<h2>Actinium</h2>
<p>is a radioactive chemical element. The symbol for Actinium is Ac and the atomic number is 89. Actinium was discovered in 1899 by French chemist André-Louis Debierne. It was the first non-primordial radioactive element to be isolated. Ac is amongst a group of 15 similar elements within the periodic table that make up the actinoid series. This substance was also independently discovered by Friedrich Oskar Giesel in 1902 and named it emanium in 1904. In 1904 he named it emanium. After comparisons were made, Debierne’s name actinium was retained because of seniority. The name actinium is derived from the Greek “aktis” or “aktinos”, meaning ray or beam.</p>
<p>Actinium is a silvery, metallic element. It is also extremely radioactive and glows in the dark with a pale bluish hue. Ac is similar in chemical behavior to the rare lanthanum element. It is difficult to distinguish Ac from other similar rare earth elements. Ion chromatography and solvent extraction was used for separation of this element. There are only a few known compounds of actinium. AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3 and AcPO4 are all similar to lanthanum compounds and these compounds are generally found in the oxidation state of +3.</p>
<h3>&#8211;</h3>
<p>Actinium in the natural state is composed of 1 radioactive isotope, Ac-227. Ac227 has a half-life (the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a given radioactive substance to decay or disintegrate) of 21.772 years. There are 36 other radioisotopes found in Ac, most having half-lives of less than a minute. The atomic weight of isotopes in actinium range from 206 u (Ac-206) to 236 u (Ac-236).</p>
<p>Actinium is also found in uranium ore in minute amounts. Actinium metal has been produced by reducing Ac fluoride using lithium vapors at temperatures between 2012 and 2372 degrees Fahrenheit. Ac is about 150 times more radioactive than radium. So this radioactivity makes it a valuable source for energy. Ac-225 is used in medicine and is common in radio-immunotherapy for TAT (Targeted Alpha Therapy).</p>
<p>Ac-227 is extremely radioactive and is considerably far more dangerous than plutonium. Ingesting even tiny amounts would be fatal.</p>
<p>Photo Copyright and Credit</p>


What is Actinium?

<p>Since the 1930s, the <a href="https://www.farmersalmanac.com/">Old Farmers' Almanac</a> has been publishing names for the full moons, drawing from what were termed “Indian” names that have since become widely recognized and utilized. </p>



<p>The full moon of April is often called the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-pink-moon-will-shine-brightly-in-the-skies-tonight/">Pink Moon</a>, a name attributed to the herb moss pink or creeping phlox - also known as moss phlox, mountain phlox, and creeping phlox - which is native to the eastern United States and one of spring's earliest widespread flowers. </p>



<p>Other names for this April moon include the “Sprouting Grass Moon,” the “Egg Moon”, and the “Fish Moon”, the latter being used by coastal tribes to mark the time when shad fish move upstream to spawn.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-navigable-waterways">The return of navigable waterways</h2>



<p>Moreover, the names "Breaking Ice Moon" (Algonquin) and "Moon When the Streams Are Again Navigable" (Dakota) capture the thawing of ice and the return of navigable waterways typical of early spring. The "Budding Moon of Plants and Shrubs" (Tlingit) and "Moon of the Red Grass Appearing" (Oglala) highlight the imminent surge in plant life as spring progresses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reemergence-of-life-in-april">The reemergence of life in April</h2>



<p>Additional names reflect the reemergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-moonlight-affects-the-circadian-clocks-of-animals/">wildlife</a> during this season, such as the "Moon When the Ducks Come Back" (Lakota), "Moon When the Geese Lay Eggs" (Dakota), and "Frog Moon" (Cree), each indicating the return or increased activity of these species.</p>



<p>Similarly, the "Sucker Moon" (Anishinaabe) marks the period for harvesting sucker fish, which migrate to streams or shallow lake areas to spawn. According to cultural lore, during this time, the sucker fish returns from the spirit world to cleanse the waterways and the life within them. </p>



<p>This name is sometimes used for the February Moon as well, to honor the sucker fish's role in sustaining the Anishinaabe people through the winter by providing a crucial food source.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-observances-and-april-s-full-moon">Cultural observances and April's full moon </h2>



<p>This moon also corresponds with significant cultural and religious observances in various parts of the world. It aligns with the Jewish festival of Pesach, or Passover, which in 2024 will begin at sundown on April 22 and conclude at nightfall on April 30. The celebration starts in the middle of the Hebrew month of Nisan, with the Seder feasts taking place on the first two nights.</p>



<p>In the Hindu lunisolar calendar, which varies by region, this full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonights-worm-moon-marks-the-beginning-of-spring/">moon</a> typically coincides with Hanuman Jayanti, the celebration of the birth of Lord Hanuman.</p>



<p>For Buddhists in Sri Lanka, this full moon is known as Bak Poya and commemorates the Buddha's visit to Sri Lanka, where he averted a war by settling a dispute between chiefs.</p>



<p>This lunar event falls near the middle of Shawwāl, the tenth month of the Islamic calendar, and during the third month of the Chinese Year of the Dragon.</p>



<p>In light of these diverse celebrations, people all over the world&nbsp; are encouraged to wear festive celestial attire in honor of the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/">moon</a>. It’s a time to enjoy the burgeoning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spring-has-arrived-in-the-northern-hemisphere/">spring</a>, acknowledge these various cultural celebrations, set an extra seat at the table in a spirit of inclusivity, and importantly, strive for peace and not war.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-april-s-full-moon">More about April's full moon</h2>



<p>April’s full moon will reach its brightest point at 7:49 P.M. on Tuesday, April 23. Astronomically, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-pink-moon-will-shine-brightly-in-the-skies-tonight/">Pink Moon</a> signifies the time when the moon is fully illuminated by the sun as seen from Earth, appearing fully round. </p>



<p>“Like Earth, the Moon has a day side and a night side, which change as the Moon rotates,” explained <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>. “The Sun always illuminates half of the Moon while the other half remains dark, but how much we are able to see of that illuminated half changes as the Moon travels through its orbit.”</p>



<p>The timing of the full moon varies slightly due to the lunar cycle averaging about 29.5 days. This leads to some variation in the date and time of the full moon each month. </p>



<p>-----</p>



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April's ‘Pink Moon’ signifies the reemergence of life 

Since the 1930s, the Old Farmers' Almanac has been publishing...

<p>Astronomers have employed a novel approach with NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to uncover a largely unseen population of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecules-discovered-on-an-asteroid-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a> in our solar system. </p>



<p>By sifting through a vast archive of images captured by Hubble over a span of 19 years, the researchers have identified an impressive 1,701 asteroid trails, with 1,031 of these asteroids being previously uncatalogued.</p>



<p>The study was led by Pablo García Martín of the <a href="https://www.uam.es/uam/en/inicio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Autonomous University of Madrid</a>, Spain, and co-authored by Bruno Merín of the <a href="https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESAC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Astronomy Centre</a>, also in Madrid, Spain. Together, they have uncovered new data on the formation and evolution of the asteroid belt. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-scientists-hunting-asteroids-with-ai">Citizen scientists hunting asteroids with AI</h2>



<p>This cosmic treasure hunt was made possible by the collaborative efforts of professional scientists and a dedicated group of volunteers from around the world, known as "citizen scientists." </p>



<p>The researchers combined the volunteers' identifications with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-and-machine-learning-enhance-airplane-performance-and-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> algorithm to efficiently detect the asteroids in the Hubble images.</p>



<p>"We are getting deeper into seeing the smaller population of main belt asteroids. We were surprised with seeing such a large number of candidate objects," said lead author Pablo García Martín. </p>



