Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Eudyptes pachyrhynchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=bfddeac4dd0c4348844a2bc6d47d97ce&amp;aqs=edge.1.69i57j69i59j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.3632j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Fiordland penguin, also known as the Fiordland crested penguin, is a crested penguin species endemic to New Zealand. It currently breeds along the south-western coasts of New Zealand's South Island as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Because it originally ranged beyond Fiordland, it is sometimes referred to as the New Zealand crested penguin. Fiordland Penguins Eudyptes pachyrhynchus are found from the southwestern coast of the South Island of New Zealand, to the nearby islands of Stewart and Solander. (Stonehouse 1975; Simpson 1976) Biogeographic Regions; australian. native; Habitat. Fiordland penguins.

Eudyptes pachyrhynchus

Eudyptes pachyrhynchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Eudyptes sclateri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Eudyptes sclateri ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=bfddeac4dd0c4348844a2bc6d47d97ce&amp;aqs=edge.1.69i57j69i59j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.3632j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The erect-crested penguin is a penguin endemic to the New Zealand region and only breeds on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands. It has black upper parts, white underparts and a yellow eye stripe and crest. It spends the winter at sea and little is known about its biology and breeding habits. Populations are believed to have declined during the last few decades of the twentieth century, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed it as being "endangered".

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. This is a small-to-medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white penguin, at 50–70 cm (20–28 in) and weighing 2.5–6 kg (5.5–13.2 lb). The male is slightly larger than the female and as in most crested penguins has a larger bill. It has bluish-black to jet black upper parts and white underparts, and a broad, bright yellow eyebrow-stripe which extends over the eye to form a short, erect crest.

Eudyptes sclateri

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Eudyptula albosignata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2c9f54cc6e84dfeaf2adfb56a297caf&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.520j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The white-flippered penguin is a small penguin about 30 cm tall and weighing 1.5 kg. It gains its name from the white markings on its flippers, unique to the subspecies. It nests only on Banks Peninsula and Motunau Island, near Christchurch, New Zealand, with only around 3,750 breeding pairs.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The white-flippered penguin is currently considered by most <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Taxonomists%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">taxonomists</a> to be a colour <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Morph%20(zoology)%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">morph</a> or subspecies of the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Little%20penguin%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">little penguin</a> (E. minor). Analysis of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=MtDNA%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">mtDNA</a> in 2002 revealed two <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Clade%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">clades</a> in <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Eudyptula%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Eudyptula</a>: one containing little penguins of New Zealand's <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=North%20Island%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">North Island</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Cook%20Strait%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Cook Strait</a> and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Chatham%20Island%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Chatham Island</a>, as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia

Eudyptula albosignata

Eudyptula albosignata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Eulidia yarrellii

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

Eumeces egregius lividus

Eumetopias jubatus

Eumops floridanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Florida bonneted bat or Florida mastiff bat (Eumops floridanus) is a species of bat in the genus Eumops, the bonneted bats or mastiff bats. Until recently, it was classified as a subspecies of Wagner's bonneted bat (Eumops glaucinus). It is endemic to southern Florida in the United States. This species has one of the smallest geographical distributions of any New World bat. It has been called "one of the most critically endangered mammal species in North America". It is protected under the Endangered Species Act.  Florida, which refuted ideas that they were only occasionally transported in from Cuba. In 1971, the bonneted bat was reclassified as a well-marked subspecies of Eumops glaucinus, identified as Eumops glaucinus floridanus. This classification was maintained until 2004, when <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Morphology%20(biology)%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">morphological</a> analyses showed that the bonneted bat was distinct from other subpopulations of Eumops glaucinus in its skull, body mass, and forearm length. The new classification elevated the bonneted bat to its own species, Eumops floridanus.

Eumops floridanus

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Euphilotes battoides allyni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2c9f54cc6e84dfeaf2adfb56a297caf&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.520j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.emerges during summer when the flowers of its host plant, seacliff buckwheat (Eriogonum parviflorum), open. As with all species in the genus Euphilotes, the El Segundo Blue spends virtually its entire life cycle in intimate association with the flowerheads

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The El Segundo blue (Euphilotes battoides allyni) is a rare subspecies of the square-spotted blue butterfly. It is endemic to a small dune ecosystem in Southern California that used to be a community called Palisades del Rey, close to the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). In 1976 it became a federally designated endangered species. This butterfly’s habitat has been substantially reduced due to urban development and invasive plants, and it now exists as a handful of populations restricted to coastal dunes

Euphilotes battoides allyni

Euphilotes battoides allyni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Euphilotes enoptes smithi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2c9f54cc6e84dfeaf2adfb56a297caf&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.520j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Smith's blue butterfly, Euphilotes enoptes smithi, is an subspecies of butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. This federally listed endangered subspecies of Euphilotes enoptes occurs in fragmented populations along the Central Coast of California, primarily associated with sand dune habitat in one case with a dune-based Maritime Coast Range Ponderosa Pine forest in the Carbonera Creek watershed in Santa Cruz County. The range of E. e. smithi is from Monterey Bay south to Punta Gorda. Euphilotes enoptes smithi is a small butterfly with a wingspan no greater than 2.5 centimeters. Males manifest dorsal wing color of a bright lustrous blue, while females exhibit brown <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Anatomical%20terms%20of%20location%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">dorsal</a> coloration. Both sexes have with orange-red band markings on the hind dorsal wings. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Anatomical%20terms%20of%20location%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Ventral</a> wing coloration for both males and females is a whitish gray, punctuated with black speckling.

Euphilotes enoptes smithi

Euphilotes enoptes smithi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Euphydryas editha bayensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2c9f54cc6e84dfeaf2adfb56a297caf&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.520j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Edith's checkerspot is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is a resident species of western North America and among the subspecies, entomologists have long been intrigued by their many phenotypic variations in coloration, wing length, and overall body size. Most populations are monophagous and rely on plants including Plantago erecta and Orthocarpus densiflorus as its host species in developing from eggs through to larvae, pupae, and mature butterflies. Males exhibit polygyny whereas females rarely mate more than once. Males devote most of their attention to mate acquisition, and such mate locating strategies such as hilltopping behavior has developed. Climate change and habitat destruction has impacted certain subspecies. Two subspecies in particular, Euphydryas editha quino and Euphydryas editha bayensis, are currently under protection via the Endangered Species Act.

Euphydryas editha bayensis

Euphydryas editha bayensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Euphydryas editha quino (=E. e. wrighti)

Euphydryas editha taylori

Euphyllia paradivisa

Euproserpinus euterpe

Eurycea chisholmensis

Eurycea naufragia

Eurycea sosorum

Eurycea tonkawae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Eurycea tonkawae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2c9f54cc6e84dfeaf2adfb56a297caf&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l2j0j69i60j0.520j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Jollyville Plateau salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is also known as the Tonkawa Springs salamander. It is endemic to Travis and Williamson counties, Texas, United States. This species is perrenibranchiate, retaining its gills throughout life. the sister taxon to E. naufragia and E. chisholmensis, two other endemic perrenibranchiate central Texas salamanders. Its natural habitats are freshwater springs, spring runs, and wet caves of the Buttercup karst system. Cave dwelling E. tonkawae may represent a distinct species, however further work is needed to clarify their taxonomic status.

