<p>The Mesoproterozoic Era is a geologic era within the Proterozoic Eon, being the second of three periods, and falls in between the Paleoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic eras. It occurred between 1600-1000 million years ago (Ma). The Mesoproterozoic is the first period of Earth&#8217;s history with a respectable geological record. The continental masses of the Mesoproterozoic are more or less the same ones that are with us today. This is also the period when the formation of the Rodinia supercontinent occurred, as well as the breakup of the Nuna (Columbia) supercontinent.</p>
<p>The period is marked by further development of continental plates and plate tectonics. At the end of this era, the continental plates that had developed were more or less the same as what we have today. This period is also known for the first evidence of large-scale mountain building, namely with the Grenville Orogeny, for which extensive evidence still survives in the geologic record.</p>
<p>The Mesoproterozoic is also the most prolific time for Stromatolites, as they began to decline during the Neoproterozoic. Perhaps the greatest evidence recorded from the Mesoproterozoic period is the first known presence of sexual reproduction, which greatly increased the complexity of life to come. It was also the start of development of communal living among organisms, the multicellular organisms.</p>
<p>The Mesoproterozoic period can be broken down into three subdivisions, which are divisions based on time, rather than geological processes. These subdivisions, in order of oldest to youngest, are:</p>
<ul>
<li>the Calymmian (1600-1400 Ma)</li>
<li>the Ectasian (1400-1200 Ma)</li>
<li>the Stenian (1200-1000 Ma)</li>
</ul>
<p>Image Caption: The geological clock: a projection of Earth’s 4,5 Ga history on a clock</p>
<p>“MA” = a million years (Megayear) ago; “GA” = a billion years (Gigayear) ago</p>
<p>Credit: Woudloper/Wikipedia</p>


What is Mesoproterozoic?

<p>Dog aggression is a serious concern for pet owners, as it can be unsettling, stressful, and even dangerous, not only for the dog but also for other pets, family members, and strangers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Given the complexities and varying degrees of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understand-dogs-language-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive</a> behaviors, Dr. Lori Teller, a clinical professor at the <a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences</a>, provides expert guidance on recognizing and addressing these behaviors effectively.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-aggression-with-no-apparent-trigger-nbsp">Dog aggression with no apparent trigger&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One particularly severe and complex form of aggression is rage syndrome, which causes dogs to exhibit extreme aggression without any apparent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-appear-to-get-jealous-over-their-owners-affection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">triggers</a>. </p>



<p>“Dogs with rage syndrome have episodes of extreme aggression toward a person or other animals that occur seemingly out-of-the-blue and without provocation, yet they otherwise appear friendly and happy,” explained Dr. Teller.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This condition is notoriously challenging to diagnose and treat, since the causes, which may include genetic and neurological factors, remain unclear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“No identifiable trigger leading up to the attack is one clear sign of rage syndrome. Additional signs include confusion or seeming dazedness during or immediately after an episode, glazed eyes, dramatic escalation of aggression without any warning, and unpredictability of episodes,” noted Dr. Teller.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-and-fear-based-dog-aggression">Conflict- and fear-based dog aggression</h2>



<p>It is crucial not to confuse rage syndrome with conflict- or fear-based aggression, which are more common and natural responses to perceived threats or conflicts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to Dr. Teller, there is usually a clearly identifiable trigger for other types of aggression, unlike with rage syndrome. Yet, some owners have difficulties reading a dog's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-humans-process-social-information-in-surprisingly-similar-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body language</a> or recognizing the trigger. </p>



<p>In cases of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aggressive-behavior-in-dogs-is-most-often-caused-by-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fear-based</a> or conflict aggression, dogs often display warning signs before an attack, including a hunched body posture, lip-licking, trembling, baring teeth, growling, or snapping. </p>



<p>These forms of aggression are often defensive in nature, but dogs may also exhibit predatory behaviors that appear aggressive but are actually offensive and driven by the dog’s instinct to pursue prey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effectively-managing-aggression-nbsp">Effectively managing aggression&nbsp;</h2>



<p>When a dog exhibits aggressive behavior, owners should avoid intervening physically during an episode to prevent injuries. After the episode has subsided, it's crucial to consult a veterinarian.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The veterinarian will obtain a complete behavioral history and probably perform some diagnostic tests to rule out a medical problem that has led to the aggressive behaviors,” said Dr. Teller. “An example of a medical problem that may trigger an aggressive response is when someone touches a painful area, such as with osteoarthritis or an ear infection.”</p>



<p>By contrast, “rage syndrome can be caused by seizure-like activity in the brain, so veterinarians may recommend an electroencephalogram, a test that measures electrical activity in the brain, or an advanced imaging modality such as an MRI or CT scan, which takes detailed images of the brain to identify any abnormalities in its structure,” she added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-management-of-dog-aggression-nbsp">Long-term management of dog aggression&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Long-term management of aggression requires a comprehensive approach that includes both medical and behavioral interventions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Depending on the underlying cause of aggression, dogs may be given an anxiolytic medication to relieve anxiety, an anticonvulsant to control the risk of seizures, or a combination of such medications. A behavioral modification plan is also essential and may involve referral to a veterinary behaviorist.</p>



<p>Understanding the different forms of aggression and seeking professional assistance when necessary can help dog owners provide the necessary care and support for their pets.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By addressing aggression effectively, the impact on the dog’s life and the broader household can be minimized, leading to a safer and more harmonious living environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-aggressiveness-in-dogs">More about aggressiveness in dogs</h2>



<p>Dog aggression is a significant behavioral issue that can manifest in various forms, ranging from growling and snapping to biting. It often arises due to multiple factors including genetics, lack of socialization, poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-training-is-more-effective-when-nice-voice-tone-is-used/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">training</a>, fear, or a previous negative experience. </p>



<p>Dogs may also exhibit aggressive behaviors when they're trying to assert dominance or protect their territory, owners, or resources such as food, toys, or other objects.</p>



<p>Understanding the triggers of aggression is crucial for managing it effectively. This involves observing when the aggression occurs, such as in the presence of other dogs or strangers, during meals, or in specific locations like their resting area.&nbsp;</p>



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Can you control your dog’s aggression?

Dog aggression is a serious concern for pet owners, as...

<p>Let's face it: resisting that extra slice of chocolate cake or those tempting cookies can be a real struggle. We've all been there. But have you ever wondered why some people seem to have an easier time making healthy choices than others? New research suggests that our body mass index (BMI) might play a role in our snacking battles. Being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overweight</a> changes brain activity and makes it harder to resist unhealthy foods.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-dilemma-of-overweight-individuals">Brain dilemma of overweight individuals </h2>



<p>Canadian scientists from <a href="https://www.queensu.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen's University</a> conducted a study to understand how the brain influences our food choices. They used MRI scans to monitor the brain activity of 123 individuals. Participants were presented with different food choices and asked to make decisions.</p>



<p>The researchers discovered that individuals with a higher BMI experienced significantly more mental effort when choosing healthy foods over preferred snacks.</p>



<p>"We examined how brain states change when making natural and regulated dietary choices in an established food task. Individuals with lower weight status could successfully modify their eating behaviours while maintaining similar modes of brain activity. Individuals with higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-can-be-passed-down-from-parents-to-kids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight</a> status could not rely on this mechanism," noted the study authors.</p>



<p>The research highlights a concerning prediction: over 18% of the world's adult population will likely be obese by 2025. This statistic emphasizes that many people find it challenging to maintain a healthy diet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-of-overweight-individuals">Brain activity of overweight individuals</h2>



<p>The Canadian study's key takeaway lies in how the brain orchestrates food choices in individuals with varying BMIs. Here's a deeper dive into what the researchers may have observed in the brain scans:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lower-bmi">Lower BMI</h3>



<p>People with lower BMIs likely exhibited a steadier pattern of brain activity during food selection. This stability suggests their brains didn't require a significant shift in function to prioritize healthy options. </p>



<p>Over time, individuals with lower BMIs might have developed well-defined neural pathways associated with healthy eating behaviors. These pathways act like established highways within the brain, making healthy choices more automatic and requiring less conscious effort. </p>



