<p class="ap-story-p">EPA May Ban Produce Pesticide Chlorpyrifos. The Environmental Protection Agency says it may ban a common pesticide used on citrus fruits, almonds and other crops.</p>
<p class="ap-story-p">A proposal announced Friday would prohibit use of chlorpyrifos, a widely used insecticide sprayed on a variety of crops including oranges, apples, cherries, grapes, broccoli and asparagus.</p>
<p class="ap-story-p">The pesticide, in use since 1965, has sickened dozens of farmworkers in recent years. Traces have been found in waterways, threatening fish, and regulators say overuse could make targeted insects immune to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-biodiversity-reduces-the-need-for-pesticides/">pesticide</a>.</p>
<p class="ap-story-p">U.S. farms use more than 6 million pounds of the chemical each year &#8211; about 25 percent of it in <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=california&amp;cvid=a467ff9efb1a4a17b2ce3ece3c59e121&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">California</a>. EPA May Ban Produce Pesticide Chlorpyrifos</p>
<p class="ap-story-p">The EPA said it will take comments on the proposal for at least two months, with a final rule expected in December 2016. <b>Chlorpyrifos</b> (<b>CPS</b>) is an <a title="Organophosphate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organophosphate">organophosphate</a> <a title="Pesticide" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide">pesticide</a> used on crops, animals, and buildings, and in other settings, to kill a number of <a title="Pest (organism)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_(organism)">pests</a>, including insects and worms. It acts on the nervous systems of insects by inhibiting the <a title="Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase_inhibitor">acetylcholinesterase</a> enzyme</p>
<p class="ap-story-p">© 2015 <span class="source-org vcard"><span class="org fn">The Associated Press</span></span>. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.</p>


EPA May Ban Produce Pesticide Chlorpyrifos

<p>The bountiful region of central Texas, already renowned for its diverse biological landscape, has just revealed an even more astonishing secret.&nbsp;The diligent efforts of Dr. JoVonn Hill, Director of the Mississippi Entomological Museum (MEM) at <a href="https://www.msstate.edu/">Mississippi State University</a>, and his team have led to the discovery of this incredible revelation after conducting scientific expeditions in the area for the past five years.</p>



<p>Unveiling an extraordinary treasure trove, the team successfully discovered seven distinct species of flightless grasshoppers that had not been previously identified. Six out of these seven species are endemic to the Edwards Plateau, a stark testimony to the exceptional biodiversity this region holds.</p>



<h2 id="h-honoring-legendary-texas-musicians">Honoring legendary Texas musicians</h2>



<p>In homage to the rich musical heritage of Texas, Dr. Hill chose to name two of these newfound grasshopper species after the legendary musicians Willie Nelson and Jerry Jeff Walker. His intent, he explains, was to honor their "immense contributions" and eternalize the lasting legacy of these musicians within the biodiversity of Texas.</p>



<p>"Melanoplus nelsoni and Melanoplus walkeri, the newly named species, symbolize the enduring impact of these musicians and their intrinsic connection to Texas," said Dr. Hill.</p>



<p>Akin to the sentiments expressed by Willie Nelson himself, Dr. Hill admits that after these extensive years of field studies, he too carries "a little Texas in [his] soul." His personal connection to Texas, as well as his scientific journey, was documented in his study recently published in the academic journal, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1165.104047"><em>ZooKeys</em></a>.</p>



<p>In regards to Melanoplus walkeri, Dr. Hill recalls the significant influence of Walker's music on his team during their field explorations. According to him, Walker's songs such as Hill Country Rain, Leavin' Texas, and Sangria Wine have been the source of joy and positivity while journeying between field sites and have greatly contributed to the overall experience of the Edwards Plateau.</p>



<p>With the study additionally revealing the close proximity of the newly discovered species to the location of one of Walker's most influential albums, the bond between art, science, and nature seems to become even more apparent.</p>



<h2 id="h-paying-tribute-to-comanche-and-tonkawa-tribes">Paying tribute to Comanche and Tonkawa tribes</h2>



<p>In another heartening gesture, the team pays tribute to the rich cultural heritage of the Comanche and Tonkawa tribes, the original inhabitants of the region, by naming two species, Melanoplus commanche and Melanoplus tonkawa.</p>



<p>"These designations are an acknowledgement of the tribes' significant historical and cultural contribution to the region," said Dr. Hill.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"These seven newly described species, along with two preexisting ones, form a cohesive species group, which spotlights their shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships."</p>



<p>According to Dr. Hill, the discovery of this new species group adds substantial value to our understanding of the diverse ecosystems prevalent in central Texas. He further asserts that these findings accentuate the ecological distinctiveness of the region.</p>



<p>Dr. Hill and his colleagues at the Mississippi Entomological Museum continue to reaffirm their commitment to the exploration and understanding of science, the conservation of biodiversity, and inspiring a sense of wonder and appreciation for the intricacies of the natural world. The unearthing of these seven flightless grasshopper species is just another testament to their dedication.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-grasshoppers">More about grasshoppers</h2>



<p>Grasshoppers are insects that belong to the order Orthoptera, which also includes crickets and katydids. They are typically characterized by their powerful hind legs adapted for jumping, wings for flying, and a body structure featuring a head, thorax, and abdomen. Grasshoppers are most commonly recognized for their ability to produce sounds by rubbing their hind legs against their wings, a process known as stridulation.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers are usually green, brown, or grey, which aids in camouflage within their environment, although some tropical species can be brightly colored. They have a pair of large compound eyes for good vision, two antennae that are typically shorter than their body, and a mouth adapted for biting and chewing vegetation.</p>



<p>Adult grasshoppers have two sets of wings. The front pair is narrow and hard, serving to protect the broader and more flexible hind wings. The hind legs are large and muscular, enabling them to leap distances many times their body length.</p>



<h3 id="h-life-cycle">Life Cycle</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis in their life cycle. This cycle begins with eggs, which are laid in the ground or on vegetation. When these hatch, they produce nymphs - smaller, wingless versions of the adult grasshoppers. These nymphs will then shed their exoskeletons multiple times in a process known as molting, growing larger each time until they become adults. Unlike complete metamorphosis seen in insects like butterflies, there is no pupal stage in a grasshopper's life cycle.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet-and-habitat">Diet and Habitat</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers are primarily herbivores, feeding on a wide range of plants. Some species are known to be more selective, feeding on single plant types, while others have a more varied diet. However, under extreme conditions, some grasshoppers may resort to cannibalism.</p>



<p>These insects are found in a variety of habitats, including meadows, forests, grasslands, and agricultural fields, basically anywhere with ample vegetation for food. They are found worldwide except for extremely cold regions like the poles.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecological-role-and-human-impact">Ecological Role and Human Impact</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers play a significant role in ecosystems. They serve as a food source for various animals, including birds, reptiles, rodents, and other insects. Through their feeding habits, they also contribute to the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems.</p>



<p>On the downside, they can become agricultural pests, especially in the form of locust swarms. Locusts are a type of grasshopper known for their swarming behavior, which can lead to significant crop damage and contribute to famine.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural Significance</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers have cultural importance in many societies. They have been symbols of good luck, abundance, and freedom in various cultures. In some regions, they are also utilized as a food source, contributing to the practice of entomophagy (the consumption of insects).</p>



<p>Overall, while they may seem like simple creatures, grasshoppers are fascinating insects with complex behaviors and significant roles in their ecosystems.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: JoVonn Hill</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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New grasshopper species named after Willie Nelson

The bountiful region of central Texas, already renowned for its...

<p>Berberine, a dietary supplement derived from the barberry plant and referred to as "nature's Ozempic," is causing quite a stir on the internet. Many users are singing its praises, attributing their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quality-sleep-makes-it-easier-to-achieve-weight-loss-goals/">weight loss</a> success to this natural supplement.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, while numerous individuals report weight loss, loose pants, and lower scale numbers, the scientific evidence to back up these claims is still scarce. Moreover, some users also shared unpleasant side effects such as constipation and diarrhea.</p>



<h2 id="h-used-for-thousands-of-years">Used for thousands of years</h2>



<p>Berberine, a bitter chemical compound, is not a new discovery. It's been an integral part of Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine for thousands of years, and has been used to treat a broad array of conditions from pink eye and itchy skin to high blood sugar and urinary tract infections. However, we should note that the purported benefits of berberine have yet to be proven through large-scale clinical trials.</p>



<p>The supplement is easily accessible and affordable. For approximately $30, you can purchase a bottle of 60 supplements from major retail websites such as Amazon. The recommended dosage is one capsule before every meal.</p>



<p>This inexpensive plant-based supplement has garnered attention on social media platforms for being a natural alternative to expensive prescription medications such as Wegovy and Ozempic, which are not always covered by health insurance.</p>



<h2 id="h-functions-differently-than-prescription-weight-loss-drugs">Functions differently than prescription weight loss drugs</h2>



<p>However, it's crucial to understand that berberine functions very differently from these prescription drugs, also known as semaglutide. Wegovy, a higher-dose variant, has been approved for weight loss for those with a body mass index of 30 or more, or overweight individuals with a BMI of 27 or more, who also have a weight-related health condition.&nbsp;</p>



<p>On the other hand, Ozempic is used primarily for treating Type 2 diabetes, but it is often prescribed "off-label" for obesity. Semaglutide triggers weight loss by mimicking GLP-1, a hormone in our brain that manages appetite and feelings of fullness.</p>



<p>There's anecdotal evidence suggesting that berberine can facilitate weight loss. However, large-scale peer-reviewed studies confirming these weight loss benefits are still lacking. Furthermore, the mechanism through which berberine functions as a weight loss supplement remains a mystery.</p>



<p>However, existing research is expanding our understanding of this compound. A 2017 review published in the <a href="https://ijbms.mums.ac.ir/"><em>Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences</em></a> reported that patients who took two 750 milligram capsules daily for three months experienced a significant weight decrease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Another study published in the American Journal of Translational Research suggested that berberine might activate brown adipose tissue, fat cells that prompt the body to convert food into energy, thus burning calories.</p>



<h2 id="h-other-health-benefits-of-berberine">Other health benefits of berberine</h2>



<p>Besides weight loss, berberine appears to have other potential benefits. A 2019 analysis in the <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/endocrj"><em>Endocrine Journal</em></a> found berberine more effective in reducing blood glucose levels than a placebo.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Studies also suggest it could help manage polycystic ovary syndrome, a condition that occurs when ovaries overproduce a certain hormone called androgens, leading to irregular menstrual cycles and unpredictable ovulation. It has also been shown to decrease hemoglobin A1C, an indicator of blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes.</p>



<p>However, despite these encouraging findings, the scientific community remains cautious. Since berberine is derived from plants, there's a risk that people may erroneously assume it is entirely harmless. Pregnant women, in particular, are warned against taking it due to the potential risk of brain damage to the fetus or young children.</p>