<p>"There was some hint of this population existing, but now we are confirming it with a random asteroid population sample obtained using the whole Hubble archive. This is important for providing insights into the evolutionary models of our solar system," he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-asteroid-formation-and-evolution">Insights into asteroid formation and evolution</h2>



<p>The large, random sample of asteroids discovered in this study offers new insights into the formation and evolution of the asteroid belt. </p>



<p>The abundance of small asteroids supports the idea that they are fragments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-asteroid-is-worth-10000-quadrillion-and-nasa-is-sending-a-space-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger asteroids</a> that have collided and broken apart over billions of years, like smashed pottery. </p>



<p>This finding challenges an alternative theory suggesting that these smaller fragments formed as such billions of years ago.</p>



<p>"Collisions would have a certain signature that we can use to test the current main belt population," said co-author Bruno Merín.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-s-unique-vantage-point-for-asteroid-hunting">Hubble's unique vantage point for asteroid hunting</h2>



<p>Hubble's fast orbit around the Earth allows it to capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-lucy-discovers-two-asteroids-instead-of-one-during-dinkinesh-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wandering asteroids</a> through their telltale trails in the telescope's exposures. </p>



<p>As viewed from an Earth-based telescope, an asteroid leaves a streak across the picture. Asteroids essentially "photobomb" Hubble exposures by appearing as unmistakable, curved trails in the photographs.</p>



<p>By knowing the position of Hubble during the observation and measuring the curvature of the streaks, scientists can determine the distances to the asteroids and estimate the shapes of their orbits. </p>



<p>The faintest asteroids in the survey are roughly one forty-millionth the brightness of the faintest star that can be seen by the human eye.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-cosmic-exploration">Collaborative cosmic exploration</h2>



<p>The Hubble Asteroid Hunter, a citizen-science project launched in 2019, was a collaborative effort between researchers, engineers, and the Zooniverse platform. </p>



<p>A total of 11,482 citizen-science volunteers provided nearly 2 million identifications, which were then used to train an automated algorithm based on artificial intelligence to identify asteroids. This pioneering approach may be effectively applied to other datasets in the future.</p>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-new-quasi-moon-will-stick-around-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asteroid positions</a> change with time, and therefore you cannot find them just by entering coordinates, because at different times, they might not be there," said Merín. "As astronomers we don't have time to go looking through all the asteroid images. So we got the idea to collaborate with over 10,000 citizen-science volunteers to peruse the huge Hubble archives."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-and-the-future-of-asteroid-discovery">Hubble and the future of asteroid discovery</h2>



<p>The project will next explore the streaks of previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-new-light-on-mysterious-asteroid-phaethon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a> to characterize their orbits and study their properties, such as rotation periods. </p>



<p>However, because most of these asteroid streaks were captured by Hubble many years ago, it is not possible to follow them up now to determine their orbits.</p>



<p>In summary, the fascinating study led by Pablo García Martín and Bruno Merín demonstrates the immense potential of collaborative efforts between professional scientists, citizen scientists, and advanced technologies in uncovering new insights into our solar system. </p>



<p>By harnessing the power of the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>'s vast archive, the dedication of thousands of volunteers, and the efficiency of machine learning algorithms, the researchers have unveiled a hidden population of asteroids, providing new data on the formation and evolution of the asteroid belt. </p>



<p>This innovative approach paves the way for future discoveries and highlights the importance of continued exploration and collaboration in our quest to understand the cosmic landscape that surrounds us.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the&nbsp;journal&nbsp;<em><a href="https://www.aanda.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a></em>.</p>



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Beautiful photo of galaxy UGC 12158 gets photobombed by an asteroid

Astronomers have employed a novel approach with NASA's Hubble Space...

<p>Researchers from the University of Vienna recently discovered that complex leaf vein networks, a feature prevalent in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a>, actually originated much earlier than previously believed. </p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <em>New Phytologist</em>, highlights the fossilized plant <em>Furcula granulifer</em>. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/pteridophytes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed fern</a>, from the Late Triassic period around 201 million years ago, exhibited advanced venation patterns.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rediscovery-of-a-triassic-plant-revolutionizes-understanding">Rediscovery of a triassic plant revolutionizes understanding</h2>



<p>The team, led by palaeobotanists Mario Coiro and Leyla Seyfullah, utilized novel methods and concepts to re-examine historical collections at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>. </p>



<p>Subsequently, they collaborated with colleagues from the <a href="https://www.nrm.se/en/16.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a> in Stockholm and the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University</a> in Jerusalem.</p>



<p>Mario Coiro explains the significance of their findings, saying, "Within old collections, using new techniques, we identified a plant that displayed a unique set of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-leaf-diversity-shape-plant-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaf</a> characteristics, akin to those of flowering plants, but without their evolutionary success."</p>



<p>Consequently, this plant, <em>Furcula granulifer</em>, once thought to be an early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plant</a>, belongs instead to the now-extinct group of seed ferns</p>



<p>"The fossil leaves of <em>Furcula granulifer</em> show a net-like hierarchical veining typical of most plants today. This discovery indicates that such efficient photosynthetic structures have evolved multiple times throughout Earth's history," adds Leyla Seyfullah.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-leaf-vein-networks">Significance of leaf vein networks</h2>



<p>The presence of intricate leaf veins in plants is crucial for efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and carbon dioxide fixation. </p>



<p>Consequently, flowering plants, or angiosperms, which dominate today's ecosystems, evolved this feature between 145 and 66 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. </p>



<p>This development significantly contributed to the diversification and success of other life forms, including mammals, insects, and birds.</p>



<p>The study suggests that <em>Furcula granulifer</em> exhibited similar venation patterns to <a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>. However, it had less vein density, which limited its photosynthetic efficiency compared to later flowering plants.</p>



<p>The team employed a combination of traditional microscopy and cutting-edge Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy to analyze both old and newly collected material. They concluded that <em>Furcula</em>'s similarities to angiosperms are a result of convergent evolution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-evolutionary-failures">Understanding evolutionary failures</h2>



<p>The research further identifies that <em>Furcula granulifer</em> and its relatives represent an evolutionary dead end. They went extinct during the Jurassic period without achieving the diversity seen in angiosperms.</p>



<p>Another group, the Gigantopteridales, also represents a similar failed evolutionary attempt during the Permian period.</p>



<p>"These natural experiments offer us a window into understanding the real reasons behind the success of flowering plants, which likely stems from the evolution of multiple traits rather than a single key innovation," Seyfullah explains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-modern-science-discovered-ancient-leaf-vein-networks">How modern science discovered ancient leaf vein networks</h2>



<p>In summary, this research led by palaeontologists from the University of Vienna has transformed our understanding of leaf evolution. </p>



<p>By combining traditional and novel methods, they have unraveled a century-old mystery, revealing that the net-like leaf veining characteristic of modern flowering plants evolved much earlier than previously thought in the now-extinct seed fern <em>Furcula granulifer</em>. </p>



<p>This discovery highlights the complexity of plant evolution and the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-family-tree-explains-evolution-of-flower-symmetry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a> in shaping the world we see today. </p>



<p>The study also identifies failed attempts at efficient leaf design during the Triassic and Permian periods, suggesting that the success of flowering plants lies in the evolution of multiple traits rather than a single key innovation. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore the mysteries of nature's design, this research serves as a testament to the power of scientific inquiry and the endless wonders waiting to be discovered in the fossil record.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.19726" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a></em></em>.</p>



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Plants had complex leaf vein networks 200 million years ago

Researchers from the University of Vienna recently discovered that complex...