<p>Another possibility is that the brains of individuals with lower BMIs might show less activation in areas linked to reward processing when presented with tempting, unhealthy options. Basically, these options might not trigger the same intense pleasure response in the brain, making it easier to resist them. </p>



<p>For example, for someone with a lower BMI, the brain's reward system might not light up as intensely when presented with a dessert compared to someone with a higher BMI. This dampened pleasure response could translate to a weaker craving and less difficulty in resisting the unhealthy option.  </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-higher-bmi">Higher BMI</h3>



<p>The study suggests that people with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-weight-in-middle-age-shortens-life-expectancy-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher BMI</a> exhibited a more significant shift in brain activity during food choices. This heightened activity indicates their brains had to work considerably harder to overcome the allure of unhealthy options and prioritize healthy ones. </p>



<p>Individuals with a higher BMI might experience a surge in activity in brain regions associated with cravings and reward seeking when presented with unhealthy foods. This heightened response could be likened to a stronger signal on the brain's reward network, making it much more challenging to resist temptation. <br><br>To counteract the strong pull of unhealthy options, people with a higher BMI might need to activate areas of the brain responsible for cognitive control and decision-making to a greater degree. This increased mental effort might explain why some people find it so difficult to make healthy choices consistently. </p>



<p>Think of it like applying the brakes on a speeding car. The greater the temptation (speeding car), the harder the brain (driver) has to press the brakes (cognitive control) to resist the unhealthy option and choose the healthy one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cause-and-effect-mystery">Cause and effect mystery</h2>



<p>It's crucial to remember that this research is correlational, meaning it shows an association but doesn't prove that one causes the other. The researchers can't definitively say whether difficulty with healthy choices leads to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obese-higher-taste-satisfaction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight gain</a>, or whether weight gain changes the brain and makes healthy choices harder. More research is needed to untangle this cause-and-effect mystery.</p>



<p>The study offers a fascinating glimpse into the complex interplay between brain activity and food choices. It opens doors for future research to explore potential interventions that could help people, regardless of their BMI, make healthier choices with less internal struggle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-from-being-overweight">Brain activity from being overweight</h2>



<p>The study proves several key points:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-not-just-about-willpower">It's not just about willpower</h3>



<p>For years, we've often been told that healthy eating is a simple matter of willpower. However, this study highlights that our biology plays a much larger role than previously understood. The brain's response to food cues, reward signaling, and the effort required for decision-making can significantly impact our choices.</p>



<p>This knowledge is essential because it can help remove the stigma and self-blame that often surrounds difficulty in maintaining a healthy diet. Understanding that there's a strong biological component can encourage a more compassionate approach toward oneself and others.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-component">Biological component</h3>



<p>The research doesn't imply that people with high BMIs lack willpower. Rather, it suggests there may be underlying differences in brain wiring affecting how their brains process food choices. This difference makes resisting unhealthy options require significantly greater mental effort.</p>



<p>This understanding removes judgment from the equation. People struggling with their weight aren't "weak-willed" - their brains may simply be working differently. Acknowledging this biological component fosters empathy and moves the focus away from blame.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-solutions-for-brain-activity-in-overweight-individuals">Potential solutions for brain activity in overweight individuals</h3>



<p>This research paves the way for developing effective and personalized strategies to help people manage their weight. Traditional approaches centered purely on willpower often fall short because they ignore this complex biological aspect.</p>



<p>By understanding how the brain influences food choices, scientists and healthcare professionals can develop interventions that address the root causes of the struggle. These interventions might include things like cognitive training, behavioral therapy, or possibly even targeted medications to support brain processes involved in healthy decision-making.</p>



<p>The study offers a beacon of hope, highlighting the potential for science to revolutionize how we approach weight management and improve dietary habits. It's a shift towards a more supportive and solution-focused outlook.</p>



<p>If you find yourself struggling with cravings, don't beat yourself up. Your brain might be working against you. Don't underestimate the power of small changes. </p>



<p>Even minor shifts in your eating habits can make a long-term difference. Seek support from healthcare professionals and explore resources for healthier eating.</p>



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Being overweight makes it hard for the brain to resist unhealthy food

Let's face it: resisting that extra slice of chocolate cake...

<p>Emperor penguins, iconic symbols of Antarctica, are facing increasing survival challenges as Antarctica's ice is melting away. A recent study by the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> reveals worrying trends for these charismatic birds due to declining sea-ice levels.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearing-sea-ice">Disappearing sea ice</h2>



<p>Emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-emperor-penguins-need-better-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> rely on a specific type of sea ice called "fast ice." It's like a giant, frozen platform anchored to the Antarctic shoreline, which makes a perfect spot for the flightless birds to raise a family.</p>



<p>But this frozen haven is shrinking. Recent studies have identified a disturbing trend: sea ice levels are plummeting. This significant drop in sea ice is devastating emperor penguin breeding.</p>



<p>In 2023 alone, a fifth of known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-face-tragic-breeding-failures-due-to-sea-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emperor</a> penguin colonies suffered breeding failures due to early sea ice breakup. This means the penguin chicks were forced to enter the icy water before their feathers were waterproof. It's a heartbreaking loss, and the second worst year on record since scientists began tracking breeding failures in 2018.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emperor-penguins-and-melting-sea-ice">Emperor penguins and melting sea ice</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-emperor-penguin-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emperor penguins</a> are an icon of Antarctica – majestic yet surprisingly goofy with their signature waddle. Beyond their entertainment value, the penguins are an important part of their ecosystem. </p>



<p>Scientists warn that if greenhouse gas emissions continue unchecked, we could lose nearly all emperor penguins by the end of the century. That's virtual extinction for an entire species.</p>



<p>"As the continent warms we are seeing the ice break out earlier, leading to higher chick mortality. With fewer chicks surviving at many colonies, it is likely that over time a number of current breeding sites will become untenable, and the overall population will decline. This is a future that our climate models predict.” said Dr. Peter Fretwell of the British Antarctic Survey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-emperor-penguins-adapt-to-sea-ice-loss">How emperor penguins adapt to sea ice loss</h2>



<p>The situation for emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-emperor-penguins-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> is serious – shrinking sea ice is wreaking havoc on their breeding grounds. But there's a flicker of hope. Penguins are incredibly resilient, and they're proving it.</p>



<p>In 2022, some colonies showed remarkable adaptation to potentially devastating levels of ice loss. They took bold steps to survive. Some moved to find more stable ice, while others totally changed their game by nesting on icebergs or ice shelves instead.</p>



<p>"The fact that we are seeing these adaptations in the worst affected colonies gives us some hope that the birds can react to their changing environment and move to find more stable ice,” noted Dr. Fretwell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-sea-ice-for-emperor-penguins">Saving sea ice for emperor penguins</h2>



<p>Addressing the plight of emperor penguins requires a multifaceted approach that tackles the root cause of their challenges: climate change. To effectively combat the broad environmental shifts affecting these birds, a major global initiative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is essential. </p>



<p>This overarching solution involves international cooperation to implement and adhere to stricter environmental policies and shift towards renewable energy sources. However, beyond the large-scale changes, there are practical steps that individuals and communities can take immediately to contribute to the solution:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Be informed</h3>



<p>Understanding climate change and its impacts is the first step toward making meaningful change. It is vital to stay informed about the latest scientific research and policy developments related to climate change and its effects on global ecosystems, particularly Antarctica. </p>



<p>Engaging with comprehensive, scientifically accurate sources can deepen our knowledge and sensitivity to how delicate systems like those supporting the emperor penguins are managed and protected. </p>



<p>This information serves as a tool for making informed decisions and for advocating for policies that protect the environment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Spread the word</h3>



<p>Awareness and education are powerful catalysts for change. By sharing knowledge about the challenges faced by emperor penguins with your network, you can help raise the profile of climate issues. </p>



<p>Conversations can inspire others to learn more and act, whether it’s through social media campaigns, community talks, or simply discussions among friends and family. </p>



<p>The more people are aware of the impact of climate change on iconic species like the emperor penguin, the greater the public pressure on policymakers to act decisively in favor of sustainable practices and conservation efforts.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Support conservation efforts</h3>



