For millennia, the planet's birds have been an integral part of the ecosystem, playing important roles in pollination, seed dispersal, and controlling insect populations. Sadly, human activity has put many species of birds in danger.



The world's population has <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/earth-s-population-doubled-since-1960-1.336155">more than doubled</a> since 1960, and as our demand for resources increases, so does the pressure on the environment. Sure, human activity is the primary threat to birds, but there are other causes, too.



In this post, we'll take a look at some of the most vulnerable bird species and why these birds are endangered. We'll also outline some of the things you can do to help protect them.



<h2 id="h-which-bird-species-are-endangered">Which Bird Species Are Endangered?</h2>



There are <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/birds#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than%2011%2C000,the%20most%20unique%20bird%20species.">more than 11,000 species</a> of birds in the world, with the tropics being home to the greatest diversity. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List classifies bird species into several categories, including birds that are vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. The list also includes animals from other groups, such as mammals, reptiles, and fish.



Currently, the IUCN lists <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/more-critically-endangered-birds-iucn-red-list#:~:text=The%20IUCN%20Red%20List%20now,than%20in%20the%202008%20update.">192 bird species</a> as critically endangered. That makes birds the highest category in terms of threat. Some of the most endangered birds include the:



<ul><li>Medium Tree-finch</li><li>Gorgeted Puffleg</li><li>Bateleur</li><li>Sidamo Lark</li><li>Chimney Swift</li><li>Chatham Petrel</li><li>Lear’s Macaw</li></ul>



The threat of bird extinction is spread across the globe. However, there are some hotspots where the problem is more acute. These include the island of Madagascar, Brazil's Atlantic Forest, and the Himalayan region.



<h2 id="h-what-are-the-biggest-threats-to-birds">What Are the Biggest Threats to Birds?</h2>



For a long time, birds thrived, ruling the skies and playing vital roles in ecosystems around the world. But the tables have turned, with these creatures now among the most at risk of disappearing forever. But why are birds endangered? Here are four reasons:



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Deforestation-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911699"/><figcaption>Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/WhitcombeRD?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">WhitcombeRD</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-1-human-activity">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Human Activity</h3>



Human actions have had an unprecedented impact on the earth and its wildlife. According to a UN report, humans have severely altered <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/human-activity-put-million-species-risk-extinction-report/story?id=62852406#:~:text=Around%2075%25%20of%20Earth's%20terrestrial,mostly%20within%20the%20past%20century.">75 percent</a> of the planet's terrestrial environment, putting at least one million animal species at threat of extinction.



<h4 id="h-a-habitat-loss-and-degradation">a.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Habitat loss and Degradation</h4>



As human settlements expand, they encroach on natural habitats, destroying them in the process. This is one of the biggest threats to bird populations and has contributed to the decline of many species.



<h4 id="h-b-deforestation">b.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Deforestation</h4>



The clearing of forests for timber, agriculture, or urbanization destroys vital habitats for birds and other animals. It also fragments once-continuous habitat, making it harder for birds to find mates and food.



<h4 id="h-c-pollution">c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pollution</h4>



Air, water, and soil pollution can all take a toll on bird populations. For example, lead poisoning is a major problem for many bird species that feed on insects contaminated by the toxin.



<h4 id="h-d-pesticides">d.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Pesticides</h4>



The widespread use of pesticides has had devastating effects on bird populations, particularly those that eat insects. Studies have shown that some insecticides can cause neurological damage in birds, leading to impaired motor function and death.



<h4 id="h-e-overfishing">e.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Overfishing</h4>



Birds that rely on fish for food are among the hardest hit by overfishing. As fish stocks decline, so do the birds that depend on them. This is a particular problem for seabirds such as albatrosses and penguins.



<h4 id="h-f-illegal-hunting">f.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Illegal Hunting</h4>



In some parts of the world, birds are still hunted for food or trade, despite laws against it. This is a significant problem in Asia, where many bird species are captured and sold as pets.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Climate-change-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911702"/><figcaption>Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/AegeanBlue?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">AegeanBlue</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>. </figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-2-climate-change">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Climate Change</h3>



Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. As temperatures rise and weather patterns become more extreme, many bird species are struggling to adapt. This is especially true for those that breed in the Arctic, where melting sea ice is destroying vital habitats.



Rising temperatures are also causing problems for migrating birds. For example, as spring arrives earlier in the northern hemisphere, some migrant birds are arriving too early to find food. This leads to malnutrition and reduced breeding success.



In the tropics, meanwhile, climate change is making it harder for birds to find food as droughts become more common. Studies have shown that drought can cause widespread starvation among insect-eating birds.



As if that wasn't enough, climate change is also making it easier for diseases to spread. For example, avian malaria is a serious problem in many tropical countries. As temperatures rise, the mosquitoes that carry the disease are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Invasive-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911703"/><figcaption>Invasive species can cause harm to the local ecosystem. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/cmannphoto?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">cmannphoto</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-3-invasive-species">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Invasive Species</h3>



Invasive species are a major problem for bird populations around the world. These are plants, animals, or diseases that are not native to an area and can cause harm to the local ecosystem.



For birds, invasive species can destroy habitats, compete for food, or spread disease. In some cases, they can even directly prey on birds. For example, rats introduced to island ecosystems have caused the extinction of many ground-nesting birds by eating their eggs and chicks.



Climate change is making the problem worse by increasing the range of some invasive species. For example, as temperatures rise in the Arctic, mosquitoes that carry <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/diseases-of-terrestrial-wildlife/avian-malaria">avian malaria</a> are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<h2 id="h-what-can-be-done-to-protect-birds">What Can Be Done to Protect Birds?</h2>



The good news is that there are things we can do to protect birds and other wildlife. Here are a few ideas:



<h3 id="h-1-support-conservation-organizations">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



There are many organizations working to protect bird populations around the world. Support their efforts by donating money or time.



<h3 id="h-2-be-mindful-of-your-impact-on-the-environment">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Be Mindful of Your Impact on the Environment</h3>



We all have a role to play in preserving bird habitats. Be conscious of your impact on the environment and do what you can to reduce your footprint.



<h3 id="h-3-support-sustainable-agriculture">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Sustainable Agriculture</h3>



Agricultural practices are a major threat to bird populations. But there are ways to farm without damaging the environment. Support sustainable agriculture initiatives and buy organic products whenever possible.



<h2 id="h-do-your-part-in-averting-bird-extinction">Do Your Part in Averting Bird Extinction</h2>



Bird species are quickly disappearing from the skies. For the most part, human activity is to blame. But there is hope. By working together, we can protect birds and other wildlife and preserve the planet for future generations.



Would you like to read more interesting articles like this? Keep visiting our blog.



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Why Are Birds Endangered?

For millennia, the planet's birds have been an integral part...

The alpine ibex is a mysterious animal on our wondrous planet. And as it turns out, the history of conservation surrounding this <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mammalia ungulate</a> is an informative example of recovery and renewal.&nbsp;



Today, we're going to dive into the basics of Capra ibex, their return from near extinction, and where you can try to catch glimpses of them yourself. In this story, there is a warning regarding our own behavior. There is also hope exemplified in this species we were able to save with swift, bold action from community awareness and sure-footed leadership.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-basics-of-capra-ibex">The Basics of Capra Ibex</h2>



Capra ibex is the scientific label for this beloved "mountain goat" of sorts with a whole list of other names. Some examples include steinbock, bouquetin, just ibex, and even Capra ibex ibex. If this last name seems redundant, you are absolutely right. This is a feature of botanical species with various subspecies. The double name helps us to distinguish differences while acknowledging evolutionary relationships. Species of wild goats that were considered subspecies of the Alpine ibex (at one time) include Nubian ibex,&nbsp; walia, and Siberian ibexes.&nbsp;



Back to Capra ibex specifically:&nbsp;



This is a mysterious, wild goat that lives in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European alps</a>. This species' endemic range includes Italy, Switzerland, Austria, France, and even Slovenia. Evolutionary biologists and archeologists have found fossils of an ancestor animal in Kenya, China, and Slovenia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The alpine ibex has a short, broad head. Its coat is a brownish-grey color with a pale underbelly. These mammals molt twice a year - growing a thicker coat through September to prepare for late autumn and winter months.&nbsp;



These goats are herbivores and climbers, moving around through the swiss alps at snow line where the landscape is rough, jagged, and gritty. They are classified as <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/artio/artiodactyla.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an Artiodactyla</a>. This means "cloved-foot animals". It's a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goat-genome-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distinct category</a> that also includes sheep, antelopes, camels, pigs, cows, and giraffes. These creatures are adapted for thriving in open grasslands most often. Though Alpine ibex are obviously an exception - frequenting the monstrous and sublime heights of the alps.&nbsp;



The most distinct feature, for male ibex at least, is the very long and pointed horns. They are not the sort of feature you want to get tangled up with.&nbsp;



These arcing horns, in addition to being wicked sharp, are a great example of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sexual dimorphism</a> in nature. This is a zoological term that <a href="https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">we define as</a> "distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to the difference between the sexual organs themselves."



Additional <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to the horns</a>, the male ibex is also larger bodied than the females.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/capricorn-gf565c70db_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896725"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/scholty1970-7596740/">scholty1970</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/">Pixabay</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-reproductive-behavior-and-life-cycle-habits">Reproductive Behavior And Life Cycle Habits</h2>



For most of the year, male ibex and females <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live separately from one another</a>. This of course changes during the breeding season, when the animals are in rut - usually around December of each year. The breeding period lasts six weeks.&nbsp;



Adult males fight for females using their horns against one another. Sometimes, male aggression can be indirect in the form of threats and displays. Scientists note a "linear dominance hierarchy" amongst the males, which usually depends on horn size and group cohesiveness.&nbsp;



The courtship process is determined by these <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">power dynamics</a> and has intricate phases and happenings - a reminder that these animals are social beings with habits, preferences, and memories of past encounters. After a male and female copulate, the gestation period lasts <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf">around 167 days</a>. About <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/pdf/10.4141/cjas95-022" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20% of C. ibex births are twins</a>. Like other species of goats, these offspring are called "kids" until they mature into adolescent adults.&nbsp;



When not breeding, the sexes separate again into distinct groups: adult male groups, female herds and their offspring, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016815919190262V" target="_blank" rel="noopener">groups of young individuals</a>.



Individuals reach sexual maturity at 18 months - but will keep growing through the years. Females usually reach their full size in between five and six years of age. Alternatively, males take a bit longer, reaching full size in nine to eleven years of life.&nbsp;



In the wild, these creatures <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016815919190262V" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live up to 19 years old</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-a-near-extinction">A Near Extinction</h2>



Ibex are present in the fossil record dating back to the Pleistocene. This is a period of time when the Alpine Ibex and the Spanish ibex split and evolved from the extinct Pleistocene species Capra camburgensis.&nbsp;



As is so often the case with human population increase and technological progress, we began to seriously impact the endemic landscape of these alpine goats as early as the 16th century. Due to poaching, overharvesting, and encroaching pressure, the population steadily declined.&nbsp;



Extirpated is a term that means "<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=extirpated&amp;oq=Extirpated&amp;aqs=chrome.0.0i433i512j0i512l9.833j0j4&amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;ie=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">root out and destroy completely</a>." We use this word specifically to describe an animal that has completely vanished from a particular area, but not from the globe as a whole. Obviously, extirpation leads to extinction.&nbsp;



And this is exactly what happened in the case of alpine ibex: by the 18th century, these sharp horned goats were gone from Germany and Switzerland. By the 19th century, they had disappeared from Austria and northeastern Italy as well.&nbsp;



The situation devolved into something dire: at one point, the only remaining territory where alpine ibex climbed the snowline was the Gran Paradiso and Vanoise Massifs. There were <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">less than 100 of them</a>. This area (Located in the western Italian Alps and the Maurienne valley) then became a park in an attempt to save the species. At the time, Victor Emmanuel II, the first king of a united Italy named it as a "Royal hunting reserve of Gran Paradiso". It became an <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">official national park in 1922</a>. With these actions, the number of individuals had gone from nearly extinct to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">over 3,000</a>.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image is-resized"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/goats-g07cd2d181_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="baby alpine ibex" class="wp-image-1896729" width="840" height="559"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/dominikrh-12119308/">DominikRh</a> on <a href="http://pixabay.com">Pixabay</a> </figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-a-success-story-with-strings-attached">A Success Story With Strings Attached</h3>



In some instances, this recovering population naturally spread to adjacent areas. However, reintroduction is a major part of this success story. Today there are over 30,000 Alpine ibex. And while they are still mysterious to us, their conservation status is in a much better state. They roam the Italian alps, rutting, fighting, foraging. The IUCN lists them as a species of least concern. In a world increasingly defined by the climate crisis, this sort of success story is a rare boon.&nbsp;



