Earth,Core,Structure.,Elements,Of,This,3d,Image,Furnished,By

In a remarkable discovery that challenges our understanding of Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pumping-too-much-groundwater-affects-earths-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water distribution</a>, aided by a mineral called ringwoodite, researchers found evidence suggesting the presence of several oceans worth of water trapped deep beneath the United States. 



The discovery, made by geophysicist Steve Jacobsen from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and seismologist Brandon Schmandt from the <a href="https://www.unm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Mexico</a>, may represent the planet's largest water reservoir. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-earth-s-water-cycle">Rethinking Earth's water cycle</h2>



Published in the journal Science, their findings shed light on the Earth's formation, composition, and the amount of water trapped in mantle rock.



"Geological processes on the Earth's surface, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> or erupting volcanoes, are an expression of what is going on inside the Earth, out of our sight," explained Jacobsen, a co-author of the paper. 



"I think we are finally seeing evidence for a whole-Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-fluctuations-have-reshaped-earths-water-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water cycle</a>, which may help explain the vast amount of liquid water on the surface of our habitable planet. Scientists have been looking for this missing deep water for decades," Jacobsen continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-has-remarkable-secrets">Earth's mantle has remarkable secrets</h2>



Scientists have long speculated about the existence of water trapped in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's mantle</a>, located between the lower and upper mantle at depths of 250 to 410 miles. 



Jacobsen and Schmandt are the first to provide direct evidence of water in this "transition zone" on a regional scale, extending across most of the interior of the United States.



"Melting of rock at this depth is remarkable because most melting in the mantle occurs much shallower, in the upper 50 miles," said Schmandt, a co-author of the paper. 



"If there is a substantial amount of H2O in the transition zone, then some melting should take place in areas where there is flow into the lower mantle, and that is consistent with what we found."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-ice-vapor-and-a-fourth-form-of-water">Liquid, ice, vapor and a fourth form of water</h2>



The water discovered in the mantle is not in a form familiar to us – it is not liquid, ice, or vapor. Instead, it is trapped inside the molecular structure of the minerals in the mantle rock. 



The immense pressure created by 250 miles of solid rock, along with temperatures above 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, causes water molecules to split and form hydroxyl radicals (OH) that can be bound into a mineral's crystal structure.



"Whether or not this unique sample is representative of the Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theia-ancient-planet-buried-inside-of-earth-may-be-the-origin-of-our-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interior composition</a> is not known, however," Jacobsen said. "Now we have found evidence for extensive melting beneath North America at the same depths corresponding to the dehydration of ringwoodite, which is exactly what has been happening in my experiments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-ringwoodite">Following the ringwoodite</h2>



Ringwoodite, a high-pressure mineral with a captivating blue hue, was named after the Australian geologist Alfred Ringwood, forms deep within the Earth's mantle at depths between 410 and 660 kilometers (250-410 miles). What makes ringwoodite truly remarkable is its ability to store water within its crystal structure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthesizing-ringwoodite-in-the-lab">Synthesizing ringwoodite in the lab</h3>



Jacobsen has been synthesizing ringwoodite, a sapphire-like blue mineral, in his Northwestern lab by reacting the green mineral olivine with water at high-pressure conditions. He found that more than one percent of the weight of ringwoodite's crystal structure can consist of water.



Under the immense pressures and temperatures found in the mantle's transition zone, water molecules split into hydroxyl radicals (OH), which can then be incorporated into ringwoodite's structure. This mineral acts like a sponge, soaking up water and storing it in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep Earth</a>.



"The ringwoodite is like a sponge, soaking up water," Jacobsen said. "There is something very special about the crystal structure of ringwoodite that allows it to attract hydrogen and trap water. This mineral can contain a lot of water under conditions of the deep mantle."



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ringwoodite-implications-for-earth-s-formation-and-habitability">Ringwoodite implications for Earth's formation and habitability</h3>



The presence of water-rich ringwoodite in the Earth's mantle has implications for our understanding of the planet's formation and its potential for habitability.



As scientists continue to study this intriguing mineral, they may uncover new insights into the role of water in the Earth's deep interior and its influence on the geologic processes that shape our world.



Ringwoodite's ability to store and transport water within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> could also have implications for the search for life on other planets, as the presence of water is considered a key factor in the development and sustainability of life as we know it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-magma-beneath-north-america">Detecting magma beneath North America</h2>



Using seismic waves, Schmandt detected the presence of magma beneath North America, which aligned with Jacobsen's findings of partial melt when subjecting synthesized ringwoodite to conditions around 400 miles below the Earth's surface.



Additionally, seismic studies have detected regions of partial melting in the mantle's transition zone, which could be attributed to the release of water from ringwoodite as it transforms into other minerals at greater depths.



"Seismic data from the USArray are giving us a clearer picture than ever before of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-interior-is-cooling-faster-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's internal structure</a> beneath North America," Schmandt explained. "The melting we see appears to be driven by subduction -- the downwelling of mantle material from the surface."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-dehydration-melting">Process of dehydration melting</h2>



The melting detected by the researchers is called dehydration melting. When ringwoodite in the transition zone moves deeper into the lower mantle, it forms a higher-pressure mineral called silicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perovskite-crystals-appear-to-dance-when-they-get-excited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perovskite</a>, which cannot absorb water. This causes the rock at the boundary between the transition zone and lower mantle to partially melt.



"When a rock with a lot of H2O moves from the transition zone to the lower mantle it needs to get rid of the H2O somehow, so it melts a little bit," Schmandt said. "This is called dehydration melting."



"Once the water is released, much of it may become trapped there in the transition zone," Jacobsen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ringwoodite-was-accidentally-discovered">How ringwoodite was accidentally discovered</h2>



The international team of scientists responsible for this remarkable find was led by Graham Pearson, Canada Excellence Research Chair in Arctic Resources at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a>. 



Analysis of the mineral sample revealed that it contains a significant amount of water -- 1.5 per cent of its weight -- a finding that proved to have far-reaching implications for our understanding of the Earth's interior and its dynamic nature.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Elusive ringwoodite</h3>



Ringwoodite, a form of the mineral peridot, is believed to exist in large quantities under high pressures in the transition zone between the Earth's upper and lower mantle. 



While ringwoodite has been found in meteorites, no terrestrial sample had ever been discovered before Graham Pearson came along. Due to the extreme depths at which it is formed, this elusive mineral is inaccessible for direct fieldwork.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contribution-of-artisan-miners-in-brazil">Contribution of artisan miners in Brazil</h3>



The ringwoodite sample was found in 2008 in the Juina area of Mato Grosso, Brazil, where artisan miners unearthed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-how-diamonds-reach-the-earths-surface-finally-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamond</a> from shallow river gravels. 