Eurycea tonkawae

Eurycea tonkawae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering trees stand tall for centuries, forming ecosystems that nurture countless species. They inspire awe, acting as natural archives of Earth’s long history. Yet, today’s rapidly shifting climate is testing this strength like never before.



Scientists now warn that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">forests</a> might struggle to keep pace with the speed of current climate change. This concern isn’t new, but recent research puts into perspective just how slow forest responses can be.



Long before industrial activities fueled modern warming, forests adapted gradually to changes. Over thousands of years, tree populations shifted according to cooling and warming periods. 



During glacial advances, they migrated southward, following milder climates. When the Earth warmed again, they moved north. This dance of migration was a slow process, unfolding over centuries.



But today, the world faces climate shifts at an alarming rate. Forests are locked in place, unable to shift swiftly enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-struggle-with-climate-change">Forests struggle with climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-forests-cant-realistically-cancel-out-fossil-fuel-emissions/">Trees</a> cannot migrate quickly. They grow slowly, and their seeds disperse over limited distances, despite help from wind and animals. Mature trees may live for hundreds of years, meaning populations shift at a glacial pace.



Current climate change, driven by human activities, is happening faster than many forests can adapt. This creates a worrying gap between the pace of warming and the ability of forests to respond.



A recent study published in the journal Science has brought this issue into sharper focus. Led by David Fastovich, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Syracuse University</a>, the study provides concrete evidence of how slowly forests react to climate changes.



Fastovich works in the Paleoclimate Dynamics Lab under Tripti Bhattacharya, the Thonis Family Professor of Paleoclimate Dynamics. Their team examined pollen records from lake sediments, revealing tree population shifts over hundreds of thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-adjusting-to-climate-shifts">Forests adjusting to climate shifts</h2>



The study focused on mapping the time required for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forests</a> to adjust to climate shifts. Some of the sediment cores analyzed date back up to 600,000 years, capturing long-term changes in forest composition.



“We’ve known these time lags have existed, but no one could put a firm number on them,” said Fastovich. 



“We can intuit how long a tree lives. We can count the rings on a tree and estimate from there. But now we know that after one to two centuries, very close to how long a tree lives on average, entire forest ecosystems begin to turnover as trees die and are replaced in response to climate.”



The results emphasize the deep disconnect between the rapid pace of modern climate change and the natural rhythms of forest migration and replacement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-forest-patterns">Revealing forest patterns</h2>



To study these long-term changes, the researchers turned to spectral analysis. This statistical method is common in physics and engineering. It allowed the team to compare the relationship between tree populations and climate shifts across varying time scales, from decades to millennia.



The analysis focused on three key aspects: migration patterns, tree mortality, and disturbances like forest fires. By observing these factors together, the team uncovered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-carbon-credits-are-failing-so-what-needs-to-change/">forests</a> change over both short and long timescales.



Spectral analysis provided a way to create a unified view of forest dynamics. This approach helped bridge the gap between different disciplines that study forests.



“This gives us a common language for people who observe forest change, ecologists, paleoecologists and paleobiologists, to talk to one another about those changes no matter if we study forests on annual or millennial timescales,” said Fastovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-shift-but-bigger-changes-emerge">Forests shift but bigger changes emerge</h2>



The research showed that, over the span of a few years or decades, forests change slowly. Small adjustments occur gradually, often unnoticed in the short term. However, significant changes begin to emerge over longer periods.



After about eight centuries, the study found that forest shifts tend to grow more dramatic. These larger changes often align with natural fluctuations in the planet’s climate.



“With this new technique, we can think about ecological processes on any timescale and how they are connected,” said Fastovich. “We can understand how dispersal and population changes interact and cause a forest to change from decades to centuries, and even longer timescales. That hasn’t been done before.”



This insight shows that while forests may appear stable, they are slowly shifting in response to deeper climate rhythms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-human-help">Urgent need for human help</h2>



One of the study’s most important findings points to the need for human intervention. Forests are unlikely to adjust fast enough on their own to survive the rapid pace of modern warming.



One promising approach is assisted migration. This method involves deliberately planting tree species from warmer climates into cooler regions. The goal is to help forests adapt by jumpstarting their natural migration processes.



Fastovich emphasized that this kind of intervention is far from simple. Forest adaptation is a slow, complicated process that demands careful, long-term planning.



“There’s a mismatch between the timescales at which forests naturally change to what’s happening today with climate change,” said Fastovich. 



“Population-level changes aren’t going to be fast enough to keep the forests that we care about around. Assisted migration is one tool of many to keep cherished forests around for longer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reminder-of-the-challenges-ahead">Reminder of the challenges ahead</h2>



The research serves as a stark reminder of the challenges ahead. Forests are not static. They are ancient, slow-moving communities shaped by time and climate. While their changes might seem imperceptible over a human lifespan, they remain in constant motion.



Now, humanity must make tough choices. Without careful action, many forests may not survive the speed of climate change. 



The tools we choose, whether assisted migration, conservation efforts, or other interventions, will shape the forests of the future. Their survival depends not only on nature’s resilience but also on human responsibility.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr6700" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Forests are lagging centuries behind in climate adaptation

Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering...

Vanilla is more than just a kitchen staple. It is the world’s most popular spice after saffron and finds its way into everything from ice creams to perfumes and medicines. 



The allure of vanilla's rich, sweet aroma has made it a global commodity, supporting industries and smallholder farmers alike. Yet, hidden behind its widespread appeal lies a fragile reality deeply linked to climate change.



The commercial vanilla crop, derived from the Vanilla planifolia orchid, faces growing challenges. These include threats from drought, heat, and diseases, all of which are worsening under climate change. 



Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">farming</a> already depends heavily on labor-intensive hand pollination. Any further strain on the species could threaten not only its cultivation but also the livelihoods of many farming communities.



Wild Vanilla species, scattered across the tropics, may hold the key to preserving this treasured crop. They offer a wealth of genetic diversity that could help strengthen cultivated varieties. However, these wild species now face their own climate-driven crises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-affects-vanilla-and-pollinators">How climate affects vanilla and pollinators</h2>



Scientists have long recognized the importance of wild Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">species</a> as genetic resources. These species possess traits that could improve drought resistance, heat tolerance, and disease resilience in commercial vanilla. However, their survival is tightly linked to pollinators, mainly bees from the Euglossini tribe.



In the natural world, most Vanilla species depend on animal pollinators for reproduction. These intricate relationships, often involving specialized behaviors and physical compatibility, are highly vulnerable to ecological disruptions.



“Climate change may lead to a reduced habitat overlap between Vanilla orchid species and their pollinators, resulting in plant-pollinator decoupling that negatively affects the survival of wild vanilla populations,” said Dr Charlotte Watteyn, a researcher at KU Leuven and the <a href="https://www.ucr.ac.cr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Costa Rica</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-shifts-under-climate-pressure">Habitat shifts under climate pressure</h2>



Dr. Watteyn's team analyzed the habitats of 11 Vanilla species along with seven pollinator species. They examined two future climate scenarios: SSP2.4-5 and SSP3-7.0.



The SSP2.4-5 scenario presents moderate climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-farms-can-succeed-but-they-need-support/">risks</a>, with some progress in climate action. In contrast, SSP3-7.0 signals severe challenges, marked by heavy fossil fuel use and limited global cooperation.