But it's not exactly a "one and done" sort of thing with conservation and reintroduction efforts. While the size of herds is worth celebrating, as are restored chains of reciprocity within ecosystems, these recovered populations have a very low genetic diversity. Because they recovered from such few individuals, the species is now inbred and extra vulnerable to disease. This could be a problem in the future to come.&nbsp;



Additionally, the conservation efforts of ibex cousin species are not so optimistic. Two species of the Iberian ibex, endemic to the Iberian peninsula, are already extinct. And even with massive cloning experiments underway, no individuals of these species have lived longer than a few minutes.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/alpine-ibex-g3f5c956f3_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="ibex" class="wp-image-1896730"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/nickype-10327513/">NickyPe</a> on <a href="http://pixabay.com">Pixabay</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-to-see-them-today">Where To See Them Today</h2>



The European alps are an incredible place to visit for a plethora of reasons. And thanks to conservation efforts, you might have a chance to spot <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/nov/03/goats-italy-dam-precipitous-heights" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the mysterious alpine ibex</a> for yourself - though you'll have to get pretty high up in the mountains to do so. Pack those hiking boots!&nbsp;



Gran Paradiso national park remains a popular destination to bask in the wonders of ecology while scanning the snow line for any wild goats. Fellow bovidaes of the mountain goat variety in this area of the world include <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/47071125/The_conservation_of_the_chamois_Rupicapr20160706-628-tuzuk8-with-cover-page-v2.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">chamois</a> - another mammal to keep an eye out for.&nbsp;



Ultimately, the story of the alpine ibex <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00442-008-1198-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">continues to unfold</a>. We witness them in their natural habitat and feel compelled to protect them and the delicate systems where they climb, graze, chew. As we move about our lives it behooves us to consider these other sentient beings - organisms that contribute to healthy environments - as neighbors and relatives. And while creatures like the Alpine ibex don't currently get a vote in our societies, it is our job to vote and activate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goats-happy-people/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">on their behalf</a>.&nbsp;



Species of wild goats are an important link in the connective chain of a landscape. They are a reminder that our human species should endeavor to fix the detrimental impacts we have caused.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

All About the Mysterious Alpine Ibex

The alpine ibex is a mysterious animal on our wondrous...

The,Spider,Climbs,On,The,Web.

Often, spiders inspire fear, discomfort, and a lingering, unnerving sensation. Whether you encounter a poisonous species or not, a spider "shock" can send even the coolest head into an unexpected frenzy. But beneath these cultural conceptions of arthropods are <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-social-spiders-groups/" target="_blank">some wondrous behaviors</a> and natural intelligence. One of these elements - and a biochemical phenomenon that has the science world spinning with possibility - is the spider silk of spider webs. The fascinating facts and interwoven phenomena of spider silk are an unfolding mystery. Did you know that these silky threads of webs can be so strong that the fibers can be used <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jtX2owKVEAw&amp;ab_channel=ZSL-ZoologicalSocietyofLondon" target="_blank">as fishing nets</a>? This is just the tip of the appendage on the topic - there's so much more to learn!&nbsp;



Welcome to the not so creepy-crawly side of these organisms. Prepare to be utterly wrapped up in the facts and mysteries of these master weavers and the power of the fibers they provide.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-is-spider-silk">What Is Spider Silk?&nbsp;</h2>



Most people sweep up cobwebs and avoid dense spider nests at all costs - but let's thread our way into it:&nbsp;



Spider silk is a protein fiber spun by spiders.&nbsp;



This silk is the fiber that spiders use to weave their webs. It floats through the air. Spiders use it to catch and trap their prey. It's how they build nests and make cocoons. They can even use their silk to glide away from predators. When the conditions are just sunny enough and you pause to take in your environment, you might realize the spider webs, and the strands of silk they weave are all around. You might even catch the enchanting sight of a spider, drifting through the air on these silken fibers - almost like a magic carpet ride of the animal world.&nbsp;



All spiders produce silk - even the species that don't build webs.&nbsp;



Many people don't realize that this silk is also intimately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-spiders-rainbow-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">woven into the mating and courting rituals of spiders</a>. The silk operates almost like a transmission channel, or a ringing bell - sending signals via vibration along that glittering line. It is stunningly poetic on closer review. Or at least, a beautiful braid of science and poetry together in the natural world in the name of copulation. Maybe Humans and spiders have more in common than we realized.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/shutterstock_1718396002.jpg" alt="spider web made from spider silk
" class="wp-image-1905629"/><figcaption>Photo by <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Pablesku">Pablesku</a> on <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-seven-silk-glands">Seven Silk Glands&nbsp;</h3>



Another little-known fact: all spider silk is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.4161/pri.2.4.7490" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">not the same.</a>



A single spider can create up to 7 different types of natural spider silk, depending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumping-spiders-know-the-difference-between-animals-and-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on the species</a>, circumstances, and life cycles of the spider. Some types of silk are best suited for building structures. Other fibers, produced by the same insect, are ideal for transmitting messages (those mating vibrations!). Other silks absorb energy effectively. All these different silks form the spinning process that a spider undertakes and they also come from different glands. To sum up via list:&nbsp;



<ul><li>The Major Ampullate gland is the gland that produces spider dragline silk. Draglines are a type of silk that spiders use on their web's outer limits - the rims and the spokes - for ballooning and also what is called a silken "lifeline". This silk <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3705435" target="_blank">is extremely strong</a> but can also contract quickly depending on the elements.&nbsp;</li><li>Ampullate Minor is the gland that produces silk that the spider uses for <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ma970834a" target="_blank">temporary scaffolding</a> and reinforcement during web construction.</li><li>The Flagelliform is the gland the spider uses to make the silk that a spider deploys for the capturing lines of the web. This is what scientists call "Capture-spiral silk".</li><li>The Tubuliform is the gland that produces the cocoon silk and becomes a protective home for an egg sac.&nbsp;</li><li>Aciniform silk is the silk a spider uses to wrap up fresh prey.</li><li>The Aggregate gland produces a silk <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-33989-9_21" target="_blank">aqueous secretion</a> of glue-ish thread made up of sticky globules.</li><li>and finally, the Piriform gland produces another glue-like silk that spiders use to form bonds between their various separate threads of silk and secure it all together at important attachment points.</li></ul>



You don't need to be an expert on spider species, anatomy, and glands to be utterly amazed by this capacity to create fiber for such vast and variable scenarios. As garden spiders, black widows, nephila clavipes (aka golden orb weavers), and other arthropods have evolved through history, so have their webs, and the spinnerets that produce this amazing silk. There are simple silk structures - such as primitive tube webs - preserved in the fossil record 300 million years ago or more. There are more complex structures such as orb webs, which first show up in our earth's history with orb weavers dating back to 110 million years ago. Once you being to ponder this sort of tapestry-through-time that spiders continue to weave, even the cobwebs in the corner of your room start to look a little different.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-science-behind-spider-silk">The Science Behind Spider Silk</h2>



So we've covered the basics of what spiders use silk for and where they produce this silk - but what is this science behind this silk, and how does it work? These are important next questions.&nbsp;



Spider silk threads are finer than human hair and are also the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.0c08933" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toughest fiber found in nature. </a>We know a wide variety of reasons why spiders spin their fiber, but even with these understandings, it is no less wondrous that these creatures create fiber in a matter of seconds, under changing and ambient conditions, with entirely renewable resources, to make a material that is even stronger than kevlar. Unsurprisingly, scientists and entrepreneurs alike can recognize the opportunities inherent to harnessing that kind of capability - and later on, in this piece, we will look at the value of spider silk and the rush to find ways to replicate the process in a lab.&nbsp;



The structure of spider silk is a whole wide web of interlocking components and properties. Characterization<a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/epoly-2020-0049/html?lang=en#:~:text=2.1%20The%20characteristics%20of%20natural%20spider%20silk&amp;text=The%20main%20chemical%20components%20of,has%20excellent%20elasticity%20and%20strength." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> of the silk</a> includes " glycine, alanine, and a small amount of serine." It is "a natural polypeptide, polymeric protein" - in the same group as the collagen found in our ligaments and keratin, found in our nails and hair. Spider silk proteins are determined by which gland they come from. For example, in the instance of a dragline from the Major Ampullate gland, the <a href="http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/spider/page3.htm#:~:text=Spider%20silk%20is%20a%20natural,keratin%20(nails%20and%20hair).&amp;text=The%20protein%20in%20dragline%20silk,spidroin%201%20and%20spidroin%202." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein fibroin (Mr 200,000-300,000)</a> is combined with the proteins spidroin 1 and spidroin 2.



It is "the sophisticated self-assembly processes of silk proteins <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fchem.2020.00554/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">into distinct polymers</a>". These biopolymers can be the basis for novel products, as we will touch on later. Again according to ACS, the amino acid sequence in the silk proteins are made up of "alanine and glycine" while serine and praline are also present in some types of silk. Glycine-rich regions are what give spider silk its "elasticity, <a href="https://cen.acs.org/content/dam/cen/95/41/09541-scitech2.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forming amorphous areas in its structure</a>."



Tensile strength is a term that describes the "amount of stress a substance can withstand before it starts to fracture". Spider silk ranges from <a href="https://inchemistry.acs.org/atomic-news/spider-webs.html#:~:text=The%20tensile%20strength%20(the%20amount,lies%20in%20the%20same%20range." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">0.45 – 2.0 GPa</a>. For some context, steel lies in about the same range.&nbsp;



On top of that, this silk is a material that can soften and decrease in length by "up to ∼60% upon exposure to high humidity". This occurrence is also known as super contraction. The material goes from glass-like to rubber-like - an incredible transformation.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-how-is-it-different-from-silkworm-silk">How Is It Different From Silkworm Silk?&nbsp;</h3>



Spiders aren't the only insect that produces silk, of course. There are other species that are famous for their fibers that humans have learned to manipulate and utilize on global levels.&nbsp;



The most well-known of these is the silkworm. And while spider silk is known as a "super silk", silkworm silk is a super huge industry and another fiber with impressive strength and impact as well. Silkworms are actually the larvae stage of the domestic silkmoth or Bombyx mori. It feeds on white mulberry leaves and, unlike spiders, is entirely dependent on humans for reproduction. It is a domestic species of insect that we have cultivated for millennia. Also known as Sericulture (in the English language of course) the practice of breeding and cultivating these species is at least <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HnSlynSfeEIC&amp;pg=PA31#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">5,000 years old - back in ancient China.</a> It spread through India, Korea, Japan, Nepal, all throughout the world today. It is now a silken-skilled species that has been harnessed <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24938983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">for mass production</a> - used in clothing, surgical sutures, bicycle tires, and even parachutes.&nbsp;



Some scientists argue that silkworm silk is arguably as strong as some spider silks and that this can be <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11204950_Materials_Surprising_strength_of_silkworm_silk" target="_blank">cultivated under the proper conditions</a> as opposed to producing silkworms with their "genes altered".&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/shutterstock_1421920130.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1905630"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/quangpraha">Quang nguyen vinh</a> on <a href="http://shutterstock.com">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-is-the-value-of-spider-silk">What Is The Value Of Spider Silk?</h2>



While the powerful properties of spider silk might be new information to you and me, our ancestors likely regarded this fiber highly where they found it in nature. This is because of its legendary healing powers. It was used to dress wounds, cast fishing nets, and more.&nbsp;



So in many ways, we are simply remembering what ancient people already intuited and experienced about the value of spider silk.&nbsp;



And of course, as our societies have changed, our concept of value changes too. In a world that is increasingly commercialized on a global scale, the value inherent to spider silk remains like a golden spool - tantalizingly out of reach. According to an <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.0c08933" target="_blank">ACS online publication</a>, fabricating" artificial spider silk fibers in bulk scale has been a major goal in materials science for centuries." This study goes on to describe two main methods of attempted fabrication.&nbsp;



The first is biomimicry - a technique that many species in addition to humans utilize for various needs and desires. Humans, in this instance, are working to mimic the process of spiders in creating their super fiber. This category of technology imitates the natural process in that "the spider silk proteins (spidroins) are produced under native-like conditions and then spun into fibers in a process that captures the natural, complex molecular mechanisms." However, so far these synthetic spider silks have yet to match the mechanical properties of spider silk.&nbsp;



The second method in the labs uses biotechnology that produces "large spidroins that can be spun into fibers by using organic solvents." In this scenario, we have been able to replicate the mechanical properties of the natural material, but the yields of the process are too low for " economically sustainable production". Research is ongoing regarding recombinant spider silk proteins - and aqueous methods may be a viable method for production.