<p>Furthermore, berberine might interfere with the metabolism of prescription medications for diabetes and other conditions if taken as instructed on the bottle. Its long-term safety is still undetermined, and it's unknown whether the weight loss will be sustained after stopping the supplement. It's also suggested that abrupt cessation of either Wegovy or Ozempic could result in a rapid regain of weight.</p>



<p>Common side effects associated with berberine include diarrhea, constipation, and stomach upset. These experiences shared by users underline the necessity for a comprehensive understanding and scientific scrutiny of berberine's safety and efficacy.</p>



<p>The internet's latest dietary trend is indeed compelling, but until there is solid scientific evidence to support the claims of its weight loss benefits and safety, caution is advised. Until large-scale, peer-reviewed studies are conducted to confirm its benefits and assess its long-term safety, berberine remains a supplement of interest with potential, but unverified, benefits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For those considering berberine as a weight-loss supplement, it's essential to discuss it with healthcare professionals who can provide personalized advice based on your individual health situation and potential risks.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-barberry-plant">More about the barberry plant</h2>



<p>The barberry plant, scientifically known as Berberis, is a large genus of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from 1–5 m (3.3–16.4 ft) tall. They are native to various regions of the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, and North and South America.</p>



<p>This plant is quite versatile and is known for its attractive and dense growth habit, often adorned with small, oval leaves that may turn vibrant shades of orange, yellow, and red in the fall. It typically blooms in mid-spring, showcasing small, yellow flowers. By late summer or early fall, these flowers give way to small, red berries, which are sometimes used in culinary dishes for their tart flavor.</p>



<p>The berries of the barberry plant have been used for centuries in traditional medicine due to their high berberine content. Berberine is a bioactive compound that is believed to have numerous medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal effects. However, as of my knowledge cutoff in 2021, more research is needed to fully confirm and understand these potential benefits.</p>



<p>Interestingly, the plant also plays a role in the life cycle of a type of wheat rust (a fungus), which is a significant wheat disease. Because of this, cultivation of the plant is often controlled or restricted in many regions to prevent the spread of the fungus.</p>



<p>Despite its potential health benefits, it's important to note that barberry can be toxic if consumed in large amounts, particularly for children and pets. It can cause upset stomach, kidney problems, and worsen certain health conditions. Always consult a healthcare professional before starting a new supplement regimen.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Berberine: Plant-derived supplement is the hot new weight loss trend

Berberine, a dietary supplement derived from the barberry plant and...

<p>Nature parks, otherwise known as protected areas, have emerged as invaluable protectors of nature in the battle to save <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-mounds-play-a-critical-role-in-sustaining-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a>. Yet, many of these havens and their inhabitants face constant threats from humanity's encroachment, often due to mounting pressure from resource extraction, agricultural expansion, and population growth.</p>



<p>Recent research from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> brings forth an important revelation – strengthening the existing nature parks, be it under legal or local community jurisdiction, is equally important for the preservation of biodiversity as the creation of new protected areas.</p>



<h2 id="h-5-000-species-involved-in-the-study">5,000 species involved in the study</h2>



<p>The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg0288"><em>Science Advances</em></a>, delves into the status of approximately 5,000 species. Alarmingly, around 70% of these species either have zero representation in protected areas, reside in parks that have experienced a downgrade, downsizing, or removal from protection, or face an increased risk of extinction due to prospective land-use changes.</p>



<p>However, not all is lost. The researchers highlight a compelling solution – enhancing the protection of existing parks and extending the existing network of parks across a mere 1% of the earth's land area. This step alone could safeguard the vital habitats of 1,191 animal species teetering on the brink of extinction.</p>



<p>"Parks save species. But they can do so only if the parks themselves are protected against harmful activities," emphasized Professor David Wilcove. "Our study demonstrates just how important it is to protect the places that protect species."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-evidence-proving-the-importance-of-protecting-biodiversity">More evidence proving the importance of protecting biodiversity</h2>



<p>The team's findings align with a growing global recognition of the urgency to safeguard the Earth's species diversity through the creation of new protected zones. This sentiment was echoed at the United Nations biodiversity conference COP15 in December 2022, where countries pledged to earmark 30% of the world's land and seas as protected areas.</p>



<p>Beyond this commitment, the Princeton study highlights an often-overlooked aspect of wildlife conservation, namely, ensuring that existing protected areas continue to serve as safe sanctuaries for biodiversity.</p>



<p>Yiwen Zeng, lead author of the study, commented, "Our study pinpoints where new parks can be created, but also where to restore and reinforce existing parks in order to boost wildlife conservation."</p>



<p>"Many global discussions on conservation rightfully focus on the need to create new protected areas, but our study also shows the importance of ensuring that protected areas remain effective at keeping out harmful human activity," said Zeng, who is currently a research assistant professor at the National University of Singapore's Centre for Nature-based Climate Solutions.</p>



<p>This aspect is crucial because protected areas are not impervious to human activities that could undermine their conservation value, especially in the absence of adequate enforcement or political support for wildlife conservation.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-happens-when-parks-lose-their-protection">What happens when parks lose their protection</h2>



<p>The loss of protection or downgrading of parks, usually resulting from government decisions, reduces the degree or extent of protection, leaving them vulnerable to infrastructure expansion, mining, and other activities that could lead to habitat loss or degradation.</p>



<p>To illustrate, the research pointed out that as of 2021, more than 278 million hectares of parks have undergone such types of degradations. The Megophrys damrei, a critically endangered frog exclusive to Cambodia, continues to suffer habitat degradation within and around the national park boundaries, despite the area's protected status.</p>



<p>Moreover, expanding the network of protected areas could be a lifeline for species whose habitats currently lack sufficient protection. As the study suggests, shielding an additional 330 square kilometers of natural landscapes within Indonesia could secure the suitable habitats of 53 species currently deprived of protected area coverage and limited habitat areas.</p>



<p>Rebecca Senior, a former postdoctoral researcher at Princeton and currently an assistant professor of ecology at Durham University in the UK, warns of the dangers of complacency. "There are many wonderful examples in conservation of people fighting to protect species, but there is always a risk that when you take your eye off the ball, pressure builds and hard-won protection is lost," she cautioned.</p>



<p>Senior further emphasized the need for practical, sustained conservation efforts. "Designating parks on paper is not enough; they need to be in the right places, with the right management, and they need to last."</p>



<h2 id="h-research-team-calls-for-two-pronged-approach">Research team calls for two-pronged approach</h2>



<p>This study brings into sharp focus the need to view conservation as a two-pronged effort: creating new protected areas and ensuring the continued integrity of existing ones. As the research has demonstrated, these two strategies are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and both are essential to curbing the loss of biodiversity.</p>



<p>In a world increasingly threatened by human activity and climate change, the research provides a compelling case for not just the creation, but also the strengthening, of protected areas. The study underscores the essential role these areas play in biodiversity conservation and offers a roadmap to achieving better outcomes for species protection.</p>



<p>If heeded, their findings might just be the key to ensuring that parks continue to serve as refuges for thousands of species at risk, ultimately safeguarding our planet's rich tapestry of life for generations to come.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-protected-areas">More about protected areas</h2>



<p>Protected areas are regions of land or water specifically managed for the conservation of biodiversity and natural or cultural resources. These areas can take many forms, including national parks, wildlife reserves, marine protected areas, and community-managed conservation areas, among others.</p>



<p>The importance of nature parks to Earth's biodiversity is immense, as they provide a refuge for a wide variety of species, including many that are threatened or endangered.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-protection">Habitat Protection</h3>



<p>Protected areas are crucial for preserving habitats that species need to survive. They can shield ecosystems from destructive human activities, like deforestation, mining, and overfishing, which degrade habitats and make them uninhabitable for many species.</p>



<h3 id="h-species-preservation">Species Preservation</h3>



<p>Protected areas are often established to preserve species that are endangered or have special significance. They provide a safe haven where these species can live without threats from hunting or habitat destruction.</p>



<h3 id="h-genetic-diversity">Genetic Diversity</h3>



<p>By preserving a wide array of species, protected areas also safeguard genetic diversity. This diversity is crucial for the health and resilience of ecosystems and can provide genetic materials for future scientific discovery and potential use in medicine, agriculture, and other fields.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate Change Mitigation</h3>



<p>Protected areas, especially those that contain forests, mangroves, or peatlands, can also help mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Additionally, by preserving ecosystem integrity, these areas can help species adapt to changing climate conditions.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-importance">Cultural Importance</h3>



<p>Many protected areas also hold significant cultural value. They can protect lands that are sacred or important to Indigenous peoples and local communities, maintaining cultural heritage and traditional knowledge.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecotourism-and-economy">Ecotourism and Economy</h3>



<p>Nature parks often support local economies by attracting tourism. They provide opportunities for recreation, education, and nature appreciation, contributing to the overall quality of human life.</p>



<p>Despite their importance, protected areas face numerous challenges. Encroachment from human activities, insufficient funding for proper management, and climate change can all degrade these spaces and diminish their ability to preserve biodiversity. It's vital that these areas are not just designated, but also effectively managed and enforced, to ensure they can continue to fulfill their crucial role in biodiversity conservation.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Protecting existing nature parks is just as important as creating new ones

Nature parks, otherwise known as protected areas, have emerged as...