The diamond, which had been brought to the Earth's surface by a deeply derived volcanic rock known as kimberlite, contained the ringwoodite inclusion.



Pearson's team had been searching for another mineral when they purchased the three-millimeter-wide, dirty-looking, commercially worthless brown diamond. 



The ringwoodite itself, invisible to the naked eye and buried beneath the surface, was fortunately discovered by Pearson's graduate student, John McNeill, in 2009.



"It's so small, this inclusion, it's extremely difficult to find, never mind work on," Pearson said, "so it was a bit of a piece of luck, this discovery, as are many scientific discoveries."



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Confirming the Find</h3>



The sample underwent years of rigorous analysis using Raman and infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction before it was officially confirmed as ringwoodite. 



The critical water measurements were performed at Pearson's Arctic Resources Geochemistry Laboratory at the University of Alberta, which forms part of the world-renowned <a href="https://www.eas.ualberta.ca/ccim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Centre for Isotopic Microanalysis</a>, also home to the world's largest academic diamond research group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Implications for Earth's Dynamics</h2>



For Pearson, one of the world's leading authorities in the study of deep Earth diamond host rocks, this discovery proved to be the most significant of his career. 



It confirmed about 50 years of theoretical and experimental work by geophysicists, seismologists, and other scientists trying to understand the makeup of the Earth's interior.



"One of the reasons the Earth is such a dynamic planet is the presence of some water in its interior," Pearson said. "Water changes everything about the way a planet works."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ringwoodite-earth-s-water-cycle-and-the-future">Ringwoodite, Earth's water cycle, and the future</h2>



In summary, the crucial discovery of a vast water reservoir deep within the Earth's mantle by Steve Jacobsen and Brandon Schmandt has revolutionized our understanding of the planet's formation, composition, and water cycle.



As researchers continued to explore the complex processes occurring far beneath the Earth's surface, their ringwoodite findings provided a new understanding of the delicate balance that makes our planet habitable. 



The presence of this hidden ocean, trapped within the crystals of mantle rock, serves as a testament to the incredible forces at work within the Earth and the countless mysteries that still lie beneath our feet. 



With each new revelation, we move closer to unraveling the secrets of our planet's past, present, and future, and to appreciating the remarkable world we call home.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a> and the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v507/n7491/full/nature13080.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>



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Earth has a vast interior ocean, 400-miles under our feet, that creates 'ringwoodite' gems

In a remarkable discovery that challenges our understanding of Earth's water distribution, aided by a mineral called ringwoodite, researchers found evidence suggesting the presence of several oceans worth of water trapped deep beneath the United States. The discovery, made by geophysicist Steve Jacobsen from Northwestern University and seismologist Brandon Schmandt from the University of New Mexico, may represent the planet's largest water reservoir. Rethinking Earth's water cycle Published in the journal Science, their findings shed light on the Earth's formation, composition, and the amount of water trapped...

Cardiovascular diseases, such as heart disease and stroke, are the leading cause of death globally, and were responsible for nearly 18 million deaths in 2019, while cancers caused 9.6 million deaths in 2017. Many studies have shown that moderate-intensity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/any-type-of-physical-activity-can-help-protect-the-brain/">physical activity</a> – such as brisk walking, hiking, dancing, riding a bike, or playing tennis – significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer.&nbsp;



Although UK’s <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/">National Health Services</a> (NHS) has recommended that adults perform such activities at least 150 minutes a week, a recent review study conducted by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has found that even half of this amount – 75 minutes a week or 11 minutes a day – would be sufficient to significantly lower the risk of such diseases, and could help prevent one in ten early deaths.



To clarify the amount of physical activity necessary to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases and early death, the experts carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis of 196 peer-reviewed articles, covering over 30 million participants from 94 large study cohorts.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that accumulating 75 minutes of moderate-intensity activity per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular disease by 17 percent, cancer by seven percent, and early death by 23 percent. For some types of cancers – including head and neck, myeloid leukaemia, myeloma, and gastric cardia cancers – the reduction in risk was even greater (14-26 percent).



&nbsp;“If you are someone who finds the idea of 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity a week a bit daunting, then our findings should be good news. Doing some physical activity is better than doing none. This is also a good starting position – if you find that 75 minutes a week is manageable, then you could try stepping it up gradually to the full recommended amount,” said study senior author Soren Brage, an expert in the benefits of physical activity at Cambridge.



“Moderate activity doesn’t have to involve what we normally think of exercise, such as sports or running. Sometimes, replacing some habits is all that is needed. For example, try to walk or cycle to your work or study place instead of using a car, or engage in active play with your kids or grand kids. Doing activities that you enjoy and that are easy to include in your weekly routine is an excellent way to become more active,” concluded lead author Leandro Garcia, a lecturer in Complexity Science in Public Health at <a href="https://www.qub.ac.uk/">Queen’s University Belfast</a>.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105669">British Journal of Sports Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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A quick daily walk reduces the risk of early death

Cardiovascular diseases, such as heart disease and stroke, are the...

In the culinary world, adjusting the proportions of ingredients in a recipe can lead to the creation of entirely new flavors. Similarly, the binding of CO2 in the sea is sensitive to changes in the substances found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-water-reservoir-found-on-the-moons-surface/">water</a>. 



This acid-binding capacity, also known as alkalinity, is primarily produced by the weathering of rocks and their subsequent introduction into the ocean. An increase in erosion on land results in a higher rate of weathering of silicates and carbonates, which in turn contributes to the ocean's alkalinity.



A team of researchers led by Nele Lehmann from the Hereon Institute for Carbon Cycles, in collaboration with the Alfred Wegener Institute <a href="https://www.awi.de/">Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung</a> (AWI), sought to identify the factors contributing to alkalinity using a statistical model, with funding provided by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD).&nbsp;



"The model we used is a statistical, not a mechanistic model. We applied it to identify the factors influencing alkalinity based on our compiled data set and to describe their interdependencies,"explained Lehmann.



The model identified several factors that influence alkalinity, including the degree of erosion, area fraction of carbonate, temperatures, catchment size, and soil thickness. The study found that the ocean's ability to sequester CO2 would be significantly affected by climate change.&nbsp;



If global warming progresses slowly, alkalinity could drop by as much as 68 percent by 2100, depending on the watersheds. However, rapidly advancing warming would lead to higher temperatures and increased precipitation in temperate climate zones, which could boost alkalinity by up to 33 percent.