There are ongoing efforts to produce synthetic spider silk - and scientists describe the need as urgent - but why? What is it about spider silk that has us working so hard to reproduce it in a scalable way?&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-urgent-race-to-weave-like-the-spiders">The Urgent Race To Weave Like The Spiders</h2>



As we touched on above, and as is probably pretty clear from all the amazing facts about spider silk, the mechanical properties of this fiber are exciting to various people with technological, business, renewable, creative ideas. Stronger than Kevlar, spider silk is a projected game-changer in industries with high-performance textiles and sporting items such as skiing and mountaineering. There is talk of what this silk might provide for durable parts in robotics. 



There are predicted contributions to medicine and other composite materials that could reshape and reinvent massive chunks of the pharmaceutical and building resources industries. With so much opportunity swinging in the balance and the tenacity of a human with an idea being seemingly boundless, the urgent race continues to see who might finally be able to weave as well as the spiders of mother nature. Only time will tell. Because spiders' silk and <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24938983" target="_blank">web designs</a> are "governed by the same rules and constraints that apply to humans' material science and structural engineering", we certainly have a lot to learn from their impressive, ancient, and natural skills. Here's hoping we might also channel their approach to renewable resources and balance within ecosystems as we do so. For now, the spiders float on their golden webs of silk and keep their secrets.



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Welcome to the Not So Creepy Crawly World of Spider Silk

Often, spiders inspire fear, discomfort, and a lingering, unnerving sensation....

Sea,Otter,(enhydra,Lutris)

What Is a Keystone Species? 4 Examples to Help Explain

Our ecosystems are vast networks of nuanced connections. With such...

The,Cat,Looks,To,The,Side,And,Sits,On,A

Cat species have had a wild journey through time. One living species is domesticated while all others are not. Some species are long extinct, while others walk our planet today in need of protection from human development. They pepper the internet, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/" target="_blank">prowl in windowsills</a> and in the wild landscapes from Africa to Europe, to Asia, and the Americas. They hunt in the jungle or amongst the house plants. They are a vast group of fascinating creatures that enchant, mystify, and terrify - depending on their size and ferocity.



The most popular pet in the world is the house cat. Known for their elusive personalities, more than <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">600 million cats live among humans worldwide. </a>According to <a href="https://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/79421" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, "Nearly three-quarters of U.S. households own pets". So while some species, such as the lynx of North America, is almost impossible to spot, house cats (or feral ones) are nearly impossible to avoid if you live in a developed area.&nbsp;



Today we are going to explore these categories - from wildcats, tabby, feral cats, to domestic cats to understand the nuances between the groups and better understand the evolutionary process of domestication that takes place when certain species come into close proximity to Homo sapiens over generations.&nbsp;



These stories and biological examples stretch the breadth of the globe - from the fertile crescent of antiquity to the high rise apartments of New York City, cats are a sneezingly, meowingly, purringly prevalent animal in our societies that have possibly shaped us as much as we've shaped them.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-evolution-of-cats">The Evolution Of Cats&nbsp;</h2>



The evolution of cats on planet earth is a story told in the fossil record and through our own inherited imaginations - and it plays out today in our own homes and in ecosystems around the world.&nbsp;



Felidae is a family of mammals <a href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the order Carnivora</a> - these are the cats, big and small. Members of this family are also known as felids, and people also use the term feline to describe these creatures. They are terrestrial carnivores with <a href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">various fur patterns</a>, muscular body shapes, and claw and teeth sizes.&nbsp;



The earliest cats in the archeological record date back somewhere between 30 million and 28.5 million years ago.&nbsp; Proailurus is the oldest known cat we know of. It roamed the landmass we now designate as Eurasia and we've found fossil remains of this species <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/3156" target="_blank">in France and Mongolia. </a>Today, there are 36 species of wild cats. This includes the African wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), European wildcat, lynx, lions, and tigers. Further subdivisions into subspecies are, at best, controversial. We will touch more on these wild species later on. Either way, they are a far cry from the house cats (felis catus) at your grandmother's house. So what happened in between and how did one species of cat come to be domesticated?&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_141217435.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904053"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Sombra">Sombra</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-defining-domestication">Defining Domestication&nbsp;</h2>



Domestication is the "sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group." It is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4371924/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a process of innovation that has defined our societies</a> and is ranked with similar importance as making fire and the development of language.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While individuals of an animal species can be "semi-domesticated" in the sense that someone has endeavored in taming a particular individual (like a pet leopard for example), this is different than domestic animals within human society - an evolutionary process we can see right down to the DNA sequencing of species and subspecies.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-domesticating-cats-across-the-globe">Domesticating Cats Across The Globe</h2>



We can see the fingerprints of this process in the gene sequencing of cats today. According to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1139518" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a 2007 study published in Science</a>, the world's domesticated cats " carry patterns of sequence variation in their genome that reflect a history of domestication and breed development" and explains that cats were "domesticated in the Near East". One theory is that this happened in conjunction with early human settlements of farming in the Middle east. Most cats today, no matter where they are found on the globe, are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">descendants of 5 "founders" from this region</a>.&nbsp;



In the case of cat domestication specifically, it was a hotly contested issue for many years, but with the development of science and our ability to look at the cat genome, we now know that "all domestic cats [house cats] are descended from Felis silvestris lybica.&nbsp;



This dates the relationship between humans and at least semi-domesticated cats to over 10,000 years ago. Pretty wild when you consider the fact that the house cat contributes <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/" target="_blank">so little to human survival</a> - a factor that evolutionary biologists and sociologists have been scratching their heads over for years.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_392382514.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904054"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/gvictoria">gvictoria</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



There is also evidence to suggest that a species of cat became domesticated on the continent of Asia simultaneously. Cat remains in China may be evidence of a domesticated leopard species that occurred independently of the domestication process that took place in the Fertile Crescent and was later accelerated in Ancient Egypt. However, scholars <a href="https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/item/how-did-cats-become-domesticated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">did not find evidence to link any modern-day house cats to leopards</a>, so the species did not last.



<h2 id="h-did-cats-domesticate-themselves">Did Cats Domesticate Themselves?&nbsp;</h2>



Now here's an entertaining tidbit that probably won't be too shocking to any cat owners out there: there's evidence to suggest that cats actually domesticated themselves, in a sense.&nbsp;



Scholars theorize based on certain findings that cats essentially invited themselves to human settlements 10,000 years ago - <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taking advantage of the mice in the grain stores and food scraps</a> that they were sure to find nearby.&nbsp;



Which, of course, begs the question: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mentally-track-their-owners-whereabouts-based-on-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">did cats domesticate us?</a> It's an entertaining twist to ponder. Either way, humans and felids have been living domestically for a long, long time.&nbsp;



Scholars argue that cat domestication has shifted in the last 200 years - to the detriment of house cat health, unfortunately. Nowadays, most cats are kept indoors, neutered, and aggressively selected for specific traits. <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/daf9/5acc1a4ab58b5ffe49a0e347bec1b4fdfa23.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A study in Denmark</a> found that "purebred" cats have significantly higher rates of disease. Their study also showed that neutered cats are more likely to display behavior abnormalities. Overall, it appears as though our current practices of cat breeding are no longer beneficial for the cats, instead escalating their negative welfare.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-cat-worship">Cat Worship&nbsp;</h2>



Scholars <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long believed that the Ancient Egyptians</a> were the first to domesticate and keep cats as pets before more recent studies revealed an even longer history dating back to neolithic farming communities in the near eastern fertile crescent.&nbsp;



Even if the timeline of domestication has shifted with more information, we know that 3,600 years ago or so, Ancient Egypt was indeed a cat-enthusiast culture as communicated by what remains of Egyptian murals and texts - and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0305440381900236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even mummified felines.&nbsp;</a>



Egypt isn't the only nation-state with a history of cat worship and cat burial, however. Other Mediterranean regions also took part. In 2001, archeologists discovered the grave of a human and their pet cat on the Island of Cyprus, buried together <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.304.5668.189a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in ceremony some 9,500 years ago.&nbsp;</a>



In India today there is a widespread belief in a cat-diety named Waghoba. This is a deity connected to the power of protection and linked to tigers and leopards. There are not many studies surrounding this spirituality and framework or others similar to it. Cultural scholars continue to encourage ecologists to take these spiritual philosophies into consideration, however, explaining that these mythological understandings might be the foundation for effective, lasting <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://mesbiodiversity.in/publications/Athreya_et_al_2018_Narratives_of_large_cat_worship_in_India.pdf" target="_blank">collaborations and co-adaptions with local indigenous communities.</a>&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_202297768.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904055"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/TospornPreede">lavoview</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-cats-today-wild-or-domesticated">Cats Today - Wild Or Domesticated&nbsp;</h2>



Some cats are wild, some cats are domesticated. It depends on the species and the history of that species in tandem with humans.&nbsp;



While people may dream of having a pet tiger or leopard, these animals are not domesticated and to keep these wild cats in captivity is in most instances a cruel fate for these majestic creatures. The documentary series "Tiger King" which took the western world by storm during the early days of the Coronavirus pandemic is an excellent, intriguing, and somewhat horrifying example and discussion around the topic.&nbsp;



And plus, there is a wide variety to house cats to chose from if you are wanting to incorporate a feline into your life. There are about <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=zt08DgAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP1&amp;dq=cat+breeds&amp;ots=tajDLQG2bt&amp;sig=e-O9JZ1iRLeOTfoKi9aAqws-nWI#v=onepage&amp;q=cat%20breeds&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">42 cat breeds</a> recognized by veterinarians. Cat owners delight in various personality traits - a comforting purr, a tabby cat's distinctive "M" on the forehead, or an affinity for catching and killing vermin to name a few.&nbsp;



And as it turns out, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-older-women-match/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">house cats are a big business</a>. The most expensive cat breed is the Ashera cat. This breed is a genetic combination of wild cat breeds and domestic cats. The price for this feline friend can be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00335-010-9290-6?page=4&amp;page=5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upwards of $125,000.</a> And the spending doesn't stop when you buy a new furry friend - animals cost money to care for, as well. The pet industry saw an especially dramatic boom during the pandemic as affluent consumers were home full-time with their pets. This industry surpassed <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2022-01-12/survey-pet-spending-can-take-a-bite-out-of-your-wallet#:~:text=With%20the%20American%20Society%20for,caring%20for%20them%20in%202020." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a whopping 100 billion dollars in 2020 alone.</a> This includes expenditures such as food and vet visits. For individuals, the average amount spent on a cat will go up along with the cat's age.&nbsp;



There are also many instances of feral cats - these are domesticated cats that are unowned and avoid contact with humans. They might live individually or operate in large colonies. Feral cats can be a massive challenge for city planners. Their numbers are sprawling in some parts of the world and can cause serious problems via pathogens and also pose a threat to bird populations in the area.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-protection-for-wild-cats-today">Protection For Wild Cats Today&nbsp;</h2>



We've touched on <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/savannah-cats-vs-servals-theyre-not-the-same/" target="_blank">wild cats a bit today</a>. And while focusing in on the domestic cats we consider family members is a fun and fascinating look at a particular species, the truth of the matter is that wild cats are threatened by human development and climate crisis. Domestic cats might make our houses feel like home, but wild cats are often keystone species within an ecosystem and balanced ecology is bleak without them. Without a functioning food chain or available food sources, our interactions and overlaps with wild animals become dangerous and untenable. Many are on the brink of extinction. Examples include tigers, Iberian lynx, Borneo Bay cat, and the Andean cat.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1108801895.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904056"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/tonymills">tony mills</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



As we learn about the quirks of our pets, we must also mobilize and organize habitat conservation and restoration on behalf of their wild animal cousins and the landscapes they inhabit. We must cultivate protected ecosystems and animal sanctuaries instead of tiger king horror shows. Human development is speeding up, not slowing down - even as our predictive science paints a dire portrait of our fate should we continue on this path.&nbsp;



The journey that cats and humans have shared is long, with many chapters, twists, and turns. In our modern age, the story continues. As we unfold into the future, we have to decide what to do as a species and in doing so, determine the fate of the wondrous cats, and the wide kingdom of other creatures whose lifecycles swing delicately in the balance of our human ability to shift and restore.



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Are Cats Domesticated?

Cat species have had a wild journey through time. One...

Closeup,Macro,Big,Drone,Bee,In,Honeycomb,Male,Bee,With

The honey you enjoy with breakfast or tea required the selective, brutal killing of an entire class of bees. Worker bees systemically evict each and every drone bee at the beginning of winter. These workers make sure all, and I mean&nbsp;all, of the drones die. Workers ensure this drone death by biting drone wings off and dragging their brothers out of the hive. Why would worker bees be so awful to their own brothers? &nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1433362262-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903453"/><figcaption>An artistic example of the three kinds of honeybee varieties. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Art-Design-Studio">ArtoPhotoDesigno Studio</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-honeybee-caste-system">The Honeybee Caste System</h2>



Not all honeybees are created equal. There are three kinds of honeybees; the queen, the worker, and the drone. Each type of bee performs its own function, which is crucial to the continuation of the hive. Interestingly, all three types of bees, even though they are very different, are part of the same species.&nbsp;Apis mellifera, or the western honeybee, is the typical bee raised by beekeepers in the U.S. There are a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-origins-of-western-honey-bees-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">handful of other honeybee species</a>. All honeybee species have a similar caste system.



