Sleep debt is the difference between the amount of time someone needs to sleep and the amount of time they actually sleep. For example, if you only slept five hours last night, but need eight, then you have three hours of sleep debt. Also called sleep deficit, sleep debt is cumulative, meaning that if you just get 30 minutes less sleep each night for a week, that adds up to 3.5 hours of sleep debt.



<h2 id="h-think-your-fine-with-less-sleep-probably-not">Think Your Fine With Less Sleep? Probably Not.</h2>



Don’t think going to bed 30 minutes later affects you? Unfortunately, you can accumulate sleep debt without even realizing it. Called chronic sleep restriction or chronic sleep debt, small reductions in sleep pile up, reducing cognitive function and awareness, in addition to general daytime sleepiness. The scientific journal Sleep published a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12683469/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> demonstrating that reducing nightly sleep over the course of two weeks had the same detrimental effects as going without any sleep for two days. All that lost sleep can really catch up to you, whether it happens all at once or overtime.



<h2 id="h-how-much-sleep-do-i-need">How Much Sleep Do I Need?</h2>



If you’re wondering how much sleep debt you’ve accumulated, you first need to know how much sleep you should be getting. While it might be slightly different person to person, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the <a href="https://www.thensf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Sleep Foundation</a> advise that adults get between <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seven and nine hours </a>each night. Kids and teens need even more. With growing and developing bodies, they often need upwards of ten hours each night!&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_569860162.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897236"/></figure>



<h3 id="h-sleep-debt-health-risks">Sleep Debt &amp; Health Risks</h3>



Getting enough sleep promotes good overall health. In fact, another term for sleep health is sleep hygiene. Just like dental hygiene has lifelong impacts, getting the right amount of sleep affects nearly every other aspect of your physical. The <a href="https://aasm.org/resources/pdf/pressroom/adult-sleep-duration-consensus.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> of sleep deprivation include an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased</a> risk of heart disease, weight gain, high blood pressure, obesity, and stroke. Additionally, a lack of sleep can be hard on the immune system, not to mention your mental health. In general, good sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-makes-you-angry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">equals</a> better emotional regulation, a pattern amplified in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-linked-to-quickly-deteriorating-mood-in-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teens</a>. Wondering why your road rage has been higher and patience has been shorter? Too little sleep is probably the answer.



<h2 id="h-recovering-from-sleep-debt">Recovering from Sleep Debt</h2>



Luckily, you can recover from sleep debt by catching up on lost sleep! Though this does mean you will need to make time for this extra sleep. One effective way of recovering from insufficient sleep is by napping. Taking naps of any length has been shown to <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/healthbeat/the-benefits-of-napping" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restore</a> cognitive function in sleep-deprived folks, but generally, the best practice is to catch up gradually in 20-40 minute naps.



Hitting the snooze button on the weekends is another form of recovery sleep. Sleeping in and getting a bit extra sleep can help the body catch up. However, the best practice for better sleep lies with a consistent sleep schedule. Sleeping in on the weekends can help you catch up, a better strategy is to get the same amount of sleep every night.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-avoid-sleep-debt-with-good-sleep-habits">Avoid Sleep Debt with Good Sleep Habits</h2>



Once you’ve recovered from your potential sleep debt, the next step is to keep a natural sleep routine. Whatever practice you choose, the combination of the right sleep time and consistent sleep patterns create a healthy model. Choose some tips from our list below to help create your dreamy sleep routine!



<h3 id="h-set-yourself-up-for-success">Set Yourself Up for Success</h3>



As you go throughout your day, develop habits that support healthy sleep. So many practices can help you catch those ZZZs. If this is all new to you, start by picking a few that fit more easily into your schedule rather than shifting everything at once.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-reduce-caffeine-intake">Reduce Caffeine Intake</h4>



Whether you’re a sucker for those lavender lattes or enjoy a cup of Earl Grey in the afternoons, caffeine in all forms can affect your sleep cycles. You don’t have to give it up altogether. Enjoy your favorite beverages while supporting sleep health by limiting how much you drink and not ingesting caffeine past the afternoon.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-give-yourself-enough-time-to-digest">Give Yourself Enough Time to Digest</h4>



Digestion slows down while you sleep. That means a heavy meal can leave you with an uncomfortable stomach as you’re trying to fall asleep. High fat and spicy foods can be especially triggering. To keep your stomach happy, give yourself more time to digest a big meal before you hit the hay. Short on time? Opt for a lighter meal and end it with a cup of chamomile tea.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-workouts-wake-you-up">Workouts Wake You Up</h4>



Similarly to eating, working out can keep you up. The rush of endorphins from exercise tells your body it’s time to move. Even though you might feel drained after that spin class, your mind will be on fire with activity and will make it hard to go to sleep. If you're not up for the early morning workout (I feel you there!), schedule exercise at least <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/does-exercising-at-night-affect-sleep" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">one</a> hour before bedtime to give your brain and body time to settle down. But make sure you still fit in some weekly exercise! Working out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-improves-sleep-quality-in-undetectable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increases your quality of sleep</a> by helping you fall asleep more quickly and increasing the time spent in deep sleep. Additionally, a lack of exercise has been shown to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-exercise-habits-may-make-up-for-lost-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exacerbate</a> the health risks associated with sleep debt.



<h4 id="h-create-a-haven-for-sleep">Create a Haven for Sleep</h4>



Your bed is not a hangout space. Even in a cramped apartment, try to fit in a comfy chair for reading or watching TV. Just hanging out in your bed trains your brain to associate being in bed with wakefulness.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1887179422.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897238"/></figure>



<h3 id="h-stick-to-a-nightly-routine">Stick to a Nightly Routine</h3>



While all your waking hours can prevent poor sleep, the time immediately before bed can really make it or break it in terms of a good night’s sleep.



<h4 id="h-dim-the-lights">Dim the Lights</h4>



Our bodies are trained to trust that light means daytime and dark means night. But with the advent of modern electricity, we can keep the lights on all night long. Help your body get ready for quality sleep by creating the right ambiance. Dimming the lights 30 minutes before bedtime can help signal your brain to start chilling out. You can invest in a sunset lamp that slowly dims to dark or take the proletariat strategy by turning off the overhead light and&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-limit-screen-time">Limit Screen Time</h4>



The blue light from <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/bedtime-screen-time-may-reduce-sleep-quality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">screens</a> on phones, tablets, computers, and TVs keeps your brain buzzing. Not to mention that those pesky screens can cause a few too many late nights. A good practice to improve your sleep quality is to set a limit to screen time each day. Additionally, set a time that the screens go away as you start to wind down. That will give your brain a rest, and set you up for sleepy-time success!



<h4 id="h-listen-to-soft-music">Listen to Soft Music</h4>



Before bed, put on your favorite chill playlist. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soft-music-linked-with-better-sleep-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> have shown that listening to soft music with a slow tempo improves sleep quality overall.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-start-a-mindfulness-practice">Start a Mindfulness Practice</h4>



Practicing mindfulness provides another way to improve your quality of sleep. Studies show that adults who train in meditation and mindfulness experience a reduction in insomnia and an improvement in sleep quality. This doesn’t mean you have to become a bonafide buddha! Even just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-meditation-works-wonders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meditating ten minutes</a> each day can be effective.



<h2 id="h-healthy-sleep-means-a-healthy-you">Healthy Sleep Means a Healthy You</h2>



In a society that overvalues busyness and seems to validate stress (not to mention those with unpredictable shift work), it can feel challenging to make time for enough sleep. Sleep debt is a very real and scary phenomenon. Losing sleep means losing out on health, wellness, and happiness. Though a few more hours in every day would be pretty helpful, in the 24 we have, it’s crucial we prioritize eight of them for sleep.

A Beginner's Guide to Sleep Debt

Sleep debt is the difference between the amount of time...

Ever heard of a hell pig?&nbsp;



Yes, they're a real thing. At least, they were. While these "terminator pigs" are (thankfully) no longer roaming upon the Earth's crust, the fossil record tells a riveting story of these gargantuan, scary-looking creatures and also reveals enchanting details of the way the world they inhabited appeared. Today we're going to rut around in the terrifying biology of hell pigs to better understand the mystifying past of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740860/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">this planet's evolution and extinction events</a>. So let's dig in - the facts are quite bristly!&nbsp; 



<h2>Terrifying Creatures From The Past&nbsp;</h2>



 Hell pigs, biologically <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known as entelodonts</a>, are extinct, giant pig-like creatures that roamed the forests and plains of North America and Eurasia. These vertebrates were in existence <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">for 18.2 million years</a>, common in the appropriate regions from the middle Eocene period up until the early Miocene.&nbsp; 



Entelodonts are big-bodied, even-toed ungulates. Based on skeletal reconstruction, they had long snouts and slender legs. The largest known skeleton belongs to the North American Daeodon shoshonensis - clocking in at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a whopping 6.9 feet tall to the shoulder</a>. <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeotherium</a> is a species of entelodont that was an endemic species to North America as well, surviving in the great plains and as far south as modern-day texas in the&nbsp; Eocene and Oligocene epochs - around 35 million years ago.&nbsp;



Entelodont species had full jaws of teeth. And in larger species, they showcased <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a bison-like hump</a> in order to hold up their large and heavy heads.&nbsp;



These hell pigs have gained a newfound fascination in popular culture due to various documentaries on National Geographic and the BBC, respectively. With the work of CGI and informed, imaginative recreation, <a href="http://palaeos.com/vertebrates/cetartiodactyla/derived_suina.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these programs can bring images to life</a> for average viewers to better visualize hell pigs. This way, our brains can better comprehend what paleontologists work to describe. It's no surprise that modern audiences are fascinated with such strange creatures - large, somewhat familiar-looking, but utterly strange and exotic, too.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1721881162.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896743"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-these-creatures-survived">How These Creatures Survived&nbsp;</h2>



So, now that everyone's excited about these terminator pigs, how is it that these animals lived, thrived, and survived?&nbsp;



Entelodonts are omnivores, meaning they munched on plants like herbivores and snacked on meat like carnivores. Paleontologists can make a lot of inferences from the structure of the animal's teeth. In the case of hell pigs, their front teeth include heavy incisors and long canines. Their back teeth are flat molars. Due to our understanding of their jawbones and jaw muscles, these beasts could likely open their mouths surprisingly wide - to an angle of perhaps 150 degrees - similar to hippos.&nbsp;



They were most likely "aggressive omnivores" and scavengers. And based on skeletal remains, paleontologists guess that across the landscapes of Europe, North America, Eurasia, and Asia, these creatures consistently used their impressive jaw structure for "yawning" confrontations, biting, and jaw wrestling contests. Additionally, females most likely slammed their heads into their rivals' bodies.&nbsp;



Tracks of these hell pigs have been preserved in the prehistoric <a href="https://www.nps.gov/agfo/learn/nature/mammalfossils.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mud of watering holes</a> - preserved through the millennia and now protected by the US Government through the parks system. There's something poetic about the preserved footsteps of such a terrifying creature - like some sort of riveting echo of the past and a clue the scientists are trying to follow to learn more about them.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1629904135.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896744"/></figure>



<h3 id="h-hell-pigs-with-a-strategy">Hell Pigs With A Strategy&nbsp;</h3>



Researches have identified "meat caches" in Wyoming, attributed to hell pigs based on bite marks consistent with their jaw measurements. The evidence suggests that these creatures would behead their prey and then delve into the meatier, articulated rear halves of their prey. They would then stockpile "<a href="http://www.douglasfossils.com/multi_kill.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">articulated thoracic leftovers</a>" in these cashes for later. So not only are these hell pigs big and scary with gaping wide mouths - but they were also quite strategic, from the sounds of it. I don't know about you, but I'm glad there's no chance of encountering one of these meat-eating, jaw-crushing creatures on a casual hike, that's for sure.&nbsp;



These prehistoric eras left evidence of plenty of other terrifying beasts that stalked the floodplains of Nebraska or the steppe of Mongolia, too. For example, living at the same time as entelodonts were <a href="https://www.nps.gov/joda/learn/kidsyouth/archaeotherium-caninus.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nimravid sabertooths and the dreaded "bear-dogs"</a> also known as amphicyonids. These apex predators defined food chains and broader ecosystems.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-why-did-the-hell-pigs-go-extinct">Why Did The Hell Pigs Go Extinct?</h2>



Obviously, hell pigs are no longer with us (though certain pigs and boars could certainly qualify for the title with aggressive behavior), and truly, most animals that have <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/paleontology/extinction-over-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walked the planet already are extinct</a> - a humbling fact to take into consideration. Historically this is due to mass extinctions brought on by extreme natural disasters. Today, of course, we are losing. terrifying levels of key species due to human greed and ignorance. But back to the hell pigs - why did the entelodonts disappear specifically?&nbsp;



Dinohyus hollandi, for example, is one of the larger entelodont species that inhabited the flood planes of Nebraska. Other animals in the region at the time include <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740860/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land beavers and gazelle-like camels</a>. Their fossils are rare in comparison to other contemporary creatures - suggesting that they were not particularly social animals. Indeed, <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the fractured evidence</a> of most fossilized skulls suggests that violent confrontations between individuals were quite regular. This theory impacts different stages of the animals’ life cycle.&nbsp;



Entelodonts inevitably killed each other in certain situations. But there are a whole host of other environmental factors that most likely led to these species' extinctions. The discipline of paleontology often works in theory. And since there is so much mystery around these prehistoric eras and what went on in various landscapes. Extinction events can co-inside with warming or cooling temperatures, global disturbances such as volcano eruptions or asteroid collisions. Even diseases and non-adaptive biological traits can impact a species ability to survive.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1891645150.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896745"/></figure>



<h3 id="h-mysteries-yet-to-be-solved">Mysteries Yet To Be Solved</h3>



Humans continue to uncover fossils. These remains will provide answers to how certain creatures lived and died, and perhaps, why they eventually went extinct. In the case of entelodonts, a tooth was uncovered as recently as March 2020. A student in Mississippi found a strange, black-colored rock, that in fact turned out to be a hell pig tooth dating back to "<a href="https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/nation-world/national/article241599151.html?fb_comment_id=1971279459663680_1971581436300149" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Oligocene some 26 million years ago"</a>. Remember, you are walking past and moving through prehistoric landscape all the time! There's no telling what you might find when you know what to look for.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_667879966.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896746"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-are-they-related-to-modern-pigs">Are They Related To Modern Pigs?</h2>



As you may have guessed, it turns out that entelodonts are actually more closely related to hippo. This is true i<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-pigs-help-build-and-maintain-tree-diversity-in-rainforests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">n spite of their common names</a>. However, ungulates are a wide category of creatures. In looking at the composite, hypothesized images of entelodonts, our brains do quickly connect them to animals we know. Examples include pigs, warthogs, hippos, and even rhinos.&nbsp;



A recent study even connects the evolutionary chain of these hell pigs to that <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2020/07/01/archaeotherium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">of whales</a>. This study led to the forming of the taxonomical clade of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740860/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whippomorpha or Cetancodontamorpha</a>. Have you swam down the incredible story that is the evolutionary process of our modern-day, beloved giants of the sea? You may be surprised at the incredible story that scientists pieced together!&nbsp;



Either way, there is still plenty of mystery surrounding entelodonts. The more you learn about these fascinating creatures, the clearer it becomes that these are no true pigs from hell. Actually, they are an incredible piece of our planet's evolutionary history. They are a glimpse into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depth of transformation</a> that has taken place through natural selection.