<p>Major transformations are occurring within Arctic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boreal</a> ecosystems, which are warming at a faster rate than the rest of the planet. </p>



<p>Recent findings from the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California, Irvine</a>, detailed in three pivotal studies, underscore the significant environmental shifts prompted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-forests-are-being-transformed-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>. </p>



<p>The research, led by PhD candidate Jinhyuk Kim and Professor James Randerson, suggests that ecosystems at high latitudes are becoming increasingly unstable.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-ignite-change-across-ecosystems">Wildfires ignite change across ecosystems</h2>



<p>The study was focused on the forests of Canada and Alaska. The researchers found that wildfires are intensifying photosynthesis rates. This phenomenon arises as fast-growing deciduous plants like willow and aspen replace the slower-growing black spruce forests destroyed by fire. </p>



<p>"We’re seeing higher levels of photosynthesis that persist for decades after fire,” explained Kim. “Instead of the evergreen conifer forest coming back right away, in some regions, we see a long-term replacement of these forests with faster-growing species."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-consequences-of-wildfires">Complex consequences of wildfires</h2>



<p>While increased photosynthesis might suggest a greater removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the reality is much more complex. </p>



<p>“But because you’ve combusted the carbon stored in the plants and their organic soils, even the increase in photosynthesis we observe doesn’t necessarily translate into more carbon storage in the long run," explained Kim. </p>



<p>"The increasing trends in wildfire have significant implications for forest species composition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ecosystems-are-endangered-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> function but likely negatively affect the land carbon sink." </p>



<p>"This is why it’s important to study how the changing landscape from wildfire and warming influences different aspects of land carbon cycling."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-changes-in-arctic-and-boreal-ecosystems">Tracking changes in Arctic and boreal ecosystems </h2>



<p>To track changes in photosynthesis, Kim’s team utilized data from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 satellites. These satellites measure plant fluorescence - a novel method that provides a global view of photosynthesis rates.</p>



<p>“We also have this long land cover time series from Landsat, and we can look at how fires are changing the land plant cover and then tie it to changes in the solar-induced fluorescence signal," said Kim.</p>



<p>"We find that wildfires are changing the land cover, which, in turn, can enhance the seasonality of carbon fluxes at large spatial scales.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-shrubbery-signals-warmer-winters">Shifting shrubbery signals warmer winters</h2>



<p>In another study led by Allison Welch, a PhD candidate in the lab of Professor Claudia Czimczik, researchers explored plant expansion across the Arctic ecosystem. </p>



<p>"With increasing temperatures and wildfire activity, we’re seeing increased growth of bigger, deciduous shrubs,” noted Welch. </p>



<p>Her team found that alder shrubs, in particular, are thriving, significantly boosting vegetation productivity at their study sites. Moreover, these changes come with critical implications for permafrost. </p>



<p>"We reported a decrease in the thickness of the organic layer at our tundra sites," said Welch. "Shallower organic layers mean less insulation for the underlying Arctic permafrost, which carries vast reserves of frozen organic matter that, if thawed, may release planet-warming gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-clues-about-ecosystem-changes">Chemical clues about ecosystem changes </h2>



<p>Under the guidance of Professor Alex Guenther, PhD candidate Hui Wang conducted a third study. The research was focused on an unexpected rise in emissions of isoprene - an important molecule that influences local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-alter-alaskas-boreal-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> through its effects on ozone, aerosols, and methane levels.</p>



<p>“This change will indirectly change the climate,” said Wang. He noted that rising temperatures have prompted plants to release more isoprene.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-changing-arctic-ecosystem">Rapidly changing Arctic ecosystem </h2>



<p>These studies collectively highlight a rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-geese-have-a-large-impact-on-arctic-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> ecosystem that is transforming at a faster rate than previously anticipated. Claudia Czimczik, a co-author on Welch’s paper, emphasized the urgent need for attention.</p>



<p>"These three studies are examples of how the Arctic is changing more rapidly than previously expected. Increasing wildfire activity, via its effect on vegetation composition, has the potential to accelerate permafrost thaw beyond the rates we expected from changing climate," said Czimczik.</p>



<p>Kim concluded with a reflection on the broader implications of the research. "We can see the environment is unstable, and that there are complex interactions from not only the changing plant communities but the responses of those plants to the rapidly changing climate." </p>



<p>"These have consequences for the environment and the overall Earth system, so it’s something important that we need to understand better.”</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <em><em>Global Change Biology</em></em>.</p>



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Arctic and boreal ecosystems are becoming increasingly unstable

Major transformations are occurring within Arctic and boreal ecosystems, which...

<p>Scientists have shared remarkable findings from NASA's Juno mission to Jupiter. The solar-powered Juno spacecraft has provided new insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jovian moon Io</a>, Jupiter's polar cyclones, and the planet's water abundance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-dropping-io-discoveries-from-the-juno-mission">Jaw-dropping Io discoveries from the Juno mission</h2>



<p>Scott Bolton, Juno's principal investigator from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a> in San Antonio, unveiled the new discoveries during a news conference at the European Geophysical Union General Assembly in Vienna. </p>



<p>The team transformed data collected during two recent flybys of Io into captivating animations that showcase the moon's most dramatic features: <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/jupiter-moon-Io_Steeple-Mountain_juno-mission_color-closeup_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a mountain</a> and a nearly glass-smooth <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/jupiter-moon-Io_lava-lake_juno-mission_color-closeup_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake of cooling lava</a>.</p>



<p>"Io is simply littered with volcanoes, and we caught a few of them in action. We also got some great close-ups and other data on a <a href="https://youtu.be/lg2Szj_OG_Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">200-kilometer-long (127-mile-long) lava lake</a> called Loki Patera," said Bolton.</p>



<p>"There is amazing detail showing these crazy islands embedded in the middle of a potentially magma lake rimmed with hot lava. The specular reflection our instruments recorded of the lake suggests parts of Io's surface are as smooth as glass, reminiscent of volcanically created obsidian glass on Earth," he continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-io-s-dramatic-landscapes">Unraveling Io's dramatic landscapes</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-juno-spacecraft-reveals-origin-of-zodiacal-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno</a> made extremely close flybys of Io in December 2023 and February 2024, getting within about 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) of the surface and obtaining the first close-up images of the moon's northern latitudes. </p>



<p>Maps generated with data collected by Juno's Microwave Radiometer (<a href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/instrument/Microwave+Radiometer?subselect=Mission:Juno:" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MWR</a>) instrument reveal that Io not only has a relatively smooth surface compared to Jupiter's other Galilean moons but also has poles that are colder than middle latitudes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-jupiter-s-enigmatic-polar-cyclones">Exploring Jupiter's enigmatic polar cyclones</h2>



<p>As Juno's extended mission progresses, the spacecraft flies closer to Jupiter's north pole with each pass. This changing orientation allows the MWR instrument to improve its resolution of the planet's northern polar cyclones. </p>



<p>The data enables multiwavelength comparisons of the poles, revealing that not all polar cyclones are created equal.</p>



<p>"Perhaps most striking example of this disparity can be found with the central cyclone at Jupiter's north pole. It is clearly visible in both infrared and visible light images, but its microwave signature is nowhere near as strong as other nearby storms, said Steve Levin, Juno's project scientist at NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.</p>



<p>"This tells us that its subsurface structure must be very different from these other cyclones. The MWR team continues to collect more and better microwave data with every orbit, so we anticipate developing a more detailed 3D map of these intriguing polar storms," Levin continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-puzzle-of-jupiter-s-water-abundance">Solving the puzzle of Jupiter's water abundance</h2>



<p>One of the mission's primary science goals is to collect data that could help scientists better understand Jupiter's water abundance. </p>