<h3 id="h-the-queen-bee">The Queen Bee</h3>



Surely you have heard of the all-important queen bee. Layer of eggs! Controller of the hive! Queen bees enjoy enormous power within their colony. Each colony has just one queen. This queen lays (almost) all of the eggs in the entire colony. She decides what ratio of workers to drones she wants.&nbsp;



The queen lives inside the hive. A typical queen will make only one flight out of the colony in her entire life. More on that "nuptial flight" later.&nbsp;



If a hive needs a new queen, workers will select a larva in a queen cell and feed it royal jelly. This will turn an ordinary worker larva into a queen.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-worker-bee">The Worker Bee</h3>



The worker bee is the bee you see on the day to day. These bees are all female. They gather pollen from flowers, produce honey, clean the hive, and mercilessly kill their drone bee brethren when the time comes. The vast majority of bees in a colony are worker bees.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large is-resized"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1904344906.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903454" width="500" height="334"/><figcaption>Can you tell the difference between the workers and the drones? Hint: drones have much larger eyes. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-drone-bee">The Drone Bee</h3>



The drone bees are the male honey bees of the hive. Drone bees have just one major purpose; spread the genetic seed from their colony far and wide. Drone bees' only purpose is to mate with other hives' queens. This is important because a drone successfully mating with a different colony's queen is the only way a colony can ensure their genetic material survives into the future. However, as we will see, drone bees are really just sperm vessels. They sadly don't get to make their own choices, plan for the future, or see their own children.&nbsp;



While hives may have thousands of workers, the number of drones will be in the low hundreds.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1581150907.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903455"/><figcaption>The brood cells with exposed honeybee larvae will soon be capped by worker bees. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/kosolovskyy">kosolovskyy</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-a-quick-bit-on-honeybee-reproduction">A Quick Bit on Honeybee Reproduction</h3>



A queen bee has tons of eggs and sperm inside of her. She stores the eggs and sperm in different internal compartments and can choose when to use each. Drones come from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, meaning they only have one set of genes from the queen. When the queen wants more workers, she opens up both chambers and lays fertilized eggs. The queen lays these eggs into brood cells, which are the cells of the familiar honeycomb pattern.&nbsp;



Honey bees begin as eggs, turn into worm-like larva, transform into pupa, and then finally into adult bees. Each hexagon can house one honeybee larva. Worker bees feed the larvae until the larvae are ready to turn into pupae. When they are ready to pupate, worker bees seal up the top of the brood cell and let the larvae transform in a private chamber. Because drone pupa are larger than worker pupa, the seals on their brood cells is raised slightly higher than the top of the honeycomb. These brood cells are called drone cells.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_643911313.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903456"/><figcaption>Honeybee larvae grow in their honeycomb brood cells. The sealed cells have pupa. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-varroa-mites">Varroa Mites</h3>



If you're a beekeeper, you surely know about varroa mites. These mites live in bee colonies and can destroy the colony at a high enough density. Drone's take more days to pupate than worker bees. Varroa mites prefer drone brood&nbsp;cells to worker brood cells because the mites have more time to reproduce.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-drone-bees-begin-their-life-in-spring">Drone Bees Begin Their Life in Spring</h2>



When spring comes around, drone bees eagerly burst out of their sealed-off brood cells as fully formed, adult drones.&nbsp;



Drone bees are mostly useless. In fact, they often need female worker bees to bring them food so they don't starve. &nbsp;These drones lay low for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 12 days</a>&nbsp;as they gather up energy and let their reproductive organs mature. After the drones have gotten used to their new, adult bodies and packed on some weight, they are ready to mate.



A drone bee typically&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">only lives about 20 days</a>, but can occasionally live up to 60.



<h2 id="h-mating-the-ultimate-drone-bee-experience">Mating: The Ultimate Drone Bee Experience</h2>



Successful mating is the highest aim of a drone bee. Unfortunately, only 1 out of 1000 drones mate with a queen. What happens to the other 999? More on that sad story later...



Following cues unknown to science, drone bees gather in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-drones-have-congregational-sites-for-mating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drone congregation areas</a>&nbsp;while they wait for the arrival of a queen bee. A congregation area is a space of air, usually 30-120 feet above the ground, where drone bees gather to wait for a queen.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-drones-have-congregational-sites-for-mating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Up to 10,000 drone bees</a>&nbsp;from up to a hundred different colonies gather at the same congregation area. This mixing from different colonies ensures that the queen will receive a large variety of genetic diversity from males.&nbsp;



Scientists have found that honeybees will use the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3635128/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">same drone congregation areas</a>&nbsp;year after year. This is odd since none, since all of the drones are new to the world and haven't been to the congregation area before.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1907514187.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903457"/><figcaption>Worker bees wish their queen (with the dot on her back) the best of luck on her nuptial flight. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-queen-bee-s-nuptial-flight">The Queen Bee's Nuptial Flight</h3>



A new&nbsp;queen bee doesn't have any sperm to fertilize her eggs. Fertilization is necessary to make worker bees, and therefore essential to the continuation of the colony. When the virgin&nbsp;queen is ready, she departs from the hive on her nuptial flight. On this nuptial flight, a queen seeks out a drone congregation area. Once there, the drones intensely pursue the queen in a desperate attempt to mate with her. Drone bees have extra large eyes so that they can detect and follow the queen when she arrives.&nbsp;



A queen mates with up to 20 drones, at which point she considers herself sufficiently inseminated for the rest of her life. She will fly back to her hive, likely to never see the light of day again.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1560317594.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903458"/><figcaption>Two bumblebees mate. While bumblebees are a different species from honeybees, the mating visual is similar, except honeybees would be airborne. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/utilityimage">utility image</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-unexpected-consequences-of-mating">The Unexpected Consequences of Mating</h3>



So the few 'lucky' drone bees successfully mate with a queen. Do they get to revel in the fact that they beat out 99.9% of their drone peers? They sure don't!&nbsp;



You've likely heard that a bee can only sting once and dies shortly thereafter. Any honeybee that stings is a worker bee. When worker bees sting, they rupture their abdomen to release the stinger. This causes their death.



In contrast, drone bees don't have stingers. Instead, they have penises. The drone bee is so desperate to inseminate the queen that he inverts his entire reproductive system from inside his body to outside his body when mating. This force helps push the semen into the queen. As a result, a portion of the drone bee's abdomen is ripped away from itself as it falls away from the queen bee. The drone falls to the ground and bleeds to death, similarly to how a worker bee who used her stinger dies.



That's the fate of the&nbsp;lucky&nbsp;drones.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-a-drone-bee-who-has-failed-can-try-again">A Drone Bee Who Has Failed Can Try Again</h3>



Just like human-made drones, drone bees have a surprisingly short flight time. They can fly about 20 minutes before they must return to the nest and refuel. If a drone doesn't successfully mate on a flight, they will continue trying until there are no longer queens looking for mates. &nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1269380515.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903459"/><figcaption>A pile of dead drone bees outside of the entrance to a colony. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/christening">Lipatova Maryna</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-drones-who-don-t-mate-are-killed-by-worker-bees">Drones Who Don't Mate Are Killed by Worker Bees&nbsp;</h2>



The 99.9% of drone bees who don't mate also have unfortunate deaths. Those who die away from the hive have it much better off than those who survive to the end of fall. Once the temperature in the fall drops enough, the queen tells to worker bees to evict all the drones from the hive.&nbsp;



No bee mating happens in the winter. A drone bee's only purpose is to mate. Therefore, the drones have no purpose in the winter. Why would the workers want to feed their precious resources to keep their useless brothers alive all winter? Well, they don't!



Instead, the worker bees drag each drone bee out of the hive. Since drones are slightly larger than workers, multiple workers gang up on a drone to drag it out of the hive. The workers then proceed to bite off their brothers' wings, push them off the hive, or do any other brutal act necessary to rid the colony of these useless bees.



Worker bees will even evict poor larval drones. So sad!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1425748982.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903460"/><figcaption>Bees gotta do what they can to keep their hive healthy. Can you blame them? <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/christening">Lipatova Maryna</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



If we don't impose our own human emotions and experiences onto these bees, we can instead see the drone eviction as merely a necessary part of insect communal living.



<h2 id="h-bee-conservation">Bee Conservation</h2>



While drone death is a natural part of the bee lifecycle, there are plenty of unnatural threats to bees across the U.S. The widespread and increasing use of pesticides is a major threat to bees, contributing to colony collapse that has killed&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-honeybee-colonies-lost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">40% of honey bee colonies</a>&nbsp;in a single year. About one third of the types of food we eat is directly pollinated by bees.&nbsp;



In addition to honey bees, native bees like bumblebees struggle with habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change. Buying food grown without pesticides, pressuring elected officials to curtail pesticide use, and educating your friends and family about bee conservation are ways to aid the efforts to keep our food-producing insect friends healthy.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Welcome to the Dystopian Life of a Drone Bee

The honey you enjoy with breakfast or tea required the...

Smiling,Bonobo,In,The,Water.,Bonobo,In,The,Water,With

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo sapien) share not only a common ancestor with both these primates, but we also share over <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/humans-and-chimps-have-95-percent-dna-compatibility-not-985-percent-research-shows-614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">95%</a> of our genome. But while these two great ape species have many similarities, they are actually quite different animals.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-bonobo-and-chimpanzee-taxonomy">Bonobo and Chimpanzee Taxonomy</h2>



Physically, chimpanzees and bonobos are quite similar, and together, they make up the sole members of the genus Pan. Their genus shares the family Hominidae with the other tailless great apes like gorillas and orangutans. Originally, researchers assumed bonobos were just a subspecies of chimpanzees. In fact, until <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=943824&amp;print_version=PRT&amp;source=to_print#null" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1954</a>, scientists called them pygmy chimpanzees. Eventually, the two ape species were seen as distinct. Over the years, research has continued to reveal differences between chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). Keep reading to learn more about the ecology of these two primates along with some of their key differences.



<h2 id="h-distribution-range">Distribution &amp; Range</h2>



Both chimpanzees and bonobos live in the tropical jungles of central Africa. However, bonobos have a much smaller range. In fact, bonobos are <a href="https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a> to a small region of the Congo River Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. On the other hand, chimpanzees are found across twelve countries in east, central, and west Africa. Though both species can be found in the Congo River Basin, bonobos stay south of the river while chimpanzees can be found to the north.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_222261151.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903275"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rolands">Patrick Rolands</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-do-chimpanzees-and-bonobos-look-different">Do Chimpanzees and Bonobos Look Different?</h2>



At first glance, it might be hard to tell the two primates apart, but, in fact, chimpanzees and bonobos have a few key differences in appearance. To start, they have quite different body shapes. Bonobos are slender with long lanky limbs. Chimps, on the other hand, are much burlier. Additionally, chimpanzees display sexual dimorphism as the males are significantly larger than the females. In contrast, bonobo females and males are much closer in size. Their coloration differs slightly as well. Bonobos have dark black faces from birth, while baby chimps have pale pink faces that darken with maturation. You can always tell a bonobo from a chimp by their lips! Bonobos have bright pink lips while chimpanzees have dark lips.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Trait</td><td>Chimpanzees</td><td>Bonobos</td></tr><tr><td>Lip Color</td><td>Bright Pink Lips</td><td>Dark Lips</td></tr><tr><td>Build</td><td>Slender</td><td>Robust</td></tr><tr><td>Face Color</td><td>Black</td><td>Darkens with age</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption>A table highlighting the key physical differences between chimpanzees and bonobos.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-diet">Diet</h2>



Both chimps and bonobos are primarily frugivores, preferring to munch on the wide variety of fruit available in the tropical forests of central Africa. However, bonobos are more likely to <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.393.9208&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">add vegetables to their diets</a> by grazing on stems, leaves, and flowers. Additionally, while bonobos won’t shy away from a protein source like worms or ants or the occasional duiker (small antelope), chimps tend to be a bit more carnivorous. Seemingly tied to competition for status and mates, male chimpanzees will go on violent hunting sprees, mostly targeted at the smaller colobus monkeys. Bonobo communities tend to hunt for meat about twice per month, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-generous-share-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">share</a> their prey generously with the group.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-chimpanzee-vs-bonobo-behavior">Chimpanzee vs. Bonobo Behavior</h2>



The most dramatic differences between chimps and bonobos lie in their social behaviors. Not only fascinating from an ecological perspective, but primate behavior can also give us clues to human evolution. In the field of evolutionary anthropology, scientists use <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/204757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate studies</a> to answer questions. Chimpanzee and bonobo behavior can help us understand if certain human behaviors are part of our genome or learned through societal pressures.