Tree,At,Spring,Against,The,Sun,And,Photovoltaic,Panel

<p>As the world grapples with soaring energy prices, a landmark shift towards renewable energy is taking place. Solar power, in particular, is enjoying a remarkable boom, a phenomenon detailed in a new report released Thursday by the <a href="https://www.iea.org/">International Energy Agency</a> (IEA).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The global drive to embrace clean energy, spurred by Russia's attack on Ukraine and resultant fossil fuel price hikes, is set to result in a record-breaking addition to the world's renewable energy capacity this year.</p>



<p>IEA's report predicts that solar and wind power installations are on track to reach 440 gigawatts in 2023. To put this into perspective, it's an increase of about one-third compared to the capacity added in the previous year. This will push the world's total installed capacity to an impressive 4,500 GW, a figure comparable to the combined power output of the United States and China.</p>



<p>Fatih Birol, the IEA's executive director, explained the significance of this shift. "The global energy crisis has shown renewables are critical for making energy supplies not just cleaner but also more secure and affordable,” he stated.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-nations-are-embracing-renewable-energy">More nations are embracing renewable energy</h2>



<p>Governments around the world are acknowledging this, expediting their deployment of renewable energy resources. Recent incentives from the Biden administration, for instance, are already accelerating renewable adoption in the United States.</p>



<p>The surge in renewable power capacity this year will predominantly be driven by photovoltaic (PV) technology, accounting for about two-thirds of the increase. Both large-scale solar farms and small-scale consumer rooftop installations are experiencing significant growth, thanks to the booming manufacturing capacity for PV components, especially in China.</p>



<p>The construction of new wind farms is also anticipated to rebound following a period of subdued growth. However, the IEA report pointed out an important bottleneck: unlike the solar sector, supply chains for wind turbines are not expanding quickly enough to meet the increasing demand.</p>



<h2 id="h-power-grids-must-adapt-and-be-upgraded">Power grids must adapt and be upgraded</h2>



<p>Alongside this surge in renewable energy, Birol highlighted the need for power grids to adapt. Solar and wind power, with their intermittent nature, require a fundamental shift in the way network operators handle energy compared to conventional coal, gas or nuclear plants. Grids must be upgraded and expanded to accommodate this new energy landscape.</p>



<p>By 2024, several European countries, including Spain, Germany, and Ireland, are expected to witness a combined contribution of wind and solar power amounting to over 40% of their overall annual electricity generation.</p>



<p>Transitioning the global economy away from fossil fuels is a crucial step in the fight against climate change. Experts suggest that to achieve the Paris climate accord’s target of restricting global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels, emissions must be reduced by half by 2030 and reach 'net zero' by mid-century.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.irena.org/">International Renewable Energy Agency</a>, a separate entity from the IEA, is urging for a substantial increase in wind and solar investments. The global community is expected to discuss an international target for renewable energy deployment during this year's U.N. climate summit in Dubai. This signals a shared commitment to a sustainable, renewable-powered future.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-solar-energy">More about solar energy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Solar energy, one of the most popular forms of renewable energy, harnesses the power of the sun's radiant light and heat. It's a clean, abundant, and renewable source of energy that can be used for a multitude of applications, including generating electricity, providing light or comfortable interior environments, and heating water for domestic, commercial, or industrial use.</p>



<p>To capture and convert the sun's energy into usable forms, several technologies are available:</p>



<h3 id="h-solar-photovoltaics-pv">Solar Photovoltaics (PV)</h3>



<p>Photovoltaics is the most well-known method for harnessing solar energy. Solar PV systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor materials (often silicon-based) through the photovoltaic effect. The cells generate electric current when photons from the sun hit the cell and energize the electrons.</p>



<h3 id="h-concentrated-solar-power-csp">Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)</h3>



<p>CSP plants generate electricity by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. There are several types of CSP technologies, including parabolic trough, compact linear Fresnel reflector, Stirling dish, and solar power tower systems.</p>



<h3 id="h-solar-heating-and-cooling-shc">Solar Heating and Cooling (SHC)</h3>



<p>SHC technologies collect thermal energy from the sun and use it for heating and cooling purposes. They can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling, and process heat applications.</p>



<h3 id="h-passive-solar">Passive Solar</h3>



<p>Passive solar design takes advantage of the sun's energy to maintain a comfortable temperature in a building without the need for mechanical systems. It involves designing buildings with efficient insulation, strategic window placement, and reflective coatings on walls, windows, and roofs.</p>



<p>Solar energy has numerous advantages. It's sustainable, renewable, and abundant, and it emits no greenhouse gases when producing electricity. It's also versatile, capable of powering everything from small devices to entire buildings and even cities.</p>



<h2 id="h-challenges-of-using-solar-energy">Challenges of using solar energy</h2>



<p>However, it does come with some challenges. Solar energy production is intermittent since it's dependent on daylight hours and weather conditions. Hence, it requires storage solutions or supplementary power sources for periods of low production.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, while the cost of solar technologies has dropped significantly in recent years, initial setup and installation can be high.</p>



<p>Given these factors, continued advancements in solar technology, energy storage solutions, and grid management will play a crucial role in expanding the role of solar power in our global energy mix. The future of solar energy remains promising, and it's expected to be a major contributor to the world's transition to sustainable energy.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-wind-energy">More about wind energy</h2>



<p>Wind energy is another form of renewable energy that harnesses the natural power of the wind to generate electricity. As the wind moves across the surface of the earth, it carries kinetic energy with it. Wind turbines capture this kinetic energy and convert it into mechanical power, which can then be converted into electricity.</p>



<h3 id="h-there-are-two-main-types-of-wind-turbines">There are two main types of wind turbines:</h3>



<ol>
<li>Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs): These are the most commonly recognized type of wind turbine. They consist of a tower with three blades rotating around a horizontal axis, similar to traditional windmills.</li>



<li>Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs): These turbines have a vertical rotor and can capture wind from all directions without needing to be repositioned, unlike HAWTs. VAWTs are less commonly used than HAWTs, but they can be advantageous in areas where wind direction is highly variable or in urban environments.</li>
</ol>



<p>Wind turbines can be installed both onshore and offshore. Onshore wind farms are typically cheaper to install and maintain, but offshore wind farms can capture more energy due to higher wind speeds over the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-making-the-ocean-more-acidic/">ocean</a>.</p>



<p>One of the main benefits of wind energy is that it's a clean, renewable form of energy that doesn't release harmful emissions. It's also abundant, particularly in certain regions with high wind potential. Wind farms, especially those onshore, can be built relatively quickly compared to other types of large-scale energy infrastructure.</p>



<h3 id="h-challenges-of-using-wind-for-energy-supply">Challenges of using wind for energy supply</h3>



<p>However, there are also challenges associated with wind energy. Wind is intermittent, and its availability does not always coincide with electricity demand, necessitating effective energy storage solutions or backup power sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Wind turbines also require a significant amount of space, which can lead to land use conflicts. Furthermore, they have been associated with noise and aesthetic concerns, as well as impacts on wildlife, particularly birds and bats.</p>



<p>In terms of economic considerations, while the cost of wind energy has been decreasing, the initial investment can still be high. However, once a wind farm is set up, the cost of operation and maintenance is relatively low.</p>



<p>Despite these challenges, wind energy plays a crucial role in the transition towards sustainable and clean energy sources. Advancements in technology, like more efficient turbine designs and better energy storage solutions, are continually improving the feasibility and efficiency of wind energy.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

The world's renewable energy capacity will take a record leap this year

As the world grapples with soaring energy prices, a landmark...

<p>Our world is becoming hotter. This isn't simply a matter of sweltering summer afternoons. It's a complex, global shift that's altering seasonal patterns, intensifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> extremes like severe droughts and punishing heat waves, and consequently affecting our food supply.</p>



<p>A freshly published study led by a dedicated team at the Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> brings these issues into sharp focus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study centers on the increased likelihood of extreme temperatures that could devastate crop yields, specifically focusing on the wheat-producing regions of the U.S. and China.</p>



<p>"Imagine heat waves that used to happen once every hundred years in 1981," explained study lead author Erin Coughlan de Perez. "Our data shows that these are now likely to happen once every six years in the Midwestern U.S., and once every 16 years in Northeastern China."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-preparing-instead-of-reacting-is-the-key">Preparing instead of reacting is the key</h2>



<p>This forecasts a range of conditions for which we must prepare, even though we have yet to experience them. "The historical record is no longer a good representation of what we can expect for the future," said Coughlan de Perez.</p>



<p>Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41612-023-00361-y"><em>Climate and Atmospheric Science</em></a>, the paper warns that we live in a changed climate, and people are underestimating current day possibilities for extreme events.</p>



<p>The research pivots on a telling fact from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: the average global surface temperature in the last decade was 1.1 degrees Celsius higher than it was between 1850 and 1900.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>To examine the food simply impacts of this increase on our risk of extreme weather, Coughlan de Perez and her team have meticulously collected a massive ensemble of seasonal forecasts from the past 40 years. These were used to generate thousands of potential temperature and rainfall variations, essentially painting a picture of all the weather outcomes that could have occurred in any given year.</p>



<p>Their unique method, dubbed the Unprecedented Simulated Extreme Ensemble or UNSEEN approach, allowed the researchers to estimate the likely frequency of extreme temperatures that exceed critical growth thresholds for wheat.</p>



<p>Let's look at winter wheat crops. They kick off their growth in the fall and get harvested the following summer. High spring temperatures, when the plant is flowering, can impact the wheat’s development.&nbsp;</p>



<p>At temperatures over 27.8 degrees Celsius (about 82 degrees Fahrenheit), the plants start to experience heat stress. Beyond 32.8 degrees Celsius (about 91 degrees Fahrenheit), vital enzymes in the wheat start to deteriorate.</p>



<p>"In the Midwest, we used to witness seasons with an average of maybe four or five days exceeding this enzyme breakdown threshold - it was quite uncommon," said Coughlan de Perez. "However, our research revealed potential alternate realities of today's climate, showing up to 15 days above this threshold, which would likely cause substantial damage."</p>



<h2 id="h-extreme-heat-normally-coincides-with-extreme-drought">Extreme heat normally coincides with extreme drought</h2>



<p>To make matters worse, record-breaking heat often coincides with record-breaking drought. These two threats combined could drastically reduce the growing season.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Given that the U.S. and China are substantial grain producers for the world, simultaneous crop failures or concurrent failure with other staple crops could profoundly impact global food prices and availability.</p>



<p>The study's results hint that we've been fortunate in these regions in recent years. While weather has an element of randomness, akin to rolling a six-sided die, these areas have been consistently "rolling" low numbers, experiencing cooler weather than they could have.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, climate change has effectively "changed the die," raising the highest number. Consequently, these regions have yet to experience the worst of what could occur, and may not be adequately prepared.</p>



<p>"My hope is to make people aware that their die has changed," said Coughlan de Perez. "You can roll something extremely harsh. Perhaps you won’t roll an eight for some time, but it’s essential to establish plans for when that happens.”</p>



<h2 id="h-predicting-the-future-by-studying-the-atmosphere">Predicting the future by studying the atmosphere</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the researchers pinpointed regional and global atmospheric circulation patterns that could trigger severely hot and dry events. They even highlight a worst-case scenario where both the U.S. and China's wheat production suffer in the same season. This information could prove crucial in crafting climate adaptation plans and ensuring stakeholders are prepared for these unprecedented future events.</p>



<p>"I think, with climate change, we’re suffering from a failure of imagination," said Coughlan de Perez. "If we’re not envisioning the kind of extremes that could occur, then we won’t be ready for them." She strongly believes we don't need to be caught off guard. "We can use tools at our disposal to try to understand what’s possible and be ready when it happens."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-wheat">More about wheat&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Wheat is one of the major food crops of the world, serving as a staple diet for more than a third of the global human population, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization. Its diverse varieties allow it to be grown in a range of geographic regions, from the plains of the U.S. Midwest to the steppes of Russia and the fields of China.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Wheat supplies about 20% of the food calories for the world's population. Consequently, disruptions to wheat harvests can have profound impacts on food security, availability, and prices, affecting human nutrition and potentially leading to social and economic instability.</p>



<p>Climate change, however, poses significant risks to the sustainability of wheat production. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like heatwaves and droughts are all aspects of climate change that can adversely impact wheat crops.</p>



