those that left the Bahamas often traveled to the eastern United States, indicating a possible connection to the broader western Atlantic hammerhead population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-of-hammerhead-sharks">Eating habits of hammerhead sharks </h2>



Isotope analysis from the biopsies shed light on the sharks' eating habits. Barracudas and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stingrays</a> made up about two-thirds of the diet, with smaller sharks filling in the rest. 



However, dietary preferences varied between individuals. One shark, for instance, had a diet consisting almost entirely of silky sharks.



“Resource availability is a key driver of space use, but why don’t all of them stay if food is so abundant? We found evidence of individual variation in their diets, so deciding whether to stay or go might depend on what they feed on," said Guttridge.



“For other species, why or if migration has been linked to environmental conditions, body size, food availability, competition, and predation."



“Perhaps, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-salmon-outsmart-predators-on-their-journey-to-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon</a>, there is a genetic component to it? We need to explore this phenomenon further.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-patterns-of-hammerhead-sharks">Movement patterns of hammerhead sharks</h2>



Guttridge noted that the global population of great hammerheads is thought to have reduced by more than 80% over the last three generations, and genomic analysis revealed low genetic variation and inbreeding.



“Understanding the movement patterns of great hammerheads is important for improving conservation efforts. We find that some great hammerheads show residency in the Bahamas, protecting them year-round from fishing pressures.”



The Bahamas shark sanctuary offers protection to sharks that stay within its borders, but not all sharks remain in these waters. That means local conservation efforts alone aren't enough to protect the species.



“Our research showcases the importance of Bahamian waters and their protective measures. It also shows that although some individuals reside year-round in protected waters, others do not, emphasizing the need for international collaboration on conservation efforts for these mobile species," said Guttridge.



"A key next step is seeing how these hammerheads fit in with the broader north-west Atlantic population.”



Understanding who stays and who goes - and why - may be the key to keeping the species alive.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1544482/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Why some great hammerhead sharks rarely leave home

Not all great hammerhead sharks are long-distance travelers. In fact,...

Many people assume that cats are aloof and uncooperative. The results of a new study are challenging this assumption, suggesting that certain felines might be surprisingly effective in therapy and other animal-assisted services (<a href="https://aas-int.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAS</a>).



Professor Patricia Pendry of <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a> collaborated with Belgian researchers to investigate whether some cats show consistent, friendly behavior in settings that help people cope with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> and anxiety.



The study was focused on how cat personality traits might fit into therapy programs, even though dogs have historically dominated this field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-using-cats-in-therapy">Potential of using cats in therapy</h2>



Cat-based support programs have lagged in popularity in the United States. In some parts of Europe, however, professional teams have quietly introduced cats into schools, hospitals, and community centers, with positive anecdotal feedback.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194067/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have been digging into cat behavior for years to understand how these animals communicate with people. 



Cats form strong emotional bonds and may <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-for-childhood-brain-cancer-halts-tumor-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense</a> when someone is upset, giving them a unique way to offer comfort that differs from dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-traits-that-soothe">Unique traits that soothe</h2>



Some therapy professionals report that cats can help clients feel less tense in stressful environments. These observations align with general <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24565951/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> that time spent with animals can lower heart rate and calm the nervous system.



Cats involved in certain AAS scenarios often display a gentle demeanor, especially when people are seated or in lower-energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-therapy-offers-hope-for-millions-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moods</a>. 



Unlike many dogs, which may leap around or bark loudly, a calm cat can bring a sense of stillness that some individuals prefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screening-cats-for-therapy">Screening cats for therapy</h2>



“There’s this perception that cats just aren’t suitable for this kind of work, but our study shows that some cats may thrive in these settings,” said Pendry. 



Preliminary survey results from hundreds of Belgian cat owners revealed that specific felines show high sociability, enjoy contact with new people, and display patience when handled.



This openness may make a select group of cats better suited for therapy visits, especially when multiple clients move through a room each day. Not every cat wants this much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-may-be-the-key-to-anxiety-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interaction</a>, so experts emphasize the importance of screening and ongoing monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relieving-feelings-of-isolation">Relieving feelings of isolation </h2>



Therapy animals have been popular at universities, where students grapple with academic pressure and homesickness. While dogs still appear most often in the U.S., a few schools in Europe have experimented with cats to provide quieter, more low-key sessions.