The Terrifying Biology Of Hell Pigs

Ever heard of a hell pig?&nbsp; Yes, they're a real...

We estimate that there are over <a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/bugnos#:~:text=In%20the%20world%2C%20some%20900,percent%20of%20the%20world's%20species." target="_blank" rel="noopener">900 thousand different insect species</a> on our diverse planet. Today, we're going to focus on one of those: the rusty patched bumblebee. These are fascinating creatures with life cycles full of bee-wildering intricacies and buzzing high drama. And the rusty patches are in trouble - declining rapidly and in need of sweeping intervention and support in order to stave off extinction. The more we learn, the better allies we can be to the bees. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Bumblebee Basics</h2>
&nbsp;

Also known by the scientific name Bombus affinis, the rusty patch bumblebee is endemic to North America. It is a member of the subfamily Apidae and is one of 250 other members of the Bombus genus. They are relatively large in size and can be easy to distinguish for beginners due to their coloring. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Appearance</h3>
&nbsp;

These pollinator bees live in colonies of one queen and many female workers. The rusty patches have black hair heads and yellow hair on their bodies. They have a yellow thorax with a black spot. The workers and any males (which are produced in the late summer) have a rusty patch coloring on their backs, which is where they get their name. The patch is located on their <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/insects/rpbb/factsheetrpbb.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">second abdominal segment</a>. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Habitat</h3>
&nbsp;

The historical range of this bee is a wide swath of the North American continent - through the east and central upper midwest, west across Dakota territory, north through Ontario, Canada, and even all the way south to Georgia. The landscapes we now call Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa are all areas once dominated by tallgrass prairies and grasslands. This is the habitat where rusty patches lived and thrived through the millennia - evolving with plants and the broader ecosystem at large. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Other Buzz-Worthy Facts</h3>
&nbsp;

These bees are also known for a handful of other distinct features. Unlike some other species of bees that specialize in air-borne hives, rusty patches build nests. These underground colonies exist in ditches, wetlands, fields, and even rodent burrows and abandoned furniture. 

The bees collect pollen and nectar from flowering plants. They are one of the first bees to emerge in the spring and the last to go into hibernation. 

And some good news for those who get a little nervous around bees? The rusty patches rarely sting, <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/RPBB.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">even when threatened</a>. They are often quite uninterested and unbothered by our proximity - docile in going about their pollinating business in cities, fields, and prairie lands. 

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893995" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1199351959.jpg" alt="bumblebee" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Bumbling Big Impacts</h2>
&nbsp;

Rusty patch bees are largely to thank for a lot of our favorite foods: blueberries, cranberries, and tomatoes, to name a few. They pollinate somewhere around <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000902/http://www.xerces.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/xerces_2008_bombus_status_review.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">65 plant genera</a>, many of which are crops we eat regularly. It is important to note that the rusty patch bees are much more efficient pollinators than honey bees, even though their numbers are fewer. They are known as "buzz pollinators". Essentially, this means that rusty patches <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/RPBB.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">produce vibrations</a> that loosen hard-to-get-to pollen. This process feeds the bees and also increases the pollination of plants. 

Efficient pollinators are critical components of a healthy ecosystem. The rusty patches depend on flowering plants all through the warmer months, and the flowering plants depend on insects like the rusty patches to <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/RPBB.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complete and sustain </a>their life cycles as well. It is a beautiful example of a reciprocal relationship. 

Unlike other species of bees, the rusty patch colony dies in the winter months, except for the new queens. They hibernate in the soil and then produce new bees and new colonies in the next season. Later on, we will touch on how you can support this process and the ongoing generations of this species. 

&nbsp;
<h2>The Buzz Around This Bee</h2>
&nbsp;

Nature, and natural pollination, are a delicate balance between species - and we humans are certainly throwing off the scales. The fate of the rusty patches lies delicately in the balance. And their numbers are declining - fast.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/insects/rpbb/factsheetrpbb.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fws.gov</a>) listed the rusty patch bumblebee as an endangered species under the endangered species act in 2017. While there was a time in living memory where these bees were a regular site in 31 states and large swaths of Canada, that is no longer the case. These bobbing buzz ball critters are critically endangered. 

This is due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and other compounding factors relating to human-related development and climate change. 

The rusty patches are also vulnerable to particular pathogens -  Apicystis bombi - which wreaks havoc on a colony. 

Additionally, the rusty patches are parasitized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another species of bee</a> - Bombus bohemicus. These parasite bees search out the rusty patch nests and actually <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25009392" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sneak into them as imposters</a>. They live among the queen and the workers while also infesting the nest with their own brood. Sometimes, the rusty patch workers <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25009392" target="_blank" rel="noopener">help to raise this brood</a> unknowingly. It's hard not to anthropomorphize this sort of drama. It's a strange bee-themed horror soap opera of sorts, chock-full of intrigue, betrayal, and death. 

Except, unlike an addicting drama streaming on Netflix, these high-stake bee dramas contribute to the already baffling decline of an important species. It is all too real, in the end. 

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893996" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_796966033.jpg" alt="bumblebee" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Efforts To Save The Rusty Patch</h2>
&nbsp;

Efforts to save the rusty patch bees are underway and ongoing. The future is a truly grim place to contemplate without these pollinator power-houses buzzing between our food crops and brightly bobbing wildflower blooms. 

Preserving natural areas, engaging with conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">restoration efforts in your area</a>, reflecting and enacting responsible choices within the ecosystem where you live - this is how we will reshape our societies to live in balance with our surroundings. Part of that balancing effort is protecting and support the species that interact in wondrous and nuanced ways. We save the rusty patches by saving the whole ecosystem. The ecosystem might be saved by protecting the rusty patches. It is all so intricately linked. 

&nbsp;
<h3>First Steps</h3>
&nbsp;

Acknowledging that the rusty patch bees are critically endangered is an important first step - especially on the federal level. 

But another important part of successful conservation efforts is infusing entomology passion into the public discourse. For example, University of Minnesota professor Elaine Evans worked hard to designate the rusty patches as the <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/news/rusty-patched-bumble-bee-becomes-household-name" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Minnesota state bee</a> two years ago. Even though it is uncommon to find them, this work led to broader education around the species in the state. 

There are now instances where people, who learned about the species through this initiative, recognized the distinct rusty patches in their own homes. Because they were aware of the efforts around the bees, they called the university and conservation agencies instead of pest control. This has led to protected colonies, more in-depth study of the bees, and hopefully a greater understanding of how to save them.

Another great place to keep track of sightings, and breaking information regarding bumblebees is through <a href="https://www.bumblebeewatch.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bumblebee Watch</a>. This is a community science project and partnership between the Xerces Society, the University of Ottowa, and other contributors. It is an excellent resource for those who want to have an ongoing understanding of the situation and what is going on in the field with each passing year. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Native Plants And Native Bees - Do Your Part!</h2>
&nbsp;

It's easy to give in to the malaise of the climate crisis. This lethargy masks the grief of a changing world. Often, we convince ourselves that our efforts have no real impact. 

This is not a narrative that helps the rusty patches - or any other pollinator for that matter. 

Native bees need the help of native plants. And you can absolutely do something to facilitate a return to right relationship, no matter where you live. 

&nbsp;
<h3>If You Have A Lawn</h3>
&nbsp;

First of all, get rid of your lawn. Plant native plants instead of Kentucky Blue grass. Head to your local garden store, double-check that their starters are neonicotinoid-free, and then explore the various and fascinating plant species that are local to where you live. The largest cultivated crop in the US is lawn grass. What if, in the midwest alone, those lawns were transformed into pollinator sanctuaries of beautiful prairie plants? Perhaps if you close your eyes and picture it, you might feel a twinge of hopefulness. Hang onto it! And talk to your neighbors about how you might transform your block. 

We can also rethink what weed is. For example, the dandelion - the bane of so many gardeners - is both a medicinal food plant for humans and a pollen provider for rusty patch bees. And while dandelions are not native to North America, they can provide critical food and pollen when other food sources have yet to materialize. We need to focus less on aesthetics and more on relationship and reciprocity. Aside from dandelions, you can plant early-blooming perennials, and leave the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/RPBB.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">early blooming weeds</a> in the ground. 

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893997" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_710409760.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Even If You Don't Have A Lawn</h3>
&nbsp;

Many of us are not landowners in this time of harrowing wealth gaps. If this is the case, there are a lot of fun and empowering ways to distribute pollinator plants around where you live. Guerilla garden techniques such as seed balls and food forests are taking urban areas by storm. Find like-minded people in your area and get into some good trouble while also voting for leaders who share your concern for the environment. 

If you discover a nest? Celebrate in a rare find and <a href="https://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/RPBB.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">then leave it alone</a>. 

And consider going the extra mile - or should I say pile? Leave piles of weeds, brush, and sticks in areas of your yard undisturbed. These can be critical areas for queens to overwinter. 

And finally, skip the pesticides and insecticides completely. Instead, engage with organic options and natural tactics to minimize threats to your garden.

What Is The Rusty Patch Bumble Bee? 

We estimate that there are over 900 thousand different insect...

Of all the mythical creatures across fantasy and fable, the dragon spans the widest range of cultural lore. Originating in East Asia before charming the medieval societies of Europe, tales of fearsome lizards have dominated storybooks for centuries. But dragons aren’t purely figments of fairytales. The very real and very ferocious Komodo dragon prowls the islands of Indonesia. The Komodo dragon is the largest living lizard. Known for a stealthy hunting strategy, armored skeleton, and merciless bite, this giant reptile is truly a real-life dragon. Listed on the IUCN red list, this massive lizard is more in need of our protection than a contest with a sword and shield. Learn all about the mysterious Komodo dragon with our guide to its ecology and conservation.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are Komodo Dragons?</h2>
&nbsp;

Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) are named after Komodo Island where they are most densely populated. Also called Komodo monitors, they are members of the Varanidae family of monitor lizards. In general, monitor lizards are terrestrial, carnivorous reptiles, distinguished by their long necks, muscular tails, and vicious claws. 

Komodo dragons in particular are the world’s largest lizards. According to the Smithsonian National Zoo &amp; Conservation Biology Institue, the larger male Komodo dragons often reach <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-big-do-komodo-dragons-get/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nine feet in length and 150 pounds</a>, with the record held by an individual reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-big-do-komodo-dragons-get/">10.3 feet long and over 360 pounds</a>!

&nbsp;
<h2>Where to Find Komodo Dragons?</h2>
&nbsp;

For your dragon quest, don’t bother yourself with Scottish castles or cloud-shrouded mountains in China. The Komodo dragon only lives on a few remote Indonesian islands. There, they have settled into a haven with little human development.

&nbsp;
[caption id="attachment_1893891" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1124450636.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="225" /> Beautiful views of the Lesser Sunda[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h3>Distribution</h3>
&nbsp;

Endemic to a handful of islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands including parts of the larger, human-populated island of Flores along with the islands encompassing Komodo National Park (including the island of Komodo, Rinca, and Padar). The dragons are strong swimmers and likely spread amongst the islands by navigating the blue waters between them. Throughout the National Park, the dragons can be found throughout ecosystems, covering the islands more evenly. On Flores however, human development and habitat destruction have pushed the lizards to the southwestern edge. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Habitat of the Komodo Dragon</h3>
&nbsp;

As you might expect from such weathered and tough-looking creatures, Komodo dragons live in some pretty harsh environments. Located just south of the equator, the dragons’ home temperature averages <a href="http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2008/borgen_mega/habitat.htm">80°F year-round</a>. Outside of a brief monsoon season, the typically dry climate limits freshwater availability. In addition to the balmy climate, steep, rocky terrain covers the volcanic islands. The giant monitor lizards don’t seem to mind. They do seem to prefer the more vegetated savanna and forests but can also be found distributed across the entire national park, including the more arid deserts. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Komodo Dragons at Dinner</h2>
&nbsp;

Unsurprisingly for this monstrous lizard, Komodo dragons are the apex predator of their island homes. Being so big and ferocious, these carnivores dominate the forests, grasslands, and deserts where they prowl. But they don’t hatch from the egg as the king of the jungle. Juveniles learn to hunt down small invertebrates, lizards, small mammals, and birds while hiding from the cannibalistic adults. 

Apart from occasionally eating their own young, the larger adult Komodo dragons pursue much bigger meals. The monitors will kill their own prey and scavenge the carrion of previously dead animals. Some of their favorite large prey include the native Indonesian Timor deer, water buffalo, monkeys, and wild boar.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1893892" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893892" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1339260962-1.jpg" alt="komodo carcass sharing" width="500" height="337" /> Komodo dragons share a carcass.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h3>Komodo Dragon Hunting Habits</h3>
&nbsp;

Similar to myths and legends, dragons’ hunting strategy is defined by stealth and power. They can run almost as fast as a human for short sprints (<a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/komodo-dragon">10-13 mph</a>), however, they prefer not to chase their prey. Instead, their hunting technique relies more on ambush and raw strength. Finding the perfect spot for a stake-out, Komodo dragons will wait for potential prey for hours. When the unsuspecting deer or water buffalo crosses their path… Pounce! Not much can defend itself against an armored, 150-pound monster.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1893893" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893893" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_410996173.jpg" alt="komodo chasing prey" width="500" height="319" /> Komodo dragon running down prey.[/caption]

&nbsp;
After trapping and killing their prey, Komodo dragons use their fearsome serrated teeth and powerful neck muscles to tear into the flesh. Their stomachs seem to magically expand as they eat, allowing them to put back <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/komodo-dragon">80%</a> of their body weight in one sitting. That would be like the average American man-eating over 600 hamburgers for one meal! They clean up their meals too, eating most of the bones, hooves, and intestines. After such a feast, it takes a while for them to be ready for another meal. Often, a dragon will only eat about once a month. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Are Komodo Dragons Venomous?</h3>
&nbsp;

Seemingly the question of the past half-century, there’s been a long-standing debate as to how Komodo dragons kill their prey. The controversy started when an early researcher, Walter Auffenberg, studied dragons in the late 1960s. He observed the pattern of prey animals dying from infections after being bitten by a dragon. The story he brought back from his time in Indonesia described <a href="https://catalog.library.vanderbilt.edu/discovery/fulldisplay/alma991007147399703276/01VAN_INST:vanui">pathogen-packed saliva</a> that the Komodo’s used to their advantage when hunting down prey. More simply, the dragons used bacteria as a sort of venom. 