Under both scenarios, some Vanilla species may expand their habitats by as much as 140%. However, other species may lose up to 53% of their suitable habitat.



Pollinators face even greater risks. Their suitable habitats are expected to shrink significantly, with the steepest declines under SSP3-7.0. This sharp drop in pollinator populations threatens the entire pollination process.



“Despite the possible increase in suitable habitat for some Vanilla species, their pollinator-dependency may imperil the survival of natural populations,” said Watteyn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-risks-to-vanilla-pollination">Climate risks to vanilla pollination</h2>



Many Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-for-wildlife-how-traditional-practices-can-protect-nature/">species</a> rely on distinct pollination methods. Some provide nectar to attract pollinators, while others use deception. Vanilla pompona employs a combination of floral scents and food mimicry to lure bees.



Pollinators, particularly Euglossini bees, face mounting climate threats. Their habitats are expected to shrink, with smaller bee species showing greater vulnerability than larger ones.



“Vanilla species are known for their specialized relationships with pollinators, hence, they may experience difficulties in replacing pollinators,” explained Watteyn. 



Species like V. planifolia and V. trigonocarpa already have limited overlap with their pollinators. Climate change may worsen this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-priorities-for-vanilla-survival">Conservation priorities for vanilla survival</h2>



The study identified current and future areas where Vanilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-devastate-global-food-production/">species</a> and pollinators overlap. They also flagged areas needing conservation or assisted migration.



By 2050, protected areas covering Vanilla-pollinator overlap could shrink significantly. For example, protected overlap for V. pompona may fall from 42 to 17 percent.



The researchers highlighted areas for urgent conservation. They suggested combining in situ protection with ex situ measures such as seed banks and botanical gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-threats-beyond-climate">Other threats beyond climate</h2>



Habitat destruction, illegal harvesting, and ecological disruptions also affect Vanilla survival. Many Vanilla species have specific needs, including partnerships with fungi and animals for seed dispersal and germination.



The researchers emphasized the need for more studies on these relationships. “Collaborative research on the ecology and genetic diversity of wild vanilla across its natural distribution is paramount if we want to take vanilla breeding into the future,” said Professor Adam Karremans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-vanilla-trade-needs-protection">Global vanilla trade needs protection</h2>



Vanilla remains a major cash crop with high global demand. It supports smallholder farmers worldwide.



“Like cacao and coffee, vanilla is a global export crop with high international market value. It’s grown to make profit, and is a key driver for rural development, agricultural innovation, and overall welfare,” concluded Dr. Watteyn.



Conserving wild Vanilla species now appears essential not just for ecosystems, but also for global food systems. Protecting these species can help secure vanilla’s future amid climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2025.1585540/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.



Image Credit: Charlotte Watteyn



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Climate change is separating wild vanilla from its pollinators

Vanilla is more than just a kitchen staple. It is...

Gin lovers often fuss over tonic brands and garnish choices, yet the real flavor hero hides in the berries of one unassuming shrub. Climate scientists and distillers now warn that the taste of those berries is changing fast.



Juniper, the berry that defines every gin on the shelf, is reacting to wilder weather in ways that could nudge the spirit’s familiar piney snap toward unfamiliar territory. 



Assistant Professor Matthew Pauley and Professor Annie Hill at Heriot‑Watt University’s <a href="https://icbd.site.hw.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Centre for Brewing and Distilling</a> are <a href="https://jib.cibd.org.uk/index.php/jib/article/view/72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracking</a> the shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-junipers-are-shaking-gin">Changing junipers are shaking gin</h2>



Gin must lead with juniper by law, so even tiny tweaks in berry chemistry echo through every pour. 



Gin <a href="https://www.gourmetpro.co/blog/guide-to-uk-spirits-market" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sales</a> in Britain still top the spirits chart, although the category’s volume slipped 14 percent in 2023 as shoppers flirted with tequila and<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-decisions-alcohol-affects-men-and-women-differently/"> no‑alcohol options</a>.



The flavor punch comes from a cocktail of volatile compounds such as α‑pinene and limonene that survive distillation and perfume the glass. 



Pauley’s team showed that a single wet growing season can shave those volatiles by roughly 12 percent, a figure big enough for trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cure-for-alcohol-addiction-was-discovered-by-accident/">tasters</a> to notice.



Craft producers often lean harder on juniper than industrial brands, leaving them more exposed to any drop in aromatic intensity. Many small British distilleries already test-drive each harvest in lab stills to adjust recipes before bottling. 



Long before gin, herbalists prized Juniperus <a href="https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=juco6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communis</a> for its resinous oils, which scientists now know defend the plant against pests and drought. Those same oils give a London Dry its brisk bite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-climate-and-volatile-chemistry">Changing climate and volatile chemistry</h2>



Rainfall, temperature swings, and late‑season sunshine all steer the berry’s oil profile. 



During the drenched 2017 harvest, berries required extended drying, which let water‑soluble aromas leach away while hydrophobic terpenes lingered. “The least water‑soluble compounds are most affected by post‑harvest drying,” cautioned Hill.



Drier 2018 conditions flipped the script, delivering fruit with brighter citrus notes and sharper pine. The research team measured the shift using <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/11263504.2018.1435577" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas chromatography</a>, a lab workhorse that teases apart dozens of aromatic molecules in a single run. 



Earlier ecological studies in Slovakia found essential‑oil yields in wild juniper ranged from 0.4 to 1.9 percent depending on yearly rainfall and soil chemistry, underscoring how environment shapes flavor.



Berries grown at higher altitudes tend to pack more α‑pinene, adding a cleaner, almost eucalyptus edge, while lowland fruit skews toward earthy myrcene. Such variability gives blenders room to play but also raises the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/">inconsistency</a>. 



A wet June or a scorching August can therefore make the difference between the crisp gin you remember and a softer, vaguely sweeter edition that feels “off” even if you can’t quite say why.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-signatures-across-europe">Regional signatures across Europe</h2>



Wine has <a href="https://www.vivino.com/wine-news/terroir-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-controversial?srsltid=AfmBOoov08N8ND9gMb0hboUBEs6-5hOlYPWFgdvOcJu0LXtU4Of7GZTI" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">terroir</a>, and juniper is proving it can, too. Pauley’s group surveyed berries from Albania, Bosnia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, and Italy, finding each origin stamped its own chemical fingerprint on the fruit. 



Italian berries delivered extra limonene, lending bright zest that lightens classic London Dry builds. Balkan harvests leaned woodier and spicier, traits coveted for barrel‑rested gins.



Distillers historically blended multiple lots to hit their “house style,” but escalating climate volatility threatens that safety net as once‑reliable regions swing between soaked and parched. 



Supply chains complicate matters further: most British brands import dried juniper through a handful of brokers, meaning weather in Kosovo can secretly sway a bottle poured in Kansas City months later.



Monitoring programs like the industry’s annual “big sniff,” where distillers collectively nose the incoming crop, act as early warning systems, yet they rely on human sensory memory and can miss subtle chemical drifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gin-production-and-juniper-berries">Gin production and juniper berries</h2>



Consistency sells in a crowded market of more than 80 British gin labels, each fighting for back‑bar real estate. Climate disorder thus morphs from agronomic curiosity into commercial headache.



