Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Lake Hamun, a seasonal lake in the Sistan region on the Afghanistan-Iran border. The lake and surrounding wetlands have been shrinking as a result of persistent drought, leading to reduced vegetation and exposed dust. These changes have transformed the basin into a major source of dust storms.



"While dust storms are most common in the summer, they happen year-round as long as the lake is dry and the winds are strong. That was the case on January 12, 2023, when the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the NOAA-20 satellite captured this image of dust streaming from the dry lake bed," says NASA.



In January 2023, a team of experts led by UCLA reported that airborne dust has likely increased by 55 percent on a global scale since pre-industrial times. The researchers said this is largely due to more frequent dust storms in Asia and North Africa.&nbsp;



The team estimates that the cooling effect of airborne dust has likely masked about eight percent of the warming caused by greenhouse gases since the preindustrial era.



“Our findings imply that greenhouses gases alone could cause even more climate warming than models currently predict,” said UCLA atmospheric physicist Jasper Kok. “This is of tremendous importance because better predictions can inform better decisions of how to mitigate or adapt to climate change.”



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Lake Hamun is a major source of dust storms

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Typhoon Mawar, also known as "Betty," which is the first typhoon of the season in the northwest Pacific. The intense storm struck Guam and the Philippines before heading toward Taiwan and southern Japan.



"With sustained winds that reached 295 kilometers (185 miles) per hour on May 25, the super typhoon grew to be one of the strongest May storms on record," says NASA.&nbsp;



"The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite acquired this natural-color image of Mawar at 05:20 Universal Time on May 30, 2023. Though the storm appeared to be bearing down on Taiwan, it was in the process of turning north and away from the island."



"After rapidly intensifying between May 24 and 25, Mawar then weakened significantly as it encountered cooler water temperatures and less favorable wind shear conditions as it neared Taiwan."



NASA reports that although Mawar did not strike the Philippines or Taiwan directly, the outer bands of the storm brought heavy rains to northern Luzon and rough seas to the eastern coast of Taiwan.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Typhoon Mawar is one of the strongest May storms on record

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Messina Strait, a channel in the Mediterranean Sea that separates Sicily and Calabria. The photograph was captured by an astronaut onboard the International Space Station



The Messina Strait is 20 miles long with a depth of 820 feet, and joins the Tyrrhenian Sea to the north and the Ionian Sea to the south.&nbsp;



"Waves that follow the tide from west to east are visible in the right half of the photo. These are caused by internal waves, a process where stratified water layers of changing density and increasing depth horizontally propagate beneath the water surface. The waves are illuminated by sunglint—an optical phenomenon that occurs when sunlight is directly reflected off the water and into a satellite’s sensor, or in this case, the astronaut’s camera," explains NASA.



"Alternating currents, relatively low water temperature, and high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen contribute to the region’s aquatic biodiversity. The strait hosts several deep-sea fish species such as Sloane’s viperfish (a predatory dragonfish) as well as commercially valuable fish like yellowtail and snapper. On the left side of the image, thin, white lines are likely ship wakes, some of which may belong to fishing boats."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Messina Strait in the Mediterranean Sea

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut photograph of the Amazon River in Brazil. This particular stretch of river is located near the port city of Parintins.



"The river is the largest on Earth and allows seagoing ships to reach Parintins even though it is 800 kilometers (500 miles) inland from the Atlantic Ocean," says NASA.



"Seagoing ships can progress 3,600 kilometers (2,200 miles) up the Amazon River - more than halfway across the South American continent - to the port of Iquitos in Peru."&nbsp;



The muddy color of the river is tied to the Andes Mountains, a major source of sediments and mineral nutrients. According to NASA, the sediment erodes from the Andes Mountains located to the west and is carried generally eastward toward the ocean.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The lower Amazon River in Brazil

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut photograph of the Espíritu Santo Archipelago, a group of islands located in the Gulf of California, also known as the Sea of Cortez, off the eastern coast of the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico.&nbsp;



"Sunglint reflects off the water surface, accentuating wave movement, ship wakes, and cloud shadows," said NASA. "The islands appear rust-colored due to previous tectonic and volcanic activity that deposited layers of black lava and pink volcanic ash."