Lehmann cautions that this increase in alkalinity does not imply that higher emissions are beneficial for the climate. "The impact of alkalinity is small compared to the amounts of man-made CO2 emitted around the world. The process of weathering unfolds its effects over much longer periods of time," she said.



To conduct their study, the researchers first searched for existing data, specifically targeting alkalinity measurements near erosion measurement sites. They then investigated the factors influencing alkalinity using their new model.&nbsp;



A significant limitation of their study is the scarcity of erosion rate measurements, particularly in higher latitudes, due to the complexity and expense of obtaining such data. Consequently, the research is primarily focused on mid-latitudes.



Lehmann's next objective is to examine alkalinity and erosion rates in the Arctic, where data is sparse and climate change is making a noticeable impact. It is possible that the most significant changes in alkalinity flux may occur in this region. A critical question that remains to be answered is whether erosion itself is being altered as a direct result of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37165-w">Nature Communications</a>.



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Does dissolved rock affect CO2 sequestration in the ocean?

In the culinary world, adjusting the proportions of ingredients in...

In a groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.03.009">Cell</a> on March 30, researchers from Israel have discovered that stressed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/">plants</a>, specifically tomato and tobacco plants, emit ultrasonic noises resembling the sound of bubble-wrap being popped. 



These sounds, which are comparable in volume to normal human conversation, are beyond the range of human hearing but are likely detectable by insects, other mammals, and possibly even other plants. The research sheds new light on the largely unexplored world of acoustic communication among plants and other organisms.



"Even in a quiet field, there are actually sounds that we don't hear, and those sounds carry information," explained senior author Lilach Hadany, an evolutionary biologist and theoretician at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a>. "There are animals that can hear these sounds, so there is the possibility that a lot of acoustic interaction is occurring."



While ultrasonic vibrations have previously been recorded in plants, this study provides the first evidence that these sounds are airborne, making them more relevant to other organisms within the environment. "Plants interact with insects and other animals all the time, and many of these organisms use sound for communication, so it would be very suboptimal for plants to not use sound at all," said Hadany.



To conduct the study, the researchers recorded both healthy and stressed tomato and tobacco plants using microphones. They first placed the plants in a soundproofed acoustic chamber before moving them to a noisier greenhouse environment.



The plants were subjected to stress through two methods: stem severing and dehydration by withholding water for several days. After obtaining the recordings, the researchers used a machine-learning algorithm to differentiate between unstressed, thirsty, and cut plants.



The study's results revealed that stressed plants emit significantly more sounds than their unstressed counterparts. The sounds produced by these plants resemble pops or clicks, with a single stressed plant emitting approximately 30–50 clicks per hour at seemingly random intervals. By contrast, unstressed plants produce far fewer sounds. "When tomatoes are not stressed at all, they are very quiet," said Hadany.



Water-stressed plants emit noises before they show visible signs of dehydration, and that the frequency of these sounds peaks after five days without water before decreasing as the plants dry up completely. Furthermore, the types of sounds produced vary depending on the cause of stress. The researchers employed a machine-learning algorithm that was able to accurately differentiate between dehydration stress and stress caused by cutting, as well as discern whether the sounds originated from tomato or tobacco plants.



While the study focused primarily on tomato and tobacco plants due to their ease of cultivation and standardization in a laboratory setting, the research team also recorded sounds from a variety of other plant species. "We found that many plants - corn, wheat, grape, and cactus plants, for example - emit sounds when they are stressed," said study senior author Lilach Hadany.



The exact mechanism behind the production of these noises remains unclear, but the researchers propose that it may be related to the formation and bursting of air bubbles within the plant's vascular system, a process known as cavitation.



The question of whether plants produce these sounds with the intent to communicate with other organisms is still up for debate, but the mere existence of these sounds holds significant ecological and evolutionary implications.&nbsp;



"It's possible that other organisms could have evolved to hear and respond to these sounds. For example, a moth that intends to lay eggs on a plant or an animal that intends to eat a plant could use the sounds to help guide their decision," said Hadany.



It is possible that other plants are also "listening in" and benefiting from these sounds. Prior research has demonstrated that plants can respond to sounds and vibrations. Hadany and several other members of the research team had previously shown that plants increase the sugar concentration in their nectar when they "hear" sounds made by pollinators.&nbsp;



Moreover, other studies have revealed that plants alter their gene expression in response to sounds. "If other plants have information about stress before it actually occurs, they could prepare," explained Hadany.



The sound recordings of plants have potential applications in agricultural irrigation systems. The authors suggest that these recordings could be used to monitor crop hydration status and, in turn, help distribute water more efficiently across the fields. By understanding the acoustic cues related to plant stress, farmers may be able to optimize water use and maintain healthier crops.



“We know that there’s a lot of ultrasound out there - every time you use a microphone, you find that a lot of stuff produces sounds that we humans cannot hear - but the fact that plants are making these sounds opens a whole new avenue of opportunities for communication, eavesdropping, and exploitation of these sounds,” said co-senior author Yossi Yovel, a neuro-ecologist at Tel Aviv University.



“So now that we know that plants do emit sounds, the next question is - ‘who might be listening?’” said Hadany. “We are currently investigating the responses of other organisms, both animals and plants, to these sounds, and we’re also exploring our ability to identify and interpret the sounds in completely natural environments.”



This groundbreaking research opens the door to further investigation into plant communication and its potential impact on the interactions between plants and other organisms in their surrounding ecosystems. Understanding the role of these sounds in the plant world could eventually lead to new insights in agriculture, pest management, and the broader understanding of the complex relationships between plants and their environments.



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Breakthrough: Plants emit sounds when they are stressed

In a groundbreaking study published in the journal Cell on...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) has shed new light on the causes of a peculiar outbreak of acute severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-cases-of-hepatitis-detected-in-the-us-and-europe/">hepatitis</a> that surfaced in otherwise healthy children after Covid-19 lockdowns eased in the United States and 34 other countries in the spring of 2022. With around 1,000 cases reported so far, 50 children have needed liver transplants and at least 22 have died, making this mysterious outbreak highly alarming to healthcare professionals.



The scientists found that the disease was linked to co-infections from multiple common viruses, especially a strain of adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2), which do not usually cause hepatitis on its own, but require “helper” viruses - such as adenoviruses causing colds and flus - to replicate in the liver. When children returned to school, they became more vulnerable to infections with these common pathogens, and for a small group of these children, getting more than one infection at the same time made them more susceptible to severe hepatitis.