<p>High temperatures, particularly during the critical flowering stage, can significantly reduce wheat yields. Heat stress during this period can lead to lower grain numbers and smaller grain sizes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As noted in the study led by Erin Coughlan de Perez, the temperatures at which wheat plants start to suffer from heat stress and critical enzymes begin to break down are 27.8 degrees Celsius (about 82 degrees Fahrenheit) and 32.8 degrees Celsius (about 91 degrees Fahrenheit), respectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-impact-of-climate-change-on-wheat-production">Impact of climate change on wheat production</h3>



<p>Moreover, research indicates that climate change may exacerbate the incidence of pests and diseases that affect wheat, adding to the challenges facing wheat production. Changing weather patterns can also disrupt the usual planting and harvesting cycles, causing further uncertainties for farmers.</p>



<p>A study published in <em>Nature Climate Change</em> in 2017 suggests that if global temperatures increase by 2 degrees Celsius, wheat yields could fall by 6% on average globally. This decline may not seem significant, but considering the billions of people who rely on wheat as a staple food, the impact could be substantial.</p>



<p>To mitigate these impacts, farmers and researchers are exploring various adaptation strategies. These include developing new, heat-resistant wheat varieties, altering planting and harvesting schedules to avoid periods of likely heat stress, and improving irrigation practices to cope with changing rainfall patterns.</p>



<h3 id="h-global-societal-action-is-needed">Global societal action is needed</h3>



<p>However, while these adaptations can help, they may not entirely offset the potential impacts of climate change on wheat production. As such, broader societal action to limit global warming is essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of wheat and other critical food crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, policy measures are needed to support farmers in adopting sustainable practices and to provide safety nets for those affected by crop failures due to extreme weather events.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the challenges posed by climate change to wheat production are substantial but not insurmountable. With careful planning, scientific innovation, and global cooperation, it is possible to safeguard this vital crop for future generations.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Record-breaking heat is threatening wheat and the global food supply

Our world is becoming hotter. This isn't simply a matter...

<p>In an echo of strategies employed by the tobacco industry, the chemical sector has been implicated in concealing vital information about the detrimental health effects linked to PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) exposure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding emerges from an examination of previously confidential industry papers by a team of researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">UC San Francisco</a> (UCSF).</p>



<p>Published in the journal <a href="https://annalsofglobalhealth.org/"><em>Annals of Global Health</em></a>, a shocking paper casts light on how companies like DuPont and 3M, the largest PFAS manufacturers, employed various tactics to delay the public awareness of PFAS toxicity. This deliberate stalling strategy further slowed the formulation of regulations governing the use of these chemicals.</p>



<p>PFAS, notoriously known as "forever chemicals," are extensively used in various household goods, clothing, and food products. Their resistance to degradation has not only resulted in their prevalence in our environment but also in their omnipresence in human bodies.</p>



<p>Tracey J. Woodruff, PhD, professor and director of the UCSF Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment (PRHE), and senior author of the paper, said: “These documents reveal clear evidence that the chemical industry knew about the dangers of PFAS and failed to let the public, regulators, and even their own employees know the risks.”</p>



<p>Woodruff, a former senior scientist and policy advisor at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), used this opportunity to analyze the PFAS industry documents for the first time through the lens of exposing tobacco industry tactics.</p>



<h2 id="h-harmful-and-toxic-effects-had-been-known-for-decades">Harmful and toxic effects had been known for decades</h2>



<p>The concealed industry documents were unearthed during a lawsuit launched by attorney Robert Bilott, known for successfully suing DuPont over PFAS contamination, and whose story inspired the film “Dark Waters.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bilott forwarded these documents, spanning from 1961 to 2006, to the creators of the documentary, “The Devil We Know.” They, in turn, contributed them to the UCSF Chemical Industry Documents Library.</p>



<p>“Having access to these documents allows us to see what the manufacturers knew and when, but also how polluting industries keep critical public health information private," said lead researcher Dr. Nadia Gaber.</p>



<p>She also stressed the importance of this research in informing policy decisions and pushing towards a precautionary principle in chemical regulation.</p>



<p>The researchers emphasized that public knowledge regarding PFAS toxicity remained minimal during the first five decades of their usage. This lack of transparency persisted despite industry having numerous studies showing adverse health effects at least 21 years before these were made public.</p>



<p>The paper reports that DuPont suppressed evidence from internal animal and occupational studies demonstrating PFAS toxicity. Instead of sharing these results with the EPA as required by TSCA, they were marked "confidential." The paper further indicates instances where industry executives explicitly expressed their desire to have such incriminating memos destroyed.</p>



<h2 id="h-borrowing-the-suppression-strategy-from-the-tobacco-industry">Borrowing the suppression strategy from the tobacco industry</h2>



<p>The paper lays out a timeline of the chemical industry's knowledge of PFAS risks versus public awareness. It uncovers strategies used by the chemical industry to suppress vital information and protect their harmful products.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In 1961, a company report revealed that Teflon's Chief of Toxicology discovered that Teflon materials had “the ability to increase the size of the liver of rats at low doses,” and warned that the chemicals “be handled ‘with extreme care’ and that ‘contact with the skin should be strictly avoided.’”</p>



<p>A 1970 internal memo from DuPont-funded Haskell Laboratory declared C8 (one of thousands of PFAS) as “highly toxic when inhaled and moderately toxic when ingested.” By 1979, Haskell labs found that dogs exposed to a single dose of PFOA “died two days after ingestion.”</p>



<p>In 1980, DuPont and 3M discovered two birth defects among eight pregnant employees working in C8 manufacturing. However, they failed to disclose this finding or inform their employees about it. In a contradictory move, an internal memo in the following year claimed, “We know of no evidence of birth defects caused by C-8 at DuPont.”</p>



<p>Yet, DuPont reassured its employees in 1980, comparing the toxicity of C8 to that of table salt. They further downplayed reports of PFAS groundwater contamination near one of their plants in a 1991 press release, stating, “C-8 has no known toxic or ill health effects in humans at concentration levels detected.”</p>



<p>As lawsuits in 1998 and 2002 raised media attention to PFAS contamination, DuPont contacted the EPA, pushing for a swift public statement. They urged, “We need EPA to quickly (like first thing tomorrow) say the following: That consumer products sold under the Teflon brand are safe and to date there are no human health effects known to be caused by PFOA.”</p>



<p>In 2004, the EPA penalized DuPont for withholding their findings on PFOA. Despite the $16.45 million settlement being the largest civil penalty under U.S. environmental statutes at the time, it constituted a mere fraction of DuPont’s $1 billion annual revenues from PFOA and C8 in 2005.</p>



<p>Reflecting on the implications of the paper, Woodruff said, “As many countries pursue legal and legislative action to curb PFAS production, we hope they are aided by the timeline of evidence presented in this paper.” She noted that this timeline reveals significant flaws in the existing U.S. regulations on harmful chemicals.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-forever-chemicals">More about forever chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>PFAS, or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, are a group of human-made chemicals that have been manufactured and used in a variety of industries around the world since the 1940s. They are used in a wide range of products because of their unique properties, such as their resistance to heat, water, and oil.</p>



<p>PFAS can be found in:</p>



<ul>
<li>Food packaging materials, such as microwave popcorn bags and pizza boxes</li>



<li>Stain- and water-repellent fabrics</li>



<li>Nonstick products, such as Teflon</li>



<li>Polishes, waxes, paints, and cleaning products</li>



<li>Fire-fighting foams (a major source of groundwater contamination at airports and military bases where firefighting training occurs)</li>
</ul>



<p>PFAS are known as "forever chemicals" because they are extremely resistant to breaking down in the environment. They are stable, persistent, and bioaccumulate, meaning their concentration can increase over time in the environment and in organisms.</p>



<p>Studies have indicated that exposure to certain PFAS may lead to adverse human health effects. Some of the health effects linked with PFAS exposure include:</p>



<ul>
<li>Effects on growth, learning, and behavior of infants and older children</li>



<li>Lower fertility and interference with the body’s natural hormones</li>



<li>Increased cholesterol levels</li>



<li>Elevated risk of cancer, particularly kidney and testicular cancers</li>



<li>Impact on the immune system</li>



<li>Increased risk of thyroid disease</li>
</ul>



<p>The most studied PFAS chemicals are PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) and PFOS (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid). Both of these are no longer manufactured in the United States, but they are still produced internationally and can be imported into the US in consumer goods.</p>



<p>Due to their widespread use and persistence in the environment, most people in the US have been exposed to PFAS. They can be detected in blood, and in certain cases, in drinking water supplies.</p>



<p>There’s increasing concern about the health effects of PFAS exposure, and a growing push for stricter regulation of these chemicals. Various states in the US have enacted legislation or issued guidance regarding PFAS, and there is ongoing research to better understand the impacts of these substances on human health and the environment.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Creators of forever chemicals covered up the toxic dangers for decades

In an echo of strategies employed by the tobacco industry,...

<p><a href="https://peatlands.org/event/world-peatlands-day/">World Peatlands Day</a> is celebrated on the 2nd of June each year. But what are peatlands and why are they important to the Earth?</p>



<p>Peatlands, a distinctive type of wetland, cover approximately three percent of the world's land surface. This unique ecosystem, although not widely recognized, plays a vital role in climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and natural water management.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The term "peatland" refers to landscapes where peat – partially decomposed plant material – has accumulated, creating wet, soggy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-insect-is-transforming-antarctic-soils-paving-the-way-for-new-species/">soils</a> that form a unique ecological niche for a variety of plant and animal species.</p>



<h2 id="h-formation-of-peatlands">Formation of Peatlands</h2>



<p>The formation of peatlands is a fascinating process that involves specific environmental conditions and a significant amount of time. Below, we'll explore this process in more detail, beginning with the creation of a waterlogged environment and concluding with the accumulation of peat.</p>



<h3 id="h-initiation-of-peatland-formation">Initiation of Peatland Formation</h3>



<p>The formation of peatlands typically begins in waterlogged environments where the rate of plant material decomposition is significantly reduced. These environments may include marshes, swamps, or other wetlands where oxygen levels are low due to high water levels.</p>



<p>The waterlogged condition creates an anaerobic (oxygen-deficient) environment, which slows down the activity of decomposer organisms, such as bacteria and fungi. As a result, plant matter that falls into these areas is not fully decomposed and starts to accumulate over time.</p>



<h3 id="h-plant-matter-accumulation">Plant Matter Accumulation</h3>



<p>The primary contributors to the accumulation of plant material in peatlands can vary depending on the region. In boreal and temperate regions, mosses, particularly sphagnum species, contribute significantly to the peat layer. The special properties of sphagnum mosses make them a crucial element in the formation of peatlands. These mosses are highly absorbent, soaking up many times their weight in water, thereby helping to maintain the waterlogged conditions necessary for peatland formation.</p>