Lower aroma intensity forces producers to add more berries per batch, driving up raw‑material costs while yields from major Balkan suppliers already tighten. Longer drying times raise energy bills and extend production schedules.



Premium gins may risk reformulation fatigue as loyal drinkers notice <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/">flavor</a> wobbles. Budget brands, buffered by heavier coriander or citrus loads, might skate by, hinting that juniper‑light “new Western” styles could grow.



Regulators could weigh in if botanical content swings so wide that gin no longer tastes predominantly of juniper, challenging the legal definition set by European law.



Investors tracking spirits portfolios now list climatic resilience alongside brand equity, mindful that juniper grows mainly in semi‑wild stands, not easily replanted plantations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-distillers-adjust">How distillers adjust</h2>



Data logging of berry moisture and oil content at the point of purchase can flag risky lots before they enter the still. Simple refractometers and hand‑held spectrometers are already cheap enough for small producers.



“So long as we are vigilant of the changes, and curiously explore different areas for harvesting the dry, piney, signature botanical of choice, your gin and tonic is in safe hands,” Pauley assured. 



Sourcing managers may hedge by contracting farms at multiple latitudes, betting that a stormy Adriatic season might be balanced by a calmer Alpine one. 



Process tweaks help, too. Vacuum distillation captures lighter volatiles at lower temperatures, preserving fragile floral tones lost in traditional pot‑still runs. Cold‑stored berries retain more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-related-anxiety-may-be-reduced-with-citrus-based-oil-d-limonene/">limonene</a>, though refrigeration raises carbon footprints. 



Some innovators explore lab‑grown terpenes to top up lean harvests, yet purists counter that synthetic fixes erode the romance of botanicals hand‑picked on rocky hillsides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gin-juniper-and-future-climate">Gin, juniper, and future climate</h2>



Most casual sippers will not taste a sudden “wrong” note, but subtle drift might explain why a favorite bottle feels muted in one season and lively in the next. 



Ordering gins by region at a bar can double as a geography lesson, revealing how Italian sunshine or Serbian rainfall sneaks into each pour.



If juniper shortages spike prices, expect more botanical‑forward alternatives and a surge of juniper‑lite pink gins that hide the gap behind berries and rhubarb.



The study is published in the <a href="https://jib.cibd.org.uk/index.php/jib/article/view/72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the Institute of Brewing</a>.



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Gin will soon lose its unique flavor due to changes in juniper berries

Gin lovers often fuss over tonic brands and garnish choices,...

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every molecule of the carbon they store has to squeeze through microscopic pores first. These pores, called stomata, dot the surface of nearly every leaf and set the pace for both growth and water loss.



The latest study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that each new stoma is the product of a lively conversation among neighboring cells and a hard look in the mirror. 



Dominique Bergmann and her team traced those talks in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35048692" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a> (Arabidopsis thaliana), the small mustard plant whose genome was first decoded in 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-form-and-adjust-pores">How plants form and adjust pores</h2>



Stomata behave like adjustable valves, opening when light and water are plentiful and closing when drought or darkness loom. Their numbers are not fixed; plants can make more or fewer during development, tweaking their gas exchange to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">environment</a>.



For that plasticity to work, precursor cells must decide whether to divide again or settle down as part of the pavement around a stoma. 



The new research focuses on these larger daughters, called stomatal lineage ground cells, which had been thought to be passive passengers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-sugar-in-ways-we-never-imagined/">leaf</a> development.



The Stanford team captured day‑long movies of living leaves and tracked every fate choice. They discovered that the future of each cell depends on its own size and on the crowd of neighbors encircling it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-nearby-cells-to-control-pores">Plants use nearby cells to control pores</h2>



Signals drift through the leaf in the form of tiny peptides such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epidermal patterning factor 1</a> (EPF1) and its sibling EPF2, which tell nearby cells to slow down or stop forming new stomata. 



Because these messages travel only a short distance, the number of stomatal precursors touching a cell sets the strength of the “slow down” order.



Cells bordered by two or more precursors received a louder signal and dismantled an internal protein called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218302392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPEECHLESS</a> before it could trigger another split. Those with just one signaling neighbor heard only a whisper and often went on to divide again.



The researchers measured how fast SPEECHLESS disappeared and found that the rate jumped with every extra neighbor. By evening, many well‑connected cells had emptied their nuclei of the division‑promoting factor and settled into a quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">life</a> as pavement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cell-size">The role of cell size </h2>



Size turned out to be the second half of the script. When two sister cells emerged from a split, one was noticeably larger and carried a larger nucleus.



Bigger nuclei diluted the amount of SPEECHLESS even before degradation kicked in, pushing the concentration below the threshold needed to spark another round of division. Smaller sisters packed the protein more tightly and were free to keep the lineage going.



To confirm the link, the team boosted SPEECHLESS levels across the board. Large cells that normally would have retired instead re‑entered the cell cycle, proving that concentration, not mere presence, calls the shots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-internal-guides-to-shape-pores">Plants use internal guides to shape pores</h2>



“Compasses have dual roles,” said Bergmann. The study builds on earlier work showing that internal “compasses” guide each split so that one daughter remains small and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">stem</a>‑like while the other grows large.&nbsp;



Bergmann explained that the same molecular north arrow orients the division plane and then reorganizes the contents of the newborn cells to cement their different futures. 



Computational models confirmed that size, neighbor count, and SPEECHLESS levels together predict a cell’s fate better than any factor alone.



Warm nights add another twist: higher temperatures activate a photoreceptor called PIF4 that limits SPEECHLESS production, cutting back the formation of new stomata. 



The Stanford data suggest that heat might tilt the balance further by shrinking protein levels just enough to keep big cells out of the cell cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crops-and-farming">Improving crops and farming</h2>



Why should anyone without a microscope care how many times a leaf cell divides? Because every stoma trades water for carbon, the final stomatal count shapes a crop’s thirst and yield.



Breeders are already lowering <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37923396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stomatal density</a> in wheat, barley, and rice to save water without hurting photosynthesis. Knowing that cell size and neighbor signals tune those numbers could make such tweaks more precise and less likely to backfire.



The work also hints at strategies for future‑proofing plants against heat waves. If larger precursor cells naturally avoid dividing under high temperature, selecting varieties with slightly bigger epidermal cells could be a subtle way to reduce water loss.



There is an evolutionary angle as well. Fossil leaves show that ancient plants reduced their stomatal density when atmospheric CO₂ climbed, mirroring the choices Bergmann’s cells make on a microscopic scale.



Understanding the cell‑level logic may help scientists read the rock record more accurately and model how modern forests will respond to rising greenhouse gases. It could even inform designs for synthetic leaves or bio‑inspired materials that need self‑regulating pores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-plants-and-their-pores">Research on plants and their pores</h2>



The Bergmann lab now wants to trace the still‑mysterious signals that link cell size to peptide output. They suspect a size‑sensing pathway unrelated to SPEECHLESS that may give big cells an extra nudge toward differentiation.



If that circuit can be mapped, it might be possible to rewire it, allowing crops to adjust their stomata on demand without penalties in growth. Such control would be a powerful tool in regions where water scarcity and heat routinely threaten harvests.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57730-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How plants decide where to put their breathing pores

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every...