<p>To do this, the Juno science team isn't hunting for liquid water. Instead, they are looking to quantify the presence of oxygen and hydrogen molecules (the molecules that make up water) in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter's atmosphere</a>. An accurate estimate is critical to piecing together the puzzle of our solar system's formation.</p>



<p>"The probe did amazing science, but its data was so far afield from our models of Jupiter's water abundance that we considered whether the location it sampled could be an outlier. But before Juno, we couldn't confirm," said Bolton. </p>



<p>"Now, with recent results made with MWR data, we have nailed down that the water abundance near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fresh-look-at-jupiter-through-an-ultraviolet-lens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter's equator</a> is roughly three to four times the solar abundance when compared to hydrogen. This definitively demonstrates that the Galileo probe's entry site was an anomalously dry, desert-like region," he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-and-oxygen-are-key-to-jupiter-s-past">Hydrogen and oxygen are key to Jupiter's past</h2>



<p>The results support the belief that during the formation of our solar system, water-ice material may have been the source of the heavy element enrichment (chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium that were accreted by Jupiter) during the gas giant's formation and/or evolution. </p>



<p>However, the formation of Jupiter remains puzzling, as Juno results on the core of the gas giant suggest a very low water abundance -- a mystery that scientists are still trying to sort out.</p>



<p>Data collected during the remainder of Juno's extended mission may help shed additional light on the structure of Jupiter's dilute core and enable scientists to compare the planet's water abundance near the polar regions to the equatorial region. </p>



<p>During <a href="https://youtu.be/Gajd3mcYnbA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno's most recent flyby of Io</a> on April 9, the spacecraft came within about 10,250 miles (16,500 kilometers) of the moon's surface. It will execute its 61st flyby of Jupiter on May 12.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-io-and-the-juno-spacecraft">Jupiter, Io, and the Juno spacecraft</h2>



<p>NASA's Juno mission continues to push the boundaries of our understanding of Jupiter and its moons. With each flyby, Juno gathers invaluable data that scientists eagerly analyze, uncovering new insights into the gas giant's polar cyclones, water abundance, and the enigmatic moon Io. </p>



<p>As the spacecraft persists in its exploration, the scientific community anticipates more stunning discoveries that will deepen our knowledge of Jupiter and provide new details on the formation and evolution of our solar system. </p>



<p>The Juno mission exemplifies the indomitable spirit of human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of scientific truth, promising to rewrite the textbooks on the largest planet in our cosmic neighborhood.</p>



<p>The full study was presented at the <a href="https://www.egu.eu/meetings/general-assembly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Geophysical Union General Assembly</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Fire, mountains, and polar cyclones found by the Juno spacecraft

Scientists have shared remarkable findings from NASA's Juno mission to...

Reflection,In,Frozen,Yellowstone,Lake

<p>Warming temperatures across the region have not altered the serene expanse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-tourism-generates-over-1-megaton-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone National Park</a>, where ice cover on the vast Yellowstone Lake, North America's largest high-elevation lake, presents a fascinating anomaly in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>Remarkably, the ice cover duration on Yellowstone Lake has remained consistent over the past century. This intriguing discovery comes from a comprehensive study led by <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> scientists. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icy-anomaly-at-yellowstone-lake-amidst">Icy anomaly at Yellowstone Lake amidst</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-levels-are-falling-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rising temperatures</a> are reducing the ice cover duration of most lakes globally, making Yellowstone Lake's resistance to change a unique case.</p>



<p>"We show that contrary to expectation, the ice phenology of Yellowstone Lake has been uniquely resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>," noted Lusha Tronstad, lead invertebrate zoologist at UW’s <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/wyndd/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wyoming Natural Diversity Database</a>. </p>



<p>Moreover, this resistance starkly contrasts with trends observed in similar lakes throughout the Northern Hemisphere.</p>



<p>Isabella Oleksy, a former UW postdoctoral researcher now affiliated with the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado-Boulder</a>, also contributed to this study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-science-temperature-trends-vs-icy-resistance">Ice science: Temperature trends vs. icy resistance</h2>



<p>Yellowstone Lake is positioned at 7,733 feet above sea level and spans approximately 132 square miles. It freezes completely around late December or early January and thaws by late May or early June each year.</p>



<p>Consequently, to uncover the reasons behind the unchanged ice cover duration, researchers examined long-term records of ice-on and ice-off dates. </p>



<p>They also analyzed climate data from 1927 to 2022, involving air temperatures and precipitation. These findings were then compared against data from seven similar lakes in northern Europe. </p>



<p>Since 1950, the greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-supervolcano-holds-a-surprising-amount-of-magma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone ecosystem</a> has seen a 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit increase in annual temperatures. At the lake’s high elevation, this rise has been more pronounced, with temperatures increasing by 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit between 1980 and 2018. Despite these increases, the expected shifts in ice phenology were absent. </p>



<p>Using local weather data, we found some evidence for increased summer, fall, and spring temperatures, primarily in the last three decades. Furthermore, they emphasized the crucial role of air temperatures in ice formation and break-up.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-s-shielding-effect-on-yellowstone-lake-ice">Snow's shielding effect on Yellowstone Lake ice</h2>



<p>A pivotal factor contributing to the lake’s consistent ice cover appears to be the increased snowfall. This is particularly true in spring, which can significantly delay ice break-up.</p>



<p>The researchers observed that cumulative spring snow, which correlates strongly with delayed ice-off dates, has nearly doubled over the last century at Yellowstone Lake. </p>



<p>In contrast, the Upper Green River Basin to the south has experienced either a decline or stable high-elevation snowfall. The ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic shifts</a> suggest a future tipping point, where ice phenology at Yellowstone Lake might abruptly change.</p>



<p>"Our results, paired with recent analyses of climate projections, suggest a ‘tipping point’ may be coming when ice phenology abruptly changes for Yellowstone Lake," the team cautioned. This shift is expected from changing precipitation patterns, transitioning from snow to more rain in fall and spring.</p>



<p>Despite increased spring rainfall not yet inducing a noticeable trend toward earlier ice break-up, the balance could shift. This change may occur as temperatures continue to rise and snowfall decreases. Such changes could have profound impacts on nutrient cycling, lake productivity, fisheries, and recreation, highlighting the broader environmental consequences of climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-learned-from-yellowstone-lake-ice">Lessons learned from Yellowstone Lake ice</h2>



<p>In summary, as we marvel at Yellowstone Lake's ice and remarkable resistance to climate change, we must also recognize the critical importance of continued research and monitoring. </p>



<p>This iconic lake serves as a powerful reminder that nature's responses to global warming are complex and sometimes unexpected. </p>



<p>By studying the intricate relationships between temperature, precipitation, and ice cover, we can deepen our understanding of the challenges that lie ahead and develop strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change. </p>



<p>Yellowstone Lake's icy puzzle may hold valuable lessons for us all, underlining the urgent need for ongoing scientific investigation and conservation efforts in the face of a rapidly changing world.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad3bd1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a></em></em>.</p>



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Yellowstone lake maintains ice cover despite warming climate

Warming temperatures across the region have not altered the serene...