<p>In contrast, in tropical regions, trees are often the main contributors to the peat layer. These trees, adapted to thrive in waterlogged conditions, produce large amounts of organic matter that, under the right conditions, can lead to the formation of peatlands.</p>



<h3 id="h-peat-formation">Peat Formation</h3>



<p>As more plant material accumulates and the partially decomposed plant material becomes more compacted, a layer of peat begins to form. Peat is a brown, soil-like material consisting of partially decomposed organic matter.</p>



<p>The accumulation of peat happens very slowly, at a rate of about one mm per year. Given that peat layers can be many meters thick, peatland formation is a process that can take thousands of years.</p>



<p>The process of peat formation creates acidic, low-nutrient conditions, largely because sphagnum mosses release hydrogen ions as they absorb cations (positively charged ions) from the water. This acidity further slows the decomposition of plant material, creating a positive feedback loop that encourages the continued accumulation of peat.</p>



<h3 id="h-maturation-into-peatlands">Maturation into Peatlands</h3>



<p>Over time, as the layer of peat thickens, it can eventually rise above the water table, leading to the formation of raised bogs. These raised bogs receive water solely from rainfall, making them typically nutrient-poor and highly acidic.</p>



<p>In contrast, some peatlands remain level with or below the water table, continuing to receive nutrients from groundwater or surface water runoff. These peatlands, known as fens, are typically less acidic and more nutrient-rich than raised bogs.</p>



<p>The formation of peatlands is a slow and complex process that requires specific environmental conditions. While they form slowly, their ecological significance is immense, and their preservation is of critical importance. The formation process underscores how intricate and delicately balanced these ecosystems are, emphasizing the need for careful management and conservation efforts.</p>



<h2 id="h-types-of-peatlands">Types of Peatlands</h2>



<p>Peatlands are incredibly diverse and have been classified into various types based on their hydrology, ecology, and geographic location. The two primary types of peatlands, distinguished by their water sources, are bogs (ombrotrophic) and fens (minerotrophic). However, other types, such as swamps, pocosins, and blanket bogs, also contribute to the richness and diversity of peatland ecosystems.</p>



<h3 id="h-bogs-ombrotrophic-peatlands">Bogs (Ombrotrophic Peatlands)&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bogs are a type of peatland that are fed exclusively by precipitation, making them ombrotrophic or "rain-fed." As they rely solely on rainfall, they are generally nutrient-poor and acidic. This is because rainwater lacks the mineral nutrients found in groundwater and surface runoff, and bog plants, like sphagnum mosses, contribute to acidification of the bog environment.</p>



<p>Bogs can further be classified into raised and blanket bogs. Raised bogs are dome-shaped formations often found in temperate regions. As the name suggests, they rise above the local groundwater level due to the accumulation of peat.</p>



<p>In contrast, blanket bogs are extensive layers of peat that cover large areas, usually in regions with cool, damp climates, such as parts of Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia. These landscapes, draped by a "blanket" of peat, form over flat or gently sloping ground, usually in upland areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-fens-minerotrophic-peatlands">Fens (Minerotrophic Peatlands)</h3>



<p>Fens, in contrast to bogs, receive water not just from precipitation but also from groundwater or surface runoff. This water source is richer in nutrients compared to rainwater, making fens minerotrophic or "mineral-fed." Fens are less acidic and more nutrient-rich than bogs, which allows them to support a greater diversity of plant life. You'll find sedges, rushes, reeds, and a variety of grasses and wildflowers in fen ecosystems.</p>



<p>Like bogs, fens can also be further categorized. Poor fens are more similar to bogs in that they have lower nutrient levels and are more acidic. Rich fens, on the other hand, have higher nutrient levels and are more alkaline.</p>



<h3 id="h-peat-swamps">Peat Swamps</h3>



<p>Peat swamps, also known as swamp forests or peat swamp forests, are a type of peatland found in tropical regions, particularly in Southeast Asia. As their name suggests, these are forested peatlands where trees have adapted to waterlogged conditions and contribute significantly to peat formation. Peat swamp forests are important habitats for numerous threatened and endangered species.</p>



<h3 id="h-pocosins">Pocosins</h3>



<p>Found primarily in the southeastern United States, pocosins are a type of peatland characterized by dense evergreen shrubs and, often, a canopy of pond pines. Pocosins are unique in that they develop on flat, sandy landscapes far from rivers and streams. Over time, the accumulation of organic material creates a thick, peat-rich layer that is waterlogged for much of the year.</p>



<p>The variety of peatland types worldwide demonstrates the ecological versatility and significance of these ecosystems. Each type of peatland represents a unique combination of water source, vegetation, nutrient availability, and peat characteristics, contributing to the rich diversity of habitats and species found in these landscapes.</p>



<h2 id="h-ecological-importance-of-peatlands">Ecological Importance of Peatlands</h2>



<p>Peatlands provide numerous ecosystem services that are essential for supporting life on Earth. These include carbon storage, biodiversity maintenance, water regulation, and a range of cultural services.</p>



<h3 id="h-carbon-storage">Carbon Storage&nbsp;</h3>



<p>One of the most significant ecological functions of peatlands is their role in carbon storage. Despite covering just 3% of the Earth's land surface, peatlands hold approximately 30% of all terrestrial carbon. This disproportionality is due to the nature of peat formation, in which plant material is not fully decomposed and is instead stored in the peat layer. This process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, a key greenhouse gas contributing to global warming, and stores it in a stable form in the soil.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Peatlands are also crucial for biodiversity. These ecosystems provide unique habitats for a variety of plant and animal species. Peatlands' acidity, low nutrient content, and waterlogged conditions have led to the evolution of specialized species adapted to these conditions. For example, many types of mosses, sedges, and carnivorous plants are characteristic of peatland ecosystems.</p>



<p>Peatlands also support a diverse array of bird species, including several that are peatland specialists, such as the Palm Cockatoo in tropical peat swamps, or the European Golden Plover in blanket bogs. Many invertebrate species, such as dragonflies, damselflies, and various beetles, are also found in peatlands.</p>



<p>In the tropics, peat swamp forests are home to endangered species such as orangutans, Sumatran tigers, and proboscis monkeys, highlighting the importance of these habitats for conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-water-regulation">Water Regulation</h3>



<p>Peatlands play a crucial role in water regulation due to their sponge-like ability to absorb and hold large amounts of water. This capacity helps to mitigate flooding during periods of heavy rainfall by absorbing excess water and slowly releasing it back into the environment.</p>



<p>During dry periods, peatlands slowly release stored water, helping to maintain river flows and groundwater levels. Additionally, peatlands' water filtering capability improves water quality by absorbing and retaining pollutants.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-services">Cultural Services</h3>



<p>Peatlands also provide a range of cultural services. They are important in folklore and tradition and have historical significance in many cultures. They have also been used for various human activities over the centuries, including peat extraction for fuel and agriculture.</p>



<p>The ecological importance of peatlands underscores the urgent need for their conservation and sustainable management. These habitats' unique characteristics make them irreplaceable once lost, and preserving them is crucial for maintaining global biodiversity, mitigating climate change, and preserving essential ecosystem services. The continued degradation and loss of peatlands have far-reaching implications, highlighting the importance of integrating peatland conservation into broader land management and conservation strategies.</p>



<h2 id="h-threats-to-peatlands">Threats to Peatlands</h2>



<p>Peatlands are threatened by a range of human activities, including:</p>



<ul>
<li>Drainage for agriculture: Peatlands are often drained to create farmland, leading to the oxidation of stored carbon and release of greenhouse gases. This practice also disrupts water regulation and damages habitats of many unique species.</li>



<li>Peat extraction: Peat has been traditionally used as a source of fuel and is still used as a soil additive in horticulture. Large-scale peat extraction contributes to carbon release and habitat destruction.</li>



<li>Palm oil plantations: In Southeast Asia, vast tracts of peat swamp forests have been cleared and drained for palm oil cultivation, causing severe environmental harm.</li>



<li>Climate change: Global warming could lead to the drying out of peatlands, making them susceptible to fires, which can release vast amounts of carbon dioxide.</li>
</ul>



<h2 id="h-conservation-of-peatlands">Conservation of Peatlands&nbsp;</h2>



<ul>
<li>Conservation efforts for peatlands involve their protection, restoration, and sustainable management. These measures include:</li>



<li>Establishing protected areas: Governments, international bodies, and NGOs can designate peatlands as protected areas to prevent their exploitation and degradation.</li>



<li>Peatland restoration: Drained peatlands can be restored by blocking drainage channels and re-wetting the peat soil, thereby restoring its function as a carbon sink. The process may also involve the reestablishment of native vegetation.</li>



<li>Promoting sustainable land use practices: In areas where peatland use is necessary, promoting sustainable practices can minimize damage. This includes responsible peat extraction, agroforestry, and organic farming methods that do not involve drainage.</li>



<li>Community involvement: Engaging local communities in peatland management and restoration is vital for the success of conservation efforts.</li>
</ul>



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



<p>Peatlands, as complex and ecologically significant landscapes, play an essential role in our world. Their conservation is not just critical for the species that call these habitats home, but for the health of our planet as a whole. Despite being under threat, with understanding, respect, and responsible management, these unique landscapes can continue to perform their vital ecological functions long into the future.</p>



<p>Educating students about the importance of peatlands, their ecological significance, and the threats they face encourages an understanding of complex ecosystems and promotes an attitude of stewardship for our environment. As science educators, we have the opportunity and responsibility to engage and inspire our students about these important aspects of our planet’s health.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Happy World Peatlands Day! What is it, and why should you care?

World Peatlands Day is celebrated on the 2nd of June...

