Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Fulica americana alai

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Fusconaia burkei

Fusconaia cor

Fusconaia cuneolus

Fusconaia escambia

Fusconaia rotulata

The,New,Guinea,Ground,Dove,Is,A,Metallic,Maroon,With

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Gallicolumba stairi

Gallinula chloropus guami

Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis

Gallirallus (=Tricholimnas) sylvestris

Gallotia simonyi simonyi

Gambelia silus

Gambusia gaigei

Gambusia georgei

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light up the sea, nature has long revealed beauty through bioluminescence. These natural spectacles capture human imagination, inspiring ideas of glowing gardens and self-lit cities. 



Scientists are now moving closer to that vision, crafting houseplants that radiate their own soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">light</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-create-glowing-plants">Scientists create glowing plants</h2>



In a recent study published in the journal Matter, researchers described glowing succulents that recharge in sunlight and emit colorful afterglows. 



By injecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">leaves</a> with special light-storing particles, the plants become capable of radiating light bright enough to rival small night lamps.



“Picture the world of Avatar, where glowing plants light up an entire ecosystem,” said first author Shuting Liu of <a href="https://www.scau.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South China Agricultural University</a>. “We wanted to make that vision possible using materials we already work with in the lab. Imagine glowing trees replacing streetlights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-past-genetic-engineering">Moving past genetic engineering</h2>



Earlier attempts at creating luminescent plants relied on genetic engineering. These methods typically produced faint green light and came with challenges: high costs, complex techniques, and risks such as gene drift. 



The new approach sidesteps these issues by using inorganic afterglow particles, materials already known for their roles in glowing toys and safety signs. These particles are inexpensive, widely available, and capable of storing light energy efficiently, making them an ideal choice for transforming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plants</a> into living light sources. 



Unlike genetic methods, which require lengthy cultivation and complex engineering, this strategy allows for quick preparation, reproducibility, and scalability. It opens the door to practical applications in sustainable lighting and everyday decorative uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-micron-particles-work">Why micron particles work</h2>



The team worked with micron-sized afterglow phosphors. While nanoparticles move more easily through leaves, the larger particles shine with greater brightness.



Traditionally, their size limited plant absorption, but the succulent Echeveria "Mebina" provided the right internal structure to carry them. Its dense but evenly spaced tissue channels enabled rapid diffusion, producing uniform and strong luminescence.



“Smaller, nano-sized particles move easily within the plant but are dimmer,” said Liu. “Larger particles glowed brighter but couldn’t travel far inside the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-succulents-glow-better-than-leafy-plants">Succulents glow better than leafy plants</h2>



Unexpectedly, succulents outperformed non-succulents like golden pothos and bok choy. Despite having fewer air pockets than leafy plants, their compact, uniform tissue allowed particles to spread smoothly without clumping. 



This created evenly glowing leaves after just minutes of exposure to sunlight or LED light, with brightness lasting for nearly two hours.



“It was really unexpected,” said Liu. “The particles diffused in just seconds, and the entire succulent leaf glowed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-and-safe-glow">Stable and safe glow</h2>



The particles used were specially coated with phosphate to improve water resistance and ensure biocompatibility inside plant tissues. 



Tests showed that plants maintained normal chlorophyll, sugar, and protein levels even after several days, suggesting they can handle the modification without losing vitality.



This stability highlights the protective role of the phosphate layer, ensuring that luminescence persists without harmful side effects. 



The results also show that material-engineered plants can retain their natural functions and growth patterns under experimental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-glow-in-many-colors">Plants glow in many colors</h2>



By mixing different phosphors, researchers created plants that glowed not just green, but also red, blue, and even warm white. The team demonstrated a wall of 56 succulents glowing brightly enough to illuminate books and nearby objects. 



Patterns, such as letters or images, could be temporarily written on plant leaves with UV light, hinting at potential uses in decoration and information storage.



“Each plant takes about 10 minutes to prepare and costs a little over 10 yuan (about $1.4), not including labor,” said Liu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-lighting-and-architecture">Eco-friendly lighting and architecture </h2>



The glow fades over time, but repeated exposure to light recharges it. This low-cost, reproducible method could pave the way for eco-friendly lighting in gardens, pathways, or interior design. 



Expanding beyond succulents remains a challenge, but the study shows a path forward. The research offers possibilities for future urban planning, sustainable architecture, and even artistic applications where living plants provide both decoration and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescent-plants-gene-discovery-now-available-for-any-home/">illumination</a>.



“I just find it incredible that an entirely human-made, micro-scale material can come together so seamlessly with the natural structure of a plant,” said Liu. “The way they integrate is almost magical. It creates a special kind of functionality.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(25)00413-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



Image Credit: Liu et al., Matter



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Glowing plants could replace street lamps in future cities

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light...

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a dramatic change. Marine animals began moving into deeper waters that had long been uninhabitable. New research suggests this expansion was fueled by a lasting rise in deep-ocean oxygen. 



The source of that oxygen traces back to the spread of woody plants on land, the earliest forests on Earth. This environmental shift coincided with an explosion of new species, especially jawed fish. 



These fish became the ancestors of nearly all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">vertebrates</a> alive today. The link between oxygen levels and evolutionary diversification offers fresh insight into how life reshaped the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rise-shaped-evolution">Oxygen rise shaped evolution</h2>



“It’s known that oxygen is a necessary condition for animal evolution, but the extent to which it is the sufficient condition that can explain trends in animal diversification has been difficult to pin down,” said co-lead author Michael Kipp, assistant professor at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



“This study gives a strong vote that oxygen dictated the timing of early animal evolution, at least for the appearance of jawed vertebrates in deep-ocean habitats.”



For decades, scientists believed deep-ocean oxygenation occurred only once, at the start of the Paleozoic Era about 540 million years ago. 



Later evidence pointed instead to multiple phases. First, shallower waters became livable for breathing organisms, and only later did oxygen reach deeper environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocks-reveal-ocean-oxygen-history">Rocks reveal ocean oxygen history</h2>



Kipp and his colleagues focused on timing by studying sedimentary rocks once buried beneath ancient oceans. 



They measured levels of selenium, an element that records traces of oxygen in the environment. Selenium occurs in different isotopes, and their ratios reveal whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-as-predicted-with-bigger-risks-ahead/">oxygen</a> levels were high enough to support animal life.



The team collected 97 rock samples dating from 252 to 541 million years ago, gathered from five continents. 