<p>Contributing to organizations that work directly on conserving Antarctica and its unique inhabitants can have an immediate impact. These organizations engage in a range of activities including direct action to protect wildlife, lobbying for policy changes, and conducting vital research that informs conservation strategies. </p>



<p>By donating, volunteering, or even engaging in advocacy campaigns organized by these groups, you can help provide them with the resources they need to carry out their important work. Look for reputable, transparent organizations with proven track records in conservation science and policy.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Change personal habits</h3>



<p>Every individual can contribute to reducing the global carbon footprint through everyday actions. </p>



<p>Simple choices such as reducing reliance on fossil fuels by opting for public transport, biking, or walking when possible can significantly cut down one's carbon emissions. </p>



<p>Reducing energy consumption at home by using energy-efficient appliances, turning off lights when not in use, and moderating heating and cooling can also contribute to lower overall greenhouse gas emissions. </p>



<p>Furthermore, making conscious consumer choices such as supporting sustainable products and reducing waste goes a long way in promoting a more sustainable economy.</p>



<p>By combining these personal actions with broader advocacy for policy change, individuals can play a crucial role in addressing the causes of climate change. Collectively, these efforts create a groundswell of support for a healthier planet, paving the way for more stable and secure habitats for emperor penguins and other wildlife. </p>



<p>Emperor penguins are battling for survival in a rapidly changing world. Every step taken, no matter how small, moves us closer to a sustainable future and helps to mitigate the impacts of climate change on vulnerable species around the world.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antarctic-science/article/6-year-assessment-of-low-seaice-impacts-on-emperor-penguins/D884062FC1FFC9CFB4EB45C563FA695B" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Antarctic Science&nbsp;</em>today</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Emperor penguins will not survive the current rate of sea ice decline

Emperor penguins, iconic symbols of Antarctica, are facing increasing survival...

Earth,Core,Structure.,Elements,Of,This,3d,Image,Furnished,By

<p>In a remarkable discovery that challenges our understanding of Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pumping-too-much-groundwater-affects-earths-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water distribution</a>, aided by a mineral called ringwoodite, researchers found evidence suggesting the presence of several oceans worth of water trapped deep beneath the United States. </p>



<p>The discovery, made by geophysicist Steve Jacobsen from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and seismologist Brandon Schmandt from the <a href="https://www.unm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Mexico</a>, may represent the planet's largest water reservoir. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-earth-s-water-cycle">Rethinking Earth's water cycle</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em>Science</em>, their findings shed light on the Earth's formation, composition, and the amount of water trapped in mantle rock.</p>



<p>"Geological processes on the Earth's surface, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> or erupting volcanoes, are an expression of what is going on inside the Earth, out of our sight," explained Jacobsen, a co-author of the paper. </p>



<p>"I think we are finally seeing evidence for a whole-Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-fluctuations-have-reshaped-earths-water-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water cycle</a>, which may help explain the vast amount of liquid water on the surface of our habitable planet. Scientists have been looking for this missing deep water for decades," Jacobsen continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-has-remarkable-secrets">Earth's mantle has remarkable secrets</h2>



<p>Scientists have long speculated about the existence of water trapped in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's mantle</a>, located between the lower and upper mantle at depths of 250 to 410 miles. </p>



<p>Jacobsen and Schmandt are the first to provide direct evidence of water in this "transition zone" on a regional scale, extending across most of the interior of the United States.</p>



<p>"Melting of rock at this depth is remarkable because most melting in the mantle occurs much shallower, in the upper 50 miles," said Schmandt, a co-author of the paper. </p>



<p>"If there is a substantial amount of H2O in the transition zone, then some melting should take place in areas where there is flow into the lower mantle, and that is consistent with what we found."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-ice-vapor-and-a-fourth-form-of-water">Liquid, ice, vapor and a fourth form of water</h2>



<p>The water discovered in the mantle is not in a form familiar to us – it is not liquid, ice, or vapor. Instead, it is trapped inside the molecular structure of the minerals in the mantle rock. </p>



<p>The immense pressure created by 250 miles of solid rock, along with temperatures above 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, causes water molecules to split and form hydroxyl radicals (OH) that can be bound into a mineral's crystal structure.</p>



<p>"Whether or not this unique sample is representative of the Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theia-ancient-planet-buried-inside-of-earth-may-be-the-origin-of-our-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interior composition</a> is not known, however," Jacobsen said. "Now we have found evidence for extensive melting beneath North America at the same depths corresponding to the dehydration of ringwoodite, which is exactly what has been happening in my experiments."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-ringwoodite">Following the ringwoodite</h2>



<p>Ringwoodite, a high-pressure mineral with a captivating blue hue, was named after the Australian geologist Alfred Ringwood, forms deep within the Earth's mantle at depths between 410 and 660 kilometers (250-410 miles). What makes ringwoodite truly remarkable is its ability to store water within its crystal structure.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthesizing-ringwoodite-in-the-lab">Synthesizing ringwoodite in the lab</h3>



<p>Jacobsen has been synthesizing ringwoodite, a sapphire-like blue mineral, in his Northwestern lab by reacting the green mineral olivine with water at high-pressure conditions. He found that more than one percent of the weight of ringwoodite's crystal structure can consist of water.</p>



<p>Under the immense pressures and temperatures found in the mantle's transition zone, water molecules split into hydroxyl radicals (OH), which can then be incorporated into ringwoodite's structure. This mineral acts like a sponge, soaking up water and storing it in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep Earth</a>.</p>



<p>"The ringwoodite is like a sponge, soaking up water," Jacobsen said. "There is something very special about the crystal structure of ringwoodite that allows it to attract hydrogen and trap water. This mineral can contain a lot of water under conditions of the deep mantle."</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ringwoodite-implications-for-earth-s-formation-and-habitability">Ringwoodite implications for Earth's formation and habitability</h3>



<p>The presence of water-rich ringwoodite in the Earth's mantle has implications for our understanding of the planet's formation and its potential for habitability.</p>



<p>As scientists continue to study this intriguing mineral, they may uncover new insights into the role of water in the Earth's deep interior and its influence on the geologic processes that shape our world.</p>



<p>Ringwoodite's ability to store and transport water within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> could also have implications for the search for life on other planets, as the presence of water is considered a key factor in the development and sustainability of life as we know it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-magma-beneath-north-america">Detecting magma beneath North America</h2>



<p>Using seismic waves, Schmandt detected the presence of magma beneath North America, which aligned with Jacobsen's findings of partial melt when subjecting synthesized ringwoodite to conditions around 400 miles below the Earth's surface.</p>



<p>Additionally, seismic studies have detected regions of partial melting in the mantle's transition zone, which could be attributed to the release of water from ringwoodite as it transforms into other minerals at greater depths.</p>



<p>"Seismic data from the USArray are giving us a clearer picture than ever before of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-interior-is-cooling-faster-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's internal structure</a> beneath North America," Schmandt explained. "The melting we see appears to be driven by subduction -- the downwelling of mantle material from the surface."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-dehydration-melting">Process of dehydration melting</h2>



<p>The melting detected by the researchers is called dehydration melting. When ringwoodite in the transition zone moves deeper into the lower mantle, it forms a higher-pressure mineral called silicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perovskite-crystals-appear-to-dance-when-they-get-excited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perovskite</a>, which cannot absorb water. This causes the rock at the boundary between the transition zone and lower mantle to partially melt.</p>



<p>"When a rock with a lot of H2O moves from the transition zone to the lower mantle it needs to get rid of the H2O somehow, so it melts a little bit," Schmandt said. "This is called dehydration melting."</p>



<p>"Once the water is released, much of it may become trapped there in the transition zone," Jacobsen added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ringwoodite-was-accidentally-discovered">How ringwoodite was accidentally discovered</h2>



<p>The international team of scientists responsible for this remarkable find was led by Graham Pearson, Canada Excellence Research Chair in Arctic Resources at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a>. </p>



<p>Analysis of the mineral sample revealed that it contains a significant amount of water -- 1.5 per cent of its weight -- a finding that proved to have far-reaching implications for our understanding of the Earth's interior and its dynamic nature.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Elusive ringwoodite</h3>