Mountain,Peak,Green,Nature,Scenery

<p>In an intriguing shift of scientific perspective, research led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) has hinted that our understanding of mountain formation may require a deeper look.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, largely focused on southern Italy, suggests that the mechanics and underlying causes of mountain building are rooted further beneath Earth's crust than previously believed.</p>



<p>Sean Gallen, the lead author and an assistant professor of geosciences at CSU, commented: "Mountain building is a fundamental process of how Earth behaves, and this study suggests that we may not understand that as well as we thought we did."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>To dig deeper into this mystery, Gallen and his team developed new data sets and techniques. Their approach was unique: use the landscapes to map out the long-term history of mountain building.</p>



<p>At the heart of the study were subduction zones like Calabria in southern Italy. In these zones, one tectonic plate dives beneath another, causing crumpling and thickening of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/">Earth's crust</a> - typically understood as the primary drivers of mountain formation.</p>



<p>To better understand the history of this process, the team brought together measurements spanning various timescales, from thousands to tens of millions of years. The landscape served as a sort of "geologic tape recorder," filling in the gaps of the tectonic history.</p>



<p>Professor Gallen explained: "In southern Italy, the landscape actually is the bridge between these different methods that we typically use."</p>



<p>By studying flat, high-elevation patches of the landscape along the "toe" of the Italian peninsula, the team made a groundbreaking discovery. These regions mark periods of slower mountain formation, while steep transitions below indicate rapid acceleration. Interpreting these clues, the researchers created an extensive, continuous record of rock uplift – the longest and most complete of its kind.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-approach-yields-surprising-results">New approach yields surprising results</h2>



<p>This innovative method, however, yielded surprising results. "We would expect to see a correlation between the rate at which the plate is diving down beneath the other plate through time and our rock uplift history, and we don't see that," noted Gallen.</p>



<p>Rather than attributing the mountain formation primarily to crust crumpling and thickening, the data pointed to another process. The descent of the lower plate through Earth's mantle and its subsequent alteration of the mantle flow field emerged as key factors controlling rock uplift.</p>



<p>Professor Gallen stressed the significance of this finding: "The results suggest that the typical way we view mountain building doesn't hold for southern Italy. It appears to be controlled by things that are much deeper within the Earth system. This behavior has been seen in models but never in nature. This is the first time we think we've observed it.”</p>



<p>While additional data is needed to verify these findings, existing numerical models provide support. Scientists have previously associated mountain height with tectonic plate interactions within Earth's plastically flowing mantle. However, this research suggests that such interactions may be the primary driver of mountain building in subduction zones.</p>



<p>“The records we have produced imply that deep earth signals appear to dominate what's happening at the surface," said Professor Gallen. "I've been working in the Mediterranean for 15 years, and this result has profoundly changed the way I think about these subduction zones.”</p>



<h2 id="h-added-benefit-new-techniques-invented-for-future-research">Added benefit – new techniques invented for future research</h2>



<p>Beyond its findings, the study also pioneered new techniques for constructing long-term rock uplift histories. The team's innovative approach unifies standard geomorphology measurements - thermochronology, cosmogenic nuclides, bedrock river profiles, and marine terrace records of past sea levels - under one framework. This strategy not only delves further into geologic history but also uses different data sets to uniquely constrain modeling.</p>



<p>The researchers developed software to support their novel approach, making it freely available for other researchers in hopes of spurring more discoveries. The authors of the study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01185-4"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a> - are Nikki M. Seymour, Christoph Glotzbach, Daniel F. Stockli, and Paul O'Sullivan. These academics are affiliated with the Department of Geosciences in CSU's Warner College of Natural Resources.</p>



<p>While the technique's primary strength lies in its application to active geological systems, it is not without limitations. The landscape of a region offers valuable clues about its geological history, but the further back the geological activity, the more challenging it becomes to reconstruct that history with certainty. Despite this, Professor Gallen remains optimistic about the potential implications of their work.</p>



<p>In conclusion, this groundbreaking research not only challenges our current understanding of mountain formation but also offers innovative tools for further exploration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study, which proposes that the processes taking place far deeper beneath the Earth's surface primarily drive mountain formation, calls for a reevaluation of geological theories. It illuminates the importance of continually probing, questioning, and reshaping our knowledge of the world – even when the subject is as solid and unchanging as mountains.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-mountains">More about mountains</h2>



<p>Mountains are landforms that rise prominently above their surroundings, characterized by steep slopes and high relief. They're found on every continent and in every kind of environment - in temperate, tropical, and arctic climates. Here is a broad overview:</p>



<h3 id="h-formation-of-mountains">Formation of Mountains&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Mountains are primarily formed through tectonic forces, causing a section of the Earth's crust to uplift. This often occurs at the boundaries of tectonic plates. There are various types of mountains, each formed by different geological processes.</p>



<ol>
<li><em>Fold Mountains</em>: These are formed when two tectonic plates collide, and the edges of the plates fold due to immense pressure. The Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, and the Andes in South America are examples of fold mountains.</li>



<li><em>Fault-Block Mountains</em>: These are formed when faults or cracks in the Earth's crust force materials or blocks of rock upwards or downwards. The Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America are an example of fault-block mountains.</li>



<li><em>Dome Mountains</em>: These form when a large amount of molten rock, or magma, pushes its way up under the Earth crust but doesn't reach the surface. The magma then cools, creating a bulge or dome. The Black Hills of South Dakota are an example of dome mountains.</li>



<li><em>Volcanic Mountains</em>: These are formed when magma from deep within the Earth breaks through the crust and erupts on the surface, forming a mountain over time as the lava cools and accumulates. Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount St. Helens in the U.S. are examples of volcanic mountains.</li>



<li><em>Plateau Mountains</em>: These are formed by erosion, with water, wind, and ice cutting into solid rock to form mountains. The Appalachian Mountains in the Eastern U.S. are examples of plateau mountains.</li>
</ol>



<h3 id="h-ecology-and-biodiversity">Ecology and Biodiversity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Mountains are home to a diverse range of flora and fauna. Due to the change in climate with altitude (it becomes colder the higher you go), different levels or zones of vegetation can be seen on a mountain, often referred to as life zones. This altitude effect also means that mountains can host a variety of ecosystems, from temperate forests at their base to alpine tundra environments at their peaks.</p>



<p>In addition to plant life, mountains are also home to a diverse range of animal species. Some animals have evolved to thrive in the harsh conditions at high altitudes, and many species are endemic to mountainous regions (meaning they're found nowhere else on Earth).</p>



<h3 id="h-human-interaction">Human Interaction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Humans have been interacting with mountainous environments for thousands of years. Mountains have often been seen as sacred places, and many cultures attach spiritual significance to them.</p>



<p>Mountains also provide a range of ecosystem services that are vital for human societies, such as fresh water, forest products, and mineral resources. In addition, they're important for tourism and recreational activities, such as hiking, skiing, and mountaineering.</p>



<p>However, human activities also pose threats to mountain environments. Climate change, deforestation, overgrazing, and other forms of environmental degradation can damage these delicate ecosystems, leading to a loss of biodiversity and affecting the services that mountains provide.</p>



<h3 id="h-importance-for-climate-and-water">Importance for Climate and Water</h3>



<p>Mountains play a crucial role in our planet's water cycle. They receive more rainfall than low-lying areas because as air is forced over higher ground, it cools, causing moisture to condense and fall as rain. They're also home to many of the world's glaciers, which store water as ice during the winter and gradually release it in the warmer months.</p>



<p>Furthermore, mountains have a significant influence on the Earth's climate. They act as barriers to air movement and play a key role in the circulation of the Earth's atmosphere. For instance, they can force air upwards, causing it to cool and leading to condensation and precipitation. This is why one side of a mountain range can be wet (the windward side) while the other side (the leeward side) can be very dry, a phenomenon known as a rain shadow effect.</p>



<p>Cultural Significance</p>



<p>Across many cultures and throughout history, mountains have held a profound cultural and spiritual significance. They've been revered as the dwelling place of deities, as seen in ancient Greek mythology with Mount Olympus, the home of the gods. Many cultures undertake pilgrimages to mountain tops as part of their spiritual practice.</p>



<p>In addition, mountains often feature prominently in literature, art, folklore, and music, symbolizing challenges to overcome, places of solitude, or sites of awe-inspiring beauty.</p>



<h3 id="h-study-of-mountains">Study of Mountains</h3>



<p>The scientific study of mountains is known as orography, a branch of physical geography. It includes studying the formation, classification, and distribution of mountains, as well as understanding the effects of mountains on climate and weather conditions.</p>



<h3 id="h-safety-and-mountain-sports">Safety and Mountain Sports</h3>



<p>While mountains offer recreational activities like hiking, trekking, climbing, skiing, and mountain biking, they also present unique dangers. These include high-altitude sickness due to lower oxygen levels, avalanches, sudden weather changes, and difficult terrain. Mountain safety education is essential for anyone wanting to participate in these activities.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Due to their ecological importance, fragility, and the unique flora and fauna they harbor, many mountainous regions are protected under national park status or other conservation designations. Nevertheless, mountains face threats from climate change, habitat destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, and ongoing conservation efforts are critical.</p>



<p>In conclusion, mountains are fascinating and complex structures. They're integral to Earth's ecosystems, impacting climate, water distribution, and biodiversity. They serve as a source of resources and enjoyment for humans, yet they require our respect and careful stewardship to protect their fragile environments for future generations.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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How and why do mountains form? New theories for an age-old mystery

In an intriguing shift of scientific perspective, research led by...

<p>Our world has been battered and bruised by the impacts of human activity, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> degraded and biodiversity profoundly affected. Yet, amidst these challenges, the scientific world brings a glimmer of hope with ecosystem restoration studies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A recent investigation has revealed that a decade-long restoration project has reinvigorated a previously disturbed underwater seaweed forest, restoring it to a level of richness and vitality comparable to undisturbed forests.</p>



<h2 id="h-research-sheds-light-on-importance-of-seaweed-forests">Research sheds light on importance of seaweed forests</h2>



<p>“Macroalgal forests are found along over one-third of the world’s coastlines and underpin entire ecosystems," said Dr. Emma Cebrian of the Centre d'Estudis Avançats de Blanes, a co-author of the study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1176655"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a>.</p>



<p>Indeed, this forest is not an isolated entity. It's the lifeline for myriad other species, providing shelter and sustenance. Dr. Cebrian's team decided to revitalize one such habitat, where a species of macroalga had once flourished.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“In 2011, a restoration action took place in the Bay of Maó, Menorca. After 10 years, we found that the associated algal species returned to the habitat, and with them, the ecosystem functions they provide," said Dr. Cebrian.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>The strategy employed by the team was unique. They opted for a trait-based approach, focusing on the link between restoration efforts and the forest returning to its original function. To accomplish this, they scrutinized the Gongolaria barbata, a "canopy-forming" species pivotal in maintaining seaweed forests, in five different localities.</p>



<p>“Among all seaweeds, canopy-forming macroalgae provide structure to the ecosystem similar to trees in a terrestrial forest. They influence the local environment by altering, for example, the light and water flow. These modifications in the environment create ecological niches that other species can profit from," explained study first author Cristina Galobart.</p>



<p>The evaluation of restoration projects often comes with its own set of challenges. In marine ecosystems, where these projects are relatively new, evaluations typically occur over short timescales.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the team argues that projects targeting slower-growing species require longer assessments. The key question remains: how does an ecosystem reclaim its functional traits after disturbance?</p>



<p>To address this, the researchers decided to study quantifiable traits in Gongolaria barbata that reflect the overall health of the ecosystem. These traits included the size of specimens and whether they belonged to a longer-living or slower-growing species. Larger or longer-living species indicate a healthier ecosystem capable of supporting them.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-to-quantify-the-results">How to quantify the results</h2>