“We were surprised by the fact that the infections we detected in these children were caused not by an unusual, emerging virus, but by common childhood viral pathogens,” said study senior author Charles Chiu, a professor of Medicine and Clinical Microbiology at UCSF.



“That’s what led us to speculate that the timing of the outbreak was probably related to the really unusual situations we were going through with Covid-19 related school and daycare closures and social restrictions. It may have been an unintended consequence of what we have experienced during the last two-to-three years of the pandemic.”



The researchers used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) along with various metagenomic sequencing and molecular-testing methods to examine plasma, whole blood, nasal swabs, and stool samples from 16 pediatric cases in six U.S. states, and compared them with 113 control samples. The analyses detected AAV2 in 93 percent of the cases, and human adenoviruses (HAdVs) in all the cases, with additional co-infections with Epstein-Barr, herpes, and enterovirus discovered in 85.7 percent of cases.



Since AAVs are not considered pathogenic on their own, more research is needed to establish a direct causal link with the severe acute hepatitis. However, the findings suggest that co-infections may trigger more severe hepatitis, especially in vulnerable young children whose immune systems lacked their usual “training” through frequent exposure to pathogens due to lockdowns.



Although the clusters of acute severe hepatitis in children have recently declined, frequent handwashing and staying home when sick are still advised to protect children from this developing this frequently debilitating disease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05949-1">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Severe hepatitis outbreak linked to common viruses

A recent study led by the University of California, San...

A groundbreaking research initiative, led by the Institute for the Cooperative Upcycling of Plastics (iCOUP), is poised to revolutionize the way we deal with plastic waste. This <a href="https://www.energy.gov/">Department of Energy</a> (DOE) Office of Science Energy Frontier Research Center combines the expertise of chemists and materials scientists from national labs and universities across the United States. The collective goal is to develop innovative chemical pathways that empower companies to transform plastic waste into valuable commodities.



It's no secret that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-making-the-ocean-more-acidic/">plastic</a> recycling presents a formidable challenge. The inherent nature of plastic, consisting of long chains of molecules called polymers, makes it difficult to recycle. Polymers give plastic its strength and durability; however, once these chains are broken, they are nearly impossible to reassemble, leading to degraded properties. 



Recycling processes that involve melting and remolding often result in the breaking of polymer chains, producing plastic of lower quality than the original material. Moreover, since most plastics are derived from inexpensive petrochemicals, the cost of manufacturing new plastics is typically lower than that of recycling. The durability of plastics means they can linger for more than 1,000 years in a landfill before breaking down. But what if we could prevent plastics from ending up in landfills altogether?



Aaron Sadow, the director of iCOUP and a chemist at Ames Lab, envisions a future in which science propels technologies that address the growing issue of plastic waste accumulation. "At iCOUP, we are developing the science needed to advance technologies that can address the plastic waste accumulation problem," he said.&nbsp;



If successful, a new carbon cycle could emerge that repurposes the carbon in plastics for other chemicals and materials, ultimately incorporating plastics into a circular economy and eliminating the need for landfills.



To achieve this ambitious goal, the team is working on novel chemical recycling methods that will not only create sustainable, high-quality plastic materials but also convert plastic into valuable chemical products. These products include lubricants and surfactants, which serve to reduce the surface tension of a liquid.



Massimiliano Delferro, a chemist at Argonne and the deputy director of iCOUP, is optimistic about the long-term impact of their research. "In 20 or 30 years, we want to use the technology we develop at iCOUP to make new products from plastic waste that is currently lost in the environment," he said. However, he acknowledges the scientific hurdles ahead, admitting that the task is a "big challenge."



The researchers have had a stream of recent successes. One notable achievement is the development of a method to make plastics easier to recycle. The team successfully broke up plastics and transformed them into a new biodegradable polymer, which is simpler to recycle. This innovative chemical recycling method resulted in plastic products with quality comparable to the original plastic waste. Remarkably, the process allows plastics to be recycled repeatedly without compromising their quality.



Another significant breakthrough came in the form of a new catalyst. The researchers created a zirconia-based catalyst capable of separating polymers in plastic waste. Current catalysts often rely on expensive rare earth metals, such as platinum. Zirconia serves as an effective, relatively inexpensive, and abundant alternative. By suspending ultrasmall zirconia nanoparticles in silica, the scientists managed to separate the long plastic polymers at specific intervals, producing new high-value chemicals at a low cost.



The experts also focused on developing a more efficient way to produce a particular catalyst that transforms plastic waste into lubricants. Originally created by their partners at Northwestern University, this catalyst is highly effective but challenging and costly to produce. The iCOUP researchers discovered a simpler and less expensive chemical technique for producing large quantities of the catalyst, paving the way for potential commercial applications in the future.



In their most recent accomplishment, the team found a method to add functionality to plastic polymers once they are broken apart. This process involves chemically modifying the plastic waste to make it suitable for use in more valuable products, such as surfactants or emulsifiers, which help keep two liquids mixed.



“In this latest round of research, the APS successfully delivered molecular-level information about the newly developed catalysts, elucidating how they function and providing a technical clue toward higher performance,” explained Byeongdu Lee, a physicist at Argonne and a group leader at the APS. ​“This work shows how the knowledge collected from this powerful X-ray facility can be put to use to solve some of the world’s biggest problems, such as plastic pollution.”



With a focus on bringing their technology to market, the researchers have already begun collaborating with companies, including Chevron Philips and a startup launched by their former iCOUP post-docs, to commercialize their technologies. As they continue to develop innovative ways to upcycle plastics, these partnerships may pave the way for practical solutions to the global plastic waste challenge.



“Our goal now is to create a product that companies can use in a way to make a profit,” said Magali Ferrandon, a chemist at Argonne and part of the iCOUP team. ​“We want to make it cheaper and easier for companies to be able to do this commercially.”



As the experts continue to make strides in addressing plastic waste, their efforts could have far-reaching implications for the environment, the economy, and the future of our planet. In time, their work may contribute to a world where plastic waste no longer poses a threat, and instead becomes a valuable resource for new materials and applications.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41929-023-00910-x">Nature Catalysis</a>.



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Upcycling plastic waste into valuable products 

A groundbreaking research initiative, led by the Institute for the...

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long been a crucial tool in monitoring human and animal health. However, for researchers studying wild populations, administering these common tests can be challenging.&nbsp;



In an effort to overcome this obstacle, a collaborative project has been initiated by scientists at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) and colleagues at the Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden, as well as other zoos and aquariums. The team is currently testing the use of thermal video and image analysis to measure heart and respiration rates in a variety of animals in a controlled environment.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal of this research is to advance the development of non-invasive techniques for assessing the health of animals in the wild, particularly threatened and endangered species for which more invasive diagnostic procedures might carry prohibitive risks.