<p>Ringwoodite, a form of the mineral peridot, is believed to exist in large quantities under high pressures in the transition zone between the Earth's upper and lower mantle. </p>



<p>While ringwoodite has been found in meteorites, no terrestrial sample had ever been discovered before Graham Pearson came along. Due to the extreme depths at which it is formed, this elusive mineral is inaccessible for direct fieldwork.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contribution-of-artisan-miners-in-brazil">Contribution of artisan miners in Brazil</h3>



<p>The ringwoodite sample was found in 2008 in the Juina area of Mato Grosso, Brazil, where artisan miners unearthed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-how-diamonds-reach-the-earths-surface-finally-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamond</a> from shallow river gravels. </p>



<p>The diamond, which had been brought to the Earth's surface by a deeply derived volcanic rock known as kimberlite, contained the ringwoodite inclusion.</p>



<p>Pearson's team had been searching for another mineral when they purchased the three-millimeter-wide, dirty-looking, commercially worthless brown diamond. </p>



<p>The ringwoodite itself, invisible to the naked eye and buried beneath the surface, was fortunately discovered by Pearson's graduate student, John McNeill, in 2009.</p>



<p>"It's so small, this inclusion, it's extremely difficult to find, never mind work on," Pearson said, "so it was a bit of a piece of luck, this discovery, as are many scientific discoveries."</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Confirming the Find</h3>



<p>The sample underwent years of rigorous analysis using Raman and infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction before it was officially confirmed as ringwoodite. </p>



<p>The critical water measurements were performed at Pearson's Arctic Resources Geochemistry Laboratory at the University of Alberta, which forms part of the world-renowned <a href="https://www.eas.ualberta.ca/ccim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Centre for Isotopic Microanalysis</a>, also home to the world's largest academic diamond research group.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Implications for Earth's Dynamics</h2>



<p>For Pearson, one of the world's leading authorities in the study of deep Earth diamond host rocks, this discovery proved to be the most significant of his career. </p>



<p>It confirmed about 50 years of theoretical and experimental work by geophysicists, seismologists, and other scientists trying to understand the makeup of the Earth's interior.</p>



<p>"One of the reasons the Earth is such a dynamic planet is the presence of some water in its interior," Pearson said. "Water changes everything about the way a planet works."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ringwoodite-earth-s-water-cycle-and-the-future">Ringwoodite, Earth's water cycle, and the future</h2>



<p>In summary, the crucial discovery of a vast water reservoir deep within the Earth's mantle by Steve Jacobsen and Brandon Schmandt has revolutionized our understanding of the planet's formation, composition, and water cycle.</p>



<p>As researchers continued to explore the complex processes occurring far beneath the Earth's surface, their ringwoodite findings provided a new understanding of the delicate balance that makes our planet habitable. </p>



<p>The presence of this hidden ocean, trapped within the crystals of mantle rock, serves as a testament to the incredible forces at work within the Earth and the countless mysteries that still lie beneath our feet. </p>



<p>With each new revelation, we move closer to unraveling the secrets of our planet's past, present, and future, and to appreciating the remarkable world we call home.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a> </em>and the journal<em> <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v507/n7491/full/nature13080.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em></p>



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Earth has a vast interior ocean, 400-miles under our feet, that creates 'ringwoodite' gems

In a remarkable discovery that challenges our understanding of Earth's...

<p>As we continue to explore the cosmos, we are discovering an increasing number of exoplanets that could potentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harbor life</a>. One such world is K2-18 b, an exoplanet that has recently captured the attention of astronomers due to the presence of intriguing DMS gas molecules in its atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-footprints-found-on-k2-18-b">Carbon footprints found on K2-18 b</h2>



<p>In September 2023, Nikku Madhusudhan, an astronomer at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, announced a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-exoplanet-k2-18-have-the-right-conditions-to-support-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">very intriguing discovery</a>. </p>



<p>Using the powerful James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>), Madhusudhan and his team detected the presence of carbon-bearing molecules, including methane and carbon dioxide, on exoplanet K2-18 b. </p>



<p>This discovery was added to other <a href="https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2019/news-2019-50" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recent studies</a> suggesting that K2-18 b could be a Hycean exoplanet, characterized by a hydrogen-rich atmosphere and a water ocean-covered surface.</p>



<p>"Our findings underscore the importance of considering diverse habitable environments in the search for life elsewhere," explained Madhusudhan, the lead author of the paper announcing these results. </p>



<p>"Traditionally, the search for life on exoplanets has focused primarily on smaller rocky planets, but the larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hycean worlds</a> are significantly more conducive to atmospheric observations," he continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tantalizing-hint-of-dimethyl-sulfide-dms">Tantalizing hint of dimethyl sulfide (DMS)</h2>



<p>The initial Webb observations also provided a possible detection of a molecule called dimethyl sulfide (DMS). On Earth, this molecule is "only produced by life", primarily by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in marine environments. </p>



<p>The abundance of methane and carbon dioxide, along with the shortage of ammonia, support the hypothesis that K2-18 b may have a water ocean underneath a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.</p>



<p>"It was a real shock, I had sleepless nights for a week," enthused Dr. Madhusudhan, recalling the moment when the analysis showed a possible hint of DMS in the planet's atmosphere. "That week, I didn't even muster the courage to break it to my own team."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-a-whiff-of-dms-made-astronomers-look-again">Why a whiff of DMS made astronomers look again</h2>



<p>Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH3)2S. This colorless, flammable liquid possesses a characteristic odor often associated with the smell of the ocean. </p>



<p>DMS plays a crucial role in the Earth's sulfur cycle and has garnered significant attention due to its potential as a biomarker for extraterrestrial life.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-significance-of-dms-on-earth">Biological significance of DMS on Earth</h3>



<p>On Earth, dimethyl sulfide is predominantly produced by marine organisms, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-hold-a-long-record-of-ocean-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>. These tiny, photosynthetic organisms release DMS as a byproduct of their metabolic processes. </p>



<p>When DMS enters the atmosphere, it undergoes oxidation, contributing to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei. This process influences cloud formation and, consequently, Earth's climate.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">DMS as a biomarker for extraterrestrial life</h3>



<p>Detecting DMS on distant exoplanets presents numerous challenges. The molecule's spectral signature is difficult to distinguish from other compounds, and its presence in an atmosphere may be masked by other gases. </p>



<p>The detection of DMS in the atmosphere of an exoplanet, such as K2-18 b, has significant implications for the search for extraterrestrial life. </p>



<p>On Earth, DMS is exclusively produced by biological processes, making it a compelling biomarker. The presence of DMS in an exoplanet's atmosphere suggests the possibility of marine life similar to Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-k2-18-b-an-exoplanet-like-no-other">K2-18 b: An exoplanet like no other</h2>



<p>K2-18 b orbits the cool dwarf star K2-18 in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-expands-the-habitable-zone-where-we-may-find-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>, approximately 120 light-years from Earth in the constellation Leo. With a radius 2.6 times that of Earth, K2-18 b is unlike anything in our solar system. </p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neptune-like-exoplanets-atmospheres-interesting-earth-size-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-Neptune exoplanets</a> are poorly understood, and the nature of their atmospheres is a matter of active debate among astronomers.</p>



<p>"Although this kind of planet does not exist in our solar system, sub-Neptunes are the most common type of planet known so far in the galaxy," explained team member Subhajit Sarkar of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>. </p>



<p>"We have obtained the most detailed spectrum of a habitable-zone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planetary-migration-model-explains-super-earths-and-sub-neptunes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-Neptune</a> to date, and this allowed us to work out the molecules that exist in its atmosphere," Sarkar concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-detective-story-continues">Cosmic detective story continues</h2>



<p>The team is now conducting follow-up research with the JWST's <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/miri.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIRI</a> (Mid-Infrared Instrument) spectrograph, hoping to further validate their findings and provide new insights into the environmental conditions on K2-18 b. </p>



<p>The inference of DMS on the exoplanet, though incredibly tantalizing, requires further validation. As Madhusudhan explained, "Upcoming Webb observations should be able to confirm if DMS is indeed present in the atmosphere of K2-18 b at significant levels."</p>



<p>"Our ultimate goal is the identification of life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable exoplanet</a>, which would transform our understanding of our place in the universe," concluded Madhusudhan. "Our past findings and future studies are a promising step towards a deeper understanding of Hycean worlds in this quest."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-finding-life-on-k2-18-b">Implications of finding life on K2-18 b</h2>



<p>As we stand on the precipice of a potentially transformational discovery, the tantalizing hint of alien life on K2-18 b reminds us of the boundless possibilities that await us in the vast expanse of the universe. </p>



<p>The tireless efforts of astronomers like Nikku Madhusudhan and his team, coupled with the unparalleled capabilities of the Webb Telescope, bring us closer than ever to answering one of humanity's most profound questions: Are we alone? </p>



<p>As we eagerly anticipate the upcoming observations and the revelations they may bring, we find ourselves inspired by the relentless curiosity and unwavering dedication of those who seek to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos, pushing the boundaries of our understanding and redefining our place in the universe.</p>



<p>The full study was published in <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/2041-8205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Webb studies planet K2-18 b again to confirm presence of gas ‘only produced by life’

As we continue to explore the cosmos, we are discovering...