<p>Scientists have developed a framework for measuring plastic pollution emissions, similar to the global standard for measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. </p>



<p>The research team, led by <a href="https://www.alicexiazhu.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alice (Xia) Zhu</a> and Assistant Professor <a href="https://eeb.utoronto.ca/profile/rochman-chelsea-m/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chelsea Rochman</a> at the University of Toronto (U of T), say the approach will boost identification of the biggest contributors to plastic pollution from local to national levels. </p>



<p>In addition, it should improve strategies developed to reduce plastic pollution and emissions worldwide.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-plastic-waste">Quantifying plastic waste</h2>



<p>The framework, published in the journal <em>Environmental Science &amp; Technology</em>, arrives ahead of international discussions in Ottawa from April 23 to 29. </p>



<p>Led by the United Nations'<a href="https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Plastic Pollution</a>, the goal of the conference is to develop a legally binding global agreement on plastic pollution.</p>



<p>"Assigning responsibility for the pollution to a jurisdiction with the ability to enact laws means there is no hiding where the pollution came from," said Zhu. "It presents an opportunity to identify major sources of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-interlinked-crisis-of-plastic-pollution-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> pollution within the area and inform measures to curb these emissions."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-greenhouse-gas-emissions-guidelines-for-plastic-pollution">Adapting greenhouse gas emissions guidelines for plastic pollution</h2>



<p>Zhu and colleagues at <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U of T</a> and the Rochester Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.rit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RIT</a>) took inspiration from guidelines for compiling emissions inventories of greenhouse gases established by the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. </p>



<p>They adapted the methodology for physical differences between greenhouse gases and solid pieces of plastic. This was done in three steps:</p>



<ol>
<li>Identifying major pollution-generating activities in a particular area.<br></li>



<li>Calculating the amount of pollution generated by each activity within a given period.<br></li>



<li>Accounting for uncertainties associated with each source of pollution-generating activity.</li>
</ol>



<p>"Our goal was to develop an accounting mechanism or tool for measuring plastic emissions that any level of government can adopt," Zhu said.</p>



<p>"But most importantly, we hope this tool we have introduced will allow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-from-cigarettes-costs-over-26-billion-every-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic field</a> to follow in the footsteps of the climate field, where countries submit national emissions inventories to an international body such as the United Nations to track our progress towards reaching a globally defined target," Zhu continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-study-reveals-alarming-plastic-pollution-emissions">Case study reveals alarming plastic pollution emissions</h2>



<p>To demonstrate the utility of the framework, the researchers built an emissions inventory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> pollution for the City of Toronto for the year 2020 drawn from publicly available data gathered through municipal litter audits and other sources. </p>



<p>They estimated that between 3,531 and 3,852 tons of plastic pollution were emitted from within the city's boundaries during the period, with littering making up the largest share at 3,099 tons and artificial turf being responsible for the most emissions of microplastics at 237 tons.</p>



<p>"It is not surprising that larger materials – known as macroplastics, and in this case from mismanaged waste such as littering – made up the majority of the mass. But it overshadows the small stuff, microplastics," said Rochman, a co-author of the study and Zhu's PhD supervisor. </p>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/">Micr</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">o</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/">plastics</a> tend to be the highest by count in terms of actual pieces. This suggests that policies relevant to microplastics, in addition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macroplastics</a>, are critical to reduce plastic emissions in the City of Toronto," Rochman concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-global-application-of-the-framework">Call for global application of the framework</h2>



<p>Zhu said emissions inventories of plastic pollution must be a foundational piece of a successful global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-plastics-treaty-tackles-the-pollution-problem-directly-at-the-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treaty on plastic</a>. </p>



<p>In addition, the framework should be applied to other cities, provinces and states, and countries around the world to better understand what kinds of plastic pollution are being released into the environment.</p>



<p>"The guidelines can be applied to regions worldwide, regardless of what kinds of sources are there," Zhu said. "Each geographic region will have different characteristics and the inventory will allow for the development of solutions tailored to that specific region."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-measuring-stick-for-plastic-pollution-emissions">New measuring stick for plastic pollution emissions</h2>



<p>In summary, the development of this crucial framework for measuring plastic pollution emissions by U of T scientists marks a significant step forward in the global fight against plastic waste. </p>



<p>By adapting the well-established methodology used for quantifying greenhouse gas emissions, the researchers have created a powerful tool that can be applied worldwide to identify major sources of plastic pollution and inform targeted reduction strategies. </p>



<p>As the international community prepares to negotiate a legally binding global agreement on plastic pollution, the adoption of this emissions inventory approach will be crucial in establishing a foundation for setting and achieving pollution reduction targets. </p>



<p>The Toronto case study serves as a compelling example of the framework's utility, highlighting the alarming levels of plastic waste leaking into the environment and the need for comprehensive policies addressing both macro and microplastics. </p>



<p>As more cities, provinces, and countries embrace this methodology, tailored solutions can be developed to tackle the unique challenges faced by each region, ultimately bringing us closer to a cleaner, healthier planet.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c04348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a></em>.</p>



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Plastic pollution emissions now measured using global standard

Scientists have developed a framework for measuring plastic pollution emissions,...

<p>The discovery of a second massive jawbone, over two meters in length, on a beach in Somerset, UK, has recently piqued the interest of paleontologists. This fossil, along with the first one found, has been identified as belonging to a previously <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_couple-swimming_credit-gabrielugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unknown species of giant ichthyosaur</a> named <em>Ichthyotitan severnensis</em> - a marine reptile from prehistoric times. </p>



<p>Researchers estimate that this creature would have spanned more than 25 meters in length, akin to the size of a blue whale.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Discovery of the marine reptile <em>Ichthyotitan severnensis</em></h2>



<p>This significant find was made by Justin and Ruby Reynolds, a father and daughter duo from Braunton, Devon. During a fossil hunting trip in May 2020 at Blue Anchor, Somerset, 11-year-old Ruby stumbled upon the first fragment of this colossal jawbone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Realizing the importance of their find, they contacted Dr. Dean Lomax, a leading ichthyosaur expert and a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> as well as a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol.</a> Lomax. </p>



<p>They then reached out to Paul de la Salle, a seasoned fossil collector who had discovered the first giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-lizards-were-thriving-during-the-age-of-dinosaurs/">jawbone</a> in 2016 along the same coastline.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-multimillion-year-old-jigsaw-puzzle">A multimillion-year-old jigsaw puzzle</h2>



<p>“I was amazed by the find,” Lomax said. “In 2018, my team (including Paul de la Salle) studied and described Paul’s giant jawbone and we had hoped that one day another would come to light. This new specimen is more complete, better preserved, and shows that we now have two of these giant bones - called a surangular - that have a unique shape and structure. I became very excited, to say the least.”</p>



<p>Fueled by this initial success, Justin, Ruby, Paul, Lomax, and several family members returned to the site to search for more pieces. Their efforts were fruitful, eventually piecing together more fragments that fit perfectly together, like a multimillion-year-old jigsaw puzzle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-species-of-giant-marine-reptile-nbsp">New species of giant marine reptile&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed that these jawbones belonged to a new species of giant ichthyosaur, which they named <em>Ichthyotitan severnensis</em> or "giant fish lizard of the Severn." </p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/">fossils</a>, dating back approximately 202 million years to the end of the Triassic Period, represent some of the last members of the Shastasauridae family before they disappeared due to a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-event-shows-how-life-responds-to-extreme-changes/">mass extinction </a>event.</p>



<p>This discovery also aligns with findings of other large ichthyosaurs, such as <em>Shonisaurus sikanniensis</em> from Canada and <em>Himalayasaurus tibetensis</em> from China, although the new species appears around 13 million years after these relatives.</p>



<p>Dr. Lomax invited Ruby and Justin to join his research team in studying and naming this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-150-year-old-bones-identified-as-ichthyosaur-jaws/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric creature</a>. Ruby, now recognized as a young scientist, said that “it was so cool to discover part of this gigantic ichthyosaur. I am very proud to have played a part in a scientific discovery like this.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-limits-of-vertebrates-nbsp">Biological limits of vertebrates&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Further investigations into the bones by Marcello Perillo, a master’s student from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/university">University of Bonn</a>, confirmed the ichthyosaur origin and revealed that the creature was still growing at the time of its death.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We could confirm the unique set of histological characters typical of giant ichthyosaur lower jaws: the anomalous periosteal growth of these bones hints at yet to be understood bone developmental strategies, now lost in the deep time, that likely allowed late Triassic ichthyosaurs to reach the known biological limits of vertebrates in terms of size,” Perillo explained.</p>



<p>“To think that my discovery in 2016 would spark so much interest in these enormous creatures fills me with joy. When I found the first jawbone, I knew it was something special. To have a second that confirms our findings is incredible. I am overjoyed,” de la Salle said.</p>



<p>“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale-sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period. These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know,” Lomax concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLoS ONE</em></a> and the jawbone will soon go on display at the <a href="https://www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/bristol-museum-and-art-gallery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol Museum and Art Gallery</a>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</p>



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Largest known marine reptile discovered is a giant ichthyosaur

The discovery of a second massive jawbone, over two meters...