At the time, these sites lay along outer continental shelves, the zones where land tapered into the ocean before plunging steeply downward. By analyzing isotope ratios in the samples, the researchers tracked oxygen’s reach through time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-deep-sea-oxygen-waves">Two deep-sea oxygen waves</h2>



Results showed two distinct deep-ocean oxygenation events. One brief episode occurred during the Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago. 



The second began during the Middle Devonian, around 393 to 382 million years ago, and continues today. Between these events, oxygen dropped to inhospitable levels for most animals.



“The selenium data tell us that the second oxygenation event was permanent. It began in the Middle Devonian and persisted in our younger rock samples,” said co-lead author Kunmanee “Mac” Bubphamanee, a Ph.D. candidate at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vertebrates-thrived-with-more-oxygen">Vertebrates thrived with more oxygen</h2>



The Middle Devonian oxygen rise triggered what scientists call the “mid-Paleozoic marine revolution.” With oxygen now plentiful, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/">jawed fish</a> and other animals expanded into deeper waters and diversified. 



Fossil evidence also shows that many species grew larger, likely supported by the richer oxygen supply. One example is shown in the featured image of this article - a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Dunkleosteus_prehistoric-fish_deep-ocean-oxygen_N-Tamura_1m.jpg">Dunkleosteus</a>.



This geological shift aligned with another event on land: the spread of woody plants. 



“Our thinking is that, as these woody plants increased in number, they released more oxygen into the air, which led to more oxygen in deeper ocean environments,” Kipp said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-oxygen-wave-faded-fast">First oxygen wave faded fast</h2>



The earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">Cambrian</a> oxygen surge remains puzzling. Its decline likely prevented animals from permanently establishing themselves in deeper waters at that time.



“What seems clear is that the drop in oxygen after that initial pulse hindered the spread and diversification of marine animals into those deeper environments of the outer continental shelves,” Kipp noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-history-warns-about-today-s-oceans">Oxygen history warns about today’s oceans</h2>



Although the study looks far into the past, its message carries urgency now. 



“Today, there’s abundant ocean oxygen in equilibrium with the atmosphere," said Kipp. "But in some locations, ocean oxygen can drop to undetectable levels."



"Some of these zones occur through natural processes. But in many cases, they’re driven by nutrients draining off continents from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-may-be-the-answer-to-dwindling-fertilizer-ingredient/">fertilizers</a> and industrial activity that fuel plankton blooms that suck up oxygen when they decay.”



“This work shows very clearly the link between oxygen and animal life in the ocean. This was a balance struck about 400 million years ago, and it would be a shame to disrupt it today in a matter of decades.”



-----



Featured image: An artist’s rendering of a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called Dunkleosteus. These sorts of large, active vertebrates evolved shortly after the deep ocean became well-oxygenated. Credit: 2008 N. Tamura/CC-BY-SA



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501342122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Ancient forests pumped oxygen into the ocean and helped deep-sea fish thrive

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a...

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer brings walls of flames putting millions of people in danger. The next brings lots of fires, but very few near humans. This is called the "wildfire paradox." 



Here’s the twist: the planet has actually seen less land burned in recent years, yet more people are ending up in the path of flames.



From 2002 to 2021, the total area that burned worldwide went down by about a quarter. 



Over the same years, the number of people directly exposed to wildfires - meaning flames reached the places where they live - went up by roughly 40%. Those two facts sit side by side. They also change how we think about risk.



The "wildfire paradox" term fits. The land is burning less, but exposure is rising because more homes and towns now sit where fires naturally occur. That shift is not random. It grows out of how and where people build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-carries-the-weight">Africa carries the weight</h2>



Across that same period from 2002 to 2021, the authors estimate that about 440 million people experienced a wildfire reaching their community. 



Year to year, exposure climbed by several hundred thousand people annually on average, even as total burned acreage fell. Fewer acres does not automatically mean fewer people in danger.



Most news stories highlight wildfires in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-lightning-sparks-the-most-destructive-california-wildfires/">California</a>, Greece, or Australia. Yet wildfires in these places account for less than 2.5 percent of all exposures. Africa, often missing from headlines, saw 85 percent of them.



Just five countries - Congo, South Sudan, Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola - accounted for about half of the global total. 



The United States, Europe, and Australia combined made up less than 2.5%. That contrast says more about population patterns and fire frequency than media attention.



“We are surprised by the disproportionate impacts of wildfires on humans in Africa," said Dr. Mojtaba Sadegh, Climate and Wildfire Analytics Lead at <a href="https://unu.edu/inweh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNU-INWEH</a>.



"We knew that around 65 percent of global burned area occurs there, but their 85 percent share of human exposure shows a pronounced impact that deserves more attention.”



Farming plays a big role. Fields break up grasslands and stop large fires from spreading. But they also bring villages and farms closer to the flames.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-paradox-and-climate-change">Wildfire paradox and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">Climate change</a> is amplifying fire danger. Since 1979, extreme fire weather jumped by more than 54 percent. Fire seasons now stretch longer. Nights, once safer, often stay hot and dry enough for fires to keep burning.



Still, the story changes depending on where you look. Africa shows smaller fires but far more people exposed. 



In North and South America, invasive plants help fires grow larger. Europe tries to suppress fires, yet expanding settlements keep raising the risks.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1s.webp" alt="Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Credit: Science Advisor" class="wp-image-1983464"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Science Advisor</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-actions-reshape-fire-risks">Human actions reshape fire risks</h2>



Study co-author Professor Amir AghaKouchak noted that while the human exposure to fires is rising, the team saw that burned land is shrinking by 26 percent.



“In Africa, farming has broken up large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/">grasslands</a> into smaller fields, which stops fires from spreading as widely but also puts more villages and farms closer to fire-prone land."



"In the Americas, invasive plants have fueled bigger and more frequent wildfires, showing how human actions can change fire risks in very different ways.”



The numbers back this up. Nearly half of the world’s people now live in the wildland–urban interface, an area covering less than 5 percent of Earth’s surface.



The study shows that population growth and migration explain about a quarter of all exposures. Without these changes, exposure levels would have fallen alongside shrinking burned area.



Instead, exposure density nearly doubled. In plain terms, more people are living inside or right next to land that burns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-burned-land">Beyond burned land</h2>



Focusing only on how much land burns hides the real danger. Intense fires make up just 0.01 percent of all events, but they exposed 2.7 million people and burned 5 percent of the total land in the study. 



Regions like Western North America, Southern Europe, and Southern Australia faced far more human loss than their share of exposures suggested.