<p>A team of biologists led by the <a href="https://uol.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oldenburg</a> in Germany has recently made significant strides in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> navigate with remarkable accuracy. </p>



<p>The research, which also included experts from the <a href="https://ifv-vogelwarte.de/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Avian Research “Vogelwarte Helgoland”</a>, was focused on the role of a specific protein in birds’ eyes, believed to be a key magnetoreceptor enabling this navigation. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-how-birds-navigate-nbsp">Genetic basis of how birds navigate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers compared the genomes of several hundred bird species and observed notable evolutionary changes in the gene encoding the protein cryptochrome 4. They found that certain groups of birds have completely lost this gene.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This suggests that the protein is important for adaptation to specific environmental conditions,” said senior author Miriam Liedvogel, the director of the Institute of Avian Research. “A similar pattern has been observed in other sensory proteins such as light-sensitive pigments in the eye.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetoreception-in-birds">Magnetoreception in birds</h2>



<p>Previous research revealed that magnetoreception in birds is linked to a complex quantum mechanical process in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retina</a>. </p>



<p>For instance, a 2021 study suggested cryptochrome 4 as the probable magnetoreceptor, showing that it is present in the retina and responds to magnetic fields with a quantum effect, an ability more pronounced in robins than in non-migratory birds like chickens and pigeons.</p>



<p>“Consequently, the reason why cryptochrome 4 is more sensitive in robins than in chickens and pigeons must be found in the protein’s DNA sequence,” explained lead author Corinna Langebrake, a researcher at the Institute of Avian Research. “The sequence was probably optimized by evolutionary processes in these nocturnal migratory birds.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cryptochrome-4">The role of cryptochrome 4</h2>



<p>In the current study, the team examined the cryptochrome 4 genes across 363 bird species, from the little spotted kiwi to the song sparrow.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They compared the evolutionary rate of cryptochrome 4 with that of other related proteins and found that while other cryptochromes have changed little over time due to their crucial role in regulating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internal-clock-living-human-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internal clock</a>, cryptochrome 4 showed high variability. This variability suggests a specialized function, potentially as a magnetoreceptor. </p>



<p>“A similar pattern has been observed in other sensory proteins such as light-sensitive pigments in the eye,” Liedvogel said. Particularly among passerine birds, the protein appears to have undergone rapid selection, further supporting its specialized role in magnetoreception.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-mechanisms-of-magnetoreception">Alternative mechanisms of magnetoreception</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the study also found that three clades of tropical birds - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a>, hummingbirds, and Tyranni (suboscines), known as tyrants - have lost the gene for cryptochrome 4, indicating it may not be essential for their survival. </p>



<p>Since some tyrants are long-distance migrants, their lack of cryptochrome 4 presents an opportunity to explore alternative mechanisms of magnetoreception.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-some-birds-navigate-without-any-magnetic-sense">Do some birds navigate without any magnetic sense?</h2>



<p>“The fact that, unlike robins, they do not have cryptochrome 4 makes them an ideal system for investigating various hypotheses about magnetoreception,” Langebrake explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A key question is whether the Tyranni have evolved a magnetic sense that functions without the cryptochrome 4 protein, or if they can navigate without relying on any magnetic sense at all.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, it's possible that their magnetic sensing capabilities mirror those found in robins, which rely on light and can be influenced by external factors such as radio waves.</p>



<p>“The first two scenarios would strongly corroborate the cryptochrome 4 hypothesis, while the third would pose a problem for the theory,” she added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetoreception-and-bird-navigation-nbsp">Magnetoreception and bird navigation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Moving forward, the research team plans to investigate magnetic orientation in Tyranni to better understand the function of cryptochrome 4 and its importance in magnetoreception among migratory birds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research not only deepens our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-magnetic-field-navigate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avian navigation</a> but also opens new avenues for exploring evolutionary adaptations in sensory perception.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-how-birds-navigate-nbsp">More about how birds navigate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Migratory birds have remarkable abilities to navigate across vast distances, often traveling thousands of miles between breeding and wintering grounds. Their navigation skills are attributed to a variety of mechanisms:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-compass">Sun compass</h3>



<p>Birds use the sun as a compass. They can gauge the time of day and adjust their flight direction based on the sun's position in the sky.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-compass">Star compass</h3>



<p>During night migration, many birds use the stars to navigate. They can identify constellations and use them to maintain their flight path.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-field">Geomagnetic field</h3>



<p>Birds are sensitive to Earth's geomagnetic field. They have magnetoreceptors that allow them to sense magnetic fields, which helps them determine their latitude and longitude for orientation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarized-light-patterns">Polarized light patterns</h3>



<p>Birds can detect polarized light patterns in the sky, which are most prominent at sunrise and sunset. These patterns can help calibrate their internal compasses.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landmarks">Landmarks</h3>



<p>For birds that fly at lower altitudes, physical landmarks like rivers, mountains, and coastlines can serve as guides.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-olfactory-cues">Olfactory cues</h3>



<p>Some research suggests that certain birds may also use olfactory cues - smelling their way along their migration routes.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.2308" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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How do migratory birds navigate with such accuracy?

A team of biologists led by the University of Oldenburg...

<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://alleninstitute.org/division/brain-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allen Institute for Brain Science</a> has advanced our understanding of how the brain's specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-compensate-aging-dementia-recruiting-other-brain-regions-to-help/">regions</a> develop their unique functions. </p>



<p>By employing a cutting-edge method called BARseq to extensively map neurons across nine mouse brains, the experts provided unique insights into the brain's cellular landscape.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-subregions-of-the-brain">Specialized subregions of the brain</h2>



<p>“The vertebrate brain is organized into subregions that are specialized in function and distinct in cytoarchitecture and connectivity. This spatial specialization of function and structure is established by developmental processes involving intrinsic genetic programs and/or external signaling,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Although gene expression can change during cell maturation and remains dynamic in response to internal cellular conditions and external stimuli, a core transcriptional program that maintains cellular identity usually remains steady in mature neurons.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Thus, resolving the expression of core sets of genes that distinguish different types of neuron provides insight into the functional and structural specialization of neurons.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-cellular-signatures-of-specialized-brain-regions">Unique cellular signatures of specialized brain regions</h2>



<p>The team discovered that while different brain regions contain similar types of neurons, each region possesses a distinct combination of these cells, effectively giving each area a unique cellular “signature.” This finding is a significant step forward in understanding the complex organization of the brain.</p>



<p>Additionally, the study explored how the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory inputs</a>, such as sight, affects these cellular signatures. “BARseq lets us see with unprecedented precision how sensory inputs affect brain development. These broad changes illustrate how important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vision </a>is in shaping our brains, even at the most basic level,” said co-lead author Xiaoyin Chen, an Assistant Investigator at the Allen Institute. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensory-inputs-and-brain-development">Sensory inputs and brain development</h2>



<p>The researchers found that mice deprived of sight experienced a significant reorganization of cell types within the visual cortex, which blurred the distinctions with neighboring areas. This reorganization was observed across half of the cortical regions, although to a lesser extent.</p>