Mechanized,Industry,Robot,And,Robotic,Arms,For,Assembly,In,Factory

<p>In an era where automation is becoming increasingly integral to industrial processes, the demand for RoboSapiens -- robots that can intelligently adapt to their environment and unforeseen circumstances -- is surging. </p>



<p>The new RoboSapiens project, funded by <a href="https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horizon Europe</a> with a substantial grant, aims to meet the growing need for adaptable robots. It focuses on enhancing the adaptability and reliability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotsweater-a-new-fabric-enables-robots-to-feel-and-react-to-human-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">industrial robots</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leading-the-charge-for-smarter-robots">Leading the charge for smarter robots</h2>



<p>Under the leadership of Professor Peter Gorm Larsen from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at <a href="https://ece.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, RoboSapiens is set to transform the landscape of <a href="https://digit.au.dk/research-projects/robosapiens" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robotic technology</a>. </p>



<p>"We see great benefits if robots can adapt to conditions, learn from their surroundings, and then change their behavior to better suit the task," explains <a href="https://pure.au.dk/portal/da/persons/pgl%40ece.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Larsen</a>. "All the while maintaining or even increasing their expected performance and remaining as safe and robust as before.</p>



<p>This project aims to significantly enhance robot capabilities, allowing them to autonomously adapt to new and unexpected challenges. It focuses on self-adaptation, safety, and advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-health-ai-can-identify-insects-based-on-their-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> techniques to manage uncertainties during these adaptations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-pillars-of-robotic-advancement">Four pillars of robotic advancement</h2>



<p>Scheduled to run from January 2024 to December 2027, RoboSapiens will concentrate on achieving four main objectives:</p>



<ol>
<li>Enabling robotics to autonomously adapt in response to unprecedented changes in system structures and environments.<br></li>



<li>Enhancing robot safety software to ensure exceptional performance before, during, and after adaptation processes.<br></li>



<li>Leveraging deep learning to actively mitigate uncertainties associated with robotic self-adaptation.<br></li>



<li>Guaranteeing the reliability of robotic systems as they learn to independently navigate and interact with their surroundings.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-diverse-robotic-applications-with-robosapiens">Targeting diverse robotic applications with RoboSapiens</h2>



<p>RoboSapiens will explore these innovations through four diverse use-cases. These include autonomous ship navigation, collaborative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-robots-be-programmed-to-have-human-consciousness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-robot</a> interactions, intra-warehouse robot navigation, and automated laptop refurbishment.</p>



<p>Mikkel Labori Olsen, a consultant at the <a href="https://www.dti.dk/specialists/robot-technology-and-automation/39709" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Robotics</a> at the Danish Technological Institute, expresses his excitement for the project's practical applications. He highlights the project's role in promoting sustainable manufacturing processes.</p>



<p>"Robots have helped increase production for decades. In our use-cases, we’ll take a closer look at how we can scale up circular processes using automated robots, thereby extending the lifespan of products instead of producing new ones," Olsen states. </p>



<p>Initially focusing on laptop refurbishment, including tasks like screen repairs, the project plans to progressively expand these efforts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-standards-for-autonomous-robot-improvement">New standards for autonomous robot improvement</h2>



<p>A key feature of RoboSapiens is its commitment to safety and continuous enhancement without the need for frequent recertification. </p>



<p>"We want robots to be able to gradually improve. We want to demonstrate that we can achieve sufficient safety without recertification, thereby ensure autonomy and that the robot adapts appropriately by using intelligent safety systems and control software," Larsen concluded.</p>



<p>This approach aims to diminish limitations and boost the robots' capability to adapt to complex and unexpected conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robosapiens-and-the-future-of-robotics">RoboSapiens and the future of robotics</h2>



<p>In summary, the RoboSapiens project is set to revolutionize the field of robotics by developing adaptable, reliable, and safe robots that can navigate unprecedented situations and work seamlessly alongside humans. </p>



<p>By focusing on four key pillars of robotic advancement and exploring diverse applications, from autonomous ships to laptop refurbishment, the project aims to reduce limitations and increase robots' ability to adapt to unforeseen events and changes in their environment. </p>



<p>With the combined expertise of its partners and the vision of gradual improvement and intelligent safety systems, RoboSapiens paves the way for a new era in robotics, reshaping industries and unlocking new possibilities for the future.</p>



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RoboSapiens: AI is making industrial robots more 'free thinking'

In an era where automation is becoming increasingly integral to...

Financial,Costs,Of,Pollution,And,Economic,Cost,Of,Polluted,Water

<p>Climate change is no longer a distant threat. The economic impacts are already being felt globally, and substantial new studies quantify the financial risks associated with a warming planet. </p>



<p>If left unchecked, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-crisis-global-supply-chains-face-25-trillion-in-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> could severely destabilize national and global economies by reducing Gross Domestic Product (GDP).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-gdp">Climate change and GDP</h2>



<p>Let's be absolutely clear on one thing: Doing nothing about climate change is not an affordable option. </p>



<p><a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> researchers determined that a 37.4 °Fahrenheit (3ºC) increase in average global temperatures could significantly reduce worldwide GDP by a substantial 10%. </p>



<p>This GDP loss represents a major disruption to the overall economic activity and productivity of nations around the globe.</p>



<p>It's important to note that the 37.4 °F warming scenario is alarmingly within reach if current greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-emissions-reduction-20-percent-possible-only-2-percent-economic-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emission trends</a> continue. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-impact-on-economic-growth-sectors">Climate change impact on economic growth sectors</h2>



<p>While past projections considered rising temperatures, the ETH Zurich study highlights an often-overlooked aspect: climate variability. </p>



<p>Factoring in more extreme temperature swings and unpredictable rainfall patterns reveals that the negative economic consequences of climate change are likely more severe than previously estimated.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> has issued a stark warning about the economic consequences of climate change. Their recent study predicts a potential income reduction of a staggering 19% for the world's economy by 2050. </p>



<p>To put this 19% reduction in perspective, the PIK study translates it into a real-world figure: a staggering $38 trillion in annual losses by 2050. </p>



<p>This immense sum represents the estimated cumulative financial burden of climate change on the global economy every single year.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-s-worse-than-we-thought">Why it's worse than we thought</h2>



<p>"It turns out that the estimated impact of spiking temperatures is worse than previously thought," explains Paul Waidelich, an economist at ETH Zurich who led one of the studies.</p>



<p>The past estimates have mainly looked at rising average temperatures. Now we know we need to consider how our whole climate system is getting more erratic. Possible reasons include the following.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-disruptions">Rainfall disruptions</h3>



<p>Climate change is leading to more erratic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall patterns</a>, with some regions experiencing extreme downpours while others face prolonged droughts. </p>



<p>This disruption is particularly problematic in places not accustomed to heavy rainfall, leading to substantial economic damages.</p>