<p>The experts compared an actively restored locality, a location where restored macroalgae had spread beyond the initial restoration area, an unrestored neighboring locality, and two undisturbed reference localities.&nbsp;</p>



<p>After collecting, identifying, drying, and weighing samples from each site, they found that the restored locality housed a more diverse range of species than both the untouched locality and the area where restoration had spread. Remarkably, the species composition resembled that of the reference samples.</p>



<p>Interestingly, the restored locality didn't necessarily house the same species as before the disturbance, but it did boast similar levels of biodiversity. Its greater structural complexity, longer-living species, and added diversity signaled long-term recovery and an enhanced ability to offer shelter to other organisms. Moreover, the diversity could potentially boost the forest's resilience against future environmental challenges.</p>



<p>Dr. Cebrian summed up the findings: “We demonstrated that a single restoration action, plus the removal of the cause of degradation, can lead to the recovery of not only a single species but also the associated ecosystem functions.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-future-studies-already-in-the-works">Future studies already in the works</h2>



<p>Her vision for future studies involves gathering data from various restoration projects to comprehensively understand functionality recovery under different conditions. She believes that this comprehensive approach will pave the way for broader insights into ecosystem restoration across various habitats, species, and environmental circumstances.</p>



<p>The study offers an invaluable lesson in the benefits of restoration projects, showing how they can restore a damaged ecosystem to its former glory over time. It's clear from the findings that seaweed forests are incredibly resilient, given the chance. When properly managed and nurtured, they can bounce back, regrow, and continue to play a vital role in supporting a rich array of marine life.</p>



<p>One crucial aspect to consider moving forward is the spillover effect of restoration efforts. The team found that restored macroalgae could spread beyond the initial restoration area, offering a beneficial, organic expansion of the project's influence.</p>



<p>The breakthrough research offers a new perspective on how we approach marine ecosystem degradation. The success of the Menorca restoration project should serve as a beacon of hope and a call to action for similar endeavors worldwide. The diversity and strength of the regenerated ecosystem underscore the efficacy of well-planned, long-term restoration initiatives.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the study serves as a vivid reminder that, while human activities have undoubtedly caused substantial harm to our world's ecosystems, it's within our power to amend those effects. Through perseverance, scientific insight, and a thoughtful approach to restoration, we can indeed mend our damaged planet, one underwater forest at a time.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-seaweed-forests">More about seaweed forests&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Underwater seaweed forests, often referred to as kelp forests, are among the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. They are found in cool, nutrient-rich waters and are known for their high biodiversity, providing home, shelter, and food for a variety of marine species.</p>



<p>Here's what we know about these fascinating ecosystems:</p>



<h3 id="h-structure-and-distribution">Structure and Distribution&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kelp forests are typically made up of large brown seaweeds known as kelps. They are often compared to terrestrial forests due to their layered structure with a canopy, an understorey, and a bottom layer. These forests are primarily found along rocky coastlines in temperate and polar regions around the world. Their growth is contingent on sunlight, nutrient availability, clear waters, and cooler temperatures.</p>



<h3 id="h-species">Species</h3>



<p>The term 'kelp' refers to several species of large brown algae. These include species like the Giant Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) found along the coast of California and the Bull Kelp (Nereocystis leutkeana) found in the Pacific Northwest.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Seaweed forests play a crucial role in supporting biodiversity. They provide a habitat for many marine organisms, including fishes, sea urchins, crustaceans, mollusks, and various other invertebrates. In addition, numerous bird species also rely on kelp forests for their food needs.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecological-role">Ecological Role</h3>



<p>Beyond providing shelter and sustenance, seaweed forests also play a significant role in nutrient cycling. They absorb nutrients from the water column, including those that might otherwise contribute to harmful algal blooms. After death, kelp detritus provides an important source of food and nutrients for deep-sea communities. Moreover, these forests play a role in carbon sequestration, which helps mitigate the effects of climate change.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and Conservation</h3>



<p>Kelp forests are threatened by various human activities such as pollution, overfishing, and coastal development, as well as climate change and the consequent ocean warming and acidification. Some areas also face the problem of invasive species. Efforts to protect and restore kelp forests include the establishment of marine protected areas, sustainable fishing practices, and active restoration efforts, like reseeding of kelp.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-and-cultural-importance">Economic and Cultural Importance</h3>



<p>Kelp forests hold significant economic importance. They are the basis for fisheries, and kelp is harvested for use in products like food, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals. In some cultures, kelp and other seaweeds have been a significant food source and part of traditional practices for centuries.</p>



<p>These underwater seaweed forests are remarkable but delicate ecosystems. Understanding them and the numerous benefits they offer is critical in preserving these environments for the future.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-marine-ecosystem-degradation">More about marine ecosystem degradation</h2>



<p>Marine ecosystem degradation is a pressing global issue that has accelerated in recent years due to human activities. It represents the decline or reduction of the capacity of marine ecosystems to provide goods and services, which support many human societies worldwide. This degradation affects biodiversity, habitats, and ecological interactions, with wide-ranging implications for the health and productivity of our oceans and for the millions of people who depend on them.</p>



<p>Here are some main factors contributing to marine ecosystem degradation:</p>



<h3 id="h-overfishing">Overfishing</h3>



<p>One of the most direct human impacts on marine ecosystems is overfishing. Overfishing depletes fish populations and disrupts the balance of marine life. It can lead to the collapse of entire ecosystems when critical species are removed. This affects not only the species being overfished but also the predators, prey, and other members of the food web.</p>



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



<p>Many forms of pollution threaten marine ecosystems. Oil spills can cause immediate and long-term harm to marine life. Plastics and microplastics cause harm when ingested by marine species, often leading to injury or death. Nutrient pollution, often from agricultural runoff, can lead to harmful algal blooms that create dead zones, areas with such low oxygen levels that most marine life cannot survive.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Oceans absorb much of the excess heat from global warming, which leads to rising sea temperatures. These higher temperatures can stress marine life, leading to phenomena like coral bleaching. Changes in ocean chemistry due to the absorption of excess carbon dioxide (a process known as ocean acidification) are harmful to shell-building organisms and coral reefs. Additionally, climate change can alter ocean currents and the distribution of nutrients and marine life.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-destruction">Habitat Destruction</h3>



<p>Coastal development can destroy or degrade important marine habitats. Coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, and wetlands are particularly vulnerable. These habitats are important nurseries for many species of fish and provide important ecosystem services.</p>



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive Species</h3>



<p>The introduction of non-native species can have devastating effects on marine ecosystems. These invasive species can outcompete native species for resources and alter habitats.</p>



<h3 id="h-ocean-noise">Ocean Noise&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Underwater noise pollution, often from shipping and other maritime activities, can disrupt the behavior and communication of marine life, particularly mammals like whales and dolphins that rely on sound for navigation, foraging, and reproduction.</p>



<p>In response to these challenges, numerous strategies are being implemented to mitigate the effects of marine ecosystem degradation. These include the creation of marine protected areas, regulations on fishing and pollution, restoration projects, and strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Despite these efforts, much work remains to be done to ensure the long-term health and sustainability of our oceans.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Restoration of underwater seaweed forests offers hope for the future

Our world has been battered and bruised by the impacts...

<p>A team of researchers led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-handle-heat-stress-much-better-than-expected/">tropical birds</a>, which usually have shorter and rounder wings compared to their body length and shape, are less able to adapt to habitat fragmentation than the long-, slender-winged birds inhabiting temperate forests. To draw this conclusion, the experts analyzed the wings of over 1,000 bird species worldwide.</p>



<p>The research builds on a previous study from 2019 published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax9387"><em>Science</em></a> which revealed that the nearer a species lives to the equator, the less efficient they are in adapting to current anthropogenic habitat fragmentation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Near the equator, animals evolved in environments that were not subject to massive habitat-altering events such as wildfires or storms. However, the reason behind tropical birds’ comparative lack of dispersal abilities has not been well understood.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The current study provides strong evidence that forest birds in the lower altitudes – including the bare-faced ibis, the blue and gold macaw, the Malaysian rail babbler, and the green honeycreeper – are not good at relocating when their habitats are disrupted, since they were not required to evolve in ways that would make it easy to move to new areas.</p>



<p>“The new paper shows a strong latitudinal gradient in birds’ ability to disperse – i.e., move around to find a new place to live,” said co-author Matthew Betts, a professor of Landscape Ecology at OSU. “Birds toward the poles [such as woodpeckers, robins, jays, cardinals, owls, turkeys, hawks, and eagles] tend to be better movers, with longer, narrower wings that are better suited to long-distance flight.”</p>



<p>“It had been&nbsp;<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2022.0909">argued</a>&nbsp;that species that don’t move much maybe tend to stay put just because they don’t care about losing pieces of their habitat or seeing it fragmented,” added Christopher Wolf, a postdoctoral researcher in Ecology and Conservation at OSU.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“But we used a massive dataset that encompassed more than 1,000 birds globally to test whether birds with shorter, stubbier wings are more likely to be fragmentation sensitive, and whether this alone explains the latitudinal gradient we observed. In the end, there was strong support for the idea that birds that are good dispersers are less fragmentation sensitive,” he concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02077-x"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-wings">More about bird wings</h2>



<p>Bird wings are fascinating structures that allow birds to fly and perform a variety of other activities. They are complex adaptations that evolved over millions of years, providing birds with the ability to navigate through the air in ways that other creatures cannot. Here are some interesting details about bird wings:</p>



<h3 id="h-anatomy">Anatomy</h3>



<p>Bird wings are composed of feathers, bones, muscles, and connective tissues. The wing's bone structure is similar to that of a human arm and hand, consisting of the humerus, radius, ulna, and a series of smaller bones analogous to fingers called the carpometacarpus and phalanges. These bones are very light and hollow, with a honeycomb-like internal structure that provides both strength and lightness.</p>



<h3 id="h-feathers">Feathers</h3>



<p>The feathers on a bird's wing have a range of functions. The primary feathers at the end of the wing provide lift and are responsible for most of the propulsion during flight. The secondary feathers, which are closer to the body, help to provide lift and stability. Covering these are the smaller coverts which streamline the wing.</p>



<h3 id="h-types-of-wings">Types of Wings</h3>



<p>Different bird species have different types of wings, which are adapted for their specific lifestyles. For instance, birds of prey like eagles and hawks have broad, long wings suitable for soaring and gliding. Swifts and swallows have long, slender wings for fast, agile flight. Penguins, although flightless in air, have strong, paddle-like wings adapted for efficient swimming underwater.</p>



<h3 id="h-flight-mechanics">Flight Mechanics</h3>



<p>During flight, a bird's wing produces lift through its curved shape (airfoil), which causes air pressure to be lower on the top surface than on the bottom surface. By flapping their wings, birds create thrust that propels them forward. They control their direction, speed, and lift by changing the shape and orientation of their wings.</p>



<h3 id="h-non-flight-functions">Non-flight Functions</h3>



<p>Besides enabling flight, bird wings serve a variety of other functions. They can be used for display during courtship rituals, for balance while navigating on the ground, and for thermoregulation by adjusting the spread of their wings to control heat loss.</p>



<h3 id="h-molting">Molting</h3>



<p>Birds periodically shed and regrow their feathers, a process known as molting. This keeps their feathers in good condition for flight. Molting occurs in a specific pattern so the bird can still fly and function normally while the process is underway.</p>



<p>Not all bird wings are designed for flight. Some species, like the ostrich or kiwi, have wings but are flightless. Their wings have evolved for different purposes, such as balance, display, or, in the case of the penguin, efficient swimming.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Birds with short, stubby wings are less capable of relocating

A team of researchers led by Oregon State University (OSU)...