A new paper detailing the team's work was published today in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>. The study highlights the importance of understanding an animal's metabolic rate, or energetic expenditure, as it provides crucial insight into a species' reproductive and survival chances.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, collecting these benchmark measurements from wild populations is logistically complex and frequently invasive. Even more straightforward tests, such as obtaining heart and respiration rates, often necessitate immobilizing the animal, which can pose its own risks. Additionally, attaching tracking devices can be both expensive and invasive.



The research, led by MIT-WHOI graduate student Caroline Rzucidlo, is investigating the potential of infrared thermography (IRT) combined with Eulerian video magnification (EVM) software to measure the vital rates of exotic wildlife species.&nbsp;



Eventually, the team wants to apply this technique to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-sacrifice-diving-energy-to-give-iron-to-their-pups/">Weddell seal</a> populations in Antarctica, assessing whether these animals will be physiologically prepared to survive and reproduce in rapidly changing environments.



"Heart and respiration rates are often used as proxies for determining metabolic rate," explained Rzucidlo. "Thermal cameras can detect changes in skin temperature associated with blood flow and changes in air temperature associated with exhalation. Thus, determining if thermal cameras could non-invasively capture these temperature changes in animals was the first step."



While thermal video cameras can easily measure heat and body temperature, as evidenced by the technology used to screen humans for fever at airports, the question remained whether this approach could be applied to exotic animals. Taking their work directly into the field was not feasible, as the researchers first needed to validate the accuracy and precision of the method, which required a controlled setting.&nbsp;



"We had no idea how effectively we could measure temperature fluctuations with the thermal camera, including how close or far away from the animal we needed to be, and how fur, fat, or scale thickness would affect the readings," explained Rzucidlo.



The Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden offered the perfect setting for testing various animals under diverse conditions, allowing researchers to refine their methods. Collaborating with Erin Curry, a reproductive physiologist, and other animal care specialists, Rzucidlo dedicated months to collecting thermal video data on an array of terrestrial and marine creatures at the facility.&nbsp;



The study also encompassed work conducted at other locations, such as the Louisville Zoo (Kentucky), Columbus Zoo and Aquarium (Ohio), and the Salisbury Zoo (Maryland). Overall, 58 individual animals, ranging from Komodo dragons to polar bears, participated in the research.



“Being able to monitor individual animals under human care created a controlled setting to validate this technology that is impossible to replicate in the wild,” said Rzucidlo.



“Zoos offer a unique setting to develop technologies that can contribute to the conservation of wildlife populations. Animals in zoos have regular veterinary check-ups and some individuals are even trained to participate voluntarily in wellness exams, so using a stethoscope to obtain true heartrates while concurrently collecting infrared video of a variety of species was a very achievable goal,” added Curry.



It soon became obvious to the team that the thermal video alone wasn’t enough. “Capturing heat and temperature is one step, but we needed the EVM computer software to amplify changes&nbsp; in temperature associated with respiration rate and heartbeat,” explained Rzucidlo. “Using the two together was the winning combination and offered us an unprecedented view of animal health.”&nbsp;



While thermal cameras have previously been employed to obtain vital rates in a select few species (primarily hairless ones), this groundbreaking study represents the first application of this technology to an extensive array of exotic animals. Additionally, the research identifies the specific traits that render a species suitable for acquiring measurements through thermal imaging.&nbsp;



“This new study takes thermal imaging data in a controlled setting and allows us to build benchmarks across a suite of species. Having developed and fine-tuned these methods in the zoological setting, we can then take these imaging techniques and apply it to answer much broader ecological questions in the wild,” said Michelle Shero, an associate scientist at WHOI.



“We’ve even been using this method in Antarctica to study energy dynamics in Weddell seal populations. We can use these newly developed methods to start asking how an animal’s energetic expenditure may change if environmental conditions change, or what the energetic demands are for reproduction.”



“What’s more, is that using non-invasive and quickly acquired imagery tools will allow us to make better measurements with less disturbance, and for a lot more animals than would ever have been possible using traditional techniques. This is what is really needed to start asking questions about population health.”



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Thermal imaging can help monitor animal health in the wild 

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long...

New research published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwad060">European Journal of Preventive Cardiology</a> indicates that physical activity may counteract some of the negative effects associated with both too little and too much sleep on life expectancy.&nbsp;



The study, conducted by scientists at the Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University in China, involved more than 90,000 adults and employed accelerometer technology to provide more reliable and objective measurements of physical activity and sleep duration.



Lead author Dr. Jihui Zhang explained the study's findings, stating that "increased physical activity levels weakened the mortality risks associated with short or long sleep duration." This suggests that even though both adequate sleep and exercise are vital for longevity, engaging in physical activity can help mitigate the potential health consequences of poor sleep habits.



While the relationship between sleep, exercise, and health has long been studied, the specific interaction between physical activity and sleep duration had not yet been fully understood.&nbsp;



One key limitation of prior research was the reliance on self-reported data for physical activity and sleep, which can be subjective and prone to inaccuracies. In order to address this issue, the current study utilized accelerometer wristbands to measure participants' movement, offering a more reliable and objective assessment of activity levels and sleep duration.



This groundbreaking research is the first to examine the combined effects of physical activity and sleep duration on mortality risk using accelerometry. The study included a diverse group of 92,221 adults aged 40 to 73 from the UK Biobank cohort, who wore the accelerometer wristbands for a week between 2013 and 2015.&nbsp;



Sleep duration per night was categorized as short (less than six hours), normal (six to eight hours), or long (more than eight hours), and physical activity was divided into tertiles (low, intermediate, high). The researchers also classified moderate to vigorous physical activity as meeting or not meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines.



Over a median follow-up period of seven years, 3,080 of the participants died – 1,074 from cardiovascular disease and 1,871 from cancer. The study's primary outcome was all-cause death, with secondary endpoints being death due to cardiovascular disease and death due to cancer.



The analysis reveals that engaging in physical activity can help reduce the mortality risks associated with both short and long sleep duration. The researchers aimed to understand how physical activity influenced the impact of sleep on mortality by examining the volume of activity and moderate to vigorous physical activity levels.&nbsp;



The study accounted for factors that could potentially influence the relationship, such as age, sex, ethnicity, deprivation, education level, season of sleep measurement, body mass index, diet, smoking, alcohol intake, and shift work.