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before. While deforestation continues to be a major issue, even untouched forests are seeing increased rates of tree death. 



Scientists have long pointed to drought, extreme heat, and wildfires as key contributing factors to tropical tree mortality. But now, they are highlighting another powerful and often-overlooked force: thunderstorms.



Unlike the more familiar hurricanes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-bomb-cyclones-increasing-due-to-climate-change/">cyclones</a>, these storms are short but intense. Their high winds and lightning can be devastating to trees.



According to a recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>, these storms are becoming more frequent due to climate change - and they’re causing serious harm to tropical forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-climate-cost-of-tropical-tree-death">The climate cost of tropical tree death</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/">Tropical forests</a> have massive effects on global climate. They're like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/">lungs of the Earth</a>, and we're seeing trees in them dying at higher rates than in the past, and the composition of forests is changing, too,” said Evan Gora, a forest ecologist at&nbsp;Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. 



“That could be really problematic for the future of not just tropical forests, but for the planet.”



While storms might seem like fleeting events, their impact on tropical forests can be lasting. These powerful bursts of wind and lightning can injure or topple even the largest trees, disrupting forest structure and biodiversity in seconds.



“Being in the forest during a tropical storm is unforgettable,” said study co-author Vanessa Rubio. “As the storm quickly builds, the sky darkens, humidity changes drastically, and strong winds shake the trees. 



"Then, thunder and lightning come. Leaves and branches fall to the ground, rain pours down, and your instinct is to get back to the field station as quickly as possible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-driver-of-tree-death">A silent driver of tree death</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thunderstorms-are-becoming-more-intense-due-to-climate-change/">Thunderstorms</a> haven’t been given the same attention as other climate-related threats. But that’s starting to change. The team re-examined data from earlier studies on tropical tree death and forest carbon levels. They found that storms are just as significant - if not more so - than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/">drought</a> or heat.



“We were surprised to find that storms may be the largest single factor causing tree death in these forests, and they’re largely overlooked by research into carbon storage in the tropics,” said Gora. 



“Our estimates suggest that storms are responsible for 30 to 60% of tree mortality in the past, and that number must be increasing as storm activity increases by 5 to 25% each decade.”



When the researchers added storms to the largest plot-based study on tropical forest carbon, the picture changed dramatically. The previous data showed a sharp drop in carbon when temperatures rose above a certain point. But adding storms made that link disappear.



“But when you add storms, that relationship goes away,” Gora said. “It basically shows that you have to include storms, or you might not get the answers right.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-trouble-for-tropical-trees">Double trouble for tropical trees</h2>



The team found that storms and drought often hit the same forests. The southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Amazon</a>, for instance, experiences both frequent storms and severe water stress. These combined threats are reshaping the region’s ecology.



“During my studies on threats to tropical forests, my professors, our textbooks, and even overall climate policy never mentioned small, convective storms as a potential source of forest mortality,” said study co-author Ian McGregor.



“I don't remember seeing them in global climate models used to inform climate policy. Given our findings, however, it's clear we need a more thorough understanding of these storms to have more accurate climate models, and thus more effective policy,” he added.



So why have storms flown under the radar until now? Part of the reason is that heat and drought are easier to measure. Tools like weather stations and long-term satellite tracking make it simpler to monitor those threats. 



But storms are different. They strike quickly and cause scattered damage. Satellites often miss the evidence of tropical tree deaths, and it’s nearly impossible for researchers to check vast forests manually after every storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-trees-from-sky-to-soil">Tracking trees from sky to soil</h2>



To address these challenges, the team launched the Gigante project, co-led by the University of Birmingham. It uses a combination of lightning-tracking systems, drones, and field experts to monitor large areas of tropical forest. 



This enables scientists to pinpoint the location and extent of tree death, when the damage occurs, and which species are most at risk.



“If we make decisions about which species to plant or conserve based on an incorrect understanding of what's actually killing these trees and which species are most vulnerable, those forests won’t reach their full potential,” said Gora. 



Mature trees are especially vulnerable to storm damage. Without clearer insight, we might not realize our reforestation choices were flawed until decades later.



“However, if we can build a more holistic picture of what’s driving forest change, we can be a lot more confident in guiding forest management practices for long-term sustainability," noted Gora.



Understanding why tropical trees are dying isn’t just a scientific concern - it’s a climate priority with global consequences.



The study is to be <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/news-insights/press-release/thunderstorms-are-major-driver-tree-death-tropical-forests">published</a> in a perspective article in the journal Ecology Letters.



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Tropical tree deaths are increasing, even in untouched forests

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before....

For many years, scientists believed that plants sensed heat using proteins active mostly at night. But recent findings reveal something far more complex. 



A new study led by Professor Meng Chen from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, shows that during the day, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">plants</a> rely on sugar and a combination of thermal signals to detect warmth and adjust their growth.



The research reshapes long-standing views. The results uncover how plants integrate sunlight, sugar, and internal signals to regulate daytime thermomorphogenesis, the growth response triggered by warmth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-sense-heat-differently-by-day">Plants sense heat differently by day</h2>



“Our textbooks say that proteins like phytochrome B and early flowering 3 (ELF3) are the main thermosensors in plants,” Chen said. “But those models are based on nighttime data." 



"We wanted to know what’s happening during the day, when light and temperature are both high because these are the conditions most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-pressure-has-a-hidden-impact-on-plant-diversity/">plants</a> actually experience.”



Previous models focused on phytochrome B (phyB) and ELF3, both of which are responsive at night. But in strong sunlight, phyB becomes constantly activated, shutting down its heat-sensing role. 



The research team tested Arabidopsis plants under a range of temperatures and red-light intensities, including conditions mimicking midday sun.



The paper shows two clear heat responses. One operates between 12 and 21 °C and depends on phyB. The other, active between 21 and 27 °C, does not rely on phyB. This second, sugar-driven response remains active even under intense light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-helps-plants-detect-daytime-heat">Sugar helps plants detect daytime heat</h2>



The study reveals that sugar is more than just a fuel. It is a heat signal during daylight. “That’s when we realized sugar wasn’t just fueling growth,” Chen said. “It was acting like a signal, telling the plant that it’s warm.”



Under high temperatures, chloroplasts break down stored starch into sucrose. This sugar then stabilizes PIF4, a protein that drives growth. 



Without sugar, PIF4 degrades. With sugar, PIF4 sticks around, so long as another protein, ELF3, also lifts its repressive control.



The&nbsp;study&nbsp;confirms that adding sucrose to mutant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plants</a> restores growth, even in darkness. This shows sugar acts independently from light and provides a thermal cue during the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-growth-needs-both-sugar-and-heat">Plant growth needs both sugar and heat</h2>



“PIF4 needs two things,” Chen explained. “Sugar to stick around, and freedom from repression. Temperature helps provide both.”



This dual system operates like an "AND" gate in electronics. Both sucrose and the release from ELF3 inhibition are required for full thermoresponsive growth. Sucrose promotes PIF4 stability, while high temperature relieves ELF3's suppression.