Auffenberg’s report of toxic spit became the popular story about Komodo dragons. But recent research shows otherwise. 

According to a 2009 study by venom scientist Bryan Fry, Komodo dragons have venom glands in the back of their throats. When attacking their prey, their strength, and stealth work in conjunction with a venomous bite. The venom acts as an <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/106/22/8969">anticoagulant and shock inducer</a>, meaning the prey’s wounds will continue to bleed. Without clotting, the prey animals will suffer from blood loss. The hungry Komodo dragons use their incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/komodo-dragon-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sense of smell</a> to track them down.

&nbsp;
<h2>Komodo Dragon Life History</h2>
&nbsp;

Like their other ecological traits, the Komodo dragon's life history is fascinating, though a bit gruesome. Males tend to be bigger and bulkier than females though this is difficult to observe with the naked eye. A good hunk of carrion tends to be the choice spot for a hot date. A scavenging frenzy anytime between May and August provides ripe grounds for courtship. Males compete with each other for female attention, grappling with their powerful limbs to overtake an opponent. In fact, Komodo dragons have evolved to have <a href="https://news.utexas.edu/2019/09/12/elaborate-komodo-dragon-armor-defends-against-other-dragons/">tiny bones embedded under their scales</a> that act as chain mail. Without other known predators, this armor seems to have developed as a result of the dragons’ fights with each other!

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1893894" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893894" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_347551226.jpg" alt="male komodos" width="500" height="362" /> Males fighting for female attention.[/caption]

&nbsp;
Fun Fact: Female Komodo dragons are able to lay fertilized eggs without the involvement of a male. Called <a href="https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2007/issue26/">parthenogenesis</a>, dragons are the largest known vertebrate to demonstrate these virgin births. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Life as a Hatchling</h3>
&nbsp;

In September, the female Komodo dragons will lay a clutch of about 20 eggs on the ground. They will dig a small depression in the soil to protect the eggs, though their favorite spot tends to be the usurped nests of the turkey-like megapode bird. The babies hatch the following April and are promptly on the run. At their miniature size, the hatchlings only hunt insects and are especially vulnerable. In fact, adult Komodos are cannibalistic and will opportunistically hunt and eat their own young!

The young Komodo dragons take nearly 10 years to mature, then they are ready for their lives as apex predators. With a lifespan of about <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/komodo-dragon">30 years</a>, the young that make it to maturity have plenty of time to rule the islands they call home.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1893895" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1893895" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_708819511-1024x640.jpg" alt="young komodo" width="1024" height="640" /> Young Komodo dragons.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Conservation</h2>
&nbsp;

In 1996, the IUCN listed the komodo dragon as a vulnerable species on their red list. However, over fifteen years earlier, the Indonesian government already had a pulse on the conservation status of the giant lizards. In response to their restricting range, the Komodo National Park was established in 1980. People’s presence on the islands has increased by <a href="https://www.komodonationalpark.org/">800% in the last 60 years</a>, so the Komodo's range in the wild has steadily declined.

 In addition to habitat loss, the dragon’s favorite food is disappearing. The Timor deer, valued for its meat and hide, faces population decline due to poaching along with habitat loss. Also listed as vulnerable by the IUCN, the synchronous plight of the Timor deer speaks to the conservation needs across island ecosystems.

&nbsp;
<h3>Uplifting Native Voices</h3>
&nbsp;

Creating an economy based on ecotourism has generally benefitted both the dragons and the people of Indonesia. Since the Lower Sundas are the only place to see Komodo monitors in the wild, folks from around the world have flocked to witness these real-life dragons in their natural environments. 

However, complexities in land conservation put a damper on the preservation of the Komodo dragon habitat. In creating the national park, the government displaced the Ata Modo people who have lived on the islands for thousands of years. Preserving the island’s ecosystems (to the government’s standards) came at the sacrifice of the native people’s culture. Not only do the Ata Modo also support the preservation of the Komodo dragon, but they are also the dragon experts, having lived with reverence for the giant lizards throughout their history. 

To create a balance between the need to conserve the ecosystems the native people are using their own experience and knowledge of the region to create more encompassing and impactful conservation efforts for the archipelago. Since the park’s formation, the native people have used their tribal rights to assert their voices in the conservation efforts. As climate change continues to shrink the dragon's habitat, a collaboration between the government and tribes is necessary to preserve this incredible species.

Thanks to the advocacy of the Indonesian government and the native people of the Lesser Sunda Islands, the remaining populations of the Komodo dragons have mostly stabilized. Ecotourism opportunities on the islands let dragon-lovers and ecologists from around the world witness these mystical creatures in real life. And while the draw may be the charismatic predators, the blue waters and beautiful vistas of the islands multiply the value of the region. The dragons really are guarding a magical treasure!

&nbsp;

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While spotting a snake can send the heebie-jeebies down your spine, they aren’t always a creature to fear. Steering clear of venomous snakes is always a good idea, but rat snakes are gentle giants. Rat snakes are non-venomous constrictors that can be found around the world. Since rat snakes can grow up to eight feet long, we’ve included eight fun facts about the rat snake that highlight some spectacular parts of their ecology.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Rat Snake?</h2>
&nbsp;

Rat snakes are found in the family Colubridae. That’s not saying much, however, as Colubrids account for two-thirds of the world’s snakes. All snakes in the family are characterized by an absence of legs (yes! Some strange <a href="https://sasn.rutgers.edu/news-events/news/how-fossilized-snake-legs-fits-lineage-lizards">snake species have legs</a>!), lack of upper teeth, and fewer head scales. Additionally, they have slender bodies and flat bellies. To get more taxonomic specificity, we look to the subfamily Colubrinae, which includes both the New World and Old World genera. 

While some Colubrid species are venomous, they are rarely harmful to humans. Since they lack the front fangs, venomous colubrids need to really chew on their prey to inject venom. However, rat snakes are a non-venomous group with a couple of rare exceptions that prove the rule. While they live on nearly every continent (except Antarctica), the highest diversity can be found in North America, Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Fun Fact: Rat snakes are a highly diverse group of snakes, including several genera and 

&nbsp;
<h3>Old World vs. New World</h3>
&nbsp;

Historically, most rat snakes are lumped into the genus Elaphe. This includes species from Asia and Africa (Old World snakes) as well as snakes from North and South America (New World Snakes). While this name is still widely used to encompass species from around the globe, more recent genetic research points in a different direction. Comparing mitochondrial DNA, scientists discovered that North American species form a group distinct from the genes of Old World varieties. While they proposed a new genus name Pantherophis, many herpetologists still use the widely accepted Elaphe even when referring to New World snakes. 

&nbsp;
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1892765" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/shutterstock_569307391-1.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" /></h2>

&nbsp;
<h2>Rat Snake Ecology</h2>
&nbsp;

Rat snakes live around the world in a variety of habitats. While each species is unique, a couple of commonalities in their ecology tie all the species together.

&nbsp;
<h3>Hunting &amp; Diet</h3>
&nbsp;

All rat snakes are constrictors, meaning they squeeze their prey to death with their bodies then swallow it whole. Many assume that constrictors suffocate or break the bones of their prey, but it turns out that neither of these is true. In fact, the goal of constriction is to <a href="https://userweb.ucs.louisiana.edu/~brm2286/constrct.htm">interfere with the circulatory system</a>, killing their prey by cutting off the blood supply to the brain.

These slithery critters aren’t picky eaters. With a generalist diet, they eat everything from small mammals like chipmunks, voles, and other rodents to small fish, frogs, and lizards.

&nbsp;
<h3>Life Cycle</h3>
&nbsp;

Rat snakes have a pretty traditional reptilian life cycle. As springtime warms up, males will emit pheromones to attract a mate. They are oviparous, meaning they lay eggs that aren’t incubated by a parent. Furthermore, after laying a clutch of eggs in a hidden spot, the female will go about her business, leaving the hatchlings to fend for themselves. Their lifespan isn’t very well known and seems to depend on the species and conditions. Black rat snakes, for example, can live up to <a href="https://mlbs.virginia.edu/organism/pantherophis_obsoletus">30 years in captivity</a>, but their lifespan in the wild is unknown.

Fun Fact: Rat snakes don’t provide any parental care to their little ones. They do, however, lay their eggs in a hidden spot, like a hollow log or under a rock.

&nbsp;
<h2>Rat Snake Behavior</h2>
&nbsp;

Once you get past all our human prejudices about snakes, you can discover that they have some truly fascinating behaviors. Rat snakes, in particular, have quite a few amazing aspects to their ecology like musking, mimicry, and migration that we review below.

&nbsp;
<h3>Musking</h3>
&nbsp;

In general, rat snakes are mostly docile, though some species will be more aggressive if they feel cornered. However, many species have developed a sneaky, less energy-intensive defense. Instead of rearing up and trying to fight off a much larger predator, rat snakes will produce a foul-smelling <a href="https://ie.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/277/2019/08/Rat_Snake_Profile_2018.pdf">musk</a>. This behavior, called musking, tries to mimic a poisonous flavor and convince the attacker to drop its would-be prey. Similar to a skunk, however, the musk is completely harmless apart from being distasteful.

Fun Fact: Rat snakes would like to avoid biting you as much as you don’t want to be bit by them. Instead, they produce a smelly musk to deter predators. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Trees To Land To Water</h3>
&nbsp;

Most species of rat snake don’t like to be pigeon-holed into a specific niche. In fact, they are habitat generalists and quite agile! They do enjoy life on the ground… slithering through the leaf litter and digging out cozy burrows. But most species are semi-arboreal, meaning they spend part of their lives in the trees. Very adept climbers, they expand their hunting ground vertically. Climbing trees gives them access to bird eggs — very easy pickings once you’ve scared the parent off.  Along with more food options, they climb the trees to find security. The <a href="https://www.marshall.edu/herp/Snakes/Black_Ratsnake.htm">black rat snake</a> often rests in tree cavities that provide it a cozy shelter from predators and the elements.

Fun Fact: In addition to perusing the ground, rat snakes make amazing climbers — scaling trees for both food and shelter. 

Rat snakes also expand their niche into the water. Many species are great swimmers and will hunt fish, frogs, and tadpoles in bodies of fresh water. They also are often found basking near the edge of the water while they wait for prey.

Fun Fact: Along with climbing and slithering, rat snakes are efficient swimmers. Many species will hunt for aquatic prey.

&nbsp;
<h3>Rattlesnake Mimicry</h3>
&nbsp;

When threatened rat snakes have another trick up their sleeves (or lack thereof). If a predator isn’t close enough to musk, they will try to pretend to be their much scarier cousin. Coiled up, they will vibrate their tail to appear like a rattlesnake. This is such a well-known warning sign, that many potential predators will high-tail it out of the area! The threat is unfounded, as shaking their tail is the closest they will seem to a rattlesnake. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Migration &amp; Hibernation</h3>
&nbsp;

Living the life of a cold-blooded reptile, rat snakes are at the whim and will of their climate. If the temperatures get too cold, they are unable to muster the energy for hunting and survival. In environments with cold winter climates, they generally have two options: migration or hibernation. When winter starts, some species (like <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprd3833915.pdf">these</a> in Illinois) will simply migrate to a warmer spot. Others may choose to hibernate. The black rat snake, for example, seeks out a frost-free den, like a rock crevasse, to snuggle up for the winter.

Fun Fact:  Often many snakes will hibernate together, with anywhere from <a href="https://mlbs.virginia.edu/organism/pantherophis_obsoletus">10-60 rat snakes</a> in a single den! 

&nbsp;
<h2>Common Species</h2>
&nbsp;

Each rat snake has its own binomial name with a genus and species. While their common names are a bit easier to remember, some of them lack specificity, so we’ve listed the scientific name for each snake along with its common names. They also come in a wide range of patterns and colors, so be ready for some variations when you spot these in the wild. 

Fun Fact: A nickname for many rat snake species is simply “chicken snake” because they are known to steal chicken eggs.

&nbsp;
<h3>Black Rat Snake</h3>
&nbsp;

Pantherophis obsoleta

With a shiny black back and white belly scales, black rat snakes are pretty easy to identify. Native to the eastern United States, they are one of the largest snakes in North America, often growing over six feet long.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1892763" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/shutterstock_132255497-1.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="662" /></h3>

&nbsp;
<h3>Eastern Rat Snake</h3>
&nbsp;

Pantherophis alleghaniensis

Including the subspecies of the yellow rat snake, these slithery friends live along the southeast coast of the United States from North Carolina to Florida. Juveniles are gray and blotchy, but as adults, the colors brighten up. They can be yellow, orange, tan, or gray, and sometimes even have <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/florida-snake-id/snake/eastern-ratsnake/">longitudinal stripes</a>.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1892762" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/shutterstock_40750729-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="683" /></h3>

&nbsp;
<h3>Corn Snake</h3>
Pantherophis guttatus

Found across the southeast, the corn snake is smaller than its cousins, though some individuals can reach <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/florida-snake-id/snake/red-cornsnake/">four feet in length</a>. Their dorsal (back) sides are rusty brown with red, orange, and brown splotches outlined in black. A white and black checkerboarded belly adds to their very striking appearance. 

Fun Fact: The corn snake is the most popular choice for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/easiest-pets-care/">serpentine pet</a>. 

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1892764" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/shutterstock_82483834-1024x768.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="768" /></h3>

&nbsp;
<h3>Gray Rat Snake</h3>
&nbsp;

Pantherophis spiloides

Another southern native, the gray rat snake lives between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. The adults are gray with darker gray blotches on their backs. Additionally, they have very rough scales and have a larger keel than other species.

&nbsp;
<h2>In the Wild</h2>
&nbsp;

If you happen to encounter a rat snake in the wild, there are a few things to remember. First, congratulations! It’s a special experience to witness wildlife in their natural habitats, and many are camouflaged. If you aren’t an enthusiastic herpetologist, however, we can assure you that you’ll be just fine. Give the snake some space, and don’t pester it. Rat snakes are incredibly important for pest control, so we want to keep them around our ecosystems. If you are interested to learn more, grab a local ID guide for your state or region, and let the herp-ing (looking for reptiles and amphibians) commence! 

&nbsp;

8 Surprising Facts About the Rat Snake

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You've been rocking on the boat all day and haven't had even the faintest nibble. Suddenly, the line jerks and you run over to it to begin an hours-long battle with the mystery fish. Imagine the thrill of finally pulling a 1000 pound marlin out of the depths of the open ocean during your deep-sea fishing charter. It's a thrill that some fisherpeople get addicted to, a feeling they live for.
Our deep oceans contain the biggest fish in the world. Fishers will travel the world over for the chance to reel in a honkin' tuna or a shiny Dorado. Deep-sea fishing is a considerable recreation and travel industry that supports fishing guide businesses around the world.