<h3 id="h-social-structure">Social Structure</h3>



Both primates live in social groups of mixed males and females, with bonobos generally occupying larger groups. Both groups use a fission-fusion structure in which smaller foraging teams reunite at night to sleep. However, there are several key divergences in how the primates interact between ages and genders. Chimpanzee communities have a clear hierarchy of males that defend clearly marked territories. On the other hand, wild bonobos are less strict with their territory borders and operate under a more matriarchal society. These trends in social structure are built on the social bonds between individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_2111507969.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903276"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/anolis01">Edwin Butter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 id="h-chimpanzee-society">Chimpanzee Society</h4>



For chimpanzees, the relationships between males define the group structure. A classic example of natural selection, chimps compete for power in the group which translates to more chances to mate and pass on their offspring. The more dominant alpha males intimidate younger chimps and have more offspring. However, this fierce competition comes at a violent cost. Chimps are known to commit both infanticide and cannibalism to increase their chances of fathering offspring.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-bonobo-society">Bonobo Society</h4>



In contrast, female bonobos run the show south of the Congo River. In general, bonobo society has much more interaction between genders and ages, and female bonds are critical. While young males stay with their natal groups, adolescent females disperse to find a new group. In the quest to become accepted, the new female will pamper the higher-ranking females. Sexual behavior between females is extremely common, and this new female will use <a href="https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2011_syllabus/2011_websites/subramanian_jaime/genesis.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socio-sexual behaviors</a> to eventually bond with all the non-related female bonobos.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-communication">Communication</h4>



Both species of great ape have complex communication with several similarities. However, their vocalizations sound quite different. Chimpanzees have lower-pitched voices, letting out barks and grunts. Bonobos are higher-pitched, and their vocalizations sound like squeals and yelps.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_235455565.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903277"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshuadavenport">Joshua Davenport</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h3>



One of the most well-known fun facts about these two primates is their creative tool use! Chimpanzees have been observed using a plethora of tools from absorbant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-drinking-sticks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking sticks</a> to makeshift shovels. To help with foraging, chimp mothers intentionally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teach their young</a> to use specific herbs like a spoon in a termite mound. Bonobos have also been seen to use tools including rocks and sticks. Due to the nature of their habitat, wild bonobo populations are understudied, and most of the tool observations have been made in captivity. Who knows what else they could be up to in the jungle?!&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h2>



Unfortunately, the IUCN red list lists both chimpanzees and bonobos as endangered. Most of their population declines come as a result of human action. Whether deforestation, poaching, urban development, or the impending threat of climate change, these primate populations are at risk.&nbsp;



While all species deserve protection, certainly we owe it to our closest living relatives to treat our shared planet with a bit more thoughtfulness. Conservation efforts to protect both these species have garnered attention since Jane Goodall made her first observations. However, slowing the devastating effects of climate change and habitat destruction is critical to the survival of these two amazing apes!



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Chimpanzees vs. Bonobos: What’s the Difference?

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo...

The,Poison,Is,A,Green,Liquid,In,A,Glass,Vial.

While not very common, there are a handful of poisonous birds! Though we wouldn’t be too worried next time you see a flock passing overhead. Many of these birds live discreet and elusive lives. Some have been dangerous to humans in the past, but thanks to modern science, we know quite a bit more about what is safe to put on our plate. Here we have our ranking of the most poisonous birds. Learn how these feathered fiends get their toxins and read to the end to find out the most dangerous poisonous bird!



<h2 id="h-poison-vs-venom">Poison vs. Venom&nbsp;</h2>



Before we dive into the details around these fascinating birds, let’s review some key vocab words. While both poisonous and venomous animals use toxins as a defense strategy, they have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/venomous-vs-poisonous-whats-the-difference-hint-theyll-both-kill-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct difference</a>. Venoms require an injection through a bite or sting (viperous snakes, wasps, spiders…). On the other hand, poisons are transferred through more passive contact like touching or eating (poison ivy, monarch butterfly, poison-dart frogs).



<h2 id="h-how-do-birds-become-poisonous">How Do Birds Become Poisonous?</h2>



Animals can develop toxins in a few different ways. Some can produce their own toxins and have a specific gland or organ for secretion. Others adapt and integrate poisons from other organisms. In most cases, they will consume and repurpose a toxin that will be distributed throughout their tissue rather than restricted to a specific gland. While many insects and amphibians develop their own toxins to deter predators, most poisonous birds integrate toxins from their diets.&nbsp;



This strategy is called <a href="https://webapps.fhsu.edu/ksHerp/bibFiles/21756.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heteroaglandular poison</a>. The prefix “hetero” refers to getting the chemical defense from another source, and “aglandular” means that there isn’t a specific organ or gland that houses it. By eating other poisonous plants or animals, some bird species&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-do-they-poison-themselves">Do They Poison Themselves?</h3>



How do they not poison themselves, you might ask? Poisonous birds, such as the hooded pitohui, often have a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-that-protects-poisonous-animals-from-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> that soaks up the toxins before they can harm the animal itself. Called “toxic sponges,” these protect the birds from any toxic effects while allowing the poison to remain in their feather, skin, or tissue.



<h2 id="h-ranking-of-poisonous-birds">Ranking of Poisonous Birds</h2>



While only studied in the past few decades, poisonous birds have evolved around the world. Examples of toxic birds have shown up across avian taxa, indicating convergent evolution. This means that poisonous birds aren’t all in the same genus or even family. Several different lineages of birds have developed a chemical defense system independently. From passerine songbirds to large game fowl, below are some of the most common poisonous bird species. Additionally, we’ve ranked them from most dangerous to least dangerous, so you know what to watch out for!



<h3 id="h-rare-and-wiley-the-red-warbler">Rare and Wiley: The Red Warbler</h3>



The red warbler (Cardellina rubra) keeps to itself in the Mexican highlands. For a long time, the little bird has been nondescript apart from its beautiful plumage and elusiveness, but the ancient Aztec knew better. Similar to how the indigenous Guinean people avoided the pitohui birds, the Aztec had recorded a small red bird as being inedible.&nbsp; To test this theory, scientists <a href="https://www.academia.edu/14089093/Symposium_Chemical_defense_in_birds" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">injected extracts</a> from the red warbler’s feathers into study mice. The mice were immediately agitated, alternating between acting hyperactive and inactive.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison">The Poison</h4>



The toxin appears to include a mix of two different alkaloids. However, more research needs to be done to identify the specific chemicals. Since the warbler is completely insectivorous, the poison likely comes from a toxic bug in its diet.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_729422431.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902642"/><figcaption>The Hooded Pitohui. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/feather0510">feathercollector</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-passerine-poisons-the-hooded-pitohui">Passerine Poisons: The Hooded Pitohui</h3>



Native to the Papua New Guinea rainforest, the hooded pitohui (Pitohui dichrous) was one of the first poisonous birds to be discovered. Pitohui birds are a lovely rusty orange with bold black feathers on the head, wings, and tail. Their specific toxin comes from their diet. The birds eat poisonous Choresine beetles - the same insect that gives some poison dart frogs their toxicity. The native people of Papua New Guinea have nicknamed the pitohui the “rubbish bird” since it's a bad option for dinner.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-1">The Poison</h4>



The steroidal alkaloid called <a href="https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/nab/v046n05/p01084-p01087.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">homobatrachotoxin</a> is found in the pitohui’s feathers and skin. Since the poison is most highly concentrated on the feathers, it’s likely meant to be a deterrent for parasites like lice and ticks.



Fun Fact: When discovering the poison on the pitohui, researcher Jack Dumbacher made the realization when his hand burned after untangling this dove-sized bird from a mist net in 1988. He also tested his theory by putting a clipping of a feather in his mouth! That’s some scientific sacrifice!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1169665096.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902643"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/BESTBIRDS">Dirk Kotze</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-unsuspecting-poisonous-bird-the-little-shrike-thrush">The Unsuspecting Poisonous Bird: the Little Shrike-Thrush</h3>



Another little Australian songbird, the little shrike-thrush (Colluricincla megarhyncha) garnered the attention of bird toxicity studies along with the pitohui. However, only a couple of specimens have been found to be poisonous. Since this is not a species-wide phenomenon, this further advances the theory that the poison is diet-based. The shrike-thrush only becomes poisonous when it eats certain food.



<h4 id="h-the-poison-2">The Poison</h4>



The chemical batrachotoxin again is the culprit, likely from the same insect or plant food source that the pitohui eats.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_492731368.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902644"/><figcaption>Bronzewing Pigeon. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Chris+Watson">Chris Watson</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-poison-to-protect-the-bronzewing-pigeons">Poison to Protect: The Bronzewing Pigeons</h3>



The bronzewing pigeon’s (Phaps spp.) toxicity is a bit of a superpower. Living in southwest Australia this little bird acts as the spokesperson for its native ecosystem. As we’ve seen time and time again, when humans introduce a nonnative predator into a habitat, they often cause problems for the native community. Our domesticated cats and dogs are often the culprits, and, in many cases, they are a factor in animal extinction (e.g. the dodo bird).&nbsp; However, cats and dogs beware because the bronzewing pigeon has a defense! Like many animals in its habitat, it feasts on the tasty plant <a href="https://watermark.silverchair.com/az_2011_034.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAukwggLlBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggLWMIIC0gIBADCCAssGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM3TB8lbt6_BGL7Aa5AgEQgIICnLLgfw4lmRLN6TwBWDCwICUkkDHuPpVxJySEBuVF1rya3FBxGu6Y0BCiAotvii57vBPLPTrH7YJ31kJCLYWy2-XYG1AuiuNDI6Z_OxFcVS_fQiQrq1-arbIfBrAfdY0UsJ1N33eBlbb532PeT299yuu_w2OQhBCwmfX96oOcgdnHOR06a4LVjTZaNMe2GyhY3Nzjnyb5j92iLh-sGeDcsRwauBSCb1E-ue89DbQJe5DoHDNaXO1oE92HMQptiEg-Aaq_zjc9kPltobpbNpvWbGlMoN6hkw6PNR3OSyJU8jFf-nYgQQHPYCWRSclUtmC7ICiyvBEhI2S7iwHXMzYaIb9BwzQPpr7qN8y4j3Dd0g7DiOB-qdcgYw6_Sj-f_eJ_1Uvqsiepxc0fqP4tslj9mOTI_T1TDHUY18NMq2VUyI6Z37pOOizjBW_WFnUMvjI3133Pz4cZfg5Ff0XtZyu-bZe-jozT2cU5xQLGd094eu3_DA7YceNwxlmRHsuZTzPQaqO1EmW0Iv2VafF9MoRgiYh5VKeiP7J1UOiHqH4u521z-KmvoOl52oGhB0gVBqdEwg-fHhly3BOfbhSvLGFGyo5SinAZ-7YpVYdikaq_EBHKHXFGxC32fqZg1C_08-da5gZ8PK7v5pQMIawNDO2jYPKB9tJ-hpkzlMybaBoZy_LVfS64ggwPvkfVOOdWyFbAKJ1Mxmn2FLqwvXjVxG6jpnKpYSANziRWWCvZzOiNEAC08LO1ttYBfJxWVtrAswYAiWyY8lT15acZ40je3aq4ryXgdIQ0HcpJyXxvR7Vyc9NnG8PrPZZz3LjaCeVQcBiIlqRaRfV3hwbzPIl85lIxuJvFcmocnPpzQHblLMZCmN762-N5XGhFIG_1cSWk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gastrolobium</a>. Though an important part of the diet for these poisonous birds, the plant harbors a chemical that is fatal to anyone else.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-3">The Poison</h4>



The poison fluoroacetate acts as an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17288493/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inhibitor</a> for cellular respiration, causing a range of responses from intense stomach pain to death.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1880576734.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902645"/><figcaption>Ruffed Grouse. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Worper">LarryDallaire</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-risky-in-winter-ruffed-grouse">Risky in Winter: Ruffed Grouse</h3>



Hunters and birders from North America will be surprised to see the ruffed grouse or partridge, (Bonasa umbellus) on this list. In fact, many fowl hunters often serve grouse at the dinner table. In the 18th and 19th centuries, however, reports of grouse poisoning surfaced across the country. When observed by a physician, <a href="https://nutritionalgeography.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/106/2014/11/Dietary.Roulette.Davis_.Califiornia.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumers experienced</a> nausea, vomiting, and vision impairment. But what was causing this and why is it not a problem today?