<p>Unusually <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-ways-to-prevent-flooding-caused-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy rainfall</a> events can overwhelm existing drainage systems, flood roads and buildings, damage crops, and disrupt supply chains.</p>



<p>This can result in significant costs for repairs, lost productivity, and reduced economic activity. The US and China are particularly vulnerable to these damages due to the scale and value of their infrastructure.</p>



<p>The economic losses caused by extreme rainfall events can be immense on a regional and national scale. The reference to the 2021 European floods provides a tangible example of the magnitude of costs that can be incurred.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-toll-of-heat-waves">Economic toll of heat waves</h3>



<p>While the most obvious consequences of heat waves are health-related, the economic impacts of the climate change are often overlooked. However, as temperatures rise globally, the economic consequences of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2023-likely-exceeds-that-of-the-last-100000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwaves are escalating</a>.</p>



<p>Extreme heat can cause heat stress, reduce labor productivity across multiple sectors (agriculture, construction, manufacturing), and even lead to temporary business shutdowns. These factors add up to significantly reduced economic output.</p>



<p>Heatwaves increase heat-related illnesses and hospitalizations, straining healthcare systems and diverting economic resources.</p>



<p>Even traditionally cooler countries will face worsening heat extremes as average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures rise</a>. This means no nation is truly immune to the economic consequences, underscoring global vulnerability to heatwave-induced disruption.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-economy-threat">Global economy threat</h2>



<p>"Some people still say that the world cannot afford rapid decarbonization, but the global economy will also suffer from the impacts of climate,” says Sonia Seneviratne, ETH Zurich professor and IPCC expert.</p>



<p>In future, transitioning to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-transition-may-boost-job-opportunities-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean energy sources</a> and a low-carbon economy requires upfront investments in research, development, and infrastructure upgrades. </p>



<p>There will be costs associated with developing renewable energy technologies, building new power grids, and potentially replacing existing fossil fuel infrastructure.</p>



<p>Investing in clean energy now, though it comes with upfront costs, is a much wiser financial decision compared to the astronomical burden and human suffering that will result from a warming planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-injustice-and-economic-losses">Climate change injustice and economic losses</h2>



<p>Climate change isn't just an environmental issue. It's a story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-surpassed-almost-every-safe-limit-to-keep-earth-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profound injustice</a>. The nations bearing the least responsibility for causing the climate crisis are the ones projected to suffer the most severe economic consequences.</p>



<p>Many countries near the equator already experience harsh climates and limited resources. Further temperature increases will devastate agriculture, cripple fragile infrastructure, and severely endanger public health in these regions.</p>



<p>Research paints a grim picture. Less-developed nations could see income losses a staggering 60% greater than those experienced by wealthier nations due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-change-impact-the-worlds-natural-capital/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. This will exacerbate existing global inequality.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-disparity">Why the disparity?</h2>



<p>Wealthy, industrialized nations fueled their economic growth by emitting massive amounts of greenhouse gases throughout history. This created the climate crisis the world now faces.</p>



<p>On the other hand, poorer countries often cannot afford the infrastructure upgrades, climate-smart technologies, and early warning systems needed to shield their economies and populations from the worst effects of climate change.</p>



<p>“Our study highlights the considerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-nations-are-making-more-progress-toward-sustainable-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity of climate impacts</a>: We find damages almost everywhere, but countries in the tropics will suffer the most because they are already warmer. Further temperature increases will therefore be most harmful there," said says Anders Levermann, Head of Research <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/institute/departments/complexity-science/rd4-complexity-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department Complexity Science</a> at the Potsdam Institute and co-author of the study.</p>



<p>"The countries least responsible for climate change, are predicted to suffer income loss that is 60% greater than the higher-income countries and 40% greater than higher-emission countries. They are also the ones with the least resources to adapt to its impacts. It is on us to decide: structural change towards a renewable energy system is needed for our security and will save us money. Staying on the path we are currently on, will lead to catastrophic consequences. The temperature of the planet can only be stabilized if we stop burning oil, gas and coal," Levermann concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-climate-change-economic-impact">Reducing the climate change economic impact</h2>



<p>Having acknowledged the grave implications, two essential actions emerge:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cut-emissions-now">Cut emissions, now</h3>



<p>There's no avoiding it – stabilizing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-events-cost-the-global-economy-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> requires phasing out fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) and fundamentally transforming how we power our economies and lives. This is a complex but achievable task.</p>



<p>The good news is, renewable energy technologies like solar, wind, and geothermal power, alongside increased energy efficiency measures, provide a blueprint for decarbonization. The technology exists – what's needed is accelerated investment, political will, and widespread adoption</p>



<p>Moreover, swift action is essential. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) clearly states that limiting warming to 1.5ºC demands deep cuts in carbon emissions within this decade. </p>



<p>Every fraction of a degree of warming avoided translates to significantly reduced economic losses and human suffering.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-for-vulnerable-countries">Support for vulnerable countries</h3>



<p>Wealthy nations, who have historically emitted the bulk of greenhouse gases, bear a responsibility to support countries facing the most dire climate consequences. Climate justice demands this.</p>



<p>The obligation of the top polluting nations extends beyond financial aid and includes:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Technology transfer</strong>: Sharing clean energy technologies and climate-resilient infrastructure solutions.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Capacity building</strong>: Helping less-developed countries strengthen their expertise in climate adaptation planning and disaster risk reduction.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Loss and damage</strong>: Addressing compensation for climate impacts that are unavoidable even with adaptation measures.</li>
</ul>



<p>Support for vulnerable nations isn't just about fairness. Climate-driven instability in the least-developed countries has ripple effects across the globe, affecting trade, migration patterns, and potentially even security. Helping these nations adapt is a form of self-preservation for the international community.</p>



<p>Climate change isn't an off-in-the-future issue. We're already seeing real costs, and they're only going to get worse. The economic consequences are undeniable and hit every corner of the world. The smart choice – the only affordable one – is investing in a clean energy future.</p>



<p>The studies are published in the journals <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-01990-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a></em> and <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07219-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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$38 trillion per year in economic losses expected due to climate change

Climate change is no longer a distant threat. The economic...

<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.oslo-universitetssykehus.no/oslo-university-hospital" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oslo University Hospital</a> in Norway has suggested that engaging in mentally stimulating work may reduce the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-memory-how-we-remember-traumatic-events/">memory</a> and thinking problems in later life. </p>



<p>The study does not establish that such work definitively prevents mild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-mild-cognitive-impairment-and-dont-know-it/">cognitive impairment</a>. However, the research indicates a significant association between cognitive stimulation at work and lower risks of these age-related issues.</p>



<p>“The cognitive reserve hypothesis posits that cognitively stimulating work delays the onset of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. However, the effect of occupational cognitive demands across midlife on the risk of these conditions is unclear,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-job-related-cognitive-demands">Job-related cognitive demands</h2>



<p>The experts set out to analyze the impact of job-related cognitive demands on later life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-for-the-aging-brain-mediterranean-diet-protects-cognitive-health/">cognitive health</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We examined the demands of various jobs and found that cognitive stimulation at work during different stages in life - during your 30s, 40s, 50s and 60s - was linked to a reduced risk of mild cognitive impairment after the age of 70,” explained lead author Trine Holt Edwin, a medical doctor and researcher at the Oslo University Hospital.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our findings highlight the value of having a job that requires more complex thinking as a way to possibly maintain memory and thinking in old age.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-levels-of-cognitive-stimulation-at-work">Levels of cognitive stimulation at work</h2>