“Wildfires are no longer seasonal or regional anomalies; they have become a global crisis, intensified by rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>, worsening droughts, and drastic land use changes,” said Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of UNU-INWEH.



“But instead of stepping up to confront this threat, some of the world’s biggest economies are rolling back protections, leaving vulnerable regions and communities to shoulder the heaviest burden."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wildfire-paradox-needs-solutions">The wildfire paradox needs solutions</h2>



The study warns that measuring only burned land misses the true danger of wildfires. What matters most is how close people live to fire-prone areas. As populations expand into these zones, exposure to wildfires rises even if less land burns.



The authors stress the need for stronger<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-suppression-methods-increase-the-severity-of-wildfires/"> fire management</a> and strategies tailored to local conditions. Communities require infrastructure designed to withstand fire, along with better preparedness. 



At the same time, global climate action is essential to slow the worsening of extreme fire weather. Without these combined efforts, more lives will remain directly in the path of devastating wildfires.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu6408" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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"Wildfire paradox" tries to explain why fires are raging across the entire planet

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer...

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal - and its home values. But a new analysis finds the boost depends on where those trees are. Nearby canopy that cools sidewalks and frames streetscapes tends to raise prices. 



Trees planted on the lot itself can sometimes do the opposite once maintenance, root damage, and storm risks are factored in.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://pamplin.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pamplin College of Business</a>, working with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Forest Service</a>.



The team stitched together multiple data sets - including Environmental Protection Agency records - across nine U.S. metropolitan areas to map how tree cover at different distances relates to sale prices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-grow-values-follow">Where trees grow, values follow</h2>



The team broke urban greenery into rings around each property: within 330 feet (about a city block), from 330 feet to one-third of a mile, and from one-third to two-thirds of a mile. 



The researchers then estimated how much added canopy in each ring correlated with a change in value, controlling for local market conditions.



“While tree cover supports owners' property values, their tree cover benefits the greater community property values,” said co-author Kevin Boyle, a professor in the <a href="https://realestate.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blackwood Department of Real Estate</a>.



That distinction - private trees versus neighborhood trees - runs through the results. Shade you can walk under and scenery you drive past appear to deliver broad benefits that the market recognizes. 



On-site trees, by contrast, carry highly localized costs and risks that can dampen the net effect for the individual owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-cities"><a></a>A tale of two cities</h2>



The effect differs widely by location, with Fresno, California, at the lowest end and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the highest.



In Fresno, tree cover adds about $9 to a home’s value - essentially a rounding error. Adding 10 percent more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-measures-forest-canopy-height-from-space/">canopy</a> on or near the lot, and Fresno values dip by roughly $114 (around 0.1%). This reflects perceived costs such as upkeep, insurance, or interference with structures and utilities.



Shift that same extra canopy outward - between one-third and two-thirds of a mile - and the home’s value rises by about $6,751 (roughly 3.2%).



Milwaukee tells the opposite story. There, the same baseline tree cover near a property adds roughly $3,500. A 10 percent increase in canopy within 330 feet is associated with a jump of about $39,701 (around 24 percent).



Even at a distance - one-third to two-thirds of a mile - extra canopy correlates with another $27,194 (about 16 percent) in value. The Milwaukee case underscores how neighborhood-level trees can powerfully shape perceived livability in some markets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-trees-pay-off">Neighborhood trees pay off</h2>



The researchers argue the market is pricing two different bundles of attributes. Neighborhood canopy offers shared goods: cooler microclimates during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heat waves</a> and calmer streetscapes. It also provides a cohesive look that signals care and stability.



Homebuyers will pay for those amenities even if they’re not responsible for pruning the branches that provide them. 



On-lot trees can still be assets, especially when well sited and maintained. But buyers often discount for future costs - leaf litter, gutter clogs, sidewalk heaves, power-line conflicts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">storm</a> damage, or insurance implications.



The analysis also acknowledges weather realities. Trees can fall in severe winds or ice storms and increase damage risk. They also cut urban heat, manage stormwater, and improve air quality at block and district scales.



The net economic signal depends on which set of experiences dominates in a given city and how residents value shared versus private benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-private-yards-public-benefits">Private yards, public benefits</h2>



Most urban land is privately owned, which complicates efforts to grow and maintain the “green infrastructure” that benefits entire neighborhoods. 



The authors suggest local leaders consider incentives - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">planting programs</a>, maintenance support, or right-of-way investments - that nudge canopy growth into the rings where it delivers the biggest bang for the buck.



“Our analysis can be used by community leaders to understand the benefits of tree coverage,” Boyle said. “It can also educate community members that their actions in support of tree coverage can help not only the greater community, but themselves through enhanced property values.”



That strategy could include prioritizing street trees and park expansions within walking distance of homes, where the study finds the strongest and most consistent price effects.



It could also mean offering technical help to homeowners for site-appropriate species selection and root-friendly planting plans that minimize future conflicts with foundations, sidewalks, and utilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-steps-for-greener-cities">Action steps for greener cities</h2>



For owners, the takeaway is practical: trees can add value, but placement, species, and care matter. A well-chosen street-facing canopy that shades façades and sidewalks can enhance curb appeal and comfort. 



In backyards, opt for species with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-can-shut-down-non-native-tree-invasions/">invasive</a> roots and maintain clearances around roofs and lines.



For cities, the findings argue for shifting some canopy growth off private lots and into shared corridors - streets, medians, easements, and pocket parks. They also highlight the need for maintenance budgets that keep those trees healthy and safe.



Doing so aligns who pays with who benefits, reducing the friction that can arise when the public asks private owners to shoulder the costs of a public good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-neighborhoods-higher-values">Greener neighborhoods, higher values</h2>



The headline is simple: trees can lift home values in cities. The fine print is where the policy levers lie. Market signals in Fresno differ from Milwaukee, and the effects of canopy on the lot differ from canopy down the block.



By parsing those patterns across thousands of blocks in nine metropolitan areas, the study gives planners, assessors, and residents a clearer map. 



Plant where the benefits compound, support owners where responsibilities fall, and grow the shared canopy that keeps neighborhoods cooler, calmer, and more valuable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800925001922?via%3Dihub">Ecological Economics</a>.



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How neighborhood trees can raise - or sink - your property value

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal...

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might seem like no big deal. After all, it’s organic - it’ll break down eventually, right? 



But what actually happens to that waste after it’s hauled away is a much bigger issue than most people realize. And it’s not just about overcrowded landfills - it’s about methane.



Food waste buried in a landfill doesn’t simply rot and disappear. It releases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas that’s 80 to 85 times more powerful than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> over a 20-year period. 



