Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. 



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured in the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023.&nbsp;



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-the-sun-s-birth-cluster">Stars in the Sun's birth cluster</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



The disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation. 



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-planet-formation">Early stages of planet formation </h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy.



These stars are still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks.&nbsp;



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 78 (M78), a reflection nebula located in the constellation Orion about 1,350 light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This image was released as part of the initial series of observations from ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a>.&nbsp;



All data collected during these early observations, including a series of incredible <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_s_first_images_the_dazzling_edge_of_darkness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new views</a> of the nearby universe, is available to the public.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-messier-78">Image of Messier 78</h2>



Messier 78 is a dynamic region of star formation that is obscured by cosmic dust in this high-resolution image captured by the Euclid space telescope.



This specific view highlights how young stars generate winds of charged particles, carving out “cavities” in the molecular clouds around them.&nbsp;



The blue hues in the image represent ionized atomic hydrogen, which is a primary component of the cloud, while the red indicates the absorption and scattering of light by dust particles.



The image captures hundreds of stars varying in brightness, illuminating their nebulous, purple surroundings. A dark, arch-like structure stretches from the upper left to the bottom right of the frame, merging into the densest, darkest clouds at the image’s base.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-site-of-star-formation-nbsp">Active site of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is not just a single nebula but part of a larger complex of stars and nebulous regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a>, which includes various other objects like dark nebulae that are visible as patches blocking light from behind.



This region is an active site of star formation, featuring many young stars and protostars, which are stars in the early stages of formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-messier-78">Viewing Messier 78</h2>



M78 is easily observable with small telescopes, and it appears as a hazy patch of light with two prominent stars near its center, which illuminate the surrounding dust.&nbsp;



The nebula is also a favorite among amateur astronomers for its beauty and relatively bright appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subject-of-scientific-interest-nbsp">Subject of scientific interest&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is fascinating not only for its visual beauty but also for its scientific interest, particularly in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and interstellar matter.&nbsp;



The nebula consists of dense, cold gas and dust, which are essential ingredients for the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The intense blue light that characterizes M78 is due to the reflection of starlight off these dust particles - a process known as scattering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-region-surrounding-messier-78-nbsp">Region surrounding Messier 78&nbsp;</h2>



The region surrounding M78 includes several other interesting features. For instance, there are Herbig-Haro objects within it, which are small patches of nebulosity associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly born stars</a>.&nbsp;



These objects are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating shock waves that glow brightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-stages-of-star-development-nbsp">Earliest stages of star development&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, infrared observations of M78 have revealed much about the dust and colder objects in the area, which are not visible in optical light.&nbsp;



The observations have helped astronomers identify numerous young stars and brown dwarfs (objects that are too large to be planets and too small to be stars) within the nebula.&nbsp;



This makes M78 a critical area for studying the earliest stages of star development and the properties of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-batch-of-brilliant-images-from-the-euclid-mission-live-up-to-the-hype/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a> is designed to study the dark universe, particularly focusing on dark energy and dark matter. These components are believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe and shape its large-scale structure. 



The mission aims to map the geometry of the dark universe and better understand the physics of the cosmos.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-billions-of-galaxies-nbsp">Observing billions of galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Euclid uses two primary scientific instruments: a visible light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared spectrometer and photometer (NISP).&nbsp;



These instruments will allow Euclid to measure the shapes and redshifts of galaxies at distances of up to 10 billion light-years. By surveying more than a third of the sky, the mission is expected to observe several billion galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-dark-universe-nbsp">Studying the dark universe&nbsp;</h3>



The data collected will help astronomers in studying the effects of dark matter and dark energy in depth, testing cosmological models, and exploring new theories about the nature of the universe.&nbsp;



The mission, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, seeks to address key questions related to the structure of the universe and the fundamental laws of physics governing its evolution and expansion.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Messier 78: Young stars shine through dense dust

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency showcases the striking beauty of the planetary nebula NGC 2899, which resembles a moth in flight. The photo was captured by the Hubble Space Telescope.



“The planetary nebula NGC 2899 is shaped like a single macaroni noodle, with its edges pointed up, but its edge-on central torus is semi-transparent in the middle,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The top and bottom edges are thick and orange. The center is semi-transparent blue and green. The wider central region looks roughly like a moth, also filled with semi-transparent blue and green.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-features-of-the-planetary-nebula">Defining features of the planetary nebula</h2>



The nebula features a bipolar, cylindrical outflow of gas extending diagonally, driven by intense radiation and stellar winds from a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-planets-are-more-habitable-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> with a scorching temperature of nearly 22,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



“In fact, there may be two companion stars that are interacting and sculpting the nebula, which is pinched in the middle by a fragmented ring or torus - looking like a half-eaten donut,” said ESA.