&nbsp;
[caption id="attachment_1892427" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1892427 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/sea-3652697_1920.jpg" alt="open ocean" width="1920" height="1280" /> Ain't much to look at when you're deep-sea fishing. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/dimhou-5987327/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dim Hou</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/sea-water-ocean-quiet-horizon-3652697/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>What is Deep-Sea Fishing?</h2>
&nbsp;

Most people call any type of recreational fishing done below 100 feet in ocean waters deep-sea fishing.  While commercial fishing boats often fish at these depths, this article won't cover that kind of deep-sea fishing.
Any sort of freshwater or saltwater bay fishing isn't considered deep water fishing. Since the deep seas are, by their nature, far from land, deep-sea fishing is always done on a boat. Sometimes boats can get to deep-sea depths relatively close to shore. Other times this sort of fishing is done dozens, or even hundreds, of miles from the nearest land.
Some fisherpeople also call this type of fishing sport fishing or trophy fishing.

&nbsp;
[caption id="attachment_1892430" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892430 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/hanging-3045269_1280.jpg" alt="deep-sea fishing lures" width="1280" height="835" /> Various kinds of deep-sea fishing lures. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/paulbr75-2938186/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Paul Brennan</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/hanging-hook-lures-fishing-3045269/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Different Types of Deep-Sea Fishing</h2>
&nbsp;

Most fishers hire a guiding company for their deep-sea fishing excursions. These fishing charters vary depending on the location, guide company, and species of fish. One thing is certain; deep-sea fishing isn't for those without their sea legs. The open ocean has big, rolling waves, which constantly rock even the nicest boats. With only water on the horizon, even strong-stomached anglers can get nauseous. You can opt for either a deep-sea fishing charter with a group or as a private charter.
Guides will usually let their customers try various kinds of fishing methods during a deep-sea fishing excursion. These methods can include trolling, chumming, popping, and jigging. Trolling is where anglers dangle their lines behind a quickly moving boat, sometimes with live bait. Chumming includes throwing bait onto the water to lure deep-sea fishes up to the surface. Jigging is a type of lure fishing where the lure is attached to a lead weight that makes it dance in a particular way deep beneath the surface. Fishers usually set these jigs at various depths with the boat slowly drifting along. Popping is a more unusual way to deep-sea fish. It involves using larger lures called 'poppers' that slap the water to make sounds that entice nearby fish.

&nbsp;
<h3>Half-Day Trips</h3>
&nbsp;

The cheapest option for sport fishing trips is usually a half-day tour. These shorter tours typically don't go too far from the land because it takes a long time to venture way out into the ocean.

&nbsp;
<h3>Full-Day Trips</h3>
&nbsp;

Full-day fishing trips are a common type of trophy fishing. These charter boats leave the shore early in the morning and sometimes return after sunset. Full-day trips give anglers a better chance of trying different methods of deep-sea fishing.

&nbsp;
<h3>Night Fishing Adventures</h3>
&nbsp;

Some kinds of fish only bite at night. To catch these fish some guides lead night-time deep-sea fishing tours.

&nbsp;
<h3>Multi-Day Excursions</h3>
&nbsp;

These deep-sea fishing trips are the creme de la creme. While they are the most expensive, they also offer the widest variety of opportunities. Fishers can expect to fish during different times of day with multiple methods. This variety gives anglers the best chance to catch their dream fishes.

&nbsp;
[caption id="attachment_1892431" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892431 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/boat-5429345_1280.jpg" alt="deep-sea fishing" width="1280" height="857" /> Dorado, or mahi-mahi, is an exciting deep-sea fish species to catch. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/larsen9236-47917/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lisa Larsen</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/boat-fishing-fishing-boat-5429345/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>What Kinds of Fish do Sport Fisherpeople Catch?</h2>
&nbsp;

Most of the desired deep-sea fish live in the pelagic zone of the ocean. The pelagic zone is all of the ocean that isn't close to some sort of boundary. These boundaries include the seafloor, the ocean surface, and any coast. Deep-sea fishers usually aren't going for <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/seven-surprising-secrets-of-the-deepest-sea-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">those awfully strange</a>, truly deep-ocean fish that live near the seafloor. The pelagic ecosystem is based on photosynthetic plankton. These plankton live near the upper reaches of the pelagic zone because they need sunlight to live. Pelagic fishes will <a href="https://www.vox.com/unexplainable/22348461/ocean-twilight-zone-mysteries-unexplainable-podcast" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">migrate to different depths</a> or locations based on the availability of plankton.
All coasts of the U.S. have deep-sea fishing opportunities. The East coast <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/491041/fmars-07-00012-HTML/image_m/fmars-07-00012-g005.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">represents about 40%</a> of recreational marine fishing. The Gulf of Mexico and Hawaii account for <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/491041/fmars-07-00012-HTML/image_m/fmars-07-00012-g005.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">20% each</a>. Alaska and the West coast account for <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/491041/fmars-07-00012-HTML/image_m/fmars-07-00012-g005.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">about 10% each</a>. Abroad, coastal countries around the world offer unique deep-sea charters and experiences.

&nbsp;
<h3>West Coast</h3>
&nbsp;

Off the California, Oregon, and Washington coast, people like to fish for yellowtail, sturgeon, albacore tuna, rockfish, barracuda, white sea bass, and lingcod. The ocean around California's Channel Islands is a uniquely beautiful place to fish with abundant deep-sea fisheries.

&nbsp;
<h3>East Coast</h3>
&nbsp;

Off the East coast of the U.S. people catch bluefin and yellowfin tuna, cod, striped bass, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruption-fishing-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mackerel</a>. People can even leave for these trips from mega-cities like New York and Boston.

&nbsp;
<h3>Gulf of Mexico</h3>
&nbsp;

The Gulf of Mexico is a major deep-sea fishing destination. People can access the Gulf of Mexico from Florida, Texas, the eastern coast of Mexico, and the Caribbean islands. This gulf is a particularly biodiverse body of water, making it an interesting place to sport fish. Fishers can catch Dorado, shark, king mackerel, red snapper, and Spanish mackerel.

&nbsp;
<h3>Alaska</h3>
&nbsp;

Alaska is world-renowned for its fishing. This massive state has plenty of open ocean to choose from. Deep-sea fishers can expect to fish for massive halibut and salmon, as well as crab.

&nbsp;
<h3>Hawaii</h3>
&nbsp;

Who wouldn't want to fish the tropical waters of Hawaii? As the only islands for hundreds of miles around, Hawaii is an excellent jumping-off point to quickly access the true open ocean. Fishers can fish for awesome species in Hawaii like the Yellowfin ahi tuna, giant blue marlin, dorado, sailfish, swordfish, and wahoo.

&nbsp;
[caption id="attachment_1892429" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1892429 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/charter-4682523_1920.jpg" alt="deep-sea fishing rods" width="1920" height="1281" /> Fishing rods wait for bites from deep-sea fish. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/jasongillman-1088827/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Jason Gillman</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/charter-fishing-water-marine-4682523/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Does Deep-Sea Fishing Harm Fish Populations?</h2>
&nbsp;

In raw numbers, deep-sea fishing doesn't account for a whole lot of the global fish take. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00012/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Less than 1%</a> (by mass) of marine fish killed annually are by recreational fishers. Industrial fishing fleets take the vast bulk of the world's catch, with subsistence artisanal fishers taking varying degrees depending on the fishery. <a href="http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/44?chart=catch-chart&amp;dimension=sector&amp;measure=tonnage&amp;limit=10" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Bahamas</a> is an extreme case where 30% of fish taken out of the ocean is for recreation.
However, even though recreational fishing doesn't take a huge amount of fish out of the ocean, some scientists are concerned with the species of fish and the particular individuals that recreational fishers target.

&nbsp;
<h3>Small Numbers Can Be Deceiving</h3>
&nbsp;

Even though deep-sea fishers don't catch that many fish, the particular species and individuals they target can affect fish populations. Trophy fishers often aim to catch the big fish species that reproduce slowly. <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/fish/Atlantic_bluefin_tuna/natural_history.html#:~:text=LIFE%20CYCLE%3A%20Atlantic%20bluefin%20tuna,octopus%2C%20crabs%2C%20and%20sponges." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Tuna</a> often live 40 years. Most other deep-sea fishes sought by recreational fishers live decades. Fish that live a long time typically take more years to reach their reproductive age. This means that if the adults from a population of these fish are reduced by overfishing, it can take a long time for their population to rebound.
Moreover, sport fishers target the largest individuals of these slowly reproducing species. By their nature, these large fishes are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X14001754?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">often the best reproducers</a> in the population. Some scientists are concerned that targeting the healthiest individuals of a population puts significant pressure on the population. Sports fishers are increasingly turning to catch-and-release methods instead of killing fish. While this method is preferable from the fish's standpoint, it can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/catch-release-fishing-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">still have lasting impacts</a> on the fish.
In particular, the trophy fishing of <a href="http://www.seaaroundus.org/sea-around-us-collaborator-says-shark-fishing-should-be-considered-ocean-vandalism/#more-18610" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">threatened species of sharks</a> is alarming.
Lastly, outside of the U.S., <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00012/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientists don't have much data</a> on what species of fish and how many fish recreational fishers take out of the oceans. Their estimates vary from 0.5 million tons per year to 10 million tons per year! Without this data, it is difficult to say the extent to which recreational fishing impacts fish populations.

&nbsp;
<h2>Get Fishing!</h2>
&nbsp;
With a fish species, a destination, and a budget in mind, you can figure out the fishing trip that is right for you. Maybe it's near your home, or perhaps it is a getaway to some tropical coastline half the world away. Best of luck on your angling adventures!
Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/scottslm-10594535/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scott</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/deep-sea-fishing-boat-fishermen-boat-5847660/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.
&nbsp;

What Actually is Deep-Sea Fishing?

You've been rocking on the boat all day and haven't...

Today we're talking about the beloved hummingbird. There are few creatures that bring such unabashed delight and a feeling of whimsy to unsuspecting onlookers. And while these tiny birds can't help but make you smile, many people do not realize what a big journey some hummingbirds embark upon twice each year. From Mexico, all the way to Canada and beyond, hummingbirds migrate incredible distances. 

To understand these amazing birds a bit better, we'll look at the basics of hummingbirds and their migration patterns. Additionally, we'll look at the way you can work to attract and increase hummingbird sightings near your own home and garden. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Hummingbird basics </h2>
&nbsp;

Let's begin with the basics: Hummingbird species are native to South America, Central America, and North America. They are endemic to the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140403153408/http://www.ontariohummingbirds.ca/migrationrange_maps.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">western hemisphere</a>. Depending on the species, their range stretches from the tip of Tierra del Fuego all the way to Alaska. The botanical name for this family of hummers is <a href="http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Archilochus_colubris/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Trochilidae</a> - of which there are around 360 species. Most hummingbirds are less than 5 inches in length. Their body weight varies and can be anywhere from 2.0g to 24g. 

Hummingbird food sources are <a href="http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Archilochus_colubris/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">flower nectar, flying insects, and spiders</a>. 

Various species have been studied extensively in regard to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-appear/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">their flight patterns</a>. The wings of an average-sized hummingbird species can beat up to 80 times per minute. The speed at which these wings move creates a powerful humming sound if you slow down long enough to really listen. 

Hummingbirds pollinate over 7,000 species of plants in their broad regions. Scientists are studying the ways in which hummingbirds and particular plants have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4460853/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">evolved and adapted together</a> over the course of millions of years. It is a striking example of how we are just beginning to understand the intricate links of biologically diverse ecosystems. 

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1892416" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/hummingbird-2876457_1280-1024x768.jpg" alt="hummingbird" width="1024" height="768" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Migrations</h2>
&nbsp;

Birders and scientists observe <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/do-hummingbirds-migrate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">two migration periods</a> in hummingbirds. Firstly, there is the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6037137/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spring migration period</a> in which birds fly (north or south) to their breeding grounds, beginning as early as February. Depending on the species, these breeding grounds range from Alaska to Argentina - so it's a really broad range. <a href="https://www.hummingbirdcentral.com/hummingbird-migration.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Males usually arrive first</a>. 

Secondly, once the temperatures begin to drop in the deciduous forests after the birds have bred and fledged their young, these migrant species return to the tropics of Mexico, the Caribbean, and areas of Central America for wintering. 

There are conflicting opinions on what triggers migration movements, so further study is important. Some scientists theorize that it has to do with dwindling daylight others. Other triggers likely relate <a href="https://www.hummingbirdcentral.com/hummingbird-migration.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to the abundance (or lack) of flowers</a>, and evolved instincts. 

The furthest north-breeding hummingbird is the rufous hummingbird. This species makes their winter homes along the Gulf of Mexico. This means that they have the longest migratory pattern of any bird in the world when compared to their body size. At about 3 inches long, the rufous hummingbird travels about 3,900 miles one way, all the way from Alaska. 

But not all hummingbirds migrate. For instance, Anna's hummingbird is a year-round resident of Florida, California, Texas, and other Southern regions of North America. They are territorial birds. Other year-round hummingbird species that do not migrate away from their territory include some ruby-throated hummingbirds, calliope hummingbirds, black-chinned, and Allen's. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds: How Breeding And Migration Weave Together</h2>
&nbsp;

Let's focus on one species specifically: the ruby-throated hummingbird. They are an iridescent green bird with a white belly and a red band of color along the neck. You will see them humming around the regions of North and Central America. These migrating hummingbirds <a href="http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Archilochus_colubris/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">winter in tropical regions</a> of Mexico, Costa Rica, and the West Indies.

In the breeding season (March-May), ruby-throats live in deciduous and pine forests. Males will first return to the breeding range before the females, where they will select their breeding grounds. When the females arrive, the males begin <a href="http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Archilochus_colubris/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">performing courtship displays</a>. After copulating, the pair will go their separate ways and the female begins to build her nest - usually around 3 days after arriving. Females will use lichen, moss, and bark to construct their nest, which can <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Rufous_Hummingbird/lifehistory" target="_blank" rel="noopener">be reused in subsequent years</a>, though not necessarily by the same individual. 

You can watch the path of the migration and arrivals through this <a href="https://maps.journeynorth.org/map/?year=2020&amp;map=hummingbird-ruby-throated-first" target="_blank" rel="noopener">interactive hummingbird migration map. </a>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1892417" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/nature-731458_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="hummingbird on branch" width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Attracting Hummingbirds To Your Home </h2>
&nbsp;

Want to attract hummingbirds to your home? Easy - get rid of your lawn! 