This makes food waste a serious player in climate change - not because of how much we toss, but because of where it ends up and how it breaks down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landfills-turn-food-waste-into-methane">Landfills turn food waste into methane</h2>



Here’s the issue: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/">landfills</a> aren't built to help food break down cleanly. When food waste ends up buried under other trash, it quickly uses up the oxygen in its immediate surroundings. 



At first, some decomposition happens with oxygen, which releases carbon dioxide - still a greenhouse gas, but not nearly as potent.



But once the oxygen's gone, the process switches. Now you’ve got anaerobic decomposition, which happens without oxygen. This is where methane starts building up. 



And unlike compost piles, which stay exposed to air and rely on oxygen, landfills are packed tight. That makes them perfect methane factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-transforms-food-waste">Composting transforms food waste</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/">Composting</a> does the exact opposite. It keeps oxygen in the mix throughout the process. That means no methane. Plus, it turns food scraps into something useful: a natural fertilizer that can go back into farms and gardens.



Some cities, especially in recent years, have started composting programs to cut down on landfill methane. But how effective are these programs? Do they really work?



One recent study examined how composting plays out in real life, based on actual data. The study concentrated on places such as Austin, Texas, where there are programs set up to allow people to compost at home. 



On average, the program reduced organic waste output by roughly 2.3 pounds per household per week. That’s a good start, but it’s only about 30% of what a typical American household discards a week.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-requires-individual-effort">Composting requires individual effort</h2>



There’s also the question of participation. Unlike cities such as San Francisco, many places don’t enforce composting. That means it’s optional - and a lot of people skip it.



Jackson Somers is an assistant professor of&nbsp;agricultural and resource economics&nbsp;in the College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources (<a href="https://cahnr.uconn.edu/">CAHNR</a>).



“As individuals, we produce a lot of food waste, and it’s something we should be cognizant of. From there, you should compost if you want to compost,” said Somers. 



"I think, inherently, we don’t want to be wasteful. But for some people it’s just a high burden of effort.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-isn-t-cheap-yet">Composting isn’t cheap - yet</h2>



Even with some success, the economics are tricky. According to Somers’ analysis, it currently costs about $478 to avoid emitting one ton of CO2 through composting programs. 



By comparison, the “social cost of carbon” - a number economists use to estimate the damage caused by each ton of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/">carbon emissions</a> - is set at $51.



That means composting, at least in small-scale residential programs with low participation, isn’t cheap when measured in dollars.



“With current programs, given the infrastructure we have - these programs are really expensive for the savings we see,” Somers said. But that doesn’t make composting a lost cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-cost-long-term-gain">Short-term cost, long-term gain</h2>



The cost of building new landfills is rising fast. Once current landfills are full, finding and building new ones will be a big financial burden for many cities. So building composting infrastructure now might save money down the road.



Also, the social cost of carbon isn’t fixed. As scientists understand more about climate change, the estimated damage from each ton of carbon goes up. That means composting could become more cost-effective over time - even if the upfront price is high.



“As we learn more about our impact, composting programs may become cheaper from an environmental sense,” Somers said.



The study focused on households, but Somers pointed out that restaurants, grocery stores, and other businesses throw away massive amounts of organic waste. That’s where composting could really move the needle.



“That’s where I think you can see real savings. I think that’s something we should consider more than we do," said Somers. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-of-composting">Unexpected benefits of composting </h2>



Composting might also bring unexpected benefits. Large cities with lots of exposed food waste deal with more mess and public health concerns. Composting can help reduce that and keep neighborhoods cleaner.



“Keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/">rats</a> and other pests out of neighborhoods certainly goes into the calculus too,” Somers said. 



“How many people get sick from rats? How much do we dislike seeing rats running around on the streets? It’s important to factor in other impacts, not just environmental.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-universal-fix-for-food-waste">No universal fix for food waste</h2>



Different communities need different solutions. Demographics, geography, and even local habits all shape what works best.



In some Connecticut cities, compost bins are picked up curbside. In others, residents drop off food scraps at centralized locations. 



“A one-size-fits-all solution is not the answer,” Somers said. “The solution in northwestern Connecticut is very different from the solution in Stamford or Hartford - and the solutions for Stamford and Hartford are also going to be different because demographically they’re quite different.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095069625000580?via%3Dihub">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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Food waste is a growing climate threat - can composting help?

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might...

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication. They must continuously balance how to capture energy without losing too much water. For decades, scientists suspected there were internal messengers guiding this process, but the exact molecules remained unidentified.



A new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> researchers finally reveals the nature of these signals. This work not only solves a long-standing mystery but also suggests new directions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">agriculture</a> and plant resilience research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-balance-food-and-water">How plants balance food and water</h2>



“This discovery significantly advances our understanding of how plants coordinate their internal metabolism - the chemical reactions they use to make energy - with their external environment, a fundamental process for plant growth and survival,” said Professor Sarah Assmann. 



“Our findings open doors for future research into improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plant</a> resilience and crop yields.”



Guard cells, located on the leaf surface, control stomata, the tiny pores that regulate the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of water vapor. 



These pores act like microscopic mouths. When they open, plants can “eat” by absorbing CO2, but they risk losing vital water at the same time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plant-messengers">Mysterious plant messengers</h2>



“There is always a tradeoff for terrestrial plants between maximizing CO2 intake, which is needed for photosynthesis, and letting out water vapor, which can dry out the plant and ultimately kill it if it loses too much water,” explained Professor Assmann.



“The stomata are the pores where that tradeoff takes place. When they open, they let in CO2 that allows the plant to feed, but they also let out water vapor, which dehydrates the plant. We knew there had to be some kind of messenger telling the guard cells how to regulate that life-or-death decision.”



The new findings show that sugars, including sucrose, glucose, and fructose, as well as maleic acid, act as these critical messengers. These metabolites form a feedback loop, linking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-grow-longer-in-cities-due-to-artificial-light/">plant</a>’s energy production to its stomatal control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-signals-in-plant-leaves">Tracking signals in plant leaves</h2>



The researchers worked with the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, or thale cress, and fava beans to uncover the energy production system in plants. 



By extracting apoplastic fluid from leaves exposed to either red light or darkness, they were able to isolate chemical compounds. Red light stimulates photosynthesis, making it easier to detect active signals.



Through this process, the team identified 448 chemical compounds in the fluid. “We identified hundreds of metabolites in apoplastic fluid, which no one had analyzed to this extent before,” noted Professor Assmann.