<h4 id="h-the-poison-4">The Poison</h4>



The dominant theory behind the ruffed grouse poisoning is, unsurprisingly, in its diet. In the winter, the grouse often forages on mountain laurel buds which contain the chemicals <a href="https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/kalmia-latifolia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">andromedotoxin and arbutin</a>. Toxic to mammals, they don’t seem to affect the grouse. Today no one succumbs to grouse poisoning due to the current hunting regulations. Since the grouse can not be shot in the winter or spring, hunters avoid the time of year when the poisonous birds are at their most dangerous.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_108243128.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902646"/><figcaption>Spur-winged goose. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Neal+Cooper">Neal Cooper</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-most-intimidating-poisonous-bird-spur-winged-goose">The Most Intimidating Poisonous Bird: Spur-Winged Goose</h3>



A strange bird from the start, the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus g. gambensis) makes an impression. These large birds can weigh up to <a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1083&amp;context=zeabook" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">20 pounds</a> and are highly aggressive. Not only will they fiercely defend their territory, but they also have the weapons to do it. Each goose has a sharp spur on the end of each wrist that they wield against invaders. While all spur-winged geese are rather intimidating, only one population of the geese is actually poisonous. In the Gambia, the geese tend to eat the poisonous blister beetle. However, while they are immune to the toxin, their flesh is imbued with it.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-5">The Poison</h4>



Integrating the chemical from the blister beetle, the toxin in question is the terpenoid compound called cantharidin.&nbsp;



&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_486685009.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902647"/><figcaption>The common quail, looking completely unsuspecting. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Martin+Mecnarowski">Martin Mecnarowski</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-most-dangerous-poisonous-bird-the-common-quail">The Most Dangerous Poisonous Bird: The Common Quail</h3>



The common quail (Coturnix commix coturnix L.) easily makes it toward the top of the list of poisonous birds. Though it looks more like a fluffy football than a toxic menace, we wouldn’t recommend serving this particular quail for dinner.&nbsp; Also called the European quail, this particular fowl has likely affected the most people. In fact, the danger of quail poisoning has reached such heights to warrant its own name - <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638709478507" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coturnism</a>. Similar to the ruffed grouse, the quail picks up the poison from its diet, but only seasonally. Depending on the location, quail are only dangerous during the spring or fall migration. Other times of the year, the birds are completely safe to eat.



<h4 id="h-the-poison-6">The Poison</h4>



While there has been some debate as to the origin of the poison, current theories suggest the quail eat the toxic seeds from the mint plant Slachys annua. Sickness from coturnism can result in weakness and muscle pain to paralysis along with vomiting, kidney failure, cardiac arrest, and even death.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-happenstance-or-defense">Happenstance or Defense?</h2>



While some poisonous birds, like the bronzewing, seem to have advantageously evolved to incorporate toxins, others, like the goose, seem a bit more random. However, all the species likely benefit from their poisons. Nobody wants to eat a toxic bird, and their potential predators learn pretty quickly that a birdy bite can make them sick.  



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Deep-sea,Stingray

70% of the world's surface is the ocean - and much to the horror of humans through the millennia, scary sea monsters are actually a real thing. They prowl the vast waters of our globe and emerge with terrifying results in stories - and real life.&nbsp;



From the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, from the North to the coast of New Zealand, there are fascinating sea creatures that strike fear into the hearts of the bravest explorers and threaten the most unsuspecting coastal tourist. At the same time, these scariest sea animals are wonderful, enchanting, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-vents-are-favorable-to-the-formation-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living examples of evolution</a>, adaptive behaviors, and thrilling possibilities within nature.&nbsp;



Perhaps that's why they play such a massive role in our collective imaginations as well: the Kraken of Nordic sea lore, the loch ness monster of Scotland, the Lukwata sea monster of Uganda. The list of fables, legends, and sea shanties is as deep as the deep-sea waters where some monstrous animals swim. Science is just beginning to catch up and we can look to organizations like NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and MBARI (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute) and others for emerging information on the truth behind the scary stories.&nbsp;



So let's dive in: today we'll look at the ecosystem of the ocean - the playground and habitat of an estimated one million animal species - and rip through some flash-points of the scariest swimming creatures among the masses. We'll also look at the ways in which the changing, warming oceans make even the most fearsome creatures vulnerable to disturbance and possible extinction. Scary stories abound!&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-an-ecosystem-of-monstrous-proportions">An Ecosystem Of Monstrous Proportions</h2>



When you think about it, the ocean itself is a bit of a monster - a living, breathing system of giant proportions.&nbsp;



For example, most life on earth is aquatic. Less than 5% of the oceans have been explored. The longest Mountain range is underwater. <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">70% of the world's oxygen</a> - a fiendish amount - is produced by the ocean. The pressure on the seafloor will crush you. 90% of the Earth's volcanic activity happens in the ocean and the <a href="https://earth.google.com/web/@-18.57813014,147.57013641,-41.94434357a,0d,60y,201.23400896h,83.69613794t,0r/data=ClUaUxJNCiUweDZiZGYxNDQ2ODIyYzcxM2I6MHgxOTJhNTc0MTM2ODMzY2RhGXLEtTV9STLAITRUe8dfdmJAKhJHcmVhdCBCYXJyaWVyIFJlZWYYASABIjAKLEFGMVFpcE5ZdE5CTzd6bi01bGxXVzNEbGxTbGtxRHAxS0FTaGM4Q1JvZWR2EAU">great barrier reef</a> of Australia is so massive it can be seen from the moon.&nbsp;



The stats continue on in epic, sublime ways: the largest blue whale on record is as long as an 11-story building. The rounded sound ever recorded was of an iceberg falling into the ocean - and could be <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">heard 3,000 miles away.</a> The ocean exists as a living fossil of itself, providing important clues and records of sea animals what has occurred on planet earth. It contains limitless secrets for us to slowly piece together, like a salty sea foam puzzle.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1137771782.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900841"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/posteriori">posteriori</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-some-specific-scary-sea-monsters">Some Specific Scary Sea Monsters</h2>



There are plenty of secrets of the monstrous seven seas that we have yet to understand. But there are plenty of real-life sightings to send a shiver-of-a-jellyfish sting up your spine.&nbsp; The depths of the ocean are where mysticism meets horror movies - and the surface is by no means safe, either.&nbsp; Read on for a thoroughly-inconclusive list.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-box-jellyfish">Box Jellyfish&nbsp;</h3>



Box Jelly is especially scary because to encounter a box tentacle is usually a death sentence for a human being. Named for their shape, they are considered the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/box-jellyfish.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most venomous animal</a> in the ocean according to NOAA.&nbsp;



Their tentacles are loaded with poison darts known as nematocysts. People and animals that encounter these booby-trap-laden strings can become paralyzed, have heart failure, and die within minutes. There are 50 or so species of box jellyfish, and only a couple have the venom count to kill people. Those species are found in the Ind-Pacific region and Australia. Terrifyingly, they do not live in deep water but are a coastal species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_68332459.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900842"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/lienkie">Daleen Loest</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Yes - box jellyfish live up to the hype. We often do not live up to their tentacles. Avoid these sea creatures at all costs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-frilled-shark">Frilled Shark</h3>



The frilled shark is what many scientists consider a "living fossil" with its strange lizard-like head, ruffled throat, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">long body, and tiny fins.</a> It definitely looks a lot like how a "sea serpent" of folklore is described. While it doesn't exactly add validity to stories like the Loch Ness monster or the Midgard serpent, it does have an "enchanting beast" quality to its appearance.&nbsp;



Frilled sharks rarely swim up to surface waters. Instead, they are a species of shark that moves through various life cycles in the area of the ocean known <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">as the "twilight zone". </a>Want to take a look at another "living fossil" of the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/everything-youve-wanted-to-know-about-deep-sea-fishing/" target="_blank">deep sea</a> with an unnerving smile? Check out the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3877998" target="_blank">Goblin Shark.</a>&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-1">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these sea monsters just look scary. They are active predators but pose no threat to humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_134776526.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900858"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/demarfa">Natursports</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-fangtooth-fish">Fangtooth Fish</h3>



Fangtooths have a look that will haunt your dreams - and will continue to inspire the art-imitates-life-forms of various installations and horror films. It has <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/5-strangest-deep-sea-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">razor-sharp teeth of terrifying lengths</a> - perfect for catching prey such as fish and crustaceans.&nbsp;



They are deep-sea swimmers along with Anglerfish. Their habitat ranges in tropical and temperate seas <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/animals-a-to-z/fangtooth" target="_blank">at 1,640 to 6,561 feet deep.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-2">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these fangtooths live so deep, they pose no threat to us - just the other animals that they feast and hunt for.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-viperfish">Viperfish&nbsp;</h3>



Another fish with an appearance that can absolutely give you nightmares is the viperfish. It's a broad title for any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. These species are characterized by needle-like teeth and hinged jaws that will remind you of an underbite.&nbsp;



These are also deep-sea swimmers. Similar to other species living in the dark depths of the ocean, they lure in their prey with <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article-abstract/1/3/113/1696037" target="_blank">light-producing organs called photophores.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-3">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Nope - again, these fish swim so deep that they pose no risk to us.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Giant_squid-1-1024x921.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900860"/><figcaption>Specimen of giant squid nicknamed&nbsp;Wheke&nbsp;plastinated&nbsp;from 2005 and displayed on 26&nbsp;March 2008 in the&nbsp;Grande galerie de l'Évolution&nbsp;of the&nbsp;muséum national d'histoire naturelle&nbsp;in Paris. Photo via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France#/media/File:Giant_squid.jpg">Wikipedia.org</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-giant-squid">Giant Squid</h3>



Indeed, the giant squid is much more than a fictionalized creature in the lake on the Hogwarts School Of Witchcraft And Wizardry grounds. The giant squid is a real-life animal and the second-largest mollusc we know of in Earth's history. It is an excellent example of deep-sea gigantism, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://daily.jstor.org/why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant/" target="_blank">a phenomenon and zoology term</a> that describes species of animals that are significantly larger than their shallow-water cousins.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Why is this? <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3838549?mag=why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant&amp;seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McLain et al.</a> propose that "limited resources [in deep water] select for larger body sizes that can better withstand periods of famine or ability to cover larger distances in search of scarce prey."&nbsp;



In 2019, a giant squid sighting was documented <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/21/science/giant-squid-cephalopod-video.html" target="_blank">on video near the Gulf of Mexico</a>, reigniting the public's fear and fascination. In this instance, the squid was only a juvenile but was still an estimated 10 feet long.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-4">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



<a href="https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/discover-collections/read-watch-play/science/colossal-squid/difference-colossal-squid-giant-squid-octopus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Squid and octopus</a> (giant, or otherwise) are formidable fighters. While they do not typically attack humans, they are well equipped to defend themselves if they feel threatened.



<h3 id="h-vampire-squid">Vampire Squid</h3>



A name worthy of a horror movie in and of itself, the vampire squid is indeed a real-life thing - - a sea creature that is actually quite small with an intriguing appearance. It's scientific name&nbsp; is Vampyroteuthis infernalis. It lives in tropical and temperate waters in areas identified by "extreme deep-sea conditions". It is the only known survivor of the order Vampyromorphida and is a species that produces bioluminescence.&nbsp;



The arms of this squid will <a href="http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/vsfh.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerate if bitten or ripped off.</a> Often, the discarded limbs then act as a diversion for the vampire squid to escape. It's a defense mechanism that is equal parts scary and amazing.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-5">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



According to NOAA, vampire squids are not even slightly dangerous to humans - they simply live too deep for us to encounter them.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_390021130.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900862"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Martin+P">Martin Prochazkacz</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-great-white-shark">Great White Shark&nbsp;</h3>



One of Finding Nemo's charming villains with a soft side, the Great white shark is no stranger to our psyches. Horror stories, films, and encounters abound.&nbsp;



These monsters are a species of large mackerel shark found in the coastal waters of all major oceans. It's only predator in the wild is, occasionally, the killer whale.&nbsp;



While scientists explain that humans are not the "<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426174140/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0123_040123_tvgreatwhiteshark.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preferred prey</a>" of the great white shark - it's just that these creatures are curious, and are willing to take a taste test. Not a comforting thought for surfers and swimmers, to say the least.&nbsp;



Similar to the drama around bears, lions, and tigers on land, the idea of a shark attack ends up being much bigger, culturally, than the actual risk. For example, there were <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/yearly-worldwide-summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8 reported shark attacks in 2021</a>. For some context, over 40% of the world's human population lives in coastal areas. These attacks are exceedingly rare.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-6">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Even if these attacks are more rare than we might realize, there's no doubt about it. Great white sharks are dangerous animals.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-protecting-our-sea-monsters">Protecting Our Sea Monsters&nbsp;</h2>



Of course, the scariest story of all the scariest sea monster stories are the monstrous implications of human impact on our oceans, coastlines, and fragile marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



In addition to warming water and unknown impacts on deep sea migration and global currents impacting weather, there are the immediate crises that our societies must address.&nbsp;



<a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Contaminated water</a> from oil rigs, untreated sewage, boats, pets, broken septic systems, and fertilizers accumulate in the ocean. People become outraged when their favorite swimming beach is closed due to dangerous contamination - and yet, the companies and public industry responsibility is rarely held accountable or reformed in a sustainable way.&nbsp;



The same goes for the terrifying amounts of plastic in our oceans, in the bodies of the animals that live there, and of course, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in our own systems.&nbsp;</a>



And of course, there is a lot of conversation about the fishing industry - much overdue - and the ways in which extractive and exploitative fishing methods ravage the populations of tasty fish, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">and demolish additional species</a> habitats and behaviors in the process.&nbsp;



Scary sea creatures are impacted by all of this of course - along with the more beloved marine-dependent creatures that whole throngs of people identify with - like sea turtles, dolphins, lobsters and other crustaceans, Giant Isopods, crocodiles, and oh so many species of birds. There is an endlessly nuanced web of life that depends on healthy oceans. All of it, ourselves included, depends on our ability to shift our own species' behavior. Either we do so or we are the true monsters.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Scary Sea Monsters That Are Actually Real

70% of the world's surface is the ocean - and...