Easier said than done for some of us, of course. But if you have the resources and social capital to make decisions about your space, you can make big changes for these little birds. In reverting a chemically-treated patch of Kentucky bluegrass to a restored version of native perennials and annuals, the birds and other pollinators will find their way to you. 

To specifically attract hummingbirds, plant red, bell-shaped flowers. Hummingbirds especially appreciate tubular blooms. For example, and depending on what is native to your area (and not invasive!) salvia, honeysuckle, and bee balm are good options to consider. . Hummingbirds have an affinity for the color and shapes of these blooming species. 

You can also hang hummingbird feeders in your yard and experiment with <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/migratory-birds/hummingbird-nectar-recipe" target="_blank" rel="noopener">different versions of hummingbird nectar recipes</a>. Often, the feeders themselves are red in color, which will help to attract the birds to your yard, but there is no need to dye the nectar red with food coloring! Just plant more red flowers nearby instead. In the summer months, you'll want to change this nectar regularly, as heat and sugar can ferment into alcohol. 

If you have a cat that roams about the outdoors, you will want to keep them out of this area - otherwise, your yard will be less of a bird haven and more of an ideal feline hunting ground. 

Who knows, before long, these backyard birds might just turn you into a bit of a birding enthusiast!

Tiny Bird, Big Journey: Hummingbird Migration

Today we're talking about the beloved hummingbird. There are few...

A nudibranch is a kind of sea slug. With over <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/collage-nudibranch-colors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">3,000 species</a> in the order of Nudibranchia, these colorful clowns are full of intrigue and surprise. Living in a variety of marine ecosystems, nudibranchs have some fascinating qualities...and they aren’t trying to be discrete. These shell-less gastropods have evolved into a rainbow of bright colors and patterns, with some crazy appendages too! In fact, the name “nudibranch” derives from the Latin word nudus meaning “naked” and the Ancient Greek word bránkhia meaning “gills,” referring to their naked gills that protrude like stalks or feathers from their bodies. Beyond their wild appearances, nudibranchs have also developed some pretty alien adaptations. Read on to learn more about their incredible ecology and aquatic superpowers!

&nbsp;
<h2>Life As a Nudibranch</h2>
&nbsp;

These bejeweled slugs are not just funny-looking, they also have a fascinating ecology. Below, we’ve provided a bit of background on nudibranchs, including helpful terms and fun facts.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1892200" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1892200" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/nudibranch-202327_1920.jpg" alt="Nudibranch" width="1920" height="1082" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/vjacob1-78318/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=202327" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Vivi Ann Jacobsen</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h3>Nudibranch Morphology</h3>
&nbsp;

The first impression of a nudibranch might make you think it’s the love child of the 1970’s psychedelic era and aliens from the future. But we (along with marine biologists around the world) have learned to accept a wild appearance when it comes to ocean life. Nevertheless, these squishy invertebrates should get awards in both funk and spunk, given their diversity in color and texture.

However, there are a handful of characteristics that all members of the order have. For starters, nudibranchs stay smaller than 10 cm in length, though some can be microscopic while the largest species is almost 40 cm. Though different species may appear very different, their similar morphology can give us fascinating insight into their physiology. Below are a few terms and their descriptions to help you better understand these. 

&nbsp;
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Nudibranch Characteristic</td>
<td>Description &amp; Function</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mantle</td>
<td>The dorsal portion of a gastropod body. Without a shell, a nudibranch’s mantle has evolved to be quite decorative and includes the protruding cerata.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cerata</td>
<td>External appendages of the nudibranch’s digestive and circulatory tract. Functioning as the gills, the cerata allow for gas exchange. In many species, the nematocysts are stored in the cerata and are used as the organism’s defense.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Rhinophores</td>
<td>Similar to antennae, rhinophores are sensory organs positioned on the head. Primarily used for chemosensory like smell and taste, they help the nudibranch find food.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Oral Tentacles</td>
<td>Used more for the tactile sense, the oral tentacles help the nudibranchs navigate around the seafloor.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Radula</td>
<td>At first, the radula appears to be similar to a tongue. However, on closer inspection, it is a ribbon of tiny teeth that it uses to eat its prey.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
&nbsp;
<h3>Taxonomy</h3>
&nbsp;

Nudibranchs are found in the phylum Mollusca (mollusks) and share the class Gastropoda with other slugs and snails. Gastropods are the most specious class of animals outside of insects. That means we’re dealing with quite a few types of slugs and snails. They can be found on land and in water, and even these marine gastropods can be found across several different orders. That’s where our nudibranchs break off. They fall in the order of Opisthobranchia, including all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-slug-movement-efficient-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">marine slugs</a> such as sap-sucking slugs, sea hares, side gill slugs, and bubble snails. Finally, because of their diet and gill placement, the suborder Nudibranchia breaks off from the other opisthobranchs.

This classification goes further with two subgroups of nudibranchs, divided again based on more specific gill placement. Dorid nudibranchs are the most common types of nudibranchs and have a concentration of cerata that form a ring around their anus, called a branchial plume. (You read that right - they breathe where they poop!) Aeolid (or eolid) nudibranchs, on the other hand, have cerata spread more evenly across their mantle.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1892199" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1892199" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/nudibranch-1196451_1920.jpg" alt="Nudibranch" width="1920" height="1374" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/monicavolpin-1476511/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1196451" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Monica Volpin</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h3>Nudibranch Diet</h3>
&nbsp;

Surprising as it may be, these small, squishy, colorful slugs are all predatory carnivores. However, hunting isn’t a very athletic pursuit. They feed on <a href="https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cnso_stucap/23/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">filter-feeding animals</a> like corals, sponges, barnacles,  and anemones. Some species of aeolid nudibranchs do trap sea jellies as their food source, though this is about as tactical as they get.  Some nudibranchs will even eat members of their own species.

&nbsp;
<h3>Habitat &amp; Distribution</h3>
&nbsp;

Living throughout the world’s oceans, these marine slugs peruse the seafloor from tidepools to depths up to 6,500 feet. Most species of nudibranch prefer benthic, or ground-dwelling, life and spend their time oozing across the sea bed. However, a couple of types are more agile swimmers and hunt for food near the surface or in the water column. 

&nbsp;
<h3>Nudibranch Life Cycle</h3>
&nbsp;

Like most gastropods, nudibranchs are hermaphrodites, meaning a single individual has both male and female genitalia. However, they can not self-fertilize, so will still seek out another nudibranch to mate. They will then lay a gelatinous mass of up to <a href="http://legacy.earlham.edu/~brickte/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one million eggs</a>. When the baby nudibranchs hatch, the larvae look more like snails as they have tiny shells. When the larval form metamorphosizes, however, the shells fall off to reveal the shell-less adults in all their colorful glory. Like many mollusks, nudibranchs don’t live very long. With some fluctuation depending on environmental conditions and resource availability, the lifespan for most species sits around 18 months.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1892198" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1892198" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/nudibranch-2328630_1920.jpg" alt="Nudibranch" width="1920" height="1080" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/misterflo-5415806/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=2328630" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Florent Horn</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Nudibranch Superpowers</h2>
&nbsp;

Just as a pretty addition to the coral reef, nudibranchs are fascinating. But there’s a bit more to their crazy and beautiful world. In fact, most nudibranchs have some unbelievable adaptations, akin to superpowers. Who knows? Maybe the next blockbuster superhero movie will be inspired by these marine slugs!

&nbsp;
<h3>Stealing the Sting</h3>
&nbsp;

If you ask a nudibranch its favorite meal, it will most likely say anything in the phylum Cnidaria. This fascinating and diverse group of creatures includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-secrets-of-coral-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">coral</a>, true jellyfish, hydroids, anemones, and box jellies. And they all have one thing in common...they sting. 

All <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-kill-toxin-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cnidarians</a> have specialized stinging cells called <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cnidaria.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nematocysts</a>. Each cell contains a barbed, coiled thread that can spring out in self-defense and inject the threat with venom! This strategy has mostly worked out for cnidarians, as very few animals want to eat them. But that leads us back to the real stars of the show. 

Nudibranchs demonstrate a phenomenon in which they can eat their cnidarian prey without activating the nematocysts. Instead, they are able to <a href="http://legacy.earlham.edu/~brickte/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">incorporate these specialized cells</a> into their own anatomy by passing the nematocysts from their digestive tract to their skin and repurpose them for their own self-defense. Nudibranchs essentially absorb the defense adaptations of another creature for their own gain! 

&nbsp;
<h3>The Blue Dragon</h3>
&nbsp;

One amazing example of this can be found in the <a href="http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/harvellcom/2019/03/25/voyage-of-the-blue-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Blue Dragon</a> nudibranch with the scientific name Glaucus atlanticus. Unlike its bottom-dwelling relatives, this nudibranch swims toward the surface to pick off its prey. Quite the daring feat, as its prey is none other than the Portuguese man o’ war. To hunt it, the nudibranch sucks air into its body to help it rise to the surface where it floats upside down, waiting for its prey. Since the Blue Dragon steals from one of the most dangerous siphonophores in the ocean, its readapted sting can also pack quite the punch. 

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1892197" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1892197 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/chromodoris-1537996_1920.jpg" alt="Nudibranch" width="1920" height="1440" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/arhnue-1896944/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1537996" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arhnue Tan</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h3>Photosynthetic Animals?!</h3>
&nbsp;

Not only can nudibranchs steal the stinging cells from their prey, but a small group of aeolid nudibranchs can also swipe another amazing superpower. These marine slugs add a type of zooxanthellae (microscopic green algae) to their diets, allowing them to incorporate cells containing chloroplasts into their own anatomy. As a result, they can make their own food from sunlight through <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/things-you-forgot-in-high-school-photosynthesis-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">photosynthesis</a>! 

&nbsp;
<h3>Coloration</h3>
&nbsp;

Famous for their bright colors, nudibranch’s appearance captivates scuba divers and blog readers alike. But why do these sea slugs look like they are headed to Coachella? Depending on the species, there can be two different answers to this question: camouflage or aposematism.

When an organism uses striking colors and patterns to warn of its toxicity, this adaptation is called aposematism. Think of it as a visual “Don’t Eat Me” sign. Since nudibranchs are able to absorb the stinging cells of their prey, this warning is a good thing for their potential predators.

In addition, many nudibranchs spend most of their time perched on the corals, sponges, and anemones that they eat. Since many of these ocean critters are brightly colored themselves, the nudibranchs are barely perceptible among the reefs. It turns out that their spectacular colors make for a cryptic camouflage (blending in with their environment)!

&nbsp;
<h2>A World to Explore</h2>
&nbsp;

Without a doubt, these tiny, rainbow slugs are a true treat of marine life. And as official members of the nudibranch fan club, we can all do our part to support more research, education, and conservation of these incredible animals. Unfortunately, most species haven’t been accessed, so we don’t have a great idea how environmental challenges affect them. However, early research shows that obstacles such as pollution, habitat degradation, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-will-be-worse-than-expected-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ocean acidification</a> have caused declines in nudibranch populations. For the sake of all the amazing oceanic ecosystems, let’s do what we can to keep the psychedelic nudibranch around to inspire generations to come.

&nbsp;

[Featured Image by <a href="https://unsplash.com/@kmkr" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kris Mikael Krister</a> on Unsplash.]

Diving Into the Crazy and Beautiful World of Nudibranchs

A nudibranch is a kind of sea slug. With over...

The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in the US. Known as a federal register of animals on the brink of extinction, it is a law that goes deeper than that. It has supported federal agents, activists, and everyday people in saving endangered species. From iconic Bald Eagles and lesser-known critters like the Island Night Lizard, the act has facilitated these species to temporary recovery. 

Millions of people will flock to natural areas like Yellowstone this summer. The Endangered Species Act is connected to these national park areas and conservation.  So it's a good time to take a look at the history of this law.

&nbsp;
<h2>Chronological Timeline</h2>
&nbsp;

Protecting threatened animals and habitats seems like a no-brainer. However, the endangered species act is actually a relatively recent piece of legislation. It continues to change as time goes on. These policies have been mired in politics and conflicting motives from the very beginning. Understanding history can help you understand what's going on today. In the following section, there is a timeline and brief history of the act: 

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1892187" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/cranes-726456_1920-1024x679.jpg" alt="cranes" width="1024" height="679" />

&nbsp;
<h3>1966: The Endangered Species Preservation Act</h3>
&nbsp;

Firstly, according to the U.S. Fish And Wildlife Service (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-history.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fws.gov</a>), this 1966 act was the first means of listing native animals as at-risk species. The act allowed the federal government to provide "limited protection" to these animals. Agencies could act to reserve critical habitats. The law authorized the Services to acquire land to this end. 

&nbsp;
<h3>1969: The Endangered Species Conservation Act </h3>
&nbsp;

Secondly, in 1969, congress amended the Preservation Act. It would now include additional protection for animals at risk of "worldwide extinction". The USFWS explains that the additional protections included prohibiting people from importing or selling certain animal species in the United States. The legislation called for an international meeting to determine conservation plans for endangered animals on a global level. 

&nbsp;
<h3>1973: CITES or The Convention On International Of Endangered Species</h3>
&nbsp;

Thirdly, in 1973 a conference was held in Washington D.C. 80 different nations signed the convention. The agreement centered on monitoring and restricting the international sale of threatened species.

&nbsp;
<h3>1973: The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)</h3>
&nbsp;

Later in the same year as the convention, Congress unanimously passed the Endangered Species Act. President Nixon signed it into law. This was groundbreaking legislation because it defined "endangered" and "threatened" on a federal level. It stretched to include plants and invertebrates as eligible for protection. It prohibited federal agencies from funding or carrying out any action that would threaten or jeopardize listed species or their critical habitats. The act requires that federal agencies conserve endangered species and it also made matching funds available to states for cooperative agreements. 

Also, within the ESA, the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/endangered-species-conservation#:~:text=NOAA%20Fisheries%20is%20responsible%20for,the%20ecosystems%20they%20depend%20on." target="_blank" rel="noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> is responsible for the "protection, conservation, and recovery of endangered and threatened marine and anadromous species". 

&nbsp;
<h3>1978 And Beyond: ESA Amendments</h3>
&nbsp;

Congress amended the ESA in 1978. These amendments allowed Federal agencies to take actions that would endanger listed species <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1978.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">if cabinet-level committee gave them exemptions</a>. Furthermore, critical habitat had to be listed concurrently with corresponding species and economic factors were to be taken into consideration when deciding on area boundaries. 

Later, in 1982, Congress made further amendments, including that the status of species was to be determined independently of economic factors, and speeding up the process of evaluating candidate species. 

In 1988 Congress determined that candidate and recovered species must be monitored and would be eligible for emergency listing if there were significant risks. Any recovery plans became <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1988.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">open to public comment</a> and mandated reports. 