Institutions that tested cat therapy sessions reported enthusiastic responses from students who already favored felines at home. Practitioners say a purring cat in someone’s lap can help relieve feelings of isolation, particularly if that person is more introverted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-welfare-of-therapy-cats">Welfare of therapy cats </h2>



<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33">Studies</a> show that cats suitable for therapy may be tolerant of being picked up and transported. Researchers also note that some outgoing cats seem to handle bustling therapy spaces without hiding under tables or hissing.



This calm acceptance of new situations goes hand in hand with the animal’s own comfort level. Professionals warn that if a cat consistently appears tense, it’s better to remove them from the program for the sake of their well-being.



Even the best-suited cats can feel overwhelmed by long therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-reduces-distress-in-people-with-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sessions</a> or large groups of people. More investigations are needed to explore the stress levels cats may experience during repeated interactions in different locations.



Caregivers and therapists often watch for signs of burnout in cats, such as excessive grooming or agitation. These signals can indicate that a break or a reduced workload is necessary, ensuring the cat remains comfortable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-felines-are-a-match">Not all felines are a match</h2>



Some cats are extremely social, while others are content to lounge alone at home. Advocates of cat therapy stress that the idea is not to force a reluctant cat into these roles but to let the more confident ones shine.



“It’s about recognizing that some cats may genuinely enjoy this kind of interaction,” said Pendry. She pointed out that certain outgoing felines have much in common with therapy dogs.



Professional trainers rarely work with cats in the same structured way they do with dogs. Many cats in AAS programs appear to bring their natural style of greeting, which may be enough when the cat is friendly and calm.



However, some experts think basic training could reduce fear and help cats become comfortable with unusual sounds or sudden movements. Simple exercises involving handling and social exposure might give prospective therapy cats a smoother transition into these roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-appeal-of-quiet-companions">The appeal of quiet companions</h2>



Even in noisy environments like hospitals, a well-chosen cat can soothe patients who feel intimidated by hyperactive animals. This option might also support individuals who have had negative experiences with dogs and prefer a less boisterous companion.



Several cat breeds like <a href="https://cfa.org/breed/maine-coon-cat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maine Coons</a> and <a href="https://www.purina.co.uk/find-a-pet/cat-breeds/ragdoll" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ragdolls</a> are sometimes described as more tolerant of human contact, though the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> did not focus on specific breeds. Researchers emphasize that individual personality matters more than general breed traits.



Belgian groups appear more open to cat-based therapies, while U.S. programs remain cautious. With growing evidence, some American facilities may soon broaden their horizons and incorporate felines for special sessions.



Pet welfare organizations suggest that expansions should be slow and monitored. Collecting data on cat temperament and stress responses will help refine best practices for feline involvement in therapy settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-growth-of-cat-therapy">Potential growth of cat therapy</h2>



Animal-assisted services can be beneficial for humans when done ethically. Cats offer a calmer approach for those who prefer their peaceful presence, which can be an ideal match in certain therapy contexts.



Nevertheless, it is vital to guard against pushing cats beyond their comfort zone. Programs that prioritize the cat’s autonomy and track their stress signals stand a better chance of a successful and humane experience.



As knowledge spreads, interested cat owners may look for ways to share their pets’ gentle nature with local organizations. Europe’s warmer reception could foreshadow gradual acceptance elsewhere, as more evidence supports feline therapy under the right conditions.



Focused research on cat well-being is a natural next step. Scientists are eager to pinpoint whether cats adapt to therapy work or whether personality traits drive success from the start.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a>.



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Cats that like attention can soothe people during therapy

Many people assume that cats are aloof and uncooperative. The...

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell. It helps them find lost hikers, sniff out contraband, and detect health issues. Their noses pick up odors we barely notice, offering an invisible map of the world around them.



Scientists have taken a closer look at this skill by scanning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-smell-human-stress-and-it-makes-them-feel-gloomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine brains</a> while they work their sniffing magic. The study was led by Professor Zeev Zalevsky from the Kofkin Faculty of Engineering at <a href="https://engineering.biu.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>. 