"The Baja Peninsula acts as a natural wind and wave break that protects islands in the Gulf of California from erosion. Slowed erosion has resulted in the preservation of rock shelters and caves."



"Exploration and excavation of these shelters contribute to understanding the geomorphology, geology, and ancient human patterns on the islands. Archeologists have found human artifacts artifacts dating back approximately ten thousand years, providing evidence of human activity on the islands."



The Espíritu Santo Archipelago is part of the Mexican state of Baja California Sur and consists of several islands, the largest and most well-known of which is Isla Espíritu Santo. The other main islands in the archipelago are Isla Partida, Los Islotes, and a few smaller islets.



Espíritu Santo and its surrounding islands are known for their stunning natural beauty, featuring dramatic cliffs, white sand beaches, and turquoise waters. The region is home to a rich diversity of marine life, including sea lions, manta rays, whale sharks, and various species of whales and dolphins. It also supports a variety of bird species, such as blue-footed boobies, frigatebirds, and pelicans, making it a popular destination for birdwatching.



The Espíritu Santo Archipelago has been designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and a Mexican Protected Natural Area, which helps to preserve its unique ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecotourism is popular in the area, with visitors participating in activities like snorkeling, scuba diving, kayaking, and wildlife watching.



The islands are accessible by boat from the nearby city of La Paz, which is the capital of Baja California Sur. There are numerous tour operators that offer day trips and multi-day excursions to the Espíritu Santo Archipelago, allowing visitors to explore the islands and their remarkable natural features.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Espíritu Santo Archipelago in the Gulf of California

Flu epidemics are caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-has-evolved-into-a-persistent-global-threat/">influenza</a> A or B viruses, resulting in acute respiratory infections and killing about half a million people worldwide each year, while also affecting a variety of other animals, as in the case of the avian flu. Moreover, these viruses’ high capacity for mutation makes them particularly elusive and hard to combat.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE) has discovered that the influenza A virus manages to penetrate and infect cells by attaching itself to a receptor on the cell surface and hijacking the organism’s iron transport mechanism to start its infection cycle. Since, by blocking this particular receptor, the experts managed to significantly reduce the virus’ ability to invade cells, this finding could potentially be exploited to combat flu infections and mitigate epidemics.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



“We already knew that the influenza A virus binds to sugar structures on the cell surface, then rolls along the cell surface until it finds a suitable entry point into the host cell. However, we did not know which proteins on the host cell surface marked this entry point, and how they favored the entry of the virus,” explained study senior author Mirco Schmolke, an associate professor of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine at UNIGE.



At first, the researchers identified cell surface proteins from the vicinity of the viral haemagglutinin, the protein the influenza A virus uses to enter the cells. One of these proteins – called “transferrin receptor 1” – which helps transporting iron molecules that are essential for many physiological functions into the cell was found to play a major role in how the virus succeeds in penetrating the cells.



“The influenza virus takes advantage of the continuous recycling of the transferrin receptor 1 to enter the cell and infect it,” said lead author Béryl Mazel-Sanchez, a senior scientist at the biopharmaceutical company <a href="https://www.cslbehring.com/">CSL Behring</a> and a former post-doctoral researcher in Schmolke’s lab.&nbsp;



“To confirm our discovery, we genetically engineered human lung cells to remove the transferrin receptor 1, or on the contrary to overexpress it. By deleting it in cells normally susceptible to infection, we prevented influenza A from entering. Conversely, by overexpressing it in cells normally resistant to infection, we made them easier to infect.”