<p>The dingo barrier fence in Australia – the world’s longest environmental barrier (5,614 km) – was built as an exclusionary measure to control predation of sheep by dingoes. Surprisingly though, a new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has found that young red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kangaroos-live-home/">kangaroos</a> protected from dingoes by this fence take more time to develop than their counterparts on the other side, who quickly outgrow the risks of becoming a prey for the dingoes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts also discovered that there are more young and female kangaroos inside the dingo-protected fence, suggesting that this fence has significant impacts on different aspects of the red kangaroo’s life cycle.</p>



<p>“Red kangaroos are one of the dingo’s favorite prey species, so we were not surprised to find fewer of the smaller females and younger animals when there are more dingoes around,” said study senior author Vera Weisbecker, an associate professor of Morphological Evolution at Flinders. “However, we did not expect to see that, on average, young animals inside the fence were lighter and smaller than those outside the fence.”</p>



<h2 id="h-differences-in-growth-rates">Differences in growth rates</h2>



<p>According to the researchers, the faster growth rate of red kangaroos outside of the fence could be a defensive adaptation for survival against dingoes which usually prefer to prey upon smaller red kangaroos. “They certainly appear to escape the dangerous weight range more quickly than their protected cousins inside the fence,” said lead author Rex Mitchell, a research associate in Vertebrate Feeding Biomechanics at Flinders.</p>



<p>To ensure that the difference in growth rate was not simply related to higher food availability outside the fence, the scientists used satellite-based analyses to assess the impact of vegetation cover on these surprising differences.</p>



<p>“Counter-intuitively, we found less vegetation inside than outside the fence in the year of sampling,” reported co-author Frédérik Saltré, a research fellow in Ecology at Flinders. “There might, in fact, have been more food available to the slower-growing kangaroos inside the fence, meaning they were&nbsp;<em>really</em>&nbsp;taking their time to grow up.”</p>



<p>“Slower growth inside the fence could have some advantages for the animals,” added co-author Corey Bradshaw, an expert in Global Ecology at the same university. “Having to put the whole body’s resources into growth, particularly when food is scarce, can mean that other areas of the body are compromised—an animal might be in poorer health or have fewer offspring, for example.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-research-is-needed">More research is needed</h2>



<p>According to Mitchell, another surprising finding was that the dingo-proof fence could affect kangaroo growth patterns in such a short period of time (about 17 kangaroo generations). Thus, further research is needed to clarify to what extent the dingo-proof fence affects kangaroos and other species that dingoes prey upon.</p>



<p>“We need to know if this pattern is repeated over more years, and whether it is heritable or just a short-term reaction to exposure to dingoes. We also need to fine-tune our understanding of the vegetation, because vegetation cover might not mean that all the vegetation could be eaten by kangaroos,” Weisbecker said.</p>



<p>“The fence is a unique Australian megastructure, and a huge predator-prey experiment. Examining how the fence modifies our native wildlife is important in the continuing debate over the efficiency and merits of the dingo-proof fence, not only relative to the dingo itself, but also to the invasive species such as rabbits that the dingo eats,” she concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad053"><em>Journal of Mammalogy</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-red-kangaroos">More about red kangaroos&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) is the largest of all kangaroo species and the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia. It is known for its iconic hopping locomotion, large size, powerful hind legs, large feet, and distinctive red fur, from which it gets its name.</p>



<h3 id="h-key-characteristics-and-facts">Key characteristics and facts</h3>



<h4 id="h-physical-description">Physical Description</h4>



<p>Adult red kangaroos can stand approximately 5-6 feet tall, with a length of 7-10 feet including the tail. Males can weigh as much as 200 pounds, while females are generally smaller. They are characterized by their reddish-brown fur, with the males having more pronounced red coloring compared to the often bluish-grey females.</p>



<h4 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h4>



<p>Red kangaroos inhabit most of the dry and arid regions of Australia. Their range extends across most of the continent, excluding the coastal areas and northern rainforests.</p>



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



<p>They are primarily herbivores, with a diet that consists mainly of grasses and other vegetation. They can survive long periods without water by obtaining moisture from the plants they eat.</p>



<h4 id="h-social-behavior">Social Behavior</h4>



<p>Red kangaroos are generally social animals. They often live and travel in groups known as mobs, which can consist of anywhere from two to 100 individuals. Males often engage in boxing matches to establish dominance and for mating rights.</p>



<h4 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h4>



<p>The reproductive cycle of the red kangaroo is fascinating. Females have the ability to delay the development of their embryo in a process known as embryonic diapause. This allows them to time the birth of their offspring to favorable environmental conditions.</p>



<h4 id="h-locomotion">Locomotion</h4>



<p>The hopping movement of kangaroos is unique and highly efficient, especially for traveling at high speed over large distances in their arid habitat. They use their muscular tail for balance when hopping, and as a fifth limb when moving slowly.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Young red kangaroos grow faster when exposed to dingoes

The dingo barrier fence in Australia – the world’s longest...

<p>A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/"><em>Science</em></a> presents a significant leap in our understanding of how environment shapes social behaviors. By studying colobine monkeys, the researchers discovered that adaptations to cold climates have a profound influence on the social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/">evolution</a> of species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Adaptations to cold climates seem to have been critical in facilitating enhanced motherly care, improved infant survival, and fostering the development of large, intricate multi level societies.</p>



<p>The study was conducted by a global team of researchers representing Northwest University in China, the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> in the UK, and the University of Western Australia.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The researchers set out to explore how langurs and odd-nosed monkeys from the Asian colobine family have evolved and adapted over time. These particular primates have found ways to thrive in environments ranging from tropical rainforests to snow-laden mountainous terrains.</p>



<p>According to the researchers, colobine monkeys have distinct types of social organizations. This presents an opportunity to analyze the various mechanisms which drive their social evolution. The experts wanted trace the evolutionary journey from a common ancestral state to the diverse social systems that these primates now exhibit.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By combining ecological, geological, fossil, behavioral, and genomic analyses, the scientists found that colobine primates dwelling in colder climates tend to form larger and more complex groups. The experts also determined that glacial periods over the last six million years have favored the selection of genes critical for cold-related energy metabolism and neuro-hormonal regulation.</p>



<p>Among the most remarkable discoveries was the adaptation exhibited by odd-nosed monkeys living in severely cold regions. These primates had developed hormonal pathways, specifically dopamine and oxytocin, which were not just more efficient but may also extend the duration of maternal care. This led to longer breastfeeding periods, and a significant increase in the survival rates of infants.</p>



<p>Such adaptive changes, researchers suggest, appear to have bolstered relationships among individuals, amplified male tolerance and ultimately precipitated the evolution from independent one-male, multi-female groups to large, complex, multilevel societies.</p>



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>“Our study identified, for the first time, a genetically regulated adaptation linked to the evolution of social systems in primates," said Dr. Kit Opie from the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Bristol.</p>



<p>“This finding offers new insights into the mechanisms that underpin behavioral evolution in primates and could be used to address social evolutionary changes across a wide range of species including humans."</p>



<p>“In addition we would like to examine how changes in social and mating behavior in many primate species may be the result of genetic changes due to past environments as well as other social and environmental factors.”</p>



<h2 id="h-future-implications">Future implications</h2>



<p>Dr. Cyril Grueter from the University of Western Australia emphasized the pressing urgency of climate change and its potential impact on animals. “With climate change becoming a hugely important environmental pressure on animals, it is hoped that this study will raise awareness for the need to investigate what course social evolution will take as the prevailing climate changes.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our finding that complex multilevel societies have roots stretching back to climatic events in the distant evolutionary past also has implications for a reconstruction of the human social system which is decidedly multilevel."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-asian-colobine-monkeys">More about Asian colobine monkeys&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Asian colobine monkeys are a group of Old World monkeys belonging to the subfamily Colobinae, which is part of the family Cercopithecidae. The colobine monkeys are distinct from other Old World monkeys in a variety of ways, most notably their adaptation for a folivorous (leaf-eating) diet.</p>



<p>The monkeys are found throughout Africa and Asia, but the Asian colobines are a distinct group with several characteristic features. They are distinguished by their elongated bodies, long tails, and slender limbs. Most species are arboreal (tree-dwelling), and their physical features are adapted for a life in the trees. Their hands are elongated and dexterous, allowing them to adeptly handle leaves, their primary food source.</p>



<p>Asian colobine monkeys are known for their complex, multi-chambered stomachs, similar to those of cows. This adaptation allows them to ferment tough plant material, breaking down cellulose to extract nutrients. This is a critical adaptation for their leaf-eating diet, as leaves are generally low in energy and high in hard-to-digest fibers.</p>



<h3 id="h-well-known-examples-of-asian-colobine-monkeys">Well-known examples of Asian colobine monkeys</h3>



<h4 id="h-langurs">Langurs</h4>



<p>These monkeys are often gray or black and live in social groups. One of the most famous is the Hanuman langur of India, named after the Hindu god Hanuman.</p>



<h4 id="h-leaf-monkeys">Leaf Monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>These monkeys are known for their diverse coloration, ranging from golden to dark brown or black. The lutung, or dusky leaf monkey, is an example of this genus.</p>



<h4 id="h-snub-nosed-monkeys">Snub-nosed monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>These monkeys are characterized by their short noses with upward-facing nostrils. They are found in China, Vietnam, and parts of the Himalayas.</p>



<h4 id="h-proboscis-monkeys">Proboscis monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>Native to Borneo, these monkeys are best known for their large, pendulous noses, particularly pronounced in males.</p>



<p>Asian colobines are generally quite social, living in groups that can range from a few individuals to several dozen. They have complex social structures and behaviors, with both male and female hierarchies. Like many primate species, they use a variety of vocalizations and physical gestures to communicate with each other.</p>



<p>Many species of Asian colobines are under threat due to habitat loss, hunting, and the pet trade. They are often a focus of conservation efforts, as their loss can have significant impacts on the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Guanlai Ouyang</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Cold climates led to longer maternal care among colobine monkeys

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Science presents a...