When either cue is missing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/">plants</a> fail to elongate properly. But when both are present, like sugar and warmth, PIF4 can trigger auxin-related genes that stretch the plant upwards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-blocks-growth-until-it-s-warm">Protein blocks growth until it’s warm</h2>



Interestingly, ELF3 inhibits PIF4 in two ways. It blocks its production and its activity. High temperatures disable ELF3, freeing PIF4 to act. This insight flips older beliefs that ELF3 only worked at night.



The&nbsp;microscopy images and data on page 8&nbsp;reveal that even without ELF3, plants can respond to sugar and still grow taller. But only with both sugar and heat do PIF4 targets like IAA19 and YUC9 become active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-stronger-crops">Engineering stronger crops</h2>



“This changes how we think about thermosensing in plants,” Chen said. “It’s not just about proteins flipping on or off. It’s about energy, light, sugar, as well.”



Understanding these systems has practical value. As global temperatures rise, crops need to grow reliably. Knowing that starch breakdown and sugar signaling help regulate growth can help scientists design better, more heat-resilient plants.



Researchers also&nbsp;illustrate how the three thermosensors, phyB, ELF3, and chloroplast-sucrose, work together. This multisensor setup allows plants to fine-tune growth, even under extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-sugar-smartly-to-grow">Plants use sugar smartly to grow </h2>



Plants live silent lives, but their internal machinery buzzes with complex decisions. In the heat of the day, they don't just react, they calculate. 



By using sugars to sense their environment, they respond with a quiet precision that helps them grow exactly when conditions are right. This study doesn't just add to our knowledge. It rewrites it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60498-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Plants use sugar in ways we never imagined

For many years, scientists believed that plants sensed heat using...

Flour,Chickpeas,In,Spoonful,,Chick-peas,In,A,Sack,And,Fresh

For decades, studies on mice, monkeys, and even roundworms have pointed to calorie restriction as a ticket to longevity. Trouble is, perpetual hunger does not rank high on most bucket lists, and adherence to such strict diets tends to plummet once real life barges in with birthdays and barbecues.



By the time researchers at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> put calorie-cutting under the microscope, they noticed a pattern: eating less helped animals live longer, but the menu’s makeup mattered just as much. 



That discovery widened the spotlight to proteins, the nutrients stitched together from 20 common <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/amino-acids" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a>. Nine of those are “essential,” meaning the body cannot manufacture them.



Early work hinted that dialing down total protein might mirror the benefits of calorie restriction without the gnawing hunger. 



Mice fed modest protein saw improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-water-per-day-helps-control-blood-sugar-levels-in-people-with-diabetes/">blood sugar</a> control and trimmer waistlines, yet blanket reductions risked muscle loss, especially in older animals. Something more surgical was needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-quality-over-quantity">Protein quality over quantity</h2>



Metabolism researcher <a href="https://www.medicine.wisc.edu/directory/lamming_dudley" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dudley Lamming</a> stepped into that gap with a question few had asked: what if the magic hides in specific amino acids rather than protein as a whole? 



“We like to say a calorie is not just a calorie,” he says. “Different components of your diet have value and impact beyond their function as a calorie, and we’ve been digging in on one component that many people may be eating too much of.”



His team homed in on the branched-chain amino acids - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-too-much-protein-greatly-increases-heart-disease-risk/">leucine</a>, isoleucine, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/">valine</a> - popular in sports supplements for their muscle-building buzz. Instead of treating them as a block, the researchers isolated each one. Isoleucine quickly took center stage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-back-on-isoleucine">Cutting back on isoleucine</h2>



When mice at the equivalent of 30 human years were fed chow that cut isoleucine by about two-thirds, their bodies shed fat quickly. 



“Very quickly, we saw the mice on the reduced-isoleucine diet lose adiposity - their bodies got leaner, they lost fat,” says Lamming. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-foods-can-slow-down-eating-and-cut-calorie-intake/">Calorie intake</a> actually climbed; the animals nibbled more in an apparent effort to find the missing amino acid, yet their metabolisms revved high enough to keep weight off.



Over time, male mice lived about 33 percent longer, and females about 7 percent. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/isoleucine_amino-acid_diet-restriction_lifespan-increase_credit-Cell-Metabolism_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/isoleucine_amino-acid_diet-restriction_lifespan-increase_credit-Cell-Metabolism_1s.webp" alt="This graphic illustration shows the impact that reduced isoleucine diet had on mice longevity. Credit: Cell Metabolism" class="wp-image-1975852"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This graphic illustration shows the impact that reduced isoleucine diet had on mice longevity. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Cell Metabolism</figcaption></figure>



That extra runway arrived with smoother blood sugar curves, sturdier muscles, and fewer signs of frailty across 26 health checks - from grip strength to coat condition. 



Cancer, the usual culprit in an aging mouse colony, struck less often in males on the low-isoleucine diet, and prostate enlargement eased.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-isoleucine-shapes-lifespan">How isoleucine shapes lifespan</h2>



Most roads in the aging field eventually intersect with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01608-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mTOR</a>, a cellular sensor finely tuned to amino acid levels. 



Drop isoleucine, and mTOR quiets down, dialing back growth signals that drive both tumor formation and the wear-and-tear of aging. 



The diet also boosts a hormone that helps the body cope with cold and is being studied as a potential diabetes therapy. 



The interplay of these pathways - not yet fully mapped - likely explains why trimming one nutrient outperforms broader protein cuts in middle-aged mice.



“Previous research has shown lifespan increase with low-calorie and low-protein or low-amino-acid diets starting in very young mice,” Lamming explains.



“We started with mice that were already getting older. It’s interesting and encouraging to think a dietary change could still make such a big difference in lifespan and what we call ‘healthspan,’ even when it started closer to mid-life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoleucine-and-human-health">Isoleucine and human health</h2>



Humans need isoleucine for everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tibetan-women-have-quickly-evolved-to-thrive-in-low-oxygen-and-high-altitudes/">hemoglobin production</a> to immune defense, so eliminating it is off the table. 



The wrinkle is that many Western diets supply far more than the daily requirement, thanks to eggs, cheese, soy isolates, chicken, and beef featuring heavily on menus. 



Surveys from Wisconsin echo national data: people with higher body-mass indexes often report higher isoleucine intake.



“We can’t just switch everyone to a low-isoleucine diet,” Lamming continued. “But narrowing these benefits down to a single amino acid gets us closer to understanding the biological processes and maybe potential interventions for humans, like an isoleucine-blocking drug.”



The team’s nutritional modeling suggests that choosing more fruits, vegetables, and modest portions of animal protein can shave isoleucine totals without complicated meal plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-trials-come-next">Human trials come next</h2>



Because the study relied on a genetically diverse strain of mice - much closer to human variety than lab inbreds - confidence is higher that the findings translate. 



Yet controlled human trials are still required. Researchers are now exploring whether temporary isoleucine dips, similar to the popular five-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alternate-day-fasting-might-be-worth-trying-for-weight-loss/">fasting-mimicking diet</a>, can trigger the same metabolic perks without long-term restriction.



“It could be that by choosing healthier foods and healthier eating in general, we might be able to lower isoleucine enough to make a difference,” Lamming surmised.



While clinicians wait for definitive guidance, nutritionists already recommend leaning on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">legumes, whole grains, and vegetables</a>, which naturally carry less isoleucine than dairy or red meat. That shift dovetails with broader public-health advice to curb chronic disease risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eat-right-feel-good-live-longer">Eat right, feel good, live longer</h2>



To sum it all up, living longer has always hinged on a balance between what bodies need and what wears them out. 