Additionally, in 2004, things changed yet again in conjunction with the National Defence Authorization Act. Congress amended the ESA, exempting the Defence Department from critical habitat designations as long as there was "an integrated natural resources management plan prepared" and accepted by the Secretary of the Department of the Interior. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Polarized Protection </h2>
&nbsp;

There are conflicting views of the ESA. Not everyone was (or is) on board with the initiative. As a result, the supreme court has seen <a href="https://www.justice.gov/enrd/supreme-court" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an increased amount of litigation</a> around the ESA since the act's inception. Conflicts might include home builders and birdwatchers - like in the case of the National Association Of Home Builders Vs. Defenders Of Wildlife. Sometimes, the argument at play is one of the various definitions of national security. An example of this would be Winter Vs. NRDC: Navy Sonar and Whales.  

Our country continues to embody growing political extremism in the face of the climate crisis. The ESA as it currently stands is barely enough to protect animal and plant populations. Let's hope it continues to be a force for the protection of biodiversity and habitat protection for the foreseeable future.  

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1892188" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/grizzly-73505_640.jpg" alt="grizzly bear" width="640" height="426" />

&nbsp;
<h2>The Future Of the Endangered Species Act </h2>
&nbsp;

While in power, the Trump administration made <a href="https://www.edf.org/ecosystems/maintaining-our-bipartisan-wildlife-history" target="_blank" rel="noopener">numerous attempts to attack</a> the science-based decision-making and conservation tactics of the ESA. Even though this legislation is incredibly popular amongst most Americans, there are <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/senate-blocks-legislation-to-reverse-clean-water-act/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">those still in office today</a> who seek to chip away at it. For example, Rob Bishop of Utah, the former chairman of the House Committee on Natural Resources has often spoken about scrapping the law altogether and "modernizing it". Environmentalists say does not bode well for the species this act was designed to protect. 

Bold climate action from congress and the senate are necessary for the protection of biodiversity and natural resources. 

Importantly, we can all participate in the endangered species act in small ways that can accumulate into massive changing tides. People-powered initiatives can and do address climate change. 

For instance, we all know that ddt is bad and that styrofoam will be around for millions of years after we're dead. Take the next step. Familiarize yourself with the endangered species list and how it relates to your region. Plant certain plants, restore your lawn to native specimen and for the love of compost, stop using synthetic pesticides. 

Combat foreign species where you can, and maybe <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vegetarian-diet-boston/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">forage them for dinner</a> (like in the case of garlic mustard). Vote for local national politicians who <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-clean-air-act-has-saved-as-many-as-1-5-billion-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">demonstrate dedication to green initiatives</a> and value the environmental protection agency. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Conclusion </h2>
&nbsp;

The danger of extinction is real and looming. Furthermore, our continued existence depends on the health and vitality of the landscapes we call home. 

We all define our roles within communities of plants, animals, fungus, and people in different ways. However, in the face of the climate crisis, we have to find ways to move sustainably into the future. Whether you live on an island of the coast of Florida, in the redwoods of California, the crowded metropolises of New York, or the wilderness of Alaska, these conversations, legislations, and correlating activism will impact you. 

With the imperiled species recovery of whooping cranes, gray wolves, monarch butterflies, grizzly bear, the American alligator, and so many more, our own species might recover and survive as well. Lastly, it won't be the first time our species has risen to unprecedented circumstances. 

&nbsp;

A Brief History of the "Endangered Species Act"

The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in...

<div class="wp-block-group"><div class="wp-block-group__inner-container">


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897193" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/hallucigeniafossil-1024x712.jpeg" alt="hallucigenia fossil" />
<figcaption>Fossil of Hallucigenia sparsa at the Royal Museum of Ontario via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HallucigeniaSparsa-ROM-June11-10.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikimedia</a>.</figcaption>
</figure>

 

<h2 id="h-setting-the-stage">Setting The Stage</h2>

 

Hallucigenia existed during the middle of the Cambrian era, about 500 million years ago. This era was just after the 'Cambrian explosion' when the diversity of life on Earth radiated from simple, multi-cellular organisms to complex animals that were the ancestors of animals that live on Earth today. 


500 million years ago most life was in the oceans instead of on land. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent Gondwana</a> was forming, which created a massive mountain range. The nutrients that flowed down to the ocean from the erosion of that mountain range is thought to have provided the building blocks necessary for the Cambrian explosion. 


The big dinosaurs and insects didn't evolve until much later. During the middle Cambrian era, most animals were still fairly small. 


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897194" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/7036595247_e7f639bb02_c.jpg" alt="burgess shale, fossil" />
 
<figcaption>Fossils collected by Charles Doolittle Walcott from the Burgess Shale at the Smithsonian Museum. Hallucigenia is in the top right corner. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ideonexus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryan Somma</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ideonexus/7036595247" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flickr</a>.</figcaption>
</figure>


<h2 id="h-an-unusual-encounter">An Unusual Encounter</h2>


Charles Doolittle Walcott discovered the first fossils of a strange, worm-like creature in the burgess shale of Canada in 1911. Mr. Walcott was a distinguished paleontologist who later rose to be the head of the Smithsonian from 1907-1927. Walcott described this other-worldly creature as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/annelids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annelid</a>. He gave the fossils the genus name of Canadia, based on where he found the fossils. 


Annelids are a group of animals that includes segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches.


<h2 id="h-the-trippy-re-discovery-of-hallucigenia">The Trippy Re-Discovery of Hallucigenia</h2>


Although he was a world-class paleontologist, Walcott was wrong about his Canadia fossils being annelids.


Simon Conway-Morris, an English paleontologist, decided to look into Canadia. After researching the fossils for some time, he re-named the mundane Canadia genus to Hallucigenia in 1977. He thought these creatures had a "bizarre, dream-like quality" and named them accordingly. Conway-Morris decided that the creature was closer to a caterpillar than a worm because of all the unusual appendages shown in the fossils. He also thought that Hallucigenia walked on pointy, stilted legs and that it used the appendages on its back as food-scavenging tentacles. 


In a fun fact in scientific history, Conway-Morris won the Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal in 1987. This medal is only given out every five years.


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897353" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1341968684.jpg" alt="" />
 
<figcaption>An artistic rendition of Hallucigenia foraging on the ocean floor.</figcaption>
</figure>


<h2 id="h-an-upside-down-flip-of-hallucigenia">An Upside-down Flip of Hallucigenia</h2>


Half a century after Walcott's discovery, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/351225a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lars Ramsköld and Hou Xianguang</a> conducted the first about-face in this creature's story. Ramsköld and Hou took a close look at some Hallucigenia fossils from China. These fossils flipped (literally) a new page in our understanding of the genus. 


Researchers Ramsköld and Hou realized prior researchers had imagined the Hallucigenia upside-down since its discovery. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/351225a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In 1991</a>, Ramsköld and Hou suggested that the long spikes of Hallucigenia were actually protective spikes on the creature's back, not stilted legs. The food-foraging appendages were actually the dexterous legs that these worm-like creatures used to move around. A key hint in the Chinese fossils that supported Ramsköld and Hou's reorientation lied in the legs. The new legs had little claw-like structures on the end of them. These claw-like structures gave strong evidence to support those appendages being legs.  


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897354" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_535109380.jpg" alt="" />
 
<figcaption>A 3d rendered illustration of a tardigrade.</figcaption>
</figure>


<h3 id="h-taxonomical-reclassification">Taxonomical Reclassification</h3>


Ramsköld and Hou also thought that Hallucigenia was more closely related to velvet worms (Onychophora) than to caterpillars, as Conway-Morris had thought. More specifically, Hallucigenia are currently described as lobopodians ('blunt-feet' in Latin). Some taxonomists consider <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-makes-the-tardigrade-so-resilient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a> (sometimes called water bears) in this same group. Lobopodians are a type of arthropod, which are segmented insects with appendages and an exoskeleton Arthropods are part of the superphylum of ecdysozoans, which includes nematodes, and some marine worms.


Today, velvet worms live in the tropics and the southern hemisphere, where they appear as something between a velvety caterpillar and a worm. Further research of Hallucigenia will help scientists construct a more accurate common ancestor of velvet worms.


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897355" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_9616774.jpg" alt="" />
 
<figcaption>A cute velvet worm curled up.</figcaption>
</figure>


<h3 id="h-what-about-that-dark-blob">What About that Dark Blob?</h3>


Shortly after his upside-down dicscovery with Hou, Ramsköld questioned whether the head of Hallucigenia was actually its real head. All the Hallucigenia fossils had a <a href="http://Walcott, C. 1911. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology II. Middle Cambrian annelids. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 57(5): 109-145." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark blob</a> on one end of the body. While prior researchers had assumed this was a blob-like head, Ramsköld wasn't so sure. 


He thought the blob might be a result of the creature's death. Perhaps all of the guts squirted out of the worm as it died, creating a small puddle behind the creature in the fossil. While Ramsköld had no evidence, he had a hunch that the blob might actually be at the tail end of this insane critter.


<h2 id="h-hallucigenia-s-face-to-tail-transition">Hallucigenia's Face to Tail Transition</h2>


It took scientists over 20 years to confirm what Ramsköld expected. Martin R. Smith from the University of Cambridge and Jean-Bernard Caron from the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto used an electron microscope to analyze Hallucigenia fossils in great detail and resolution. Martin Smith and Jean Caron made a startling discovery while looking at what was previously thought to be the tail. They saw two simple eyes and even a goofy smile on the mouth of the fossil. The mouth even had a ring of needle-like teeth in its throat. This evidence confirmed Ramsköld suspicion that Hallucigenia's head was actually not the blob but the other side of the body. This face-to-tail transition was the most modern change in our understanding of Hallucigenia. 


We currently understand there to be three species of in the Hallucigenia fossil record; Hallucigenia sparsa, H. fortis, and H. Hongmeia.


<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img class="wp-image-1897356" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1370840759.jpg" alt="" />
 
<figcaption>Another modern artistic rendition of Hallucigenia.</figcaption>
</figure>


<h2 id="h-what-hallucigenia-teaches-us-about-the-scientific-process">What Hallucigenia Teaches Us About the Scientific Process</h2>


While Hallucigenia is an interesting animal, its wild ride of being turned upside-down and front to back teaches a lot about the scientific process. Science is our best guess as to what is happening in the natural world. Time and again, these guesses are proven to be off point or just plain wrong. The scientific disciplines build off of prior research to try to get ever closer to the truth. New technologies, such as the electron microscope in this case, often help to reimagine a previously accepted scientific hypothesis. Oftentimes, these changes meet great resistance from the prior generation of researchers who don't want their work refined or overturned.


It is likely that researchers will make yet another groundbreaking discovery of Hallucigenia. Don't be surprised when they do! Paleontology techniques will improve. Technology will become more sophisticated. And researchers might twirl Hallucigenia around in another direction making it even more bizarre.

</div></div>

What the Heck is Hallucigenia?

Fossil of Hallucigenia sparsa at the Royal Museum of Ontario...

Maybe it’s the appeal of feathery snuggles or the hope of whistling tunes together. Or maybe you are looking for a lifelong companion… With their hilarious personalities and intelligence, birds make wonderful pets. But which pet bird is right for you? This guide can serve to introduce you to the most popular pet bird species and give some pointers to help you choose which bird species is right for you!

There are a few things to consider before buying any bird. No matter the type, pet birds require a hearty investment of both your money and time. Birds, especially parrots, are incredibly social and intelligent creatures. All birds need a lot of human attention - a minimum of two hours per day out of the cage, even for beginner birds.  If you have the time and resources to dedicate, a pet bird makes the perfect companion! 

&nbsp;
<h2>Best Pet Birds for Beginners</h2>
&nbsp;

A few bird species appeal more to families and first-time bird owners. Budgies, cockatiels, and lovebirds make great companions and are generally more amicable than their larger cousins.

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893587" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1573188811.jpg" alt="budgies" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Budgies</h3>
&nbsp;

Incredibly popular as a first pet, budgies, also called parakeets or budgerigars, make a great choice for kids. These wee birds can grace your home with their pretty colors and jovial companionship. They love playtime and will enjoy riding around on your shoulder and playing with echoes and mirrors. You can find them in blues and grays to greens and yellows. Relatively quiet compared to some of the squawkers on this list, budgies can still learn to whistle or talk. Budgies specifically are native to Australia, though there are over 100 species of parakeet worldwide. 

&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li>Size: One of the smallest parrots, budgies are about 7 inches long. </li>
 	<li>Lifespan: Budgies live for between <a href="https://vetmed.illinois.edu/pet_column/bird-basics-proper-parakeet-husbandry/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7-15 years</a>, depending on care.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: Keep budgies in a cage with room to fly from perch to perch. Often, you want more horizontal than vertical space.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893589" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_788248486.jpg" alt="Cockatiels" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Cockatiels</h3>
&nbsp;

Want a little bird with some spunk? The cockatiel has a sweet personality with a mohawked rocker look and is another excellent choice for beginner bird owners. Along with their crest, cockatiels are known for bright orange cheek spots. Outside these traits, cockatiels come in a variety of patterns, including grays, whites, and yellows. Another Australian native, these birds travel in flocks around the inland forests, looking for seeds and handing with their friends. 

Cockatiels are very friendly and affectionate. A popular pet bird for kids, cockatiels love cuddling, head-scratches, and generally spending time with you. They love riding around on shoulders and being a part of your day.  As a bonus, cockatiels can learn to whistle tunes, though males are more likely to pick up a melody than females. 
<ul>
 	<li>Size: The smallest member of the cockatoo subfamily (Cacatuinae), cockatiels range between <a href="https://www.mit.edu/~rei/Tiels.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">9-13 inches</a> long.</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: In the wild, cockatiels live between 10-14 years. With proper care, they often live to <a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/news/pet-talk/so-you-want-a-pet-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">25 years</a> in captivity.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: Pretty good flyers, even with their wings clipped, cockatiels need plenty of room to stretch their wings in their cage. They also require a diverse diet. In addition to bird pellets, give your cockatiel veggies and seeds.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893590" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1462391174.jpg" alt="Lovebirds" width="500" height="316" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Lovebird</h3>
&nbsp;

A bit more inquisitive and exploratory than the other small birds, the lovebird can be a sweet first pet bird. Once tamed, lovebirds love to play and are known for exploring pockets and shirtsleeves and playing with jewelry and toys. They love human attention and will bob around to catch your eye. 