The experts found that among participants with low amounts of physical activity, short and long sleep were associated with a 16 and 37 percent increased risk of all-cause death, respectively. However, in those with intermediate amounts of exercise, only short sleep duration was detrimental, raising the likelihood of all-cause death by 41 percent.&nbsp;



Among participants with a high amount of exercise, sleep duration was not linked to an increased risk of death. When it came to cardiovascular death, short sleepers with a low volume of exercise faced a 69 percent elevated risk, which disappeared when exercise increased to moderate or high volumes. For cancer death, long sleepers with low amounts of exercise had a 21 percent increased risk, which disappeared with moderate or high volumes of exercise.



Similar results were observed for moderate to vigorous physical activity. In participants not meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, short and long sleep were associated with 31 and 20 percent increased risks of all-cause death, respectively.&nbsp;



These risks disappeared in those who met the WHO recommendations. For cardiovascular death, short sleepers who did not meet the exercise intensity advice faced a 52 percent elevated risk, which disappeared in those achieving the recommendations. For cancer death, long sleepers not meeting the advice had a 21 percent increased risk, which disappeared in those following the WHO guidance.



"Our findings suggest that health promotion efforts targeting both physical activity and sleep duration may be more effective in preventing or delaying premature death in middle-aged and older adults than focusing on one behavior alone," said Dr. Zhang. He emphasized the importance of achieving healthy amounts of both sleep and physical activity, but acknowledged that the study indicates that "getting sufficient exercise may partially offset the detrimental impact of missing a good night's sleep."



The results of this research underscore the importance of maintaining a healthy lifestyle that includes both sufficient sleep and regular physical activity. Further, they highlight the potential for physical activity to help mitigate some of the negative effects of inadequate or excessive sleep on life expectancy. As our understanding of the complex interplay between sleep and exercise continues to grow, these findings offer valuable insights for individuals looking to optimize their health and well-being.



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Exercise counteracts negative effects of sleep deprivation

New research published in the European Journal of Preventive Cardiology...

Scientists have sounded the alarm that the deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/">ocean</a> circulation forming around Antarctica may be heading towards collapse, with potentially severe long-term impacts on climate and marine ecosystems worldwide.



This circulation is part of a vast global network of ocean currents, known as the overturning circulation, which transports heat, carbon, oxygen, and nutrients around the planet. It plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's climate, sea levels, and the productivity of marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



Cold water sinking near Antarctica drives the deepest flow of this circulation, with approximately 250 trillion tonnes of cold, salty, and oxygen-rich water sinking in the region each year. This water then travels northwards, carrying oxygen into the deep Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans.



Describing the importance of this process, Professor Matthew England, Deputy Director of the <a href="https://antarctic.org.au/">ARC Centre for Excellence in Antarctic Science</a> (ACEAS) at UNSW Sydney, says: "If the oceans had lungs, this would be one of them."



In a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05762-w">Nature</a>, an international team of scientists led by Professor England modeled the production of Antarctic deep water until 2050 under the IPCC's "high emissions scenario." The researchers collaborated with co-authors from the Australian National University (ANU) and CSIRO.



The model used in the study captures details of ocean processes that previous models have not been able to represent, including the potential influence of meltwater from ice on the circulation. According to the researchers, this deep ocean current has remained in a relatively stable state for thousands of years. However, due to increasing greenhouse gas emissions, Antarctic overturning is predicted to slow down significantly over the next few decades.



"Our modeling shows that if global carbon emissions continue at the current rate, then the Antarctic overturning will slow by more than 40 per cent in the next 30 years – and on a trajectory that looks headed towards collapse," warns Professor England.



If this deep ocean current were to collapse, the ocean below 4,000 meters would stagnate, trapping nutrients in the deep ocean and reducing their availability for supporting marine life near the ocean surface. "This would trap nutrients in the deep ocean, reducing the nutrients available to support marine life near the ocean surface," says Professor England.



The researchers found that melting ice around Antarctica makes the nearby ocean waters less dense, slowing the Antarctic overturning circulation. Furthermore, the melt of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets is expected to continue to accelerate as the planet warms.



"Our study shows that the melting of the ice sheets has a dramatic impact on the overturning circulation that regulates Earth’s climate," notes study co-author Dr. Adele Morrison.



"We are talking about the possible long-term extinction of an iconic water mass," says Professor England. He warns that such profound changes to the ocean's overturning of heat, freshwater, oxygen, carbon, and nutrients would have a significant adverse impact on the oceans for centuries to come.



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Deep ocean circulation near Antarctica on the brink of collapse

Scientists have sounded the alarm that the deep ocean circulation...

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception to the pattern of uniformity across the Indo-West Pacific, the largest and most biodiverse marine ecosystem on Earth. While many species in this region have comparably wide ranges, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-jellyfish-are-more-nutritious/">fish</a> and shells noted by Charles Darwin, the same pattern has been observed in crabs. 



Chlorodielline crabs, common on coral reefs, have long been difficult to distinguish based solely on appearance, as they look so similar. However, a team of researchers has now discovered that chlorodielline crab species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, but those that occupy the same region have a unique feature.



The study, which was led by Robert Lasley, former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, revealed that the key to distinguishing these similar-looking crabs lies in their specialized appendages used for reproduction, called gonopods. These complex and species-specific structures have evolved multiple times in different arthropod groups, including crustaceans, moths and butterflies, and millipedes, and are variously used for sperm transfer and clasping.



“They all look the same, until you compare their gonopods, which are structurally complex and very species-specific,” explained Lasley.



In crabs, the gonopods sometimes come equipped with elaborate frills that give them the appearance of a spatula with a mohawk. Lasley wanted to understand if there was any pattern to the variation in these gonopods, which led him to study species across the Indo-West Pacific. Over the course of more than a decade, he collected specimens during numerous marine field forays in the Red Sea, Singapore, Australia, and the Phoenix Islands, searching for crabs hiding among the coral bric-a-brac.



The study's findings indicate that the key to distinguishing closely related species of chlorodielline crabs is in their gonopods, rather than their external appearance. While the gonopods of species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, those of species occupying the same region have unique structures, suggesting that their evolution is influenced by interactions with other closely related species.



Chlorodielline crabs are one of the most abundant crustaceans in coral reef ecosystems, where they occupy the base of the food chain. These tiny crabs, most of which are no larger than a kernel of corn, are especially diverse in the coral triangle, a region that stretches from Indonesia to the Solomon Islands and supports 76 percent of the world's coral species and more than a quarter of all coral reef fishes. Despite their importance, chlorodielline crabs have long been difficult to distinguish based on appearance alone.