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique creatures. These birds cannot fly and don’t have a tail, but they have long, loose feathers and powerful legs.



Hundreds of years ago, these birds thrived abundantly in their home country. Now, their populations have become dispersed and fragmented, as well as vulnerable.&nbsp;



Why are kiwi birds endangered? Let’s take a look at all of the factors that are threatening their long-term survival and driving this species toward extinction.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Habitat-loss-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911708"/><figcaption>Deforestation has reduced New Zealand's landscape dramatically. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/nazar_ab?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">nazar_ab</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h2>



In an effort to make room for new farmlands and urban development, a majority of New Zealand’s natural forests have been cleared. As a result, the landscape has changed dramatically.&nbsp;



Around 750 years ago, natural forests covered about 85% of the country’s landscape, or about 23 million hectares. Deforestation efforts have reduced this to around 23%, which equals just 6.2 million hectares.&nbsp;



Many lowland forests, estuaries, and dunes have been converted into grasslands and pastures, while others are transformed into towns. Both measures are designed to boost local economies, though they have devastating effects on certain species, like the kiwi birds, that depend on the forest for survival.&nbsp;



Flat pastures do not provide kiwi birds with the natural protection and barriers they need to survive. Yet, their scope is rapidly increasing. Before New Zealand was populated, only 5% of the country was grassland. Now, more than 38% of the country’s total land area is covered in grass.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-damaging-effects-of-clearing-land">The Damaging Effects of Clearing Land</h3>



What happens to the kiwi birds when forest land is cleared and converted into grasslands and pastures? There are three main ways these actions harm the species.&nbsp;



Population Movement



When land is cleared, kiwis and their predators are forced to move out of their widespread natural habitats. Instead, they migrate into smaller and more concentrated areas, where there are fewer resources and the likelihood of an encounter is greater. If the kiwi birds remain in the farmland, they are often attacked by predators, such as dogs.&nbsp;



Physical Threats



Developers use various means to clear land, including burning and crushing vegetation. Both approaches pose a direct threat to kiwis and other species that call the area home. The large rollers used to crush plants and trees can harm or kill the birds, who cannot fly to higher altitudes for safety. Likewise, the fire and smoke from the burning process are also significant dangers.&nbsp;



Increased Competition



With a smaller habitat to live in, kiwis are affected both physically and socially. Deforestation creates more competition for free space, which leads to boundary wars between kiwi birds and other local inhabitants. Not only can these encounters turn deadly, but they also make breeding less frequent.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-rise-of-the-dairy-farming-industry">The Rise of the Dairy Farming Industry</h3>



In an effort to offset the negative effect of pastureland development, country leaders have led programs to establish plantation forests where the kiwi birds can live. The movement hit its apex in 2006, when planted forests covered around 1.8 million hectares in New Zealand.&nbsp;



However, there’s another movement changing the landscape and diverting attention elsewhere: the growth of the dairy farming industry. Over the past 30 years, dairy exports in New Zealand have increased from around NZ $2 billion per year to nearly $20 billion per year.&nbsp;



Dairy farmers need pastures to support their livelihoods, which means fewer exotic forests are being replanted. In fact, some immature forests have even been converted into dairy farms to support this sector.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/stoat-1024x487.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911710"/><figcaption>Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/Andyworks?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">Andyworks</a> <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/ahmettgiden?mediatype=photography"><img alt=""></a>on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-predatory-activity">Predatory Activity</h2>



While habitat loss contributes to the dwindling numbers of kiwi birds, it isn’t the primary factor affecting their survival.



In fact, kiwi birds are surprisingly adaptable and can conform to a variety of environments. While flat grasslands aren’t ideal, these soil feeders can survive in other areas, from native forests and rougher farmland to sand dunes and mangroves.&nbsp;



The only problem? When they migrate to these different habitats, kiwis aren’t alone. Instead, they meet a variety of predators, including dogs, stoats, and ferrets. Faced with these constant threats, it’s estimated that only 5% of kiwi bird chicks survive into adulthood.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-stoats-and-baby-kiwi-birds">Stoats and Baby Kiwi Birds</h3>



Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. In the same family as ferrets and weasels, these short-tailed mammals are extremely smart, fast, and mobile. They were introduced into New Zealand back in the 1800s in an attempt to control the overpopulation of introduced rabbits.&nbsp;



However, once they arrived in the country, the stoats quickly found that it was easier to attack and kill flightless ground-nesting birds (like the kiwi) than rabbits. Thus, newly-hatched kiwi birds became their primary prey -- a relationship that continues to this day. It’s especially difficult for kiwis to outwit or outrun stoats due to the fact that kiwis are mostly nocturnal, while stoats hunt during the day.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-dogs-and-adult-kiwi-birds">Dogs and Adult Kiwi Birds</h3>



While baby kiwis often fall victim to stoats, dogs are the biggest predator of adult kiwi birds. Even the smallest and most delicate dog can crush a kiwi due to its size and weight. While there has been some legislation to control dog populations in New Zealand, including the Dog Control Act of 1996, some dog owners are not aware of (or choose to openly ignore) the rules required to keep their pets under control in areas where wild kiwi birds live.



<h3 id="h-other-predators">Other Predators</h3>



In addition to dogs, adult kiwi birds also have to be on the lookout for ferrets, which are increasing in number across New Zealand. Ferrets also prey on rabbits and have had plenty of hunting activity lately. As summers become longer, hotter, and dryer, rabbit populations are on the upswing.&nbsp;



Thus, ferrets are thriving as well. It’s not uncommon for them to migrate from farmlands into deep forests, where they can find kiwi among other forms of natural wildlife. Other animals that can kill kiwi birds include possums, cats, and pigs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-predator-control-efforts">Predator Control Efforts</h3>



As conservation leaders learn more about the types of animals that commonly prey on kiwi birds, they are taking measures to keep them safe. Research shows that when predatory activity is intensively controlled, kiwi hatching rates increase to up to 60%. For population levels to grow, a rate above 20% is necessary, so this is promising progress.&nbsp;



The specific techniques and tools used to control predators will vary depending on the target species, area size, terrain, and personnel responsible. However, there is always a focus on using humane measures (including traps and poisons) to protect the kiwi birds and preserve other native species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Future-kiwi-1024x550.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911711"/><figcaption>Education and advocacy are key for the future of the kiwi bird population. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/tobiasjo?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">tobiasjo</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-kiwi-bird-population">The Future of the Kiwi Bird Population</h2>



As a result of habitat loss and predatory activity, kiwi bird populations across New Zealand are becoming increasingly sparse and fragmented. When this occurs, it becomes more difficult for the species to breed, which further inhibits population growth.&nbsp;



As long as safe and effective pest control measures are in place, kiwi can thrive in various habitats. The key is understanding how to protect the birds that live in your homeland, whether that’s a town, pasture, forest, or farm.&nbsp;



As community leaders continue to look for ways to drive out predators and keep these birds safe, education and advocacy are key. Continue to educate yourself on the measures taken to safeguard this species, and check back here often for all of the eco-central news and updates you need. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Why Are Kiwi Birds Endangered?

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique...

Mouthbrooding,Jaw,Fish,With,Eggs,In,Its,Mouth,,Indonesia

Mouthbrooding refers to the parenting strategy in which the adult keeps their eggs or young offspring in their mouth! Also called oral or buccal incubation, this approach to parenting may have you raising an eyebrow. But let’s let go of our attachments to mammalian wombs and childsafe cribs (at least for the length of this article) and consider that the mouth could offer a safe cozy spot for some species.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-is-mouthbrooding">What is Mouthbrooding?</h2>



Mouthbrooding is a fascinating life history strategy, but it makes a lot of sense. Many fish and amphibians lay hundreds of eggs in very vulnerable places. Mouthbrooders reduce that risk dramatically. By housing their eggs and fry (juveniles) in their mouths, very few are predated. Among these different species, there are a couple of different types of mouthbrooding behaviors: maternal and paternal mouthbrooding. We’ll dive into both of these more with our review of sexual selection.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_305243708.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904127"/><figcaption>African cichlid. Photo from <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ET1972">ArtEvent ET</a> on <a href="http://shutterstock.com">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-paternal-vs-maternal-mouthbrooding-animals">Paternal vs. Maternal Mouthbrooding Animals</h3>



Depending on the species, sometimes the mouthbrooder is the female (maternal mouthbrooding) and sometimes the male (paternal mouthbrooding). For maternal mouthbrooding fish, the female will lay the eggs, scoop them up in her mouth, then the male will fertilize them. On the other hand, in species with paternal mouthbrooding, spawning happens before the male houses the fertilized eggs.



<h4 id="h-sexual-selection">Sexual Selection</h4>



Interestingly, these differences have brought to light some fascinating trends about sexual selection. Sexual selection is the theory that certain traits give an individual a greater advantage in winning a mate. For example in the avian world, the more beautifully colored males with the most charming songs win the attention of the females. For mouthbrooding animals, the mate that extends parental care (i.e. provides the mouth for brooding), is the subject of intense <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Parallel-life-history-evolution-in-mouthbrooding-Duponchelle-Paradis/4adc573826aae0f1a27170c81a38fcc1032d262b">competition</a> by the other mate.&nbsp;



For example, in cichlid fish, the females are usually the mouthbrooders. Therefore, the males intensely compete with one another for mates. For the <a href="http://www.mit.edu/~lxs/cichlids/breeding.html">African cichlid</a>, the male will first dig out a nest in the substrate, then perform a dance to attract the female into the den.&nbsp; It’s the reverse for cardinalfish, in which the males are the mouthbrooders. In that case, the females compete with one another for their mates. The reason for this competition has to do with time and energy. In both paternal and maternal mouthbrooding fish, the parent that doesn’t mouthbrood has a higher reproductive rate than a clutch of eggs can hatch.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-types-of-mouthbrooding-animals">Types of Mouthbrooding Animals</h3>



While there are a few mouthbrooding frogs, the behavior is actually more typical in fish. In fact, this strange form of parental care is found in nine different families of fish. Examples of this uncommon parenting strategy have shown up independently throughout the animal kingdom. Here are a bit more details on these fascinating animals that evolved to incubate their young in the parent’s mouths.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-darwin-s-frogs">Darwin’s Frogs</h4>



Just three species of pointy-nosed frogs make up the family Rhinotermitidae. Also known as Darwin’s frogs, these amphibians hop around the forests of Chile and Argentina. All three species display paternal mouthbrooding. After the female lays her eggs, the male cares for them in his mouth. The wiggling larvae force the male to swallow the eggs. They then complete their metamorphosis in his vocal sac, only to emerge from his mouth as fully developed frogs.&nbsp;



&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_639016705.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904129"/><figcaption>The chocolate gourami is a mouthbrooding fish. Photo from <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Chonlasubworavichan">chonlasub woravichan</a> on <a href="http://shutterstock.com/">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h4 id="h-mouthbrooding-fish">Mouthbrooding Fish</h4>



There are nine families that each include at least one mouthbrooding species of fish. For some families, all the species evolved to be mouthbrooders, while in others, just a single species developed the trait. Coincidentally, many of these species are popular freshwater aquarium fish.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Fish Family</td><td>Mouthbrooding Type?</td></tr><tr><td>Cichlids (Cichlidae)</td><td>Many maternal, some paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Cardinalfish (Apogonidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Sea Catfish (Ariidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Bagrid Catfish (Bagridae)</td><td>One biparental species</td></tr><tr><td>Snakeheads (Channidae)</td><td>Some paternal&nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Snailfish (Liparidae)</td><td>At least one paternal species</td></tr><tr><td>Jawfish (Opistognathidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Gouramis (Osphronemidae)</td><td>Mostly paternal with few maternal</td></tr><tr><td>Arowanas (Osteoglossidae)</td><td>Some paternal</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>



<h2 id="h-challenges-to-mouthbrooders">Challenges to Mouthbrooders</h2>



When your mouth is full of eggs, other, more typical mouth functions become more difficult. With limited space in the buccal cavity, mouthbrooding fish typically don’t eat while they have eggs in their mouths. Depending on the species, it can be one to two weeks before the eggs hatch. That’s quite a long time to fast! So these parents face quite the evolutionary trade-off: sacrifice significant amounts of energy to give the young a safe place to hatch.