“That, on its own, is an important contribution to the field, independent of the research question that we specifically were addressing, because it gives a lot of leads on other potential signaling molecules for processes throughout the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugars-control-plants-water-use">Sugars control plants water use</h2>



Further experiments revealed sugars directly promoted stomatal opening under red light. When tested in intact leaves, these compounds increased carbon dioxide uptake and also altered water release, confirming their messenger role.



Cell-level experiments explained the mechanism: sugars stimulate molecular machinery inside guard cells, activating them to open the stomata. 



This research provides the first full picture of the internal dialogue between photosynthesis and water regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-what-makes-plants-resilient">Studying what makes plants resilient</h2>



The Nature Plants study also emphasizes that stomatal control does not rely solely on hormones, as once thought. Instead, metabolic products themselves can serve as powerful signaling agents. 



This finding adds a new dimension to how scientists view plant-environment interactions. According to Professor Assmann, the team is focused on understanding how plants sense and respond to environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">conditions</a>. 



“Plants can’t uproot themselves and find somewhere else to live; they have to deal with whatever the environment throws at them - increasingly drought and heat stress," she noted. 



"So we study what makes plants resilient, from the very specific molecular level all the way up to whole plant physiology and field experiments, with the goal of improving crop productivity.”



The project brought together researchers from Penn State, <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>, Nagoya University, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, and the University of Mississippi. 



The research was funded, in part, by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02078-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Hidden messengers tell plants when to eat and breathe

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication....

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and stores energy in a way that fits busy lives and tight budgets. Those same flooded fields can also make arsenic more available to rice plants, and some of that arsenic can end up in the grain.



A growing body of field evidence points to a new twist: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">as the planet warms</a> and CO₂ rises, flooded soils lose oxygen more often and for longer stretches. That chemical shift frees arsenic from soil particles, and rice roots take up more of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-rice-and-arsenic">Climate, rice, and arsenic</h2>



After years of outdoor trials, researchers report that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">climate conditions</a> expected by mid-century would increase the flow of inorganic arsenic - the harmful form - from soil to plant to grain.



The work appears in a leading medical journal and was conducted by teams at Columbia University’s <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mailman School of Public Health</a>, with collaborators in China and the United States. 



“Our results suggest that this increase in arsenic levels could significantly elevate the incidence of heart disease, diabetes, and other non-cancer health effects,” explained <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/lewis-ziska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Lewis Ziska</a>, associate professor of Environmental Health Sciences at the Columbia Mailman School.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-arsenic-is-in-rice">Why arsenic is in rice</h2>



Arsenic occurs naturally in many soils and waters. In paddies that stay flooded, oxygen dwindles. Iron minerals that normally bind arsenic dissolve, and arsenic becomes more mobile. 



Warmer conditions paired with higher CO₂ push that chemistry along, especially in fields that remain waterlogged. 



Under future settings - temperatures <a href="https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/why-did-ipcc-choose-2deg-c-goal-limiting-global-warming" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 2°C</a> (about 3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels plus elevated CO₂ - the balance tilts toward more inorganic arsenic entering the plant.



That does not make every bowl risky. Local geology, irrigation sources, soil type, and farming practices all shape grain levels. It does mean that the odds can shift in places where paddies stay saturated for long periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-rice-and-arsenic">Studying rice and arsenic</h2>



The scientists did not rely on short greenhouse trials. They grew 28 rice varieties outdoors for roughly a decade using a Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (<a href="https://ess.science.energy.gov/face/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FACE</a>) system.



This process releases extra CO₂ around crops in the open air so that sunlight, wind, microbes, and soil behave as they do in real life.



Those long-running field data then fed into models linking plant arsenic levels to typical rice intake and body size across major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">rice-eating countries</a> in Asia.



The projections indicate a sizable shift in risk. Lifetime cancer risks, particularly for lung and bladder cancer, increased by 44% relative to ambient conditions. China alone may face 19.3 million excess cancer cases related to arsenic exposure through rice. 



“From a health perspective, the toxicological effects of chronic iAs exposure are well established; and include cancers of the lung, bladder, and skin, as well as ischemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-kills-differently-now-than-five-decades-ago/">heart disease</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Non-cancer outcomes also matter. The modeling points to increased risks for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases tied to long-term inorganic arsenic exposure in populations with high rice intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-risks-are-the-highest">Where risks are the highest</h2>



Diet and water sources shape exposure. Regions where rice is a daily staple and paddies are often kept flooded will see the largest impacts under warmer, CO₂-richer conditions. 



“Ingesting rice in regions like southern China and Southeast and South Asia is already a significant source of dietary arsenic and cancer risk,” said Dr. Ziska.



Within countries, irrigation that draws from arsenic-rich groundwater can raise grain levels. Varieties also differ in how strongly they transport arsenic from roots to grain, which creates room for practical solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-bad-what-can-be-done">This is bad, what can be done?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-fixes-may-save-crops-from-climate-stress/">Plant breeding</a> can help: select and develop varieties that limit arsenic uptake even when soils push it toward the roots. Breeders already see large differences among rice lines in how much arsenic reaches the grain. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cubic-meters-of-water-is-used-to-grow-crops-each-year/">Water management</a> is another lever. Continuous flooding increases arsenic mobility, while giving soils time to drain lets oxygen return, which can hold arsenic in less available forms.



Post-harvest steps matter too. Milling and cooking methods can reduce how much arsenic ends up on the plate. 



No single fix works everywhere. Shifting water regimes, for example, can raise cadmium in some settings, so local testing and tailored management are essential to avoid trading one problem for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-and-moving-parts">Limits and moving parts</h2>



Any mid-century projection carries uncertainty. Policies can bend emissions paths, and farmers adapt as technology and economics shift. 



Diets change with income, urbanization, and migration. The underlying processes are well established. The decade of fieldwork done for this study adds weight because it includes real weather, pests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/">microbial communities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rice-arsenic-and-human-health">Rice, arsenic, and human health</h2>



Rice remains a staple food, and the findings from this research don't claim that every bowl on every table becomes unsafe. Instead, the scientists point to smarter ways of managing risk and a need to act upstream.



Farmers can adjust irrigation where feasible. Breeders can favor varieties that move less arsenic to the grain. Public health agencies can track arsenic in grains and irrigation sources to guide choices in hotspots. 