<p>BARseq, which stands out for its efficiency and cost-effectiveness, enables the tagging of individual brain cells with unique RNA “barcodes.” This allows for tracking connections across the brain and analyzing gene expression to identify large numbers of neurons in tissue slices. “BARseq lets us see with unprecedented precision how sensory inputs affect brain development,” Chen elaborated.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-millions-of-brain-cells">Mapping millions of brain cells</h2>



<p>Study co-leader Mara Rue, a scientist at the Allen Institute, highlighted the advantages of BARseq over other mapping technologies. “Previously, capturing single-cell data across multiple brains was challenging,” she said. Fortunately, BARseq simplifies this process, making it more accessible for a broader range of researchers.</p>



<p>In just three weeks, the researchers were able to map more than 9 million cells from eight brains, demonstrating the method's rapid capabilities. “BARseq allows us to move beyond mapping what a ‘model’ or ‘standard’ brain looks like and start to use it as a tool to understand how brains change and vary,” Chen explained. “With this throughput, we can now ask these questions in a very systematic way, something unthinkable with other techniques.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-study-implications-nbsp">Broader study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Both Chen and Rue hope that making the BARseq method freely available will encourage its use across the scientific community, allowing more researchers to explore the brain’s organizational principles or delve into cell types associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-may-cause-brain-disorders/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>. </p>



<p>“This isn’t something that only the big labs can do. Our study is a proof of principle that BARseq allows a wide range of people in the field to use spatial transcriptomics to answer their own questions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-specialized-brain-regions">More about specialized brain regions</h2>



<p>The human brain is an incredibly complex organ composed of various specialized regions, each responsible for different functions.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frontal-lobes-nbsp">Frontal lobes&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The frontal lobes, positioned at the front of the brain, are crucial for cognitive functions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a>, problem-solving, and controlling behavior and emotions. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parietal-lobes">Parietal lobes</h3>



<p>The parietal lobes, located in the middle section of the brain, play essential roles in processing sensory information and helping with spatial orientation and manipulation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temporal-lobes">Temporal lobes</h3>



<p>The temporal lobes, found on the sides of the brain, are key for processing auditory information and are also critically involved in memory storage. Meanwhile, the occipital lobes at the back of the brain are primarily responsible for visual processing, interpreting everything we see.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cerebellum-nbsp">Cerebellum&nbsp;</h3>



<p>In addition to these lobes, the cerebellum, situated beneath the rear portion of the cerebrum, is vital for motor control and coordination. The brainstem, connecting the brain to the spinal cord, governs many automatic functions necessary for survival, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-specialized-areas">More specialized areas</h3>



<p>Furthermore, within these larger regions are more specialized areas, like Broca's area in the frontal lobe, crucial for speech production, and Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe, important for understanding language. The hippocampus, deeply embedded in the temporal lobe, is essential for forming new memories.</p>



<p>Each of these regions works in concert with the others, forming a highly interconnected and dynamic network that enables everything from simple reflexes to complex thought processes.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07221-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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How do specialized regions develop in the brain?

A recent study led by the Allen Institute for Brain...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-impacts-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sexual dimorphism</a>, which is the observable difference in appearance between male and female members of a species, occurs widely across the animal kingdom, including in humans. An interesting variation of this is sex-limited polymorphism, where one sex exhibits more variation in a certain trait compared to the other. </p>



<p>An international team of scientists has explored this concept by examining the genetic basis for color polymorphism in adult female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuckoos-are-unable-to-change-their-migrations-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cuckoos</a> of the genus <em>Cuculus</em>, which are known for their brood parasitic behavior. The research provides insights into the evolutionary development and practical implications of this trait variation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-female-cuckoo-colors">Genetic basis of female cuckoo colors</h2>



<p>The scientists examined why adult female cuckoos, unlike their uniformly gray male counterparts, may exhibit either gray or rufous (reddish-brown) plumage. This variability is not only evident across different cuckoo species but also within populations of the same species.</p>



<p>Using genome-wide association analysis on nuclear DNA from both Common and Oriental cuckoos, the researchers aimed to pinpoint the genetic factors behind the females' diverse plumage in an attempt to understand the underlying pigmentation mechanisms and the evolutionary history of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-wonder-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>.</p>



<p>In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untold-story-of-bird-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, unlike in mammals, it is the females that are heterogametic (ZW), differing from the homogametic males (ZZ). This led researchers to speculate that the observed color variation in female cuckoos might be linked to genes on the W chromosome. </p>



<p>“We found that, instead of a single gene or set of genes, nearly all variations in the gray or rufous coloration were associated with the full length of the female-limited W chromosome,” said co-author Mark Haber, the executive director of the <a href="https://asrc.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Advanced Science Research Center</a> (CUNY ASRC) and a psychology professor at the <a href="https://www.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Graduate Center</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biochemical-processes-of-cuckoo-colors">Biochemical processes of cuckoo colors</h2>



<p>The scientists also examined the biochemical processes of coloration, revealing that both the Common and Oriental cuckoos use two forms of melanin-based pigmentation - similar to that in human skin - to produce their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-songbirds-bright-colors-are-a-blessing-and-a-curse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a> variations. </p>



<p>Further genomic analysis of these species traced the origin of the color polymorphism in female cuckoos to a mutation that occurred over one million years ago, long before these species diverged around 140,000 years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-advantages-of-female-cuckoo-coloration-nbsp">Potential advantages of female cuckoo coloration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The implications of these color variations are profound. For instance, female cuckoos with the rarer rufous plumage might benefit from mimicking juvenile cuckoos to avoid male harassment during mating seasons.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, as brood parasites who lay their eggs in the nests of other bird species, rufous females could potentially escape detection by host species better than their gray counterparts, which might reduce the risk of being attacked by host parents.</p>



<p>“The fascinating idea that many other sex-specific traits, which are harder to study, might also be genetically determined in the matrilinear genome, similar to the color polymorphism in female cuckoos,” concluded senior author Jochen Wolf, an expert in evolutionary biology at LMU Munich.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-cuckoo-birds">More about cuckoo birds</h2>



<p>Cuckoo birds are known for their distinctive calls and unique breeding behavior, particularly their practice of brood parasitism. This involves laying their eggs in the nests of other bird species, leaving the unsuspecting host birds to raise the cuckoo's offspring.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result, the host species may inadvertently neglect their own young due to the demanding nature of the cuckoo chick, which often grows larger than its foster siblings.</p>



<p>Cuckoos are found across the world and are highly adaptable to various environments. The family Cuculidae, to which they belong, includes both brood-parasitic cuckoos as well as species that raise their own young. Their diet varies from insects to caterpillars, and some species also consume fruits and seeds.</p>



<p>The cuckoo's call, which gives them their name, is emblematic in culture and often signals the arrival of spring. The most commonly recognized call is that of the common cuckoo in Europe, famously captured in the phrase "cuck-oo." </p>



<p>This sound has not only embedded them in folklore but also inspired the creation of the cuckoo clock, where the bird's call marks the passing hours.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl5255" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Female cuckoo colors provide evolutionary advantages

Sexual dimorphism, which is the observable difference in appearance between...