Streams of gaseous “pillars” extend outward, all pointing back toward the central source of energy. The vibrant colors in the image come from glowing hydrogen and oxygen gases.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-and-significance-of-ngc-2899">Discovery and significance of NGC 2899</h2>



NGC 2899 was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on March 2, 1835, during his survey of the southern skies from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. Herschel cataloged many deep-sky objects in the southern hemisphere, contributing significantly to the New General Catalogue (NGC) compiled later by John Louis Emil Dreyer.



NGC 2899 is located approximately 4,500 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation Vela, which is part of the larger Vela-Puppis-Carina region of the Milky Way known for its rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star-forming activity</a> and remnants of past stellar explosions.&nbsp;



Vela, whose name means "sails" in Latin, represents the sails of the ancient Greek mythological ship Argo Navis. This region of the sky is particularly abundant in nebulae, star clusters, and other deep-sky objects, making it a focal point for astronomical observations.&nbsp;



The nebula’s distance places it well within our galaxy, offering astronomers a valuable glimpse into the later stages of stellar evolution and the processes that sculpt and illuminate planetary nebulae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-planetary-nebula">What is a planetary nebula?</h2>



Nebulae are vast clouds of gas and dust in space, often serving as the birthplaces or remnants of stars.&nbsp;



They come in various types, including emission nebulae that glow due to ionized gases energized by nearby stars, reflection nebulae that shine by scattering starlight, and dark nebulae that obscure light from background <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-may-be-dragging-a-planet-along-with-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.&nbsp;



Planetary nebulae form when dying stars shed their outer layers, creating colorful, often symmetrical shapes. Nebulae can span light-years across and are key to understanding the life cycles of stars and the structure of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-dying-stars">The fate of dying stars</h2>



Not all dying stars become planetary nebulae. In fact, stars much more massive than the Sun follow a very different and far more violent path.&nbsp;



These massive stars end their lives in dramatic supernova explosions, releasing tremendous energy and scattering heavy elements into space, which enriches the interstellar medium.&nbsp;



What remains after the explosion depends on the star’s mass. The collapsed core can form a neutron star - an incredibly dense object composed mostly of neutrons. Or, if the star was even more massive, it may create a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-confirm-lone-black-hole-wandering-through-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, where gravity is so intense that not even light can escape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-winged-nebulae-nbsp">Examples of “winged” nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



Several well-known nebulae are noted for their "winged" or symmetrical, wing-like appearances, often earning them evocative nicknames.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Butterfly Nebula, located in the constellation Scorpius. This planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> displays two expansive lobes that resemble butterfly wings, shaped by fast stellar winds from a dying star.



The Omega Nebula (also known as the Swan Nebula) in the constellation Sagittarius is a bright star-forming region that has been said to resemble a swan in flight. It has broad, glowing "wings" formed by clouds of ionized hydrogen gas. 



Similarly, the Eagle Nebula has an overall shape reminiscent of a bird with outstretched wings, which inspired its name. It is located in the constellation Serpens and home to the iconic "Pillars of Creation."



Image Credit: ESA



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Planetary nebula with ethereal wings captured by Hubble

When we think of Antarctica, we picture vast white deserts, towering glaciers, and resilient creatures like penguins surviving in the cold. But beyond the majestic icebergs and snow-covered expanses lies a much more complex picture. 



Climate change is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-intense-heat-waves-affecting-life-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> the region faster than most other parts of the planet. Sea ice is retreating. Weather patterns are shifting. And species like the Adelie penguin are under severe threat.



At first glance, penguins seem like helpless bystanders in this planetary crisis. But what if they were doing more than surviving? What if their biology and behavior - specifically their droppings - had the power to affect clouds, air chemistry, and even climate? 