<h2 id="h-promising-results">Promising results</h2>



In a follow-up experiment, the scientists managed to use a chemical molecule to reproduce this mechanism by inhibiting the transferrin receptor 1. “We tested it successfully on human lung cells, on human lung tissue samples and on mice with several viral strains. In the presence of this inhibitor, the virus replicated much less. However, in view of its potentially oncogenic characteristics, this product cannot be used to treat humans,” Mazel-Sanchez explained.&nbsp;



Nonetheless, anti-cancer therapies based on the inhibition of the transferrin receptor could potentially benefit from these discoveries.



In addition to this particular receptor, the researchers have also identified about 30 other proteins that may play a role in how the influenza A virus enter the cells. Although it is likely that the virus uses a combination involving other receptors to infect cells, further research is needed to clarify these mechanisms.



“Although we are still far from a clinical application, blocking the transferrin receptor 1 could become a promising strategy for treating influenza virus infections in humans and potentially in animals,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214936120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-influenza-virus">More about the influenza virus&nbsp;</h2>



Influenza is a highly contagious viral infection that primarily spreads through the upper and/or lower respiratory tract. It is more commonly known as the flu. The influenza viruses are members of the Orthomyxoviridae family and are categorized into four types: A, B, C, and D.



<h3 id="h-flu-types">Flu types</h3>



Influenza A viruses are the most virulent human pathogens among the four influenza types and cause the most severe disease. The influenza A virus can be broken down into different subtypes based on the chemical structure of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins on their surface. For instance, H1N1 and H3N2 are subtypes of influenza viruses that have caused human pandemics.



Influenza B viruses are not divided into subtypes, but can be broken down into lineages and strains. Currently circulating influenza B viruses belong to one of two lineages: B/Yamagata and B/Victoria. Influenza B is less common but can still cause outbreaks of seasonal flu.



Influenza C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness, or no symptoms at all, so they do not cause epidemics or pandemics. Influenza D viruses primarily affect cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.



Flu viruses can change through a process called antigenic drift and shift. Antigenic drift happens gradually over time as the virus makes small changes to its genetic composition, while antigenic shift is an abrupt, major change to the influenza A viruses, resulting in new hemagglutinin and/or new neuraminidase proteins.



<h3 id="h-symptoms-of-infection">Symptoms of infection&nbsp;</h3>



Influenza is characterized by sudden onset of high fever, aching muscles, headache, severe malaise, non-productive cough, sore throat, and rhinitis. Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention. But influenza can cause severe illness or death in high-risk populations such as the very young, elderly, and individuals with certain chronic health conditions.



<h3 id="h-flu-vaccination">Flu vaccination</h3>



Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent infection and severe outcomes caused by influenza viruses. Antiviral drugs are also available and can make your illness milder and make you feel better faster. They can also prevent serious flu complications.



Despite the availability of vaccines, the flu virus remains a major public health concern, largely due to its ability to change and mutate over time. Scientists are actively researching ways to develop a universal flu vaccine that would protect against all strains of the virus.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does the influenza virus hack our cells?

Flu epidemics are caused by influenza A or B viruses,...

Boat,Dwarfed,By,Antarctic,Mountains

Scientists have mapped the ground beneath Antarctica's most vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-doomsday-glacier-is-melting-from-below/">glacier</a>, Thwaites, for the first time. This breakthrough will aid researchers in understanding the impacts of climate change on this sensitive area.



Thwaites Glacier, a massive formation in West Antarctica comparable in size to Great Britain or the US state of Florida, is one of Antarctica's fastest-changing ice-ocean systems.&nbsp;



Geophysicist Dr. Tom Jordan, who spearheaded this study at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS), emphasized that the findings are vital due to the glacier's rapid transformation.



<h2 id="h-a-few-surprises-revealed-in-the-data">A few surprises revealed in the data</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>, revealed that the area beneath the Thwaites Glacier had less sedimentary rock than anticipated. “Sediments allow faster flow, like sliding on mud,” Dr. Jordan explained.&nbsp;



Understanding the location of these slippery sediments, he noted, would help predict the glacier's future behavior as it retreats.