The latest evidence suggests that tipping the scales away from a single amino acid might buy extra years without sacrificing satisfaction at the table. 



Turning lab findings into dinner-plate habits won’t happen overnight, but the path is far clearer now than when the conversation started with simply “eat less.”



These full studies were published in the journals <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(23)00374-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Metabolism</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00744-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Removing this one thing from your diet could dramatically increase lifespan

For decades, studies on mice, monkeys, and even roundworms have...

Warsaw isn’t short on parks or tree-lined boulevards, but a trio of Polish universities wondered whether smaller, resident-run gardens could add something crucial to the capital’s climate resilience.



To find out, researchers from <a href="https://english.swps.pl/">SWPS University</a>, <a href="https://eng.pw.edu.pl/">Warsaw University of Technology</a>, and the <a href="https://www.sggw.edu.pl/en/">Warsaw University of Life Sciences</a> mapped every vacant meadow, former orchard, and post-industrial lot within easy walking distance of apartment blocks.



They came up with a staggering 1,864 hectares (4,600 acres) - more than enough space, they say, for a citywide network of community gardens that soak up stormwater, cool overheated streets, and capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/">carbon</a>.



The investigation combined that spatial analysis with more than 250 in-depth interviews. The goal was to see who is already gardening, what motivates them, and how much social capital - trust, shared norms, cooperative spirit - might be harvested alongside tomatoes and herbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-uses-the-urban-gardens">Who uses the urban gardens</h2>



It turns out the movement is surprisingly broad. Urban gardening brings together all social groups, the team reports, from school children planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/">pollinator</a> patches to cultural institutions converting courtyards into micro-farms.



Still, two cohorts dominate the regular volunteer lists: retirees - often women with higher education - and young middle class families. 



Most gardens revolve around a core group of 10 to 15 steady hands, supplemented by casual helpers and passers-by who stop to chat, water, or simply lounge among the raised beds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motivation-of-urban-gardeners">Motivation of urban gardeners </h2>



Why do they show up week after week? According to study co-author Piotr Majewski of SWPS University, the motivations of urban gardeners vary. 



"The most important ones are: reconnection to nature, positive contribution to the environment, social relations, and mutual learning between gardeners," said Majewski.



Food, interestingly, is not the primary driver. Leaders said harvests help, but real value comes from biodiversity, composting, and public workshops on sustainable living.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-plots-big-impact">Tiny plots, big impact</h2>



Those activities tally with an expanding body of international research linking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-carbon-footprint-urban-farms-and-agriculture/">urban agriculture</a> to climate adaptation. 



Even pocket-size plots act as carbon sinks, trap particulate pollution, and soften the urban heat island. Raised beds can be engineered to hold back flash-flood water, while compost heaps divert organic waste from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/">landfills</a>.



For Warsaw, the numbers are compelling. Nearly all of the identified 1,864 hectares (4,600 acres) lie within a quarter mile of housing, meaning a potential garden is no farther than a ten-minute stroll for most residents - and often half that.



Such proximity, the experts argue, makes it easier to harness gardens as a distributed green-infrastructure network in a warming metropolis of nearly two million people.



Yet the real strength may be social. Garden groups knit neighbors together, boosting the informal networks that cities rely on during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>, floods, or other climate-related shocks.



Many interviewees said they joined to cultivate community first, vegetables second. Regular workdays double as impromptu skill‐shares: retirees pass on horticultural know-how, children learn ecological stewardship, and newcomers forge local friendships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-in-city-plans">Urban gardens in city plans</h2>



Majewski and his colleagues believe Warsaw’s planners should take that social-ecological synergy seriously.



“The system of community gardens should also be considered as a tool to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-imagination-in-climate-change-adaptation/">climate change adaptation</a> solutions in urban policies in spatial planning - provided that they are considered an important link in the urban green infrastructure system,” he explained.



To get there, the researchers lay out a handful of recommendations. First, city hall could weave gardens into official zoning strategies rather than treating them as informal afterthoughts. 



That might mean leasing public land at peppercorn rents, streamlining permits, or integrating gardens into new housing estates from the design phase.



Second, municipal agencies could supply starter kits - soil, timber, rain barrels - while leaving day-to-day management to residents. Third, wider publicity would help spread the idea beyond the usual eco-activist circles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-gardens-citywide">Scaling gardens citywide</h2>



The study also flags areas for further research. At what point does a collection of isolated plots start delivering measurable cooling or flood mitigation benefits? 



How can Warsaw ensure that garden networks thrive in all districts, not just affluent ones with vocal community groups? And what responsibilities will fall on municipal departments when gardens become part of critical infrastructure rather than hobby spaces?



Those unknowns aside, the evidence is clear: Warsaw already hosts a vibrant cohort of “hero activists” who coax life from overlooked corners.



With modest institutional backing, their trowels and compost bins could double as climate-adaptation tools - cooling concrete and absorbing rainfall. 



Perhaps most importantly, they help draw neighbors together in a city that will need every ounce of solidarity as temperatures rise.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/mgrsd-2025-0005">Miscellanea Geographic</a>.



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Urban gardens help cities fight climate change

Warsaw isn’t short on parks or tree-lined boulevards, but a...

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These invasive insects damage trees, crops, and gardens by feeding on plant sap and leaving behind sticky honeydew. A research team led by Assistant Professor Scotty Yang at Virginia Tech has discovered an unexpected helper in the battle against this pest: ants.



Yang and his team found that ants, drawn to honeydew, can carry traces of lanternfly DNA in their bodies. By analyzing the ants, scientists can now detect whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-swim-in-schools-by-stacking-like-ladder-rungs/">pest</a> has reached an area, even without spotting the insect directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-collect-lanternfly-dna">Ants collect lanternfly DNA</h2>



The research is based on environmental DNA, or eDNA. This approach collects genetic material that organisms leave behind in their surroundings. 



Spotted lanternflies leave DNA in their sugary waste, which ants readily consume. Scientists then apply a lab technique called polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, to identify SLF DNA inside the ants.



“Ants are nature’s sugar seekers,” Yang said. “If there’s even a tiny drop of honeydew left behind by a spotted lanternfly, ants are likely to find it.”



Yang’s team named the method “antDNA.” Even a single meal of honeydew lets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">ants</a> retain the lanternfly's DNA for up to five days. Because ants roam widely, this method can detect SLF activity from as far as 100 meters from the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-tests-across-virginia">Field tests across Virginia</h2>



Researchers tested the method at three Virginia sites: Salem, Lynchburg Site 1, and Lynchburg Site 2. These locations represented low, medium, and high lanternfly densities. 



At each site, they placed honey-baited lure stations along transects, attracting ants with cotton balls soaked in honey.



The Salem site showed a 46.7 percent positive rate for SLF DNA. Lynchburg Site 1 and Site 2 showed 62.1 percent and 62.5 percent, respectively. Most stations attracted ants within 30 minutes, proving the method’s ease of use.