“Our study underscores the urgent need for action to reduce arsenic exposure in rice, especially as climate change continues to affect <a href="https://www.nifa.usda.gov/topics/global-food-security" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food security</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Keeping rice safe in a warming world is within reach: breed smarter, water smarter, process smarter—and cut emissions, because the air over our fields follows us to the table.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00055-5/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Scientists warn a very deadly poison is accumulating in global rice fields

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and...

Industrial tomato plants, grown for their juicy fruits used in sauce and paste, face a hard new normal in northern Italy. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-heat-waves-in-europe-can-be-predicted-by-melting-sea-ice/">Summers run hotter</a>, rain arrives at the wrong time, and water is under pressure almost everywhere.



“Currently, agriculture accounts for 70 percent of global freshwater withdrawals, and more than 90 percent of its consumptive use,” stated the Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/4/i3015e/i3015e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>) of the United Nations.



A new field study from the Po Valley tested a simple irrigation tweak that saved water while keeping yields steady and improving fruit quality. 



The work compared full-season irrigation with regulated deficit irrigation in 2019 near Parma and in 2022 near Piacenza, and the authors reported less water use, stable tonnage, and better processing traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulated-deficit-irrigation">Regulated deficit irrigation</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thirstwaves-the-hidden-climate-threat-drying-out-american-farms/">Evapotranspiration</a> is the combined water loss from plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/">leaves and soil</a>, and conventional irrigation tries to replace it exactly through the season. 



Regulated deficit irrigation intentionally withholds part of that water during growth stages known to be less sensitive, which can rein in usage without hurting yield. 



According to a recent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/58/2/147/534071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, deficit irrigation, defined as the application of water below full crop-water requirements, is an important tool to achieve the goal of reducing irrigation water use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plant-growth-traits">Tomato plant growth traits</h2>



The Italian trials gave plants normal water until the tomatoes hit the color break stage, then cut irrigation to 50 percent. 



That single turn of the dial reduced seasonal irrigation volume by about one quarter while holding total and marketable yield steady, and it increased water productivity on a per gallon basis.



The same schedule also lifted two traits that matter to processors, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/brix" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brix</a> and dry matter, which both rise when fruit concentrates sugars and solids as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripening-tomatoes-may-hold-clues-to-delay-human-aging/">ripening advances</a>. 



The method, while modest, lines up with a practical aim: produce the same crop with less water and send a denser load to the factory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-sweetness-and-solids-improved">Why sweetness and solids improved</h2>



Processors care about soluble solids because more solids mean more paste per truck. 



Extension <a href="https://ucanr.edu/sites/default/files/2016-03/236983.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> note that soluble solids, measured as degrees Brix, are directly tied to paste and sauce yield, and inspection stations grade loads on Brix alongside pH and color.



A mild late season water pullback often shifts plant metabolism toward fruit, which can nudge Brix upward and lower pH a touch, both friendly to canning. 



The study’s quality index that blends price with solids rose accordingly, signaling a cleaner economic payoff at delivery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-tomato-plant-health">Studying tomato plant health</h2>



The team did not guess about stress, they watched it from above. <a href="https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/planetscope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PlanetScope satellites</a>, upgraded to eight spectral bands and near daily coverage by 2021, offer 3 meter imagery that can track crop vigor through the season.



They calculated several vegetation indices and looked two weeks before and after the irrigation cut. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-green-spaces-boosts-bone-density-reduces-osteoporosis/">NDVI</a>, a common index that flags water stress in tomatoes across soil types, did not show a divergence between treatments, a sign that the reduced watering did not push plants into visible distress.



The takeaway is straightforward. Irrigate normally through fruit set and early sizing, then, at color break, shift to half of the usual replacement and keep that level through harvest.



That timing matters because early water stress can abort flowers or stunt small fruit, while late, controlled stress can concentrate solids without undercutting total tonnage. The Italian data back that timing choice across two soils and two contrasting seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-and-environmental-angles">Economic and environmental angles</h2>



On the environmental side, using roughly one quarter less irrigation water immediately eases demand on canals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/">aquifers</a> in dry months. 



On the farm side, higher solids per load mean fewer gallons boiled off and more paste per hour through the evaporators.



Those gains show up twice, in the water ledger and the balance sheet, without extra equipment or software. 



The approach fits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-farms-have-a-good-chance-of-navigating-the-water-crisis/">drip systems</a> already in place across processing tomato acres and asks only for a date on the calendar and a new setpoint on the controller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caveats-worth-noting">Caveats worth noting</h2>



The trials did report a small uptick in certain defects, including more overripe and some blossom end rot, even though sunscald did not rise. 



That pattern suggests managers should watch ripeness closely and plan harvest windows to match the faster finish.



Local soils, seasonal rain timing, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-have-a-molecular-trick-to-survive-in-extreme-heat/">heat will shape responses</a>, so the color break trigger is the anchor, not a rigid date. 



Fields with lighter textures or hotter pockets might hit the threshold earlier, and blocks with heavier soils may stretch it a few days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plants-matter-worldwide">Tomato plants matter worldwide</h2>



Processing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-surprising-case-of-reverse-evolution-in-wild-tomatoes/">tomatoes</a> are a pillar of food supply chains, from ketchup to pizza sauce, and the Po Valley ranks with California among the world’s top producing regions. 



A method that saves water, keeps yields steady, and delivers denser fruit can help processors and growers share gains along the chain.



Add the larger water picture and the case strengthens. Every gallon not pumped leaves a little more slack for rivers, neighbors, and dry years ahead.



-----



The research team included Andrea Burato, Pasquale Campi, Alfonso Pentangelo, and Mario Parisi of the CREA Research Centre for <a href="https://www.crea.gov.it/en/web/orticoltura-e-florovivaismo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vegetable and Ornamental Crops</a> and the CREA Research Centre for <a href="https://www.crea.gov.it/en/web/agricoltura-e-ambiente/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture and Environment</a>, with collaboration from the <a href="https://portale.unibas.it/site/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basilicata</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/15/8/1805" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agronomy</a>.



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The Italian secret to sweeter tomatoes and higher-yield plants that produce more fruits

Industrial tomato plants, grown for their juicy fruits used in...

Forests hold our climate together. They store carbon, balance rainfall, and shelter more life than we can count. Among them, the Amazon and Andes stand out. These vast forests feed rivers, shape weather, and anchor communities of plants, animals, and people.



But they are now falling behind. A new study by <a href="https://www.wfu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wake Forest University</a> and international partners shows that tree communities in the region are not adjusting fast enough to rising temperatures. 



Decades of monitoring reveal that while some forests near the cloud base shift slightly, most remain stuck. That slow pace threatens not just biodiversity, but also the services humans rely on every day.