New research suggests exactly that. Penguin guano, often seen as just a smelly by-product of seabird life, may play a much larger role in Antarctica’s climate than anyone expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguin-poop-helps-clouds-form">Penguin poop helps clouds form</h2>



The study, led by Matthew Boyer, Mikko Sipilä, and colleagues from <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/admissions-and-education/apply-bachelors-and-masters-programmes?mtm_campaign=Brand-All_target_countries-Helsingin_yliopisto&amp;mtm_kwd=university%20of%20helsinki&amp;mtm_source=google&amp;mtm_medium=cpc&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=1381187276&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw3MXBBhAzEiwA0vLXQT600ZXuQaYCZ0OrUzMBj1GpUFJwXxvC-WScvFbmHIvEZv6E2nLGihoCF48QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, investigates how ammonia from penguin guano contributes to atmospheric processes in Antarctica.



The team measured ammonia concentrations at a coastal site near Marambio Base during the austral summer of 2023. They found that penguin colonies - particularly one containing around 60,000 Adelie penguins - acted as massive sources of gaseous ammonia.



Ammonia in the atmosphere is a key ingredient in forming aerosols. These particles are essential for creating cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), which allow water vapor to condense and form clouds. 



More clouds can reflect sunlight and reduce surface temperatures, making this process highly relevant for sea ice retention and climate regulation in the polar environment. But ammonia has long been underrepresented in climate models, especially in remote areas like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lasting-ammonia-emissions">Long-lasting ammonia emissions</h2>



The study recorded ammonia levels between January 10 and March 20, 2023. When the wind blew from the penguin colony, ammonia concentrations surged to as high as 13.5 parts per billion - more than 1,000 times the background levels. 



Even after the penguins migrated at the end of February, the ornithogenic soil - enriched with guano - kept emitting ammonia for weeks.



This long-lasting emission surprised the researchers. Their data confirmed that these penguin hotspots around the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-may-fully-recover-by-2066/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic</a> coast could release ammonia levels comparable to those found in agricultural fields during summer. 



The emissions are not evenly spread but come in strong bursts, especially when the wind shifts direction toward nearby colonies. This means penguin guano can create regional plumes of cloud-forming particles even after the birds have left.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ammonia-triggers-cloud-forming-particles">Ammonia triggers cloud-forming particles</h2>



To assess the impact on particle formation, the researchers recorded detailed chemical data. 



On days when winds came from penguin colonies, the team observed sharp increases in both the number and size of aerosol particles. These particles eventually grew to the size needed for cloud condensation - above 30 nanometers - within a matter of hours.



On February 1, 2023, a major event occurred. A strong new particle formation (NPF) event was followed by fog at the measurement site. The researchers found that the fog formed from the same air mass rich in ammonia and sulfuric acid. 



Analysis of the cloud droplet composition revealed ammonium sulfate - a direct signature of the penguin-driven chemical processes.



The persistence of particle formation before and after the fog confirmed that this wasn’t a one-off incident. The authors believe that their work emphasizes the importance, and benefits, of protecting seabirds and their habitats from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-gases-also-boost-particle-growth">Other gases also boost particle growth</h2>



Ammonia wasn’t acting alone. Dimethylamine (DMA), another nitrogen-rich gas, was also detected in the cluster formation process. 



Although present at lower levels, DMA greatly enhances the rate at which sulfuric acid forms aerosols. Laboratory studies have shown that even tiny amounts of DMA can accelerate particle formation by factors of up to 10,000.



Interestingly, the researchers noted that sulfuric acid and ammonia dominated the cluster composition. DMA appeared only in trace quantities - just enough to stabilize clusters during early formation stages. This suggests a multicomponent mechanism, with both ammonia and DMA contributing in different ways.



Iodine oxoacids like HIO₂ and HIO₃ also played supporting roles. These compounds, sourced from ocean life and sea-ice chemistry, have been known to influence particle formation during spring and autumn. But in this summer study, ammonia and sulfur dominated the process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-formation-and-regional-impacts">Cloud formation and regional impacts</h2>



New particle formation events like these are not just chemical curiosities. They affect the formation of CCN and cloud droplets.



Clouds, in turn, control how much sunlight reaches the surface and how much heat escapes into space. In the polar climate system, these clouds can mean the difference between melting ice and stable conditions.



The study’s measurements showed that penguin-driven ammonia emissions initiated a cascade of chemical events. These culminated in visible cloud formations, including fog. T



he resulting particles could last for days and travel inland or over the ocean, influencing weather patterns far beyond the colony’s location.



Cloud brightness, lifetime, and height all depend on the number of available CCN. In areas like Antarctica, where background particle levels are low, even small increases can make a noticeable difference. 