<p>The study encompassed 7,000 individuals and 305 different occupations across Norway, measuring the level of cognitive stimulation participants experienced in their professions. This included assessing tasks categorized as routine manual, routine cognitive, non-routine analytical, and non-routine interpersonal.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Routine manual tasks typically involve speed and repetitive motions, as seen in factory work, while routine cognitive tasks require precision in repetitive roles such as bookkeeping or filing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Non-routine analytical tasks involve information analysis, creative thinking, and interpretation, necessary in fields like computer programming and public relations. Non-routine interpersonal tasks are focused on relationship management, motivation, and coaching.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-stimulation-across-various-professions">Cognitive stimulation across various professions</h2>



<p>Participants were grouped based on the cognitive demands of their jobs, with teachers frequently representing the group with the highest cognitive demands and mail carriers and custodians often representing the group with the lowest.</p>



<p>Following their 70th birthday, participants underwent tests to evaluate memory and cognitive abilities to determine if they had developed mild cognitive impairment. The findings showed that 42% of those in the lowest cognitive demand group were diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment, compared to 27% in the highest group.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lowest-cognitive-stimulation-group-nbsp">Lowest cognitive stimulation group&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Adjusting for factors such as age, sex, education, income, and lifestyle, the scientists found that individuals in the lowest cognitive stimulation group had a 66% higher risk of mild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-vision-cognitive-decline/">cognitive impairment</a> than those in the highest group.</p>



<p>“These results indicate that both education and doing work that challenges your brain during your career play a crucial role in lowering the risk of cognitive impairment later in life,” Edwin said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Further research is required to pinpoint the specific cognitively challenging occupational tasks that are most beneficial for maintaining thinking and memory skills.”</p>



<p>One limitation of the study is the potential variance within job roles, as individuals with the same job title may perform different tasks and experience varying levels of cognitive demands.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-benefits-of-cognitive-stimulation-nbsp">Health benefits of cognitive stimulation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Cognitive stimulation offers several notable benefits, particularly for older adults and those dealing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-reality-one-in-four-americans-with-cognitive-impairment-lives-alone/">cognitive impairments</a>. Here are some of the key advantages:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-cognitive-function">Improved cognitive function</h3>



<p>Engaging in activities that challenge the brain can help maintain and even improve cognitive functions such as memory, reasoning, and problem-solving skills.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delay-in-cognitive-decline">Delay in cognitive decline</h3>



<p>For individuals with mild cognitive impairment or early stages of dementia, cognitive stimulation can slow the progression of symptoms. This is crucial for maintaining independence and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-aging-physical-activity-has-a-direct-impact-on-life-quality/">quality of life</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-communication-skills">Enhanced communication skills</h3>



<p>Activities often involve social interaction and communication, which can enhance verbal skills and the ability to engage with others effectively.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-engagement-and-motivation">Increased engagement and motivation</h3>



<p>Cognitive stimulation activities can help reduce feelings of isolation or depression by keeping individuals engaged with their surroundings and other people.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-benefits">Emotional benefits</h3>



<p>Participating in stimulating activities can boost self-esteem and mood, providing a sense of accomplishment and pleasure.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-quality-of-life">Better quality of life</h3>



<p>By regularly participating in cognitive stimulation, individuals can enjoy a range of mental and emotional benefits that contribute to a more satisfying and independent life.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000209353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Neurology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Cognitive stimulation at work helps prevent memory problems 

A recent study led by the Oslo University Hospital in...

<p>Ever misplaced your keys or forgotten where you parked? Imagine if you had the remarkable memory of a mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chickadees-are-genetically-inclined-to-have-a-remarkable-memory/">chickadee</a>. Despite their small size, with brains just larger than a pea, these nimble birds masterfully remember the locations of tens of thousands of food caches.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mountain chickadees hide seeds in tree bark, under dead leaves, and within pine cones throughout mountainous terrains. Their ability to recall these locations during the harsh winter months is crucial for their survival amid the cold and snow.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-memory-of-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Remarkable memory of mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



<p>A research study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada, Reno</a> has identified nearly a hundred genes that are linked to the birds’ spatial memory, which is their ability to pinpoint and recall the locations of these hidden caches. </p>



<p>Furthermore, the experts suggest that there might be a trade-off between having robust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-memory-starts-at-age-2-study-finds/">long-term memory</a> and the ability to quickly forget old memories to make room for new ones. This discovery has the potential to deepen our understanding of how spatial memory evolves not just in animals, but also in humans.</p>



<p>“Chickadees are impressive birds,” said senior author Scott Taylor, the director of CU Boulder’s Mountain Research Station and an associate professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They can remember tens of thousands of locations where they cached food across an entire winter and a new set of those the next winter. Their spatial memory is much more developed than many other birds that don't have to have this strategy to survive cold winters.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To assess how these birds manage such a feat, Taylor’s colleagues at the University of Nevada, Reno, led by biologist professor Vladimir Pravosudov, put together a creative test. They set up multiple feeder arrays in California’s Sierra Nevada mountains, each consisting of eight bird feeders filled with seeds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Each feeder was equipped with a gate that had a radio frequency reader capable of detecting a tag placed on the chickadees. The setup required the mountain chickadees to remember which feeders they could access as each gate was programmed to open only for certain birds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-learning-among-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Spatial learning among mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Pravosudov’s team observed and recorded the number of times each bird visited the incorrect feeders before finding the right one. The underlying theory was that mountain chickadees with superior spatial memory capabilities would show a lower rate of errors.</p>



<p>Additionally, using blood samples, the scientists sequenced the genomes of 162 tagged chickadees, creating the largest dataset ever for exploring the genetic basis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive abilities</a> in chickadees.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-spatial-memory-in-birds">Genetics of spatial memory in birds</h2>



<p>By correlating the birds’ genetic information with their performance in the feeder test, the team identified 97 genes associated with the chickadees’ spatial learning and memory. Birds with specific genetic variants at these genes demonstrated fewer incorrect attempts before successfully locating their designated feeders.</p>



<p>According to co-author Sara Padula, a Ph.D. student in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, a large proportion of these variants are linked to neuron formation in the hippocampus, a part of the brain that plays a fundamental role in learning and memory. “Understanding the genetic basis of this trait will allow us to understand how the trait evolves,” said Taylor.</p>



<p>Moreover, he pointed out that the common ancestor of all North American chickadees cached food. However, among the seven species of chickadees found today, two do not.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They live in a milder environment where food is generally available year-round. Now that we know the gene regions that underlie spatial memory, we can look at what variation looks like in these species that have lost caching,” said Taylor.</p>



<p>“This study substantially advanced our understanding of the genetics of spatial memory in birds and behavioral genetics more broadly,” added co-author Georgy Semenov, a research associate in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-long-term-memory-may-have-a-disadvantage">Good long-term memory may have a disadvantage</h2>



<p>The research also highlighted a potential downside to having an excellent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-rely-on-an-autism-gene-for-memorization/">memory</a>. After a few days of the initial task, Pravosudov’s team reassigned new feeders to the birds. Surprisingly, mountain chickadees that excelled in the initial tests struggled with adapting to the new feeders. They found it challenging to discard old memories and form new ones.</p>



<p>“In a more variable environment, what our collaborators found suggests that chickadees with good long-term memory may have a disadvantage. For example, if there is an unexpected snowstorm, these birds may keep trying to visit caches that have been buried in the snow, rather than forgetting them and looking for other caches,” Padula said.</p>



<p>As climate conditions continue to change, birds that can adapt quickly by forming new memories might have a better chance of survival. “Because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-climate-change-happening-too-fast-for-birds-to-keep-up/">climate change</a>, we might expect these selective pressures that have been shaping chickadee’s special memory for thousands of years to shift significantly,” Taylor concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.058" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Mountain chickadees have an extraordinary memory

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