"These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">forests</a> are simply not keeping up with climate change," said lead author William Farfan-Rios of Wake Forest University. "The result is a growing climatic debt that threatens the integrity and functioning of the most diverse forests on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-lag-behind-climate-change">Forests lag behind climate change</h2>



The team followed 66,000 trees across 2,500 species for more than 40 years. They expected to see warm-adapted species slowly replacing those suited to cooler conditions - a process known as thermophilization. But the forests told a different story.



From the low Amazon basin to the high Andes, tree communities showed almost no sign of this shift. Trees grew, died, and recruited, yet the overall balance barely moved. 



Scientists call this gap between climate warming and ecological response a climatic debt. If that debt builds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-growth-forests-remain-earths-strongest-carbon-vaults/">forests</a> risk crossing thresholds that they cannot recover from.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-at-the-cloud-base">Stress at the cloud base</h2>



The clearest signs of strain appeared in mid-elevation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-diverse-forests-are-failing-to-adapt-to-climate-change/">forests</a> between 1,200 and 2,000 meters. Here, mortality of cool-adapted trees rose sharply. These cloud-base forests seem to carry the heaviest burden of warming.



The Amazon lowlands, by contrast, showed little consistent movement at all. On the surface, that looks stable. In reality, it signals trouble ahead. 



Heat stress and drought will hit harder in the coming decades, and these forests have no hotter-adapted species waiting to take over.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-must-change-with-climate">Forests must change with climate</h2>



The Amazon and Andes together hold the greatest variety of life on Earth. They also act as giant carbon sponges, slowing the buildup of greenhouse gases. 



If their tree communities fail to adapt, the consequences will spread far beyond South America. Carbon storage will shrink, species will vanish, and ecosystems could unravel.



"You have to be there for long periods of time to understand how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forests</a> change," said co-author Miles Silman of Wake Forest University. 



"If we lose these climate observatories, these natural labs, we blind ourselves to our future. What we found is that forests are changing, but they're not changing in the ways that make them resilient to climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-forest-adaptation">Limits of forest adaptation</h2>



Tree communities simply cannot keep pace with today’s speed of warming. Individual trees die within decades, but species turnover takes centuries. 



On top of that, forests need dispersers and pollinators to expand into new ranges. Yet many of these animals are disappearing as habitats shrink.



"They also need the full complement of animal dispersers and pollinators to help expand their range - and loss of habitat is shrinking their ranks," noted Silman. 



"If you look at the magnitude of changes happening in the Andes-Amazon, the forest communities likely are not going to keep up. That's why research like this is important."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-serve-as-a-warning">Decades of data serve as a warning</h2>



Tropical species face sharper limits than temperate ones. They tolerate only narrow temperature ranges, and they often have nowhere warmer to move. In the lowlands, for example, no hotter-adapted species exist to take over. That leaves communities locked in place.



This study, authored by more than 20 scientists across the Americas and Europe, draws on decades of collaboration. 



Networks like ABERG, RAINFOR, and <a href="https://www.forestplots.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ForestPlots.net</a> made it possible to track forests over long stretches of time. The collective data show that the tropics, once thought resilient, may be less able to adjust than forests in temperate zones.



The message is stark. The world’s most diverse forests are changing, but too slowly to match the heat. If this pattern continues, the Andes and Amazon could face tipping points that threaten both ecosystems and people.



For now, continued monitoring remains vital. These forests act as early warning systems, showing us how nature responds to climate stress. Without them, we lose both knowledge and time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425619122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests are not adapting fast enough to climate change

Forests hold our climate together. They store carbon, balance rainfall,...

Mountain forests don’t keep rising endlessly. At a certain point, trees run out of room to grow. A new global study shows why: cold temperatures set the upper limit everywhere, while water availability determines which tree species can survive close to that edge. 



This boundary, called the treeline, is where tall forests give way to smaller, scattered, and stunted growth. 



Research over decades has found that treelines align with temperature - not with a fixed altitude. They typically appear where the growing season lasts about 90 days and the average temperature hovers around 6.4°C (43.5°F).



The latest study was led by Yuyang Xie in the Department of Biology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (<a href="https://bio.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC</a>). 



The researchers pulled together one of the largest datasets of its kind to test a straightforward idea: heat sets the treeline’s height, while moisture determines which tree species can survive there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-sets-mountain-tree-boundaries">Cold sets mountain tree boundaries</h2>



Xie’s team compiled more than 2,000 treeline records for dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-reveals-ice-age-life-in-the-australian-blue-mountains/">mountain</a> regions. Across genera and continents, the uppermost trees appeared where local heat fell well below each species’ comfort zone.



“Heat deficits, averaging around 35 percent below genus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-get-a-boost-from-diverse-neighbors-especially-in-wet-forests/">species</a> level thermal optima, consistently restrict the presence of treeline,” said Christian Körner, a plant ecologist at the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



Water availability then sorted which species could endure those margins. Sites with similar cold at the limit showed different species mixes depending on how wet or variable the climate was throughout the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-treeline-shifts">Predicting treeline shifts</h2>



To move past one-size-fits-all models, the team introduced the Relative Distance to Optimum (RDO) index. It measures how far a species lives from the temperature and moisture it prefers.



RDO captures the slack or stress that a population carries at the limit, making projections of upslope or downslope shifts more precise for particular tree groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-steers-the-forest-edge">Rainfall steers the forest edge</h2>



Independent evidence backs the moisture filter. A Himalayan study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-face-unprecedented-climate-shifts-across-their-ranges/">treelines</a> advanced faster on the wet eastern slopes but slowed or stalled on drier sites despite warming.



Spring precipitation emerged as a key control. The pattern reinforces the idea that water availability governs whether warming translates into actual upslope establishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-trees-impact-ecosystems">Shifting trees impact ecosystems</h2>



Treelines often lag behind climate change because trees take years to reach stature that qualifies as a tree. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/">Seedlings</a> may appear far above today’s forest but remain shrubs for decades.



Local conditions can blunt simple warming signals. Windswept ridges that dry quickly can resist upward transitions, while lee slopes with late melting snow may shelter starts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-forecasts-for-forests">Better forecasts for forests</h2>



Land managers can think of treelines as following two simple rules. Cold determines how high trees can grow in a region, and water decides which species can survive near that limit. 



Forecasts that include species-specific tolerances will be more accurate than those based on temperature alone. Using RDO-style metrics can highlight areas where moisture is the main barrier, pointing to hotspots where monitoring or targeted planting could have the greatest impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-shows-tree-limits">Map shows tree limits</h2>



The new map does not claim that water controls treeline height. Instead, it shows that cold fixes the height, while water determines which species can function there.