By emitting ammonia at such high levels, penguins effectively modulate local cloud properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-penguins-mean-fewer-clouds">Fewer penguins mean fewer clouds</h2>



There’s a dark twist to this story. If penguin populations decline due to shrinking sea ice or food scarcity, their contribution to ammonia emissions will also drop. That means fewer particles, fewer clouds, and possibly faster warming.



The researchers warn that declining penguin populations could create a feedback loop. Less ice leads to fewer penguins. Fewer penguins mean less ammonia and cloud cover. That leads to even more ice loss. 



This idea is supported by earlier modeling work in the Arctic, where seabird emissions were shown to affect regional temperatures. The Antarctic case now adds real-world measurements to support similar conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-quietly-shape-the-climate">Penguins quietly shape the climate</h2>



These findings reveal a remarkable complexity in the Antarctic climate system. Tiny molecules from penguin droppings can influence clouds and temperature. It’s a reminder that the Earth’s systems are interconnected in ways we’re only beginning to understand.



In places like Antarctica, where human emissions are minimal, biological processes take center stage. Penguins are not just part of the scenery. They shape the air we breathe and the clouds we see.



If we want to protect the poles - and slow global warming - we may need to start with something as simple as protecting the penguins.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02312-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Penguin poop helps form clouds that could slow Antarctic warming

When we think of Antarctica, we picture vast white deserts,...

Many of us have experienced the familiar frustration of reaching for fresh produce - such as leafy greens - only to find it wilted or discolored before use.



This is more than a personal inconvenience. Post-harvest food loss accounts for over 30% of global production. This equates to approximately 1.3 billion tons of food annually - enough to feed more than one billion people each year.



While refrigeration helps, it isn’t always available. Many parts of the world lack the infrastructure to keep crops fresh during transport and storage. This reality makes reducing food waste a global challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-crops-fresh-longer">Keeping crops fresh longer</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) have come up with a unique way to address this issue. 



The experts use biodegradable microneedles made from silk to deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharp-increase-in-melatonin-use-among-children-raises-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a> - yes, the same compound that helps us sleep - into crops after harvest. These microneedles can pierce the tough outer layer of plants without triggering stress.



Benedetto Marelli is the study’s senior author and an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at MIT. “This is the first time that we’ve been able to apply these microneedles to extend the shelf life of a fresh-cut crop,” he said.



The team targeted pak choy, a popular and highly perishable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leafy-green-vegetables-improve-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leafy green</a>. Injecting melatonin at the plant base extended shelf life by four days at room temperature and ten days when refrigerated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melatonin-s-plant-power">Melatonin's plant power</h2>



Melatonin isn’t just for sleep - it plays a role in plant growth and aging too. The researchers tested whether introducing small doses of the hormone could slow the plant’s natural senescence, or aging process.



“The dose of melatonin we’re delivering is so low that it’s fully metabolized by the crops, so it would not significantly increase the amount of melatonin normally present in the food,” Marelli said. “We chose pak choy because it's a very important crop in Asia, and also because pak choy is very perishable.”



The researchers used fluorescent dye to show that substances delivered at the plant base reached all tissues. They then applied melatonin using sprays and dips but found no impact. That’s when the microneedles came in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treated-fresh-crops-last-longer">Treated fresh crops last longer</h2>



When researchers applied the melatonin-loaded patches by hand to the shoot base of pak choy and monitored changes over time, the results were clear.



Untreated plants started yellowing within two to three days. By day four, they were no longer suitable for sale. Treated plants stayed green longer - still looking fresh on day five and even into day eight at room temperature.



“We clearly saw we could enhance the shelf life of pak choy without the cold chain,” Marelli said.



Refrigeration made the results even more dramatic. The treated vegetables maintained their color and quality up to day 25 - about five days longer than untreated ones.



Monika Jangir is&nbsp;co-first author and a former postdoc&nbsp;at&nbsp;the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory.



“Spectrophotometric analysis of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> indicated the treated plants had higher antioxidant activity," she said. "While gene analysis showed the melatonin set off a protective chain reaction inside the plants, preserving chlorophyll and adjusting hormones to slow senescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-stress-less-waste">Less stress, less waste</h2>



By helping the plant cope with the stress of being cut, melatonin keeps it alive and fresh longer.



Yangyang Han is co-first author and a research scientist&nbsp;at the Disruptive and Sustainable Technologies for Agricultural Precision (DiSTAP) interdisciplinary research group at SMART.