In general, lovebirds are extremely sweet and make a great companion for a family. However, there are a few things to note. Compared to budgies and cockatiels, lovebirds both have a much louder shriek and a much stronger bite. If they want attention or are annoyed at you, they will let you know. If you choose a lovebird, be prepared to dedicate time for play and training.
<ul>
 	<li>Size: One of the smaller members of the parrot family (Psittacidae), lovebirds are about <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/activities/bird/rosy-faced-lovebird" target="_blank" rel="noopener">6 inches long</a></li>
 	<li>Lifespan: Lovebirds live between 10-20 years with attentive care</li>
 	<li>Care Tip: Smaller birds can live in smaller cages, but make sure your lovebird has enough room to play and stretch its wings.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<h2>Advanced Pet Birds</h2>
&nbsp;

If you have some experience raising and training birds, you might consider one of the larger advanced parrots. In general, the bigger the species, the more intelligent and higher maintenance birds. These pet bird species are a true step up in need for your time. Your lifestyle needs to be conducive to lots of training attention, as well as a commitment to their longer lifespans. Note that most of these bird species bond to a single human and can inflict a powerful bite. All of these birds need to be supervised around children.

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893591" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1921436243.jpg" alt="Parrotlets" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Parrotlets</h3>
&nbsp;

Little birds with a big personality, parrotlets are tiny, blue and green punks! Their size makes them easier to handle, though don’t assume these tiny squeakers to be as docile as a budgie. They are more similar to a macaw in temperament and have high requirements for attention and training. Parrotlets are a great choice for the more advanced pet owner who lives in an apartment!
<ul>
 	<li>Size: One of the smallest birds on this list, parrotlets are about 5 inches long</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: 15-20 years</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: With daily love and training, parrotlets can be very affectionate pets!</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1893592 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1655020630.jpg" alt="Conures" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Conures</h3>
&nbsp;

The socialites of Central and South America, Conures love to play and have a sneaky sense of humor. Coming in a wide variety of bright colors, conures are incredibly beautiful birds. They love playtime and use their bills to explore. Giving them plenty of toys to chew will entertain them and protect your furniture! If well-socialized, they make the perfect companion for the whole family. Though if they haven’t had proper training, they are known to have screeching outbursts and pretty hard bites.   
<ul>
 	<li>Size: A medium-sized parrot, conures are about <a href="https://www2.newpaltz.edu/~mcglinnl/animals/bluecrownedconure.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">14 inches long</a>.</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: Conures live between <a href="https://www2.newpaltz.edu/~mcglinnl/animals/bluecrownedconure.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20 and 30 years</a> in captivity.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: Conures need a cage with plenty of room to climb and play. Lots of toys and a variety of perches will make a suitable habitat.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893593" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_752619508.jpg" alt="Hyacinth Macaw" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Macaws</h3>
&nbsp;

Big, beautiful, and boisterous, a macaw on the shoulder is a classic image that comes to mind of a pet bird. Native to Central and South America as well as the Caribbean Islands, there are a handful of species that come in a variety of colors. From the gorgeous blue of the hyacinth macaw to the primary patterns of the scarlet macaw, these parrot species undoubtedly add eye-catching drama to your life. These big birds come with big personalities! Another formidable pet for beginners, they can be delightful, sociable companions with the proper training and attention. 
<ul>
 	<li>Size: Macaws range from <a href="http://www.srl.caltech.edu/personnel/krubal/rainforest/Edit560s6/www/animals/macawpage.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">12-36 inches long</a>, depending on the species.</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: 30-50 years, depending on the species and care.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: Macaws take up space in your home and your life! They need a large cage with plenty of toys. For many larger parrots, we recommend you build an extra playground space in addition to their toys in their cage.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893594" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_83947186.jpg" alt="African Grey Parrot" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>African Grey Parrot</h3>
&nbsp;

Known as the most intelligent bird on the planet, African Greys are a pet to impress. Native to central Africa, the United Nations has <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/united-nations-bans-trade-of-african-grey-parrots/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">banned</a> the trade of this genius bird due to its declining population. So if you’re in the market for an African Grey, find a reputable breeder!

Besides <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/07/african-grey-parrot-outperforms-children-and-college-students/">beating</a> Harvard students in a memory test, African Greys make very entertaining pets. They form incredibly close bonds, though usually just to a single human. They need lots of attention and mental stimulation. 
<ul>
 	<li>Size: A medium-sized parrot, African Greys are about <a href="http://sw01.bcc.cuny.edu/NIURKA.CRUZ/africangreys.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">13 inches long</a>.</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: Adopting an African Grey as a pet is a very serious commitment. With the proper care, African Greys can live up to <a href="http://sw01.bcc.cuny.edu/NIURKA.CRUZ/africangreys.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">80 years</a>.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: Without proper care, they can be stressed, sick, and self-destructive. While these birds are incredibly charming and it may be tempting to have such an intelligent feathered friend, we discourage most pet owners from adopting one if you don’t have the skill level and commitment required to care for an African Grey.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1893595" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1186434226.jpg" alt="Sulphur Crested Cockatoo" width="500" height="334" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Cockatoos</h3>
&nbsp;

The cuddle bugs of the bird world, cockatoos bring beauty and fun to a bird-lover’s life. They are known for being extremely affectionate and bonding closely with their owners. Silly birds, cockatoos put on entertaining dances and have even been known to<a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/07/study-of-snowball-the-cockatoo-suggests-humans-arent-the-only-ones-who-can-dance/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> keep a beat</a>. This great personality must be earned, however, with plenty of attention and proper training. Without the proper care, cockatoos can be self-destructive. Cockatoos have a high surrender rate, meaning that many people tried adopting them before realizing they were too much effort.
<ul>
 	<li>Size: One of the larger pet birds, a cockatoo is about <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Cacatua_galerita.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20 inches long</a>.</li>
 	<li>Lifespan: Cockatoos can live up to <a href="https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/45146/PDF/1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">80 years old</a>.</li>
 	<li>Care Tips: If hand-weening a cockatoo, intersperse interaction time with time alone in the cage. That way, the baby cockatoo will get used to occasionally entertaining itself on its own. If you are away from your cockatoo, make sure it has plenty of toys and some tunes to listen to!</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;
<h2>Finding a Breeder for Your Pet Bird</h2>
&nbsp;

Whichever pet bird species you choose, the next step is to find a reputable breeder. While many pet shops offer a variety of parrots, some source them from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-mills-pets/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bird mills</a> that value profits over the sweet lives of the birds. Check out your local aviculture society or exotic bird club to get recommendations for a breeder that loves and cares about the birds as much as you do!

Last tip: before adopting, find a well-reviewed avian vet in your area. It’s good to be connected with one before your bird gets sick. Because they are prey animals, birds hide signs of illness, so all birds benefit from yearly checkups.

Now that you’ve found a breeder and a vet, you are ready to adopt! We wish you the happiest days with your sweet feathered friend!

Which Birds Make the Best Pet Birds?

Maybe it’s the appeal of feathery snuggles or the hope...

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Human impact on Earth's freshwater resources revealed Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/video">NASA Goddard</a> reveals the surprising influence that humans have on Earth's freshwater resources.

In the first study to assess seasonal variability in water bodies worldwide, researchers have discovered that water levels in human-managed reservoirs fluctuate about four times more compared to natural lakes and ponds. 

"We tend to think of the water cycle as a purely natural system: Rain and snowmelt run into rivers, which run to the ocean where evaporation starts the whole cycle again," said study lead author Sarah Cooley of Brown University. "But humans are actually intervening substantially in that cycle. Our work demonstrates that humans are responsible for a majority of the seasonal surface water storage variability on Earth."

The study was focused on data from NASA's Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat-2). The primary goal of the ICESat-2 mission is to track changes in the thickness and elevation of ice sheets around the world. The measurements are obtained using a laser altimeter, and elevation is calculated to an accuracy of 25 millimeters. 

The satellite measured seasonal water levels in more than 227,000 lakes, ponds, and reservoirs worldwide from October 2018 to July 2020. The water bodies ranged in size from the American Great Lakes to ponds with areas less than one tenth of a square mile. 

The study revealed that while natural lakes and ponds varied seasonally by an average of .22 meters, human-managed reservoirs varied by .86 meters. This means that, when compared to natural lakes, reservoirs account for 57 percent of the total variation. 

Human influence on freshwater resources was found to beP even stronger in arid regions like the Middle East, American West, India and Southern Africa, where seasonal variability attributed to human activity exceeds 90 percent.

"Of all the volume changes in freshwater bodies around the planet - all the floods, droughts and snowmelt that push lake levels up and down - humans have commandeered almost 60% of that variability," said study co-author Professor Laurence Smith. 

"That's a tremendous influence on the water cycle. In terms of human impact on the planet, this is right up there with impacts on land cover and atmospheric chemistry."

Video Credit: NASA Goddard

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human impact on Earth's freshwater resources revealed

Human impact on Earth's freshwater resources revealed Today's Video of...

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The Vatnajökull ice cap in southeast Iceland Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 view of the Vatnajökull ice cap in southeast Iceland.

Vatnajökull is the biggest glacier in Europe, covering an area of more than 3,200 square miles. 

The ice cap has about 30 outlet glaciers, many of which are shrinking as a result of rising temperatures. One of these glaciers, Vatnajökull, is positioned over some of the most active volcanoes in Iceland such as Bárðarbunga and Grímsvötn.

On the southern side of Vatnajökull, the Jökulsárlón glacial lake has grown to become Iceland's deepest lake. Because it connects with the ocean, the lake contains both seawater and freshwater. 

The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, therefore being  of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Also there is  a period of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Iceland also followed Norway's integration into that union, coming under Danish rule after Sweden's secession from the union in 1523.  The capital and largest city is Reykjavík

Video Credit: ESA  

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Vatnajökull ice cap in southeast Iceland

The Vatnajökull ice cap in southeast Iceland Today's Video of...

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The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Galápagos Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. This region is one of the most famous places on the planet for viewing wildlife.

The Galápagos Islands are home to many native plants and animals that cannot be found anywhere else in the world, including giant tortoises and sea lions. 

When Charles Darwin visited the islands in 1835, his wildlife observations inspired the theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1959, the Ecuadorian government made the entire archipelago a national park to protect its unique diversity. 

The archipelago is made up of 13 major islands and several smaller islands and islets across 60,000 square kilometers of ocean. According to ESA, repeated volcanic eruptions and ongoing seismic activity have helped form the rugged mountain landscape of the islands. The older names remained in use in English-language publications, including Herman Melville's The Encantadas of 1854.  Therefore Galapagos owns one of the provinces of Ecuador, made up of three cantons that consist  the names of its most populated islands, which are San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz and Isabela. 

The largest of the Galapagos Islands, Isabela, was formed when multiple Volcanism has been continuous on the Galápagos Islands for at least 20 million years, and possibly  even longer. The mantle plume beneath the east side of volcanoes merged into one single land mass. The Galápagos Archipelago is characterized by large contemporaneous volcanoes, some with plume magma sources, others from the <a title="Asthenosphere" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>, 

Video Credit: European Space Agency 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific

The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific Today's Video of...

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Satellites help keep people safe from algae blooms Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how satellites are helping scientists monitor recreational sites for potentially harmful algae blooms.

Kate Fickas of Utah State University uses satellite images to make sure the water is safe for people and pets.

“I grew up swimming in the Willamette River in Oregon, and diving in lakes over the summer,” said Fickas. “So it means a lot to me that I’m able to not only help develop algorithms for monitoring cyanobacteria blooms, which is interesting in itself, but to be able to take that next step and keep the public safe, and allow them to safely recreate and enjoy the water the way that I do.”

Blooms occur when the populations of algae, phytoplankton, and cyanobacteria explode in numbers as a result of warm temperatures and excessive nutrients.

Fickas noted that many water bodies in Utah meet those conditions, especially with warming temperatures due to climate change, as well as nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and other sources.

Satellites such as Landsat 8 can detect when a lake changes color due to outbreaks of algae. 

Video Credit: NASA Goddard 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites help keep people safe from algae blooms

Satellites help keep people safe from algae blooms Today's Video...

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The Amazon River in South America Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features a satellite view of the Amazon River in the rainforest of South America.

The Amazon River flows more than 4,000 miles from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean on the northeast coast of Brazil, passing through six countries along the way.

The Amazon is considered the widest river in the world, as well as the largest drainage system, with more than 1,100 tributaries. 

These rivers provide a range of habitats for various types of wildlife, including swamps, marshes. and streams.

According to WWF, it is estimated that approximately one-sixth of all the freshwater that drains into the world's oceans goes through the Amazon delta, where the river meets the Atlantic Ocean.

Video Credit: ESA

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Amazon River in South America

The Amazon River in South America Today's Video of the...

<div id="58e3ebce955a315103d39bd1" class="vdb_player vdb_58e3ebce955a315103d39bd158d96b98cd4fed198a0d2a49" data-placeholder="//img.vidible.tv/prod/2021-02/12/60268d766c527231b9c1e9a7/60268d93481d0100014a1398_768x432_FES_v1.jpg?w=1600&amp;h=900&amp;q=60"><script src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" type="text/javascript"></script></div>

Valentine Island in western Australia Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Valentine Island off the coast of western Australia.

The tiny island is located in the King Sound, a large gulf and inlet of the Indian Ocean.

According to the<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=nasa&amp;cvid=43697a2372814c2aaef744253b1c12a9&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j0l4j69i60l3.598j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> ESA</a>, the King Sound has one of the highest tides in Australia, reaching a maximum tidal round of around 11 to 12 meters. 

The port town of Derby can be found on the eastern shore of the King Sound near the mouth of the Fitzoy River. This area of Australia's Kimberley Region is known for having a coast lined with mangroves that support an abundance of wildlife including birds and fish. 

The first <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/europeans-are-widely-supportive-of-space-exploration/">Europeans</a> to visit Western Australia consisted of the Dutch Dirk Hartog expedition, who also  visited the Western Australian coast in 1616. Therefore the  first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826. Also the Valentine Island in western Australia  defines the border with South Australia and the Northern Territory surrounded by the Indian Ocean. The total length of the state's eastern border is 1,862 km

Video Credit: ESA

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Valentine Island in western Australia

Valentine Island in western Australia Today's Video of the Day...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/">Queensland University of Technology</a> describes how pumice helped solve the mystery of what killed millions of shearwater birds in 2013. 

The team found evidence that migrating seabirds are eating materials that are not even food, including pumice stones, because they are starving.

Study lead author Dr. Lauren Roman is a researcher at Australia's national science agency CSIRO. She said there was much discussion in the scientific community about the causes of mass mortality of seabirds which are often found with plastic and other non-food items in their stomach.

"We found that in the instance of the shearwater bird deaths in 2013, these birds were starving, and in their starved state had reduced prey discrimination," said Dr. Roman.

"Our study investigates the chicken-and-egg dilemma - do animals starve from eating non-food or do animals eat non-food because they are starving?""

Seabirds are indicator species that can be used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems. Mass mortalities are often indicative of changing food webs and ecological conditions.