The researchers sought to understand why chlorodielline crabs have such wildly different gonopods, specialized appendages used for reproduction. To do this, Lasley first had to determine how chlorodielline species are related to each other, which he accomplished through an analysis of DNA extracted from museum specimens. The experts then added information regarding the range of each species and the shape of their gonopods.



The study's findings shed light on one of marine biology's most perplexing mysteries: how do marine invertebrates, such as crabs, remain isolated long enough for evolution to generate diversity? While roaming animals on land become isolated all the time, the larval stage of many marine invertebrates makes this step in the speciation process more difficult to achieve. Naturalists like Charles Darwin saw the Indo West Pacific as one vast body of water, uninterrupted by geographic barriers that would otherwise act as a catalyst in the process of speciation.



However, the results of this study suggest that sheer distance and time can also act as barriers. Many chlorodielline crabs have ranges that extend across the entirety of the Indo-West Pacific, and the genetic analysis revealed that these cryptic species have slowly accumulated differences in their DNA over millions of years. But it wasn't until close relatives were reunited after an extended separation that those genetic differences visibly manifested in a single, peculiar way. In almost every case, close relatives with overlapping ranges had uniquely shaped gonopods but otherwise looked exactly the same.



“What we can say is these crabs start genetically diverging in different geographic areas, and then the divergence of gonopods is an important piece of the speciation process that happens at the tail end of things,” Lasley said.



The findings of this study have important implications for our understanding of marine biodiversity, as they suggest that far more variation exists in the Indo-West Pacific than previously suspected. The engine driving this diversity has yet to be entirely discovered, but Lasley intends to test his hypothesis that the way these crabs reproduce may play a role in the evolution of their unique gonopods in future studies.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107710">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



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Hidden crab diversity discovered in coral reefs

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception...

As the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-could-peak-below-nine-million-by-2050/">population</a> grows, concerns over food security have become increasingly urgent. David Beasley, the World Food Programme leader, stated in a recent interview with Time magazine: “There’s no doubt we can produce enough food for the world’s population - humanity is strategic enough to achieve that. The question is whether - because of war and conflict and corruption and destabilization - we do.” 



Projections indicate that we are not on track to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 2 of Zero Hunger by 2030, a milestone that is threatened by climate and security crises that destabilize our food sources.



In response to these challenges, researchers are taking a critical look not just at how we produce food, but at the entire systems behind our food supplies. One such area of investigation is seed systems, which are crucial to the production of food crops. Ola Westengen, a crop scientist and food system expert, emphasizes that "whilst adapting crops to climate change and conserving their variation is essential for food security, these measures are meaningless if farmers do not have access to the seeds."



Westengen leads a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en">Norwegian University of Life Sciences</a> (NMBU) who recently reviewed the state of seed systems for small-holder farmers in low/middle-income countries. Their findings have been published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2218777120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



But what exactly are seed systems? In essence, they encompass the provision, management, and distribution of seeds. This includes the conservation of seed diversity and variety development, as well as their production and distribution, and the rules governing these activities. Seed systems play a vital role in making seeds available to farmers, ensuring that crops can be sown, harvested, and eventually reach our plates.



A well-functioning seed system would ideally ensure seed security for all farmers. However, the NMBU researchers argue that seed systems rarely function as effectively as they could. Seed systems can be disrupted by conflict and disasters, as well as by issues stemming from social inequality, lack of coordination, or inappropriate policies. These disruptions can have a significant impact on food security, particularly for small-holder farmers in low/middle-income countries who are often most vulnerable to these challenges.



The study sheds light on the current state of seed systems and highlights the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the complex factors that contribute to their effectiveness. By identifying the challenges facing seed systems, scientists and policymakers can work towards solutions that ensure seed security and ultimately contribute to global food security.



“There are recent innovations and investments by governments and donors to improve farmers’ access to diverse crop varieties and quality seeds,” explains study co-author Teshome Hunduma, a seed governance researcher. “For example, there are now more flexible policies and regulations that encourage diversity in the seed systems used by farmers, rather than pushing farmers to switch to commercial seed systems that focus on less diverse commodity crops - which is the norm.”&nbsp;



Commodity crops are those grown in large volume and high intensity for the purpose of sale, as opposed to those grown by small-holder farmers for direct processing and consumption.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The study highlights emerging initiatives that are helping farmers to secure food supplies, such as participatory plant breeding,” says Teshome.&nbsp;



Participatory plant breeding is the development and selection of new crop varieties where the farmers are in control. Farmers, who know the needs of their farms best, work with researchers and others to improve crops and develop plant varieties that are in line with their household needs and culture, and that are resilient to environmental and climate challenges.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Farmers prefer and need different types of seeds, based on diverse social, cultural and ecological conditions,” says study co-author Sarah Paule Dalle.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“A seed system that only serves a segment of a farming society contributes to seed insecurity. For example, commercial seed systems deliver high-yielding varieties of quality hybrid seeds. Whilst wealthy farmers can afford such seeds, poor farmers can’t," explains Teshome.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Similarly, whilst commercial seed systems that focus on commodity crops may benefit men who might primarily be interested in market value, such systems have little to offer women who want crops that provide household nutrition and meet their cultural preferences.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This means poor farmers and women do not have the same access to seeds that meet their needs. The result is seed, and thus food, insecurity due to social and economic inequality.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Over the past few decades, political and economic factors have contributed to the globalization of food systems, including seed systems. As the researchers point out, "seeds have become big business."&nbsp;



The article cites studies which reveal that the four largest multinational companies in seed trade currently control approximately 60 percent of the global commercial seed market, worth around 50 billion USD. These large private actors hold considerable power, enabling them to shape markets as well as influence scientific research, innovation agendas, and policy frameworks.



However, the researchers argue that this concentration of power can lead to problems, particularly when private sector research and development tend to focus on the most profitable crops, such as maize and soy. As a result, crops that are primarily grown and consumed by subsistence farmers are often overlooked.&nbsp;



Consequently, the potential of crop diversity, which serves as the foundation of agriculture, remains largely underutilized. Technologies that could help develop more robust crop varieties, and thus contribute to food security, are not fully explored or realized.



Crop diversity encompasses both the variety of crops themselves and the different varieties within a particular crop. The Global Crop Diversity Trust, one of the world's foremost international organizations focused on crop diversity conservation, maintains that securing and making available the world's crop diversity is crucial for future food and nutrition security.