The study also tested ants from nine species. SLF DNA was found even in ants that had not directly fed on honeydew, likely due to food sharing within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-in-a-few-ants-can-change-the-behavior-of-the-entire-colony/">colonies</a>. This behavior, known as trophallaxis, helps spread the DNA signal among nestmates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-outperform-other-lanternfly-detectors">Ants outperform other lanternfly detectors</h2>



The antDNA technique works across landscapes and does not depend on the pest being visible. Unlike other methods, it does not require water, filtration, or special storage. Ants can be preserved in ethanol without refrigeration, reducing the burden on field teams.



Ants are present in nearly every habitat, from forests to cities. The collection setup is simple and inexpensive. The ants’ ability to hold liquid in their crop allows the DNA to stay detectable longer than in typical surface samples. 



The study confirmed that DNA from honeydew lasts longer than DNA from insect tissue, making honeydew a more stable source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-early-detection">Importance of early detection</h2>



Spotted lanternflies harm many plants, including grapevines, hardwoods, and hops. As they feed, they weaken plants and coat them in honeydew. This sticky substance promotes sooty mold, which further harms plant health. 



Early detection is critical because removing the pest becomes harder once it spreads. Current surveillance efforts rely on human sightings of the insect or its egg masses. These sightings often occur only when the population has already grown. 



The ant surveillance method allows early detection of lanternfly species even in low-density zones and inaccessible areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-and-looking-forward">Scaling up and looking forward</h2>



Yang and his team are now working on a portable test kit for use in the field. This will allow real-time molecular testing without needing a full lab. Faster results mean quicker action against the pest.



“One of the biggest advantages of using ants is that they live almost everywhere, such as forests, farms, cities - you name it,” Yang said. “Their constant search for food makes them ideal frontline samplers for spotted lanternfly DNA.”



This approach offers a new way to watch for invasive species like lanternflies using ants, without depending on visual surveys. It opens up possibilities for surveillance that is fast, flexible, and low-cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-may-detect-other-pests-like-lanternflies">Ants may detect other pests like lanternflies</h2>



The method could be expanded to track other pests. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">insects</a> excrete honeydew, and ants can pick up their DNA too. This opens the door for broader pest detection strategies using the same principle.



Ants, in their natural role as sugar hunters, may become an essential part of protecting crops, forests, and native ecosystems. With antDNA, researchers are tapping into nature’s own behaviors to find smarter ways of monitoring invasive threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.8814" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeoBiota</a>.



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How ants could help stop the tree-killing lanternfly

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These...

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees...

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a single variety: the creamy Hass. That genetic sameness has streamlined production into a multibillion-dollar industry. 



But it also invites disaster, as uniform orchards can collapse quickly when faced with a new pest, pathogen, or heat wave.



To find a different path, experts from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> have traveled far back in time - 11,000 years - to a Honduran rockshelter whose charred ancient avocado pits chronicle the birth of the crop and offer clues to a more resilient future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-fossils-in-a-cave">Avocado fossils in a cave</h2>



El Gigante, perched high in the western Honduran highlands, is a natural vault. Its dry interior has preserved plant remains that would normally rot in the humid tropics.



“It’s a truly incredible preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plant fossils</a> and an abundance of avocado remains in a tropical region where plants generally do not preserve well,” said co-author Heather B. Thakar, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&amp;M.



Layer upon layer of seeds, rinds, and other botanical scraps lie undisturbed, creating a sequential record of human meals - and human influence on local plants - stretching back to the end of the last ice age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-outlived-their-giants">Avocados outlived their giants</h2>



According to the scientists, avocados first evolved to entice gigantic browsers such as gomphotheres and mammoths.



“Avocados are an amazing food source for humans, rich in healthy fats and nutrients that are essential to us,” Thakar said.



“But they originally evolved as a food source for ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/">megafauna</a> like giant sloths (gomphotheres) and mammoths that lived in the Americas during the last ice age.”



When those animals disappeared, humans stepped in to fill the ecological vacancy. Evidence at El Gigante shows early foragers selectively tending wild trees, nurturing seedlings with bigger seeds and fleshier fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-over-thousands-of-years">Farming over thousands of years</h2>



The team radiocarbon-dated hundreds of pits and rinds to build an exceptionally fine-grained timeline. Measurements revealed a steady upsizing: seeds grew larger and rinds thicker as the centuries passed.



“Through traditional forest management practices, people were selecting bigger and thicker-skinned avocados,” Thakar noted.



By 7,500 years ago, fruit size and durability hint that growers could harvest and transport avocados across larger distances. Full domestication appears roughly 2,000 years ago. 



That makes avocado cultivation in Honduras older than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">maize</a>, beans, or squash - crops that would later dominate Mesoamerican farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-lessons-for-future-crops">Past lessons for future crops</h2>



“Our work with El Gigante's avocado remains offers valuable information about resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change,” Thakar said.



Unlike modern orchardists who propagate identical Hass cuttings through grafting, ancient farmers planted seeds, preserving genetic variety.



“Much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> of ancient avocados still exists in wild populations in Mexico and Central America,” Thakar added.



“By developing new avocado varieties through seed selection from both modern domesticated plants and wild populations, we may have a better chance of adapting to these changing conditions than relying on cloning alone.”



Broadening commercial stock with traits such as drought tolerance or disease resistance could buffer future harvests against environmental shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-avocado-cave-earns-global-notice">Ancient avocado cave earns global notice</h2>



Scientists and local communities alike recognize El Gigante not just for its cultural importance, but for its scientific value as well. 



Honduras has proposed the shelter for <a href="https://www.wmf.org/videos/content-world-monuments-fund-and-unesco-world-heritage-sites?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22461168217&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAD4zJBFj8U_yyOJyxKFquaCnnbg_W&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw64jDBhDXARIsABkk8J4mTznkcgn5ncX37Yk-yEugipmynhK175QfaNBsiUamSXP-bxWKUXQaAi-cEALw_wcB">UNESCO World Heritage</a> status, and Thakar’s team supplies documentation to bolster the case.



“All of the research that we have undertaken is used in support of El Gigante's recent nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage site,” she said.



Although the site’s awkward three-meter climb has deterred looters, occasional campers and hunters do stray inside - making formal protection urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cave-full-of-agriculture">A cave full of agriculture</h2>



El Gigante also stores early evidence for squash and maize domestication. Thakar is actively working on a publication that details the arrival of maize and the 4,500 years of diversification and improvement of this globally important crop.



Thakar's methods - radiocarbon dating, stable-isotope chemistry, and 3-D morphometrics - merge hard science with cultural anthropology. 



She applies this toolkit across Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua to map humanity’s long partnership with plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-modern-lessons">Ancient farming, modern lessons</h2>



“The vast majority of food consumed today is a product of domestication,” Thakar said.



Understanding that protracted process can guide modern breeders. Ancient cultivators operated without greenhouses or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/">genetic engineering</a>, yet they produced crops - like avocadoes - exquisitely tuned to local soils and climates.



Unearthing those forgotten lineages may reveal alleles lost in today’s streamlined varieties. 



“By studying domestication, we can recover ancient varieties and cultural knowledge that has helped humans become the incredibly successful species that we are," said Thakar.



"It's information that can be used to improve our crops today and ensure our continued survival into the future."



From a Honduran cliffside to global orchards, the avocado’s story shows that agricultural resilience springs from diversity - and that sometimes the best way forward is to look back.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417072122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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