The study was focused on short-tailed shearwaters, which migrate from Australia to the North Pacific in April and return late in the year. Among 172 deceased seabirds that were recovered from the New South Wales and Queensland, 96.7 percent had ingested pumice or plastic.

The researchers used satellite systems to track the 2013 shearwater migration and compared the data to locations of a large pumice raft produced by a large volcanic eruption north of New Zealand in 2012.

"We proposed that a short time period between non-food ingestion and death would indicate that birds were already starving at the time of non-food ingestion, and a starving state would be reflected by poor body condition and reduced muscle mass," explained study co-author Professor Scott Bryan, who has been studying pumice rafts for over 20 years.

"Death after a longer period would indicate that birds starved following ingestion of non-food."

Professor Bryan said detailed information about the route of the pumice raft was an integral part to determining the answer of where the birds had consumed the pumice.

"We combined the tracking information data of the short-tailed shearwaters, using location tags on migrating birds, and the geological signature of the ingested pumice."

"By October 2013 when the shearwaters were returning to Australia on their annual migration from the North Pacific, the floating pumice was now located along their flight path as they approached Australia."

Once the experts had established when the birds ate the pumice, and their physical condition at the time, they were able to conclude that the birds were already starving when they ate the pumice. Furthermore, the study revealed that the seabirds had ingested the pumice about 12 to 41 hours before death.

"With a projected increase in challenging times for wildlife because of threats such as climate change, marine pollution and over exploitation of resources, this study has implications for mass mortalities and exacerbation of existing threats to marine species," said Dr. Roman.

Video Credit: Queensland University of Technology 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pumice solved the mysterious deaths of seabirds

Today's Video of the Day from Queensland University of Technology...

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Pelicans use wind from ocean waves to save energy Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">UC San Diego</a> describes how pelicans seem to effortlessly glide along the crests of ocean waves close to shore.

The experts found that pelicans use wind updrafts generated by the waves to conserve energy as they fly. This technique is known as wave-slope soaring.

"There's a community of biologists and ornithologists that studies the metabolic cost of flight in birds that can use this and see how their research connects to our estimates from theory," said study lead author Ian Stokes.

"Likewise, our model generates a basic prediction for the winds generated by passing swell, which is important to physicists that study how the ocean and atmosphere interact in order to improve weather forecasting."

"This is an interesting project because it shows how the waves are actually moving the air around, making wind," said Professor Professor Drew Lucas. 

"If you're a savvy bird, you can optimize how you move to track waves and to take advantage of these updrafts. Since seabirds travel long distances to find food, the benefits may be significant." Therefore Pelicans use wind from ocean waves to save energy.

Video Credit: UC San Diego 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pelicans use wind from ocean waves to save energy

Pelicans use wind from ocean waves to save energy Today's...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Arctic region of Lapland, which is known for its vast wilderness, ski resorts, and natural wonders such as the Northern Lights.

Lapland is Finland’s northernmost region, and borders Sweden, Norway, Russia, and the Baltic Sea. It is also bound by the Norwegian Sea on the west, the Barents Sea on the north, and the White Sea to the east.

In the winter months, Lapland has temperatures of below zero and the Northern Lights, or the Aurora Borealis, can he viewed in the night sky. 

The capital of Lapland, Rovaniemi, is considered the official hometown of Santa Claus. Here, the Arctic Circle runs through Santa Claus Village, which is located eight kilometers north of the city center. 

Finland is one of the places in the Arctic Circle where you can experience the Midnight Sun, or 24 hours of sunshine in the summer, and the Polar Night, when the sun does not appear in the winter.

Video Credit: ESA

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The northern European region of Lapland

Today's Video of the Day from the European Space Agency...

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Rice roots use a spiraling strategy to become established Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> describes a strategy used by rice plants that grow their roots in a spiraling pattern for a greater chance of becoming established.

The researchers set up a camera on rice seeds sprouting in clear gel to examine how the roots burrow into the soil. A new picture was captured every 15 minutes for several days after germination.

The team discovered that rice roots use a trick to gain a foothold in the soil by making corkscrew-like motions with the tips of their roots. 

Sprouting seeds face the challenge of anchoring the plant and moving downwards to suck up the water and nutrients the plant needs to grow. The genes governing root meristem activity also constitute promising targets for adapting root growth to different soil stress conditions.

According to the researchers, the spiral growth of root tips is a strategy that rice plants use to grow in hard, compacted soil. Rice is distinct from other crops as it is cultivated in flooded paddy soils over most growth stages. In flooded paddy soils, O 2 is secreted through the aerenchyma of rice roots leading to oxic zones around the roots. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rice roots use a spiraling strategy to become established

Rice roots use a spiraling strategy to become established Today's...

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Astronauts share stunning views of the northern lights Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the northern lights over Canada captured by astronauts on September 28, 2017. The video is a time-lapse of nearly 1,000 still frames shot over a span of 15 minutes.

At the time the photographs were taken, the International Space Station was passing from the northwestern region of the United States toward the southeast.

“The time-lapse imagery that we’ve been able to get of auroras is just fascinating to watch,” said Will Stefanov, ISS program scientist for Earth observations at Johnson Space Center. “And just strikingly beautiful to be able to see that process, how the aurora shifts and moves like a live thing. And knowing that for that particular stretch of time, you are pretty much seeing what the crew saw in orbit.”

Just about a week prior to the time-lapse footage, astronaut Randy “Komrade” Bresnik had captured a spectacular photograph of the aurora borealis as the space station passed over Ontario, Canada. Auroras are the result of disturbances in the magnetosphere caused by solar wind. Therefore these disturbances chanhe the trajectoriy of charged particles in the magnetospheric plasma. These particles, such as electrons and protons, precipitate into the upper atmosphere (thermosphere/exosphere). The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emit light of different color and complexity. The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.

Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Astronauts share stunning views of the northern lights

Astronauts share stunning views of the northern lights Today's Video...

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How land subsidence contributes to sea level rise Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how land subsidence alters the shape of ocean basins and contributes to sea level rise. 

During the last ice age about 20,000 years ago, the northeastern region of the United States, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada,</a> and other regions were weighed down by ice sheets. When the ice melted and its weight was lifted, the land surface slowly rebounded. 

The resulting land movement, as well as subsidence related to human activities, play a significant role in sea level rise. For example, the Mississippi River Delta is essentially drowning as sinking ground is combined with higher sea levels, according to NASA. Also in substances can occur in various ways during an earthquake. Broad areas of land can subside drastically during an earthquake because of offset along fault lines. Land subsidence can also occur as a result of settling and compacting of unconsiderate sediment from the shaking of an earthquake. The blunder occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults. As the cumulative moisture deficit is reversed, which can last up to 25 years, the surface level around the tree will rise and expand laterally.

Video Credit: NASA Goddard 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How land subsidence contributes to sea level rise

How land subsidence contributes to sea level rise Today's Video...

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Forests are becoming younger and smaller Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/">U.S. Department of Energy</a> describes how climate change is transforming the world's forests. 

The researchers analyzed satellite data and found that the global average tree size has declined over the last century. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/landslides-erupt-after-haitis-deadly-earthquake/">Earth's</a> trees are also becoming increasingly younger, which is due to a higher rate of tree mortality that is linked to global warming and other factors.

"Unfortunately, mortality drivers like rising temperature and disturbances such as wildfire and insect outbreaks are on the rise and are expected to continue increasing in frequency and severity over the next century," explained study lead author Dr. Nate McDowell.

"So, reductions in average forest age and height are already happening and they're likely to continue to happen." Forests are the predominant terrestrial <a title="Ecosystem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> of Earth, and are distributed around the globe. Therefore there is more than half of the world’s forests that can be  found in only five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Russian Federation and United States of America). The largest part of the forest (45 percent) is found in the tropical domain (Tropical forests), followed by the boreal, temperate and subtropical domains.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Video Credit: DOE Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

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Forests are becoming younger and smaller

Forests are becoming younger and smaller Today's Video of the...

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The Egyptian resort town of Sharm El Sheikh Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) provides a glimpse of the famous coastal resort town of Sharm El Sheikh in Egypt.

Located on the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula in between the desert and the Red Sea, this region was a vacation destination for ancient Romans and Greeks all the way back to the 4th century B.C.

Divers are attracted to Sharm El Sheikh to explore the diverse marine life found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corals-in-the-northern-red-sea-can-resist-global-warming/">Red Sea,</a> including hundreds of coral reefs. Ras Muhammad National Park one of the most popular diving destinations in the region, with its clear warm water and breathtaking desert landscape.

The Authorities in Egypt announced earlier this week that the completion of the wall is encircling the Red Sea resort town of Sharm El Sheikh in South Sinai, according to a statement made by Tamer Makram, the head of the South Sinai Investors, to Youm7. The attack took place on Egypt's Revolution Day, a public holiday in Egypt, and was part of a strategy of hurting Egypt's economy by disrupting tourism, a major industry.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Video Credit: European Space Agency

The Egyptian resort town of Sharm El Sheikh

The Egyptian resort town of Sharm El Sheikh Today's Video...

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Jaguars will soon be severely threatened Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology">Queensland University of Technology</a> describes how climate change may impact the jaguar, the dominant predator of Central and South America.

According to the research, jaguars in the Peruvian Amazon will be able to handle climate change in the short-term, but could become severely threatened as extreme weather events increasingly interfere with food resources.

“Estimates of jaguar numbers are difficult to achieve because the big cats are cryptic by nature, are not always uniquely identifiable, and their habitat can be hostile to humans,” explained study co-author Professor Kerrie Mengersen.

The investigation was focused on data from a 2016 expedition to the Pacaya Samiria Reserve, which covers 20,800 square kilometers in the Loreto region of the Peruvian Amazon. 

Professor Kevin Burrage explained that the predicted outcomes for the jaguars were concerning in the long-term. 

“Our results imply that jaguars can cope with extreme drought and flood, but there is a very high probability that the population will crash if the conditions are repeated over short time periods. These scenarios are becoming more likely due to climate change,” said Professor Burrage.

“The declines may be further exacerbated by hunting of both jaguars and their prey, as well as loss of habitat through deforestation.”

Video Credit: QUT Media

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jaguars will soon be severely threatened

Jaguars will soon be severely threatened Today's Video of the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> describes what stargazers can see in the sky this month. 

In early March, two reddish objects will line up with Mars: the stars Aldebaran, which forms the angry eye of Taurus the bull, and Betelgeuse, the shoulder of Orion. 

This Friday morning, look for the bright star Antares about 8 degrees below the waning gibbous Moon. In addition, Mercury and Jupiter and Mercury will appear at their closest to each other as morning twilight begins.

On Tuesday, March 9, the waning crescent Moon and the planets Saturn, Jupiter, and Mercury will appear near the horizon as morning twilight begins.

The first day of Daylight Savings Time falls on Sunday, March 14, 2021. Also beginning on this day, a "Wet Moon" or a "Cheshire Moon" will be visible for a few nights. This is when the thin, waxing crescent Moon appears to look like a smile in the evening sky.

On Friday night, March 19, the waxing crescent Moon will form a triangle with Mars and the bright star Aldebaran. This event will be followed by the astronomical end of winter on Saturday, March 20 at 5:37 a.m. EDT.

Also, be sure to look for Venus on March 26 and the full Moon on March 28.

Video Credit: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

NASA skywatching tips for March 2021

Today's Video of the Day from the NASA Jet Propulsion...

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Vancouver, British Columbia Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Vancouver, a busy seaport on the west coast of British Columbia.
Vancouver is one of Canada's most densely populated and ethnically diverse cities, and is also known for being eco-friendly. 
Officials have developed a plan to make Vancouver "the greenest city in the world." The project involves improving air quality, constructing greener buildings, reducing CO2 emissions, and reducing traffic by promoting cycling, walking, and public transportation use.
The city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The family name "Vancouver" itself originates from the Dutch "van Coevorden", denoting somebody from the city of Coevorden, Netherlands. The explorer's ancestors came to England "from Coevorden", which is the origin of the name that eventually became "Vancouver".
The indigenous Squamish people who reside in a region that encompasses southwestern British Columbia including this city gave the name K'emk'emeláy̓ which means "place of many maple trees"; this was originally the name of a village inhabited by said people where a sawmill was established by one Captain Edward Stamp as part of the foundations to the British settlement later becoming part of Vancouver
Vancouver is already one of the most sustainable cities on the planet, with 95 percent of its electricity coming from renewable energy sources. 
Video Credit: ESA 
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vancouver, British Columbia

Vancouver, British Columbia Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en">Aalto University</a> describes how screen time improves the lives of saki monkeys in captivity. 

In collaboration with Korkeasaari Zoo, the researchers built an on-demand video device for white-faced saki monkeys to activate whenever they want. 

"We were very much interested in how we can give animals control over their environment and especially how they can control technology," said study lead author Ilyena Hirskyj-Douglas.

"Typically, when we use technology with animals, we use it on them, so we play them sounds or video, rather than giving them the option of controlling the technology themselves."

The device played five different kinds of scenes: marine life such as jellyfish, wiggly worms, zoo animals like zebras, makis and dear, abstract art, or lush forests.

"We got interesting results. First of all, we learned that the monkeys do pay attention to the screen; they watch it and touch it. We also suspect they recognize objects on the screen. One of the videos we had featured meal worms - an everyday meal for them. They actually tried to lick the screen and even went around the tunnel to see if the worms were behind it," said study co-author Vilma Kankaanpää.

The saki monkeys scratched themselves significantly less often when they were offered on-demand videos. For monkeys in captivity, scratching can be a sign of stress.

Video Credit: Aalto University 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Saki monkeys benefit from screen time

Today's Video of the Day from Aalto University describes how...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the world’s largest river delta, the Ganges Delta, which covers an area of around 100,000 square kilometers.

The delta is primarily formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, both of which are visible in the image. The snow-covered Himalayas mountains can also be seen in the top of the photograph.

The Ganges river flows for over 2,400 kilometers from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. The river carries fertile soil and nutrients and deposits them across its vast delta floodplain. 

Video Credit: European Space Agency 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The world's largest river delta

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://eros.usgs.gov/image-gallery/image-of-the-week">USGS</a> shows how one of the worst natural disasters in history reshaped the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. 

In December of 2004, an earthquake off the coast of northern Sumatra was so intense that it lifted the seafloor several meters and sent tsunami waves in every direction. The 9.1-magnitude Indian Ocean Earthquake ranks as the third must powerful on record. 

Waves that reached the coast of Sumatra were as high as 30 meters. Landsat images show where the vegetation was completely stripped away along the coast, as well as the recovery in the years that followed. 

Video Credit: USGS

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indian Ocean tsunami reshaped the coast of Sumatra

Today's Video of the Day from the USGS shows how...