<p>Recent research using the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) has provided new insights into the early stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-shaped-the-universe-before-galaxies-existed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> formation, suggesting that galaxies evolved significantly faster and were less chaotic than previously believed. </p>



<p>This discovery challenges long-standing theories about the early Universe, which was thought to be tumultuous with frequent collisions and unformed stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-through-the-cosmic-lens-jwst-s-revolutionary-observations">Through the cosmic lens: JWST's revolutionary observations</h2>



<p>The JWST, a successor to the Hubble Space Telescope and the largest and most powerful space telescope ever constructed, allowed astronomers to observe galaxies as they existed between eight to 11.5 billion years ago. </p>



<p>Remarkably, this period is just a couple of billion years after the formation of the Universe, which is estimated to be 13.7 billion years old.</p>



<p>An international team of astronomers, including researchers from <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> in the UK, utilized the advanced capabilities of the JWST to detect bar formations in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxy-jwst-er1g-dark-matter-einstein-ring-mystery-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient galaxies</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-galaxy-evolution">Understanding galaxy evolution </h2>



<p>Bars, which are elongated strips of stars within disc or spiral galaxies, play a crucial role in the maturation of galaxies by directing gas towards the central regions and fostering star formation.</p>



<p>"The presence of a stellar bar in a disc galaxy indicates that the galaxy hosts in its main part a dynamically settled disc and that bar-driven processes are taking place in shaping its evolution," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>"Studying the cosmic evolution of the bar fraction in disc galaxies is therefore essential to understand galaxy evolution in general." </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-galactic-maturity">Surprising galactic maturity</h2>



<p>The team's observations revealed that almost 20 percent of the 368 disc galaxies studied exhibited bars - double the proportion observed in previous studies using the Hubble Space Telescope. </p>



<p>Zoe Le Conte, the lead author and a PhD researcher at Durham University’s Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, expressed surprise at the findings. She stated: "Galaxies in the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a> are maturing much faster than we thought. This is a real surprise because you would expect the Universe at that stage to be very turbulent."</p>



<p>"We find that many more bars were present in the early Universe than previously found in Hubble studies, implying that bar-driven galaxy evolution has been happening for much longer than previously thought," noted study co-author Dr. Dimitri Gadotti. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-galaxy-evolution-theories">Implications for galaxy evolution theories</h2>



<p>These findings necessitate a reevaluation of existing models of galaxy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. The presence of bars in such a high percentage of early galaxies indicates a more settled phase in their development, contrary to the previously held belief of a chaotic early Universe. </p>



<p>"The fact that there are a lot more bars is what’s very exciting," said Dr. Gadotti. Moreover, the research team plans to delve deeper into the cosmic timeline, aiming to explore bar formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> even further back in time, up to 12.2 billion years ago. </p>



<p>This could provide further clues about the mechanisms behind bar growth and its impact on galaxy evolution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-horizon-future-galactic-explorations">Beyond the horizon: Future galactic explorations</h2>



<p>Durham University has played a significant role in the scientific development of the JWST, particularly through its contributions to the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) and the optics for the Near Infrared Spectrograph's Integral Field Unit. These instruments are pivotal in probing the mysteries of galaxies and black holes.</p>



<p>As researchers continue to harness the JWST's unprecedented capabilities, our understanding of the Universe's earliest days is set to expand, potentially rewriting the cosmic rulebook on galaxy formation and evolution. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-galaxy-evolution">More about galaxy evolution</h2>



<p>Galaxy evolution is like a cosmic dance, where galaxies, vast collections of stars, gas, and dust, change and morph over billions of years. It's a grand narrative of birth, growth, and sometimes even destruction. </p>



<p>Galaxies come in different shapes and sizes, from majestic spirals to more amorphous ellipticals, each with its own story to tell. Gravity plays a starring role, pulling galaxies together into groups and clusters, fostering mergers and collisions that can dramatically reshape their structures. </p>



<p>Through these encounters, galaxies exchange material, triggering bursts of star formation or feeding supermassive black holes lurking at their centers. </p>



<p>Over time, galaxies age and evolve, their populations of stars changing as old stars fade away and new ones are born. Yet, amidst this dynamism, there's a certain elegance to the cosmic ballet, as galaxies continue their journey through the vast expanse of the universe, leaving behind clues to their histories for astronomers to decipher.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/530/2/1984/7653430" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></em>.</p>



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Early galaxy formation occurred much faster than we thought

Recent research using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has...

View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

<p>Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. </p>



<p>This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. </p>



<p>"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.</p>



<p>In a paper published in the journal <em>Earth's Future</em>, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



<p>The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. </p>



<p>The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.</p>



<p>These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. </p>



<p>"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



<p>These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



<p>Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



<p>In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



<p>Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. </p>



<p>Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.</p>



<p>Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. </p>



<p>This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



<p>In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. </p>



<p>To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.</p>



<p>Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. </p>



<p>"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



<p>Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. </p>



<p>As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.</p>



<p>Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. </p>



<p>Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



<p>Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. </p>



<p>"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."</p>



<p>Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. </p>



<p>While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



<p>As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. </p>



<p>By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. </p>



<p>This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. </p>



<p>As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from...

<p>Rivers are not just pathways for water; they are dynamic forces that reshape the landscapes they traverse. Meandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-look-to-mars-to-help-clarify-how-river-paths-change-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> carve intricate patterns into the Earth as they journey from mountainous regions to the sea, forming valleys, canyons, floodplains, and deltas. </p>



<p>Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> have delved into the factors that influence how meandering rivers migrate across landscapes. The findings challenge some established theories and provide new insights into river behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>“Meandering rivers move gradually across the floodplains, and this river movement presents socioeconomic risks along river corridors and regulates terrestrial biogeochemical cycles. Experimental and field studies suggest that fluvial sediment supply can exert a primary control on lateral migration rates of rivers,” wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>“However, we lack an understanding of the relative importance of environmental boundary conditions, such as floodplain vegetation and sediment supply, in setting the pace of river meandering across different environmental settings.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-forces-shaping-meandering-rivers">The forces shaping meandering rivers</h2>



<p>The study was focused on two primary forces that affect the bends in meandering rivers: "bar push" and "bank pull."</p>



<p>Bar push occurs when sediment deposits inside a bend, pushing the river outward. Conversely, bank pull involves erosion on the opposite bank, which further exaggerates the bend. </p>



<p>Interestingly, the research suggests that sediment load - the amount of debris and minerals carried by rivers - plays a more significant role in this outward push than previously thought.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-trend-in-meandering-rivers">Global trend in meandering rivers </h2>



<p>Evan Greenberg, the lead researcher and a doctoral geography student, along with his advisor Professor Vamsi Ganti, compiled a comprehensive dataset covering 139 <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-lena-river-delta-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meandering</a> rivers worldwide. The team analyzed satellite imagery to observe how the paths of these rivers have shifted over time. </p>



<p>"We find a global-scale trend between the amount of sediment that rivers carry and how quickly they’re migrating, across all variables," explained Greenberg.</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that rivers laden with more sediment tend to migrate faster, a significant finding given that many of the world’s major waterways are meandering types. </p>



<p>These river migration patterns are crucial for effective environmental management and urban planning, especially as these waterways affect millions of people living in nearby floodplains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vegetation-s-role-in-stabilizing-rivers">Vegetation's role in stabilizing rivers</h2>



<p>Contrary to earlier studies that emphasized the stabilizing effects of vegetation, this new research shows that while vegetation does slow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-profiles-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> migration, its impact is less significant than previously estimated.</p>



<p>Unvegetated rivers with higher sediment loads were found to migrate up to four times faster than those with similar dimensions but more vegetation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamics-of-meandering-river-patterns">The dynamics of meandering river patterns</h2>



<p>The interaction of bar push and bank pull creates the characteristic meandering pattern of these rivers. </p>



<p>"You can’t have one dominate the other in a meandering river," said Professor Ganti. He further noted the importance of a balanced interaction between these forces to prevent the transformation of meandering rivers into braided rivers, which can happen if the sediment supply is insufficient.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dams-and-river-migration-a-unique-case-study">Dams and river migration: A unique case study</h2>



<p>The examination of rivers near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-caused-unprecedented-changes-to-rivers/">dams</a> provided an interesting case study within the research. Dams trap sediment but don't usually affect the vegetation, providing unique conditions to study how sediment load influences river migration. </p>



<p>The observations showed that downstream from dams, where rivers are sediment-starved, migration rates decrease notably.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-changes-and-managing-risks">Predicting changes and managing risks</h2>



<p>Looking ahead, the researchers plan to extend their analysis to more rivers and varied river types. The goal is to develop a model that predicts river migration through different landscapes, from their sources to their mouths. </p>



<p>This model could prove essential in predicting changes in river behavior due to environmental changes, such as sea-level rise, increased extreme weather events, and shifts in land use, which might lead to increased sediment loads.</p>



<p>In conclusion, understanding how meandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-action-for-rivers-lifelines-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> move is more than an academic pursuit— it's crucial for managing the risks associated with riverbank migration. </p>



<p>"More sediment means that rivers can do more stuff," said Professor Ganti, highlighting the dynamic and ever-changing nature of these fascinating systems. </p>



<p>This ongoing research into river dynamics will aid in the development of strategies to cope with future changes in these mighty rivers.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X24001079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><u>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</u></a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Study reveals new insights into the dynamics of meandering rivers

Rivers are not just pathways for water; they are dynamic...