While the primary goal of mouthbrooding is to protect the young, there’s a chance that a few might be swallowed. In the case of unfertilized eggs, the mouthbrooding female might intentionally swallow them. But some species of cardinalfish have been documented to even eat some of the fertilized offspring. It’s unclear whether this act of <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/685303">cannibalism</a> is completely accidental or they’re just desperate for a snack.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-brood-parasitism">Brood Parasitism</h3>



Another very brutal risk to mouthbrooders is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brood-parasitism-animal-kingdom/">brood parasites</a>. A common phenomenon in birds, a mother will lay her eggs in another bird’s nest to avoid taxing parental care. This happens to mouthbrooding fish as well! For example, the mochokid catfish will trick a neighboring, mouthbrooding cichlid into including its eggs in its brood. Unfortunately for the cichlids, the catfish eggs hatch first, and the young fry feed on the yolk of the remaining eggs.&nbsp;



The animal kingdom is full of stories of animals going to impressive lengths to protect their young. While a bit strange, mouthbrooding is not different. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mouthbrooding: Everything You Didn’t Want to Know

Mouthbrooding refers to the parenting strategy in which the adult...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> explains that most of the elements that make up the Earth, humans, and all living creatures were formed in stars. Powerful stellar explosions are the source of many of the elements of the periodic table, including those that make up the human body.



According to Live Science, the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the human body - as well as atoms of all other heavy elements - were created in previous generations of stars over 4.5 billion years ago. Professor Chris Impey from the University of Arizona explained that because humans and all animals contain these elements, we are literally made of star stuff.



Dr. Ashley King is a planetary scientist and meteorite researcher at the Natural History Museum."It is totally 100% true: nearly all the elements in the human body were made in a star and many have come through several supernovas," said Dr. King.



He explained that it's very likely that there are a whole bunch of different stars that have contributed the elements we see in our own solar system, our planet, and those found within human bodies.&nbsp;



"At the atomic scale, we are all made of the same things. Where did those atoms come from? Every element was forged in the cosmos, from stars that collapse and collide to black holes that fire jets deep into space," reports the National Science Foundation.



"Not only are we 'made of star stuff,' we are made of atoms that were forged in some of the most intense environments in the universe."



NASA gets very specific on the subject, noting that the hydrogen in your body, present in every molecule of water, came from the Big Bang.&nbsp;



"There are no other appreciable sources of hydrogen in the universe," said NASA. "The carbon in your body was made by nuclear fusion in the interior of stars, as was the oxygen. Much of the iron in your body was made during supernovas of stars that occurred long ago and far away."



Video Credit: National Science Foundation



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth, humans, and all living creatures are made from stars

[sendtonews key="MYeYoKj4GF-1724382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Woman,Looking,At,Night,Sky,With,Amateur,Astronomical,Telescope.

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> features skywatching highlights for December 2022. 



"The month begins and ends with the Moon visiting the giant planets. On December 1st, find the Moon just a couple of finger-widths apart from Jupiter in the evening sky. Then, from the 25th to the 31st, look to the southwest following sunset to see an increasingly full Moon slip past Saturn and then again past Jupiter," says NASA.



"Viewers with a clear view to the horizon will be able to search for Venus and Mercury in the fading glow of sunset, just a few degrees above the skyline."



A very special event called a lunar occultation will take place on December 7, when the Moon passes in front of Mars.&nbsp;



"The spectacle will be visible in parts of North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. (Viewers in the Southeast and on the East Coast will see the Moon just graze past Mars.) For viewers in the U.S., Mars disappears behind the Moon sometime between about 6:30 and 9 p.m., depending on your location, so check your favorite skywatching app to find the time for your area."



On evenings throughout the month of December, the constellation Pegasus will be visible high in the southwest sky.



"Pegasus is one of the largest of the 88 constellations. Its most prominent feature, and the key to finding it in the sky, is this asterism, or pattern of stars, called the Great Square. These four stars of roughly equal brightness form the central part of the horse's body."



Video Credit: NASA JPL



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

NASA skywatching tips for December 2022

[sendtonews key="iWXcjoxmkG-2398350-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Galápagos Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. This region is one of the most famous places on the planet for viewing wildlife.



The Galápagos Islands are home to many native plants and animals that cannot be found anywhere else in the world, including giant tortoises and sea lions.&nbsp;



When Charles Darwin visited the islands in 1835, his wildlife observations inspired the theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1959, the Ecuadorian government made the entire archipelago a national park to protect its unique diversity.&nbsp;



The archipelago is made up of 13 major islands and several smaller islands and islets across 60,000 square kilometers of ocean. According to ESA, repeated volcanic eruptions and ongoing seismic activity have helped form the rugged mountain landscape of the islands.&nbsp; What are the Galapagos Islands? The Galapagos Islands are part of the country of Ecuador, a UNESCO World Heritage site and a renown National Park. They are situated in the Pacific Ocean about 605 miles (1,000 kilometers) west of northern South America. The islands emerged from the bottom of the sea in the form of astonishing volcanic upheavals.



Repeated volcanic eruptions helped to form the rugged mountain landscape of the Galápagos Islands. The Galápagos are best known for their diverse array of plant and animal species.







Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific

[sendtonews key="FcAcDlHfLv-1627751-12187" type="single"] The Galápagos Islands in the eastern Pacific...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

[sendtonews key="fxH3eJHEkQ-2010196-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Tarso Toussidé in the volcanic region of the Tibesti Mountain Range in Chad.&nbsp;



Toussidé is the second highest peak in Tibesti, and is believed to be among the youngest volcanoes in the region.&nbsp;



According to ESA, Toussidé has undergone a number of eruptions and lava flows, with the lava reaching lengths of 25 kilometers and covering an area of 200 square kilometers, appearing to have "stained" the ground in the process.&nbsp;



There is evidence that Toussidé is still active. On its summit, the volcano has a large number of openings, or fumaroles, that release hot water vapor. One of the Tibesti Mountain’s features is Tarso Toussidé. This image is a composite of photographs acquired by the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus sensor on NASA’s Landsat satellite on January 22, 2001, and February 1, 2000. Tibesti Mountains. 



The Tibesti Mountains are a mountain range in the central Sahara, primarily located in the extreme north of Chad, with a small extension in southern Libya. The highest peak in the range, Emi Koussi, lies to the south at a height of 3,445 meters (11,302 ft) and is the highest point in both Chad and the Sahara.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tarso Toussidé in the Tibesti Mountain Range

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes the first observation of a white dwarf star ripping apart the rocky and icy material of its planetary system. A white dwarf is a remnant of a dead star that has burned through all of the hydrogen that it once used as nuclear fuel.&nbsp;



When a star like the sun begins to die it expands into a "red giant" and then begins to lose mass as it sheds its outer layers. This alters the gravitational pull that the star has on its planetary system.&nbsp;



Scientists have determined that our sun will reach the end of its life in approximately ten billion years. In about five billion years, the sun will become a red giant. This expansion is expected to completely vaporize Mars, Venus, and Earth.



According to NASA, the star’s death throes have so violently disrupted its planetary system that the dead star is siphoning off debris from both the system’s inner and outer reaches. The agency says that data from the Hubble Space Telescope and other NASA observatories were essential in identifying this "cosmic cannibalism."&nbsp;



"The findings help describe the violent nature of evolved planetary systems and can tell astronomers about the makeup of newly forming systems," reports NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists observe a violent dead star

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/">Georgia Tech</a> describes how skin plays an important role in giving elephant trunks flexibility. The researchers found that the skin on an elephant’s trunk does not stretch uniformly.&nbsp;



“When people extend their tongue – a muscle-filled, boneless tissue similar in composition to an elephant’s trunk – it stretches uniformly. We expected the same when we challenged an elephant to reach for food,” said study lead aptly&nbsp;<a href="https://www.schulzscience.com/">Andrew Schulz</a>.



“But when we looked at our high-speed camera footage and plotted the trunk’s movements, we were surprised. The top and bottom weren’t the same at all."



When an elephant is stretching to reach food or other objects, the skin folds on the dorsal surface prove to be more stretchy than the wrinkled ventral skin - allowing the trunk to extend further.&nbsp;



“Flexible skin folds are the elephant’s innovation,” said Professor &nbsp;<a href="https://www.me.gatech.edu/faculty/hu">David Hu</a>. “They protect the dorsal section and make it easier for the elephant to reach downward, the most common gripping style when picking up items.”



In addition to gaining a better understanding of elephants, Schulz sees applications for the knowledge in the field of soft robotics.



“Soft robotics created with biologically inspired design are always based on muscle movement. If they were wrapped with a protective skin, like an elephant’s muscle-filled trunk, the machines could apply larger forces,” said Schulz. “Last year we learned that a trunk is a multi-purpose, muscular hydrostat. Now we know that skin is another tool at its disposal.”



Video Credit: Georgia Tech/Zoo Atlanta



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flexible skin folds help elephants stretch their trunks

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Seal,On,Ice,Floe,In,Antarctica

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> describes the sacrifices made by Weddell seal moms for their offspring. A recent study led by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution revealed that Weddell seals give so much iron to their pups during lactation that they dramatically limit the energy they have left over for diving and foraging.&nbsp;



“Offload of large amounts of iron hinders female Weddell seals’ ability to maintain their own endogenous heme (hemoglobin and myoglobin) stores, and post-partum females have shorter dive durations following weaning than skip-breeders,” wrote the study authors. “High iron demand during lactation ultimately impacts dive capacity as a cost of reproduction in marine mammals.”



Study lead author Michelle Shero explained that seals have much greater iron loads than terrestrial mammals because the seals need those proteins to carry oxygen in their bodies.



“That basically acts as a sort of internal scuba tank for those animals that allows them to dive for so long,” said Shero. “The females are essentially transferring their dive capacities to the pups when they nurse, through this transfer of iron. No one has looked at that before.”



The experts determined that a female seal transfers 309 to 614 milligrams of iron per day to her pup. “This is an exceptional rate of transfer relative to terrestrial mammals,” wrote the researchers.



Weddell seals are incredible divers. They routinely dive and hunt for food underwater for 20 minutes at a time. The longest recorded dive by a Weddell seal was 96 minutes. When the mothers are lactating, however, they are giving up the hemoprotein levels they need to carry oxygen for long dives.



Video Credit: National Science Foundation&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Weddell seals sacrifice large amounts of iron to their pups

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people. 



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> explores how climate patterns influence the behavior of migratory birds. Each year, several billion birds migrate north to the United States in the spring, but the timing of their arrival varies each year.&nbsp;



"Every spring, migratory birds arrive in the continental United States from south and central America to breed. But precisely when they arrive each spring varies from year to year," says NASA.



"To better understand what is driving variability, scientists decided to turn to climate models, radar stations and a little bit of math. By studying the link between climate patterns and bird migration, scientists can better prepare to protect these birds and the habitats on which they rely."



The experts analyzed 23 years worth of data collected by a network of 143 NOAA radar stations located throughout the United States. The goal was to see if some of the stations had similar year-to-year variability in migration observations.



"What they found is that the U.S. can be divided into two regions - east and west - each with its own specific pattern of variability of migratory bird arrival times," explains NASA.



For example, when climate patterns bring warm temperatures to the eastern United States, the migratory birds arrive earlier.&nbsp;



"Variations in the West, however, seem to be linked to more regional climate conditions, such as sea surface temperatures of adjacent waters."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does the climate affect the behavior of migratory birds?

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Young,Plants,Grow,Towards,The,Sun,,Blue,Sky,And,Clouds

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a wearable sensor to help monitor the water levels of plants.&nbsp;



When plants are in need of water, there are not always obvious signals. Plant leaves do not turn brown or shrivel until most of the water is gone.&nbsp;



The new system is designed to detect water loss earlier. According to ACS, the system can wirelessly transmit data to a smartphone app, allowing for remote management of drought stress in gardens and crops.



"Impedimetric wearable sensors are a promising strategy for determining the loss of water content (LWC) from leaves because they can afford on-site and nondestructive quantification of cellular water from a single measurement," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"Because the water content is a key marker of leaf health, monitoring of the LWC can lend key insights into daily practice in precision agriculture, toxicity studies, and the development of agricultural inputs."



The experts have published their research in the ACS journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/aamick">Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces</a>.



Video Credit: ACS



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant sensor can remotely track water levels

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