The researchers found key insights in the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24894-amygdala" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482171/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a>, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11158/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olfactory bulb</a> of four dog breeds, which shed light on how dogs separate one odor from another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-read-smells-with-their-brain">Dogs read smells with their brain</h2>



Dogs have a larger set of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS22337/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odor receptor genes</a> than humans, allowing them to detect scents in trace amounts. 



Their noses send signals to the olfactory bulb, where initial processing happens. Next, the signals reach deeper regions of the brain linked to memory, motivation, and emotion.



The research team used a remote optical sensor that could scan a dog’s brain activity while it took in four different smells. Experts say this approach might open the door for observing real-time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-detect-scents-better-than-the-most-advanced-lab-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> responses without bulky equipment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-amygdala-matters">Why the amygdala matters</h2>



“The findings show that the amygdala is crucial in the way dogs process and react to odors, with specific scents triggering distinct emotional and memory responses, and we are capable of optically detecting their brain activity in this region,” said Professor Zalevsky.&nbsp;



”This discovery could be the first step toward creating a device that enables us to better understand and interpret the unique way dogs perceive and differentiate smells.”



The amygdala is often associated with emotion and survival instincts. The researchers saw this region activate differently when the dogs sampled each odor, highlighting why some smells bring about strong behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-smell-response-of-dogs">Tracking the smell response of dogs</h2>



“Our next step is to develop a portable, Wi-Fi-controlled device equipped with a mini camera and laser system, which could be mounted on a dog’s head and used to monitor its olfactory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-detect-bladder-cancer-in-other-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> in real time,” said Dr. Yafim Beiderman, an expert in Professor Zalevsky’s Optical Research Lab at Bar-Ilan University.



This technology could potentially transform how dogs are used in substance detection or medical diagnosis.



Some experts have looked at dogs for <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/329/7468/712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer screening</a> and diabetes alerts. A deeper understanding of their scent processing could speed up these efforts, making it possible to gather data without waiting for canine training to finish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-from-a-distance">Scanning from a distance</h2>



Using lasers to pick up tiny vibrations on the surface of the skull may sound out of the ordinary. Yet <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224123007145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that such non-invasive methods can sense blood flow and neural activity in humans. 



The researchers adapted that idea for dogs, focusing on specific brain zones where odor signals land.



Data from the sensor was processed by a machine-learning system, revealing that each area of the brain responded in unique ways. This led to the conclusion that the emotional center is a heavyweight in scent separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-health-and-safety">Implications for health and safety</h2>



Police often rely on K9 units to sniff out drugs and other illegal substances. A remote brain scanner might help them interpret the dog’s recognition of a target odor without confusion or guesswork. 



In medical fields, a quick read of a dog’s amygdala response may one day spot an illness before a patient notices symptoms.



Teams that conduct search-and-rescue missions also stand to gain. Any gadget that clarifies what a dog is smelling could guide them toward trapped individuals more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-how-we-see-dogs">A shift in how we see dogs</h2>



The research emphasizes that dogs are more than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loyal companions</a>. Their noses have been described as sophisticated analyzers that monitor odors for emotion-based clues. 



Decoding those responses may add new dimensions to how people partner with animals in daily tasks.



A deeper look at the hippocampus in dogs may also reveal how memories of smells guide their actions. The research team noted that future studies could expand to more breeds and more scents, refining the technology along the way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-scent-triggers-from-a-dog-s-brain">Subtle scent triggers from a dog's brain</h2>



Some individuals rely on service dogs for anxiety or panic disorders. Interpreting real-time signals from the dog’s brain might uncover subtle scent triggers that a person hasn’t recognized. 



This concept extends to therapy animals, especially if professionals want to measure how dogs respond to stressful environments.



Researchers have found that dog noses can often detect changes in body chemistry, sometimes months or years before medical tests confirm a disease. Real-time tracking of this skill could produce a fast approach for problem detection, bridging the communication gap between species.



Scientists plan to explore broader ways to translate canine brainwaves into easy-to-read data. There might come a time when a single device reveals how dogs process everything from everyday household smells to suspicious substances. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbio.202400501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biophotonics</a>.



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How dogs are able to "feel" smells may help keep us safe

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell....

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