Benjamin Kilian, a plant genetics expert at the Global Crop Diversity Trust, elaborates on the importance of crop diversity, stating, “Plant breeders and scientists use crop diversity to develop new, more resilient and productive varieties that consumers want to eat, that are nutritious and tasty, and that are adapted to local preferences, environments and challenges.”&nbsp;



The Crop Trust collaborates with the Norwegian University of Life Sciences on the Biodiversity for Opportunities, Livelihoods and Development (BOLD) project, which serves as the basis for this study. Coordinated by Kilian, the BOLD project aims to support the conservation and utilization of crop diversity in order to strengthen global food and nutrition security. The project is built upon the Crop Wild Relatives project and receives funding from the Norwegian government.



Dalle expresses optimism about the potential for seed system development to benefit small-holder farmers: “We hope so, if we make the right moves to include small-holder farmers in seed system development.” He emphasizes that a well-functioning seed system should be resilient, capable of withstanding shocks such as droughts or pandemics, as well as breakdowns or disruptions caused by war and conflict.



Dalle further explains that in order to achieve this resiliency, seed systems should promote a diversity of seeds, encompassing both local varieties and those improved to better adapt to stressors. Additionally, the involvement of diverse groups of people, including farmer cooperatives/groups and both public and private companies, is essential to increase the choice of seeds and seed sources. He cites the example of the COVID-19 pandemic, during which "farmers’ own seed systems enabled access to seeds in developing countries when the activities of private companies and agro-dealers were restricted."



“Our study highlights links between the crucial work of the Global Crop Diversity Trust and the farmers on the frontline of adapting our food systems to climate change," says Westengen. "It is an argument for co-designing seed system development in full cooperation with farmers and other actors in the seed system.”&nbsp;



By collaborating with various stakeholders, efforts can be tailored to meet the needs of different groups of farmers in diverse agroecological contexts. Westengen emphasizes that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. "If there is one natural law in biology, it is that diversity is key to future evolution. That also goes for seed systems - and food system development.”



As the world continues to grapple with the challenges of climate change, conflict, and social inequality, a thorough examination of seed systems and their role in food security is crucial. By understanding the intricacies of seed systems and working towards improvements, we can increase the chances of achieving the ambitious goal of Zero Hunger by 2030.



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Seed systems will play a key role in future food security 

As the world's population grows, concerns over food security have...

Planetary scientists at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, Paul Byrne and Rebecca Hahn, have compiled the most comprehensive map of all volcanic edifices on Venus, with a database of 85,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanoes-were-the-key-driver-of-earths-mass-extinctions/">volcanoes</a> using radar imagery from NASA’s Magellan mission. According to the experts, this is a critical breakthrough in the understanding of the volcanic properties of the planet.



“This paper provides the most comprehensive map of all volcanic edifices on Venus ever compiled. It provides researchers with an enormously valuable database for understanding volcanism on that planet - a key planetary process, but for Venus is something about which we know very little, even though it’s a world about the same size as our own,” said Byrne.



The new database will enable scientists to think about where to search for evidence of recent geological activity, either by trawling through the decades-old Magellan data or by analyzing future data and comparing it with Magellan data.&nbsp;



The study includes detailed analyses of where volcanoes are, where and how they’re clustered, and how their spatial distributions compare with geophysical properties of the planet such as crustal thickness. According to Hahn, the volcano dataset is hosted at Washington University and is publicly available for other scientists to use.&nbsp;



“We’ve already heard from colleagues that they’ve downloaded the data and are starting to analyze it - which is exactly what we want,” said Byrne. “Other people will come up with questions we haven’t, about volcano shape, size, distribution, timing of activity in different parts of the planet, you name it. I’m excited to see what they can figure out with the new database!”



The scientists found relatively fewer volcanoes in the 20-100 km diameter range, which they believe may be a function of magma availability and eruption rate.&nbsp;



The experts also wanted to take a closer look at smaller volcanoes on Venus - those less than three miles across that have been overlooked by previous volcano hunters. Hahn says that they represent about 99 percent of her dataset. “We looked at their distribution using different spatial statistics to figure out whether the volcanoes are clustered around other structures on Venus, or if they’re grouped in certain areas."



Although there are volcanoes across almost the entire surface of Venus, Hahn believes there are hundreds of thousands of additional geologic features that have some volcanic properties lurking on the surface of Venus, too small to be picked up.



“A volcano one kilometer in diameter in the Magellan data would be seven pixels across, which is really hard to see,” explained Hahn. “But with improved resolution, we could be able to resolve those structures.”&nbsp;



Future missions to Venus in the 2030s by NASA and the European Space Agency are set to acquire high-resolution radar images of the surface that will help scientists search for these smaller volcanoes.



“This is one of the most exciting discoveries we’ve made for Venus - with data that are decades old! But there are still a huge number of questions we have for Venus that we can’t answer, for which we have to get into the clouds and onto the surface. We’re just getting started,” said Byrne.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023JE007753">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Volcanoes cover nearly the entire surface of Venus

Planetary scientists at Washington University in St. Louis, Paul Byrne...

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago, South Africa was home to a species of large predatory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-link-mysterious-amphibians/">amphibians</a> with bodies similar to today’s crocodiles or big salamanders. Although these animals – called rhinesuchid temnospondyls – are known mainly from skeletal remains, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in South Africa has recently discovered a set of trace fossils that provide key insights into how these creatures moved through their environment.



The remains were discovered in a site called the Dave Green paleosurface, in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, on a rocky surface which was the floor of a tidal flat or lagoon of the ancient Karoo Sea during the Late Permian. By analyzing seven body impressions (resting traces), along with several tail-marks (swimming traces), the experts inferred that they were likely made by one or two two-meters-long rhinesuchid temnospondyls swimming from one resting place to another, or searching for prey.



The sinuous shapes of the tail-marks provide evidence that the amphibians propelled themselves through the water with continuous side-to-side tail motions, which is remarkably similar to how modern crocodiles and salamanders move. Moreover, the shape of their body impressions, along with a relative lack of footprints alongside the traces, suggests that they tuck their legs against their bodies while swimming, just like today’s crocodiles. Finally, these fossils indicate an active lifestyle characterized by behaviors such as swimming or bottom-walking, and are extremely valuable for better understanding the structure of Permian ecosystems.



“The findings of the study are significant because they help to fill in gaps in our knowledge of these ancient animals.&nbsp;The remarkable tracks and traces preserved on the Dave Green palaeosurface are a window&nbsp;onto&nbsp;the shoreline of the Karoo Sea roughly 255 million years ago, and&nbsp;provide direct evidence of how these animals moved and interacted with their environment. In addition to its remarkable scientific contribution, this study also demonstrates how important paleontological discoveries are often made by curious people bringing their findings to the attention of paleontologists,” the authors concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282354">PLoS ONE</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ancient amphibians swam like modern crocodiles

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...