“We studied melatonin’s effects and saw it improves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-way-to-measure-stress-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress response of the plant</a> after it’s been cut, so it’s basically decreasing the stress that plants experience, and that extends its shelf life,” she said.



This method could be a game-changer in regions that don’t have reliable refrigeration. It may also open new doors in food logistics and global supply chains, where every extra day of freshness counts.



Sarojam Rajani, co-senior author of the study, is a principal investigator at the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory in Singapore.&nbsp;



“Post-harvest waste is a huge issue. This problem is extremely important in emerging markets around Africa and Southeast Asia, where many crops are produced but can't be maintained in the journey from farms to markets,” said Rajani.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-to-other-produce">Expanding to other produce</h2>



Although the current method is manual, researchers aim to use tractors, drones, or other machines for more efficient patch application in the future.



“For this to be widely adopted, we’d need to reach a performance versus cost threshold to justify its use,” Marelli explains. “This method would need to become cheap enough to be used by farmers regularly.”



The team is also planning to test other plant hormones and different fresh crops. Their goal is to not only extend shelf life, but possibly even improve texture, shape, and nutritional value.



“We’re going to continue to analyze how we can increase the impact this can have on the value and quality of crops,” said Marelli. 



“For example, could this let us modulate the nutritional values of the crop, how it’s shaped, its texture, etc.? We're also going to continue looking into scaling up the technology so this can be used in the field.”



With more research and development, these tiny silk needles could be a big step toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-food-waste-greater-food-security-less-environmental-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing food waste</a> and getting more fresh produce to more people. One patch at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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Sleep hormone can keep crops fresh and reduce food waste

Many of us have experienced the familiar frustration of reaching...

For centuries, botanists have pondered the oddities of reproduction in plants. Among them, Charles Darwin expressed a clear distrust for species that relied solely on self-fertilization. “It is hardly an exaggeration to say that Nature tells us, in the most emphatic manner, that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization,” he wrote. 



Darwin’s concerns were rooted in the belief that such a strategy would lead to genetic stagnation and eventually, extinction. Yet deep in Japan's Ryukyu Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> seems to have bent this rule.



A pair of orchid species, Gastrodia takeshimensis and Gastrodia kuroshimensis, have evolved to reproduce in complete isolation. Their flowers never open, and their genes carry the quiet imprint of an evolutionary gamble: total reproductive independence. 



This floral silence is more than just a botanical oddity. It challenges long-held ideas about survival, isolation, and how plants persist in the absence of genetic mixing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-survive-without-blooming">Orchids survive without blooming</h2>



These orchids live on the islands of Kuroshima, Takeshima, and Yakushima. Botanist Suetsugu Kenji of <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, who led a ten-year investigation into their lives, found these orchid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a> both elusive and revolutionary.



“I’ve long been captivated by Darwin’s skepticism about plants that rely entirely on self-pollination,” he said. “When I found those non-blooming orchids, I felt this was a perfect chance to directly revisit this issue.” Suetsugu and his colleagues spent a decade observing more than a hundred individuals. None of them ever opened their flowers. 



The team’s observations, supported by partnerships with local plant lovers, confirmed what no one had confidently documented in the wild before: complete cleistogamy, or self-pollination without any floral opening.



These flowers don’t just avoid blooming. Their very structure is built to bypass it. Genetic tests, including SSR marker analysis and MIG-seq SNP profiling, revealed that these plants show extreme genetic uniformity. 



In short, they are genetically identical clones. The absence of variation confirmed that they have been self-pollinating for generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-that-self-pollinate">Orchid flowers that self-pollinate</h2>



The genomic findings added another layer to the mystery. Despite the high mutation rates of the genetic markers used, G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis had near-identical genotypes across individuals. This suggested that the evolutionary shift to selfing happened recently, within the last 100 to 200 generations.



Considering that each orchid generation spans about five to ten years, this puts the origin of these lineages within the past 2,000 years. Suetsugu’s team believes that this timing is more than a coincidence. 



The analysis showed that the ancestors of these orchids, although once insect-pollinated, already had low genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solenangis-impraedicta-new-orchid-species-sets-world-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>. This means that even when cross-pollination occurred, the genetic mixing was minimal.



Their pollinators, primarily drosophilid flies, do not travel far. The flies often move from one orchid flower to another on the same plant or to a nearby one, limiting true genetic exchange.