This framing explains why distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-surprising-role-of-low-relief-mountain-ranges-in-climate-regulation/">mountain ranges</a> share similar thermal limits yet display very different tree lineups. It also explains why some places shift quickly while others hardly budge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-research-refines-treelines">Climate research refines treelines</h2>



Improved climate data near the ground will help scientists better define the limits within which each species can survive. 



Long-term monitoring across the treeline zone will show whether seedlings are able to grow into mature trees or if their growth stalls at a younger stage.



The biggest gains will come from pairing physiology with climate. Knowing when populations live far from their optima can guide restoration and risk assessment before the forest edge moves. 



"Our findings highlight the synergic effects between heat and moisture in determining the taxonomic variation in treeline formation, offering insights for alpine treeline studies under climate change," the researchers concluded. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2504685122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How cold air and water shape the limits of mountain trees

Mountain forests don’t keep rising endlessly. At a certain point,...

Age matters in forests. A new study tracks how the world’s trees shifted in age from 2010 to 2020 and what that means for the carbon they hold.



Forests help pull carbon dioxide from the air every year, but that help depends on how many stands are young, middle-aged, or old. A global carbon assessment found land ecosystems absorbed roughly 3.5 petagrams of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-in-the-tropics-cool-earth-more-than-anywhere-else/">carbon</a> per year in the 2010s, with wide swings from place to place.



The research was led by Simon Besnard at the <a href="https://www.gfz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GFZ</a> Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences in Potsdam, Germany.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-hold-more-carbon">Old trees hold more carbon</h2>



Young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">trees</a> grow fast, yet older stands hold far more carbon per acre. In the new analysis, old forests above 200 years averaged about 98 megagrams of carbon per hectare, while stands under 20 years held about 43.5.



Old stands are not carbon idle, either. Decades of research show many old growth forests keep accumulating carbon - just at steadier rates - and they store large amounts in wood and soils.



Stock and flow differ. A young stand can add carbon quickly year by year, but a large, old stand already holds a deep reservoir that took centuries to build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-age-of-forests">Measuring the age of forests</h2>



The team used a high-resolution forest age map and paired it with satellite-based estimates of aboveground biomass to estimate aboveground carbon. They relied on the European Space Agency’s Biomass CCI v4 dataset for 2010 through 2020.



The researchers also tracked stand replacement - cases where fire or harvest removed most trees and a new cohort took over. Satellite maps of forest loss and regrowth were combined with machine-learning age estimates to pinpoint when and where these events occurred.



To link age-related forest changes with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/">atmosphere</a>, the team compared shifts in forest dynamics with atmospheric inversion estimates of net ecosystem exchange. 



This method uses measured CO₂ concentrations to infer how much carbon regional landscapes absorb or release, providing a way to connect local changes with broader carbon flux patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-are-maturing">Where trees are maturing</h2>



Several regions added older forests over the decade. Europe, China, and parts of North America showed net aging, which reflects long-running reforestation and managed regrowth.



Large areas moved the other way. The Amazon, the Congo Basin, Southeast Asia, and parts of Siberia saw more young stands as disturbances replaced older cohorts.



Patterns were patchy inside countries and biomes. Some grids showed strong aging while neighbors trended younger, a sign that local fire history and logging shaped the mosaic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-younger-forests-less-carbon">Younger forests, less carbon</h2>



“We estimate a net global loss of 140 million metric tons of carbon each year from aboveground biomass,” said Besnard. The shift from older to younger stands reduced the carbon stored above ground at a planetary scale.&nbsp;



When old forests were replaced by young ones, those areas accounted for roughly 0.10 to 0.16 petagrams of the annual global loss in aboveground carbon. That was a small slice of forest area, but a large share of the stock change.



The sink can still look stronger for a few years after a big replacement event. Young stands often pull in carbon quickly, yet they start from a smaller store and do not rebuild centuries of stock on policy relevant timelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-are-irreplaceable">Old trees are irreplaceable</h2>



Secondary forests can accumulate biomass at impressive rates. A large synthesis paper in 2016 found tropical secondary forests recover a big fraction of their biomass within decades, though exact speeds vary by climate and land-use history.



High growth does not equal high storage right away. Many services linked to older, complex canopies, including deep carbon pools, take far longer to return.



Fast growing plantations can help with uptake, but uniform stands usually store less carbon and support less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> than naturally regenerating, diverse forests. That tradeoff matters when the goal is both climate mitigation and durable ecosystem function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-forest-ages-worldwide">Shifting forest ages worldwide</h2>



The study’s age maps indicate a clear global pattern. In the tropics, stand replacement shifted age classes toward younger forests, while large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climate-triggers-major-changes-in-the-temperate-rainforest/">temperate zones</a> nudged toward maturity.



In boreal regions, vast stretches kept their older structure, yet fire hotspots created younger pockets. Those pockets may grow fast, but they also highlight vulnerability to repeated burns.



Mature forests, between 81 and 200 years old, expanded in area over the decade. This expansion points to regrowth catching up in places where disturbance slowed or management favored retention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-alters-carbon-balance">Age alters carbon balance</h2>



Net ecosystem exchange can strengthen in regions where old stands were recently replaced by young ones. 



The analysis reported that for every one-percent annual increase in old to young replacement, the carbon sink trend deepened by about 34 grams of carbon per square meter per year.



That correlation does not mean replacement is a climate strategy. The apparent boost leans on legacies old stands leave behind, like fertile soils, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buried-seeds-in-soil-help-forests-recover-faster-after-damage/">seed banks</a>, and structural remnants.



As inversion tools improve, we will get cleaner signals that separate mixed-age patches. For now, the link between age transitions and regional flux changes is strong enough to inform policy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-forests-preventing-carbon-loss">Protecting forests, preventing carbon loss</h2>



The researchers tested two simple futures out to 2050. Under business as usual, total aboveground carbon stayed roughly flat due to ongoing turnover, with losses in some regions balanced by gains in others.



Under a conservation scenario that halts stand replacement after 2030, total aboveground carbon rose by roughly 0.55 to 0.63 petagrams per year relative to 2020 levels. That gain came mostly from forests aging into mature and maturing classes.



“Forests are among our most important natural climate regulators," said Besnard. "Protecting old forests is essential to prevent further carbon losses, while careful management of younger forests can help maximize carbon uptake."



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02821-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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