Resistant,Bacteria,And,Superbug,Organism,Or,Mrsa,Medical,Healthcare,Concept

<p>The world is in trouble – have you ever considered that it's not just rising temperatures and natural disasters we need to worry about? <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clima</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e change</a> has a sinister accomplice: antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and together, they're a dangerous pair. </p>



<p>AMR refers to the increasingly worrisome trend of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-plant-bacteria-likely-to-decline-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolving to resist the very drugs designed to kill them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-drastic-impacts">Climate change drastic impacts</h2>



<p>Climate change is known as the threat multiplier for AMR. It has widespread effects that are making our superbug problem significantly worse. Here's how climate change is linked to antimicrobial resistance:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warmer-world-means-more-illness">A warmer world means more illness</h3>



<p>Many disease-causing bacteria and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-soil-microbes-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> have historically been limited by geography. Cooler temperatures prevented them from spreading extensively. Climate change disrupts these barriers. </p>



<p>Warmer temperatures allow these pathogens to survive further north or south of their original ranges, and at higher altitudes. </p>



<p>This means that diseases once confined to specific regions could emerge in new areas, posing risks to populations that may not have prior immunity or established medical protocols for treatment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stressed-ecosystems-breed-superbugs">Stressed ecosystems breed superbugs</h3>



<p>Disrupted water systems caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-has-increased-seasonal-insect-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> events, such as floods or droughts, can lead to contamination with sewage, agricultural runoff, or other sources carrying drug-resistant microbes. </p>



<p>This contaminated water can then spread these microbes to humans, animals, and crops, increasing the risk of infection and disease. </p>



<p>Additionally, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cowspiracy-film-review/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal agriculture</a> practices, often driven by the need to adapt to extreme weather, can lead to overcrowding or unsanitary conditions. </p>



<p>This creates a breeding ground for drug-resistant microbes to evolve and spread rapidly within animal populations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-infections-more-antibiotics-more-resistance">More infections, more antibiotics, more resistance</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iss-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate</a> change disrupts ecosystems and weather patterns, leading to several consequences that can increase the spread of diseases caused by various microbes. Warmer temperatures, for example, can allow microbes that thrive in warmer environments to expand their geographic range. </p>



<p>Additionally, extreme weather events like floods and droughts can disrupt water systems and sanitation infrastructure, creating ideal breeding grounds for microbes. These factors contribute to a rise in the number of infections and outbreaks of diseases.</p>



<p>The natural response to this increase in illnesses is often an increased reliance on antibiotics, powerful drugs that target and kill specific microbes. However, this increased use of antibiotics creates a selective pressure on the microbial populations. </p>



<p>As with any population under pressure, some microbes will develop adaptations that allow them to survive antibiotic exposure. These adaptations are the mechanisms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-increasing-enterococci-looming-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-effects-of-climate-change-on-antimicrobial-resistance">Real-world effects of climate change on antimicrobial resistance</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate</a> change is about subtle shifts at the microbial level that are already having serious impacts on our health. The examples below are a snapshot of what could become a widespread crisis.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria">Bacteria</h3>



<p>Bacteria like&nbsp;<em>Campylobacter</em>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<em>Salmonella</em>, responsible for a significant number of food poisoning cases, are flourishing in warming water. Water systems in homes, food processing, and the environment at large are becoming more hospitable.</p>



<p>Contaminated water means these bacteria spread more easily. They can end up on fresh produce, in meat and poultry during processing, and even in drinking water. The warmer the water, the more these bacteria multiply, increasing our risk of getting sick.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus">Fungus</h3>



<p><em>Candida auris</em>, previously not a major issue for humans, has emerged as a serious threat. One reason is its newfound ability to tolerate warmer and saltier conditions, likely an adaptation driven by the environment changing due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-the-impact-of-climate-change-at-the-national-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change.</p>



<p>This fungus is highly drug-resistant and can cause severe infections, particularly in already-sick patients. As the world warms and coastal areas change, this fungus could become much more common, posing risks to hospitals and people with weakened immune systems.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-threat">World threat</h3>



<p>Regions with rising average temperatures are also seeing more infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains of&nbsp;<em>E.coli</em>. This correlation, if seen elsewhere in the world, would mean serious trouble. Infections that were once easy to treat may become a major health challenge.</p>



<p>“Climate change compromises the ecological and environmental integrity of living systems and enables pathogens to increasingly cause disease. The impact on water systems, food-producing animals and crops threatens global food supply," explained Professor Sabiha Essack, South African Research Chair in Antibiotic Resistance and One Health at the Antimicrobial Research Unit, <a href="https://ww3.ukzn.ac.za" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of KwaZulu-Natal</a>. </p>



<p>"Human activities associated with population growth and transport, together with climate change increases antibiotic resistance and the spread of waterborne and vector- borne diseases of humans, animals and plants,” Essack concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-ice-from-climate-change-drives-antimicrobial-resistance">Melting ice from climate change drives antimicrobial resistance</h2>



<p>Professor Essack's research raises a critical point: as our planet warms, sea levels are rising at unprecedented rates. This isn't just a threat to coastal communities; it also unlocks a hidden danger – the thawing of permafrost. </p>



<p>Permafrost is permanently frozen ground, mostly in the Arctic regions, that has been like a giant natural deep freezer for millennia.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-traveling-pathogens-from-melting-permafrost-pose-great-risk-to-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting permafrost</a> releases previously frozen soil, organic matter, and even trapped organisms. These organisms, including ancient microbes, have been entombed for vast stretches of time. </p>



<p>Some of these microbes may carry genes for antibiotic resistance, genes they never needed in their frozen state but which could now pose a serious threat.</p>



<p>The released microbes and their antibiotic resistance genes can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-deadly-microbes-travel-around-the-world-so-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">travel far and wide</a>. Ocean currents can carry them across vast distances, potentially introducing them to new ecosystems. </p>



<p>Even ships can act as unintentional transporters, carrying microbes in ballast water (water taken on board to ensure stability) that is then released in different ports.</p>



<p>The emergence of antibiotic-resistant microbes from permafrost adds another layer of complexity to the already concerning issue of AMR. </p>



<p>These ancient microbes may have unique resistance mechanisms, posing new challenges for our existing antibiotics. This further emphasizes the need for international collaboration and research to address this evolving threat.</p>



<p>While rising sea levels grab headlines, the hidden consequences of permafrost thaw are a stark reminder of the interconnectedness of our planet. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/38-trillion-dollars-per-year-economic-losses-expected-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate</a> change disrupts these delicate natural systems, and the consequences can be far-reaching and long-lasting.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-climate-change-and-antimicrobial-resistance">Halting climate change and antimicrobial resistance</h2>



<p>Climate change alone is bad enough, but how we respond to it exacerbates the AMR crisis. Population growth, increased travel, and shifts in agriculture in response to disasters lead to more disease transmission and inappropriate use of antibiotics.</p>



<p>"Climate change has facilitated movement and proliferation of AMR. To deal with this threat, we will need unequivocal political leadership and commitment; strong global and local policy frameworks and governance; evidence-based, innovative 'One Health' solutions, and implementation research to adapt successful interventions to country contexts," explains Prof Essack.</p>



<p>“These partnerships must include a wide range of societal interests that will suspend interests of individual sectors for the public good. Initiatives that aim to make progress in climate change or AMR should join forces and highlight each other to make clear their mutual benefits," she concluded.</p>



<p>It sounds dire, but it doesn't mean we're powerless. Calling on our leaders to prioritize climate action and support the "One Health" approach (which recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health) are crucial steps.</p>



<p>Dealing with both climate change and antibiotic resistance isn't going to be easy, but it's time we all woke up to this interconnected threat. Understanding the problem is the first step toward finding those smart, innovative solutions we need.</p>



<p>The study is part of <em>ESCMID Global Congress (formerly ECCMID) Barcelona, 27-30 April</em>.</p>



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Climate change fuels the rise of global antimicrobial resistance

The world is in trouble – have you ever considered...