As a result, self-pollination, though theoretically limiting, offered little additional cost and instead delivered a reliable method of reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survival-strategy">A survival strategy</h2>



The benefits of this approach are clear in harsh or isolated environments. Reproductive assurance, the ability to reproduce without relying on pollinators, is a strong evolutionary advantage. This is particularly relevant for plants living on islands where populations are small and pollinators are often scarce or unreliable.



The research showed that even the chasmogamous relatives, G. foetida and G. fontinalis, exhibit signs of selfing. Their genomes, while more diverse than their cleistogamous cousins, still bear the marks of inbreeding. 



These include low heterozygosity and a buildup of deleterious mutations. This discovery points to a broader trend: selfing may be more common and more tolerated among island orchids than previously thought.



Interestingly, the genomic selfing syndrome, characterized by high loads of harmful mutations and low genetic variation, was not significantly different between cleistogamous and chasmogamous species. 



This suggests that the genetic load already existed before the shift to full selfing. In effect, the orchids were already halfway down the selfing path before they sealed their flowers shut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-block-hybrids">Orchid flowers block hybrids</h2>



One of the most significant outcomes of cleistogamy is its role in maintaining species identity. In the wild, these selfing orchids often grow near their relatives. 



Yet, no hybrids have ever been observed. “Darwin’s statement was motivated by the idea that a purely self-pollinating lineage would accumulate harmful mutations and eventually face an evolutionary dead end,” Suetsugu said.



In this context, cleistogamy acts as a strict genetic gatekeeper. It eliminates gene flow entirely. Even in sympatric habitats where two related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asparagus-and-orchids-share-surprising-similarities-in-their-cell-walls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> coexist, the orchids show no signs of introgression. 



The research team confirmed this through rigorous genomic testing. Each orchid species has remained genetically distinct, suggesting that flower closure serves not just reproduction but also isolation.



This separation may help explain how such species can coexist without eroding their genetic identities. Autonomous selfing ensures that reproductive interference, such as competition for pollinators or accidental hybridization, is completely avoided.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clones-in-island-isolation">Clones in island isolation</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-migrations-to-the-ryukyu-islands-were-led-by-explorers-not-drifters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryukyu Islands</a> offer a natural laboratory for these patterns. Many island populations show traits of founder effects: reduced diversity, small sizes, and limited gene flow.



These islands are home not just to G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis, but also to other cleistogamous Gastrodia species. The repeated emergence of self-pollination across this genus hints at a broader ecological pattern.



In these remote environments, reproduction through selfing allows plants to persist even when conditions are poor. 



The capacity to establish a population from a single seed without waiting for mates or pollinators gives selfing species a crucial edge. It explains why G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis are found on islands with and without their sister species.



However, this strategy comes at a cost. “The fact that these orchids truly never outcross raises intriguing questions about their long-term viability, especially under pressures like habitat fragmentation and climate change,” noted Suetsugu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-shortcut-with-consequences">Evolutionary shortcut with consequences</h2>



Suetsugu’s findings reinforce the idea that cleistogamy might be more of a temporary fix than a long-term solution. 



With no way to introduce new genetic material, these orchids may be vulnerable to sudden environmental changes. Once a lineage becomes genetically uniform and cut off from outcrossing, it risks extinction from even minor disturbances.



Despite these risks, cleistogamy has evolved multiple times in Gastrodia. Its repeated emergence suggests that for short periods, it offers enough benefits to persist. 



The study proposes that the low mobility of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit fly</a> pollinators, reduced genetic diversity from past events, and the need for reproductive assurance all combined to push some species toward complete floral closure.



While it remains unclear how long such lineages can survive, their existence helps clarify the evolutionary pressures at play. These orchids aren’t evolutionary failures. They are snapshots of strategy under constraint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-rewrite-the-rules">Orchid flowers rewrite the rules</h2>



Though Darwin doubted the long-term success of selfing plants, he also recognized nature’s capacity for surprises. 



The Gastrodia orchids of Japan have shown that even evolutionary warnings can be skirted, if only briefly. Their quiet, unblooming lives challenge what we know about survival, isolation, and the bounds of genetic resilience.



Suetsugu Kenji and his collaborators continue to unravel these mysteries. “Each new data point, each newly described species, brings me closer to grasping the full spectrum of evolutionary possibilities,” said Suetsugu.



As the orchids remain sealed in silence, their genetics speak loudly. They remind us that in the margins of biology, life often writes its own rules.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0574" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Some orchids can reproduce without ever opening their flowers

For centuries, botanists have pondered the oddities of reproduction in...

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