The researchers noticed significant changes at the glacier's grounding zone - the spot where it interacts with the seafloor. Since the late 1990s, this point has retreated a staggering 14 km.&nbsp;



Notably, much of the ice sheet rests below sea level, which makes it prone to rapid, irreversible ice loss that could result in a global sea-level rise of over half a meter within centuries.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



This groundbreaking research involved airborne surveys using specially equipped aircraft. These planes housed radar that could penetrate the ice to the rocks beneath, as well as sensors to map minute variations in gravity and magnetism. The instruments operated hundreds to thousands of meters below the ground and seabed where the glacier rests.



In combining the data from these various sources, researchers compiled a 3D representation of several features, including the type and extent of different rocks.&nbsp;



Dr. Jordan pointed out the importance of the integrated nature of these airborne surveys: “Each sensor on the aircraft provided an important but incomplete part of the picture, but by bringing them all together we could provide the detailed map of the underlying geology."



The study delves into geological history, tracing back to when New Zealand separated from Antarctica around 100 million years ago, long before the formation of the Thwaites Glacier.&nbsp;



Researchers anticipated the discovery of thick sediments at the base of Thwaites Glacier, given its position below sea level and the geological processes of millions of years. Previous analyses of other Antarctic glaciers indicated the presence of thick underlying sediments.



However, the survey data indicated that sedimentary rock constitutes only about a fifth of the ground beneath the Thwaites Glacier. These sediments are scattered in basins ranging between 80 and 200 km in length and about 30 km wide. The remainder of the ground comprises diverse geological bodies, including granite peaks and other hard rocks. The researchers hypothesized that the sedimentary basins were once larger but were eroded down to bedrock due to glacier movement.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-results-are-unclear">Implications of the results are unclear</h2>



The implications of these findings for estimates of ice flow and loss from Thwaites and other glaciers remain unclear. Yet, the study demonstrates that the geological landscape directly impacts the basal shear stress, a key determinant of the speed at which ice can flow into the ocean.



Dr. Jordan expressed his hopes for the study's implications: “We hope that by showing the detailed geology, and how it correlates with the basal friction, future models of glacial retreat will have lower uncertainty, as the controls of the basal processes will be better understood.”



“No single scientific study could ever match the scale and challenge of climate change. But it is the incremental building of all the individual scientific studies like this that allows us to understand and tackle that challenge.”



The team will proceed with more detailed studies of these processes. The newly discovered data may also assist in creating more accurate predictions of future ice loss.&nbsp;



Study co-author and glaciologist Dr. Sarah Thompson added an optimistic note: "The integrated approach used in this study has significant potential for successful application elsewhere in Antarctica, enabling us to explore other potentially vulnerable regions where current knowledge is sparse."



<h2 id="h-much-more-research-is-needed">Much more research is needed</h2>



This research project has opened a new dimension in the understanding of Antarctic glaciers and their response to climate change. Its innovative approach to mapping the geology beneath the ice has shed light on how the structure and composition of the earth beneath a glacier can influence its flow rate and melting process.



More research is forthcoming, and with it, we may gain better predictions about how these massive glaciers will behave in the future. As the team dives deeper into this exciting new knowledge base, the global scientific community eagerly anticipates further insights into our changing world.



While we grapple with the grand challenges of climate change, research endeavors such as this one from the British Antarctic Survey provide us with crucial knowledge and tools.&nbsp;



Incrementally, we are building a scientific understanding robust enough to tackle the profound environmental transformations of our time. This study is an important piece of the jigsaw puzzle, highlighting the inextricable ties between our planet's geology and climate.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-thwaites-glacier">More about the Thwaites Glacier</h2>



Thwaites Glacier, also known as the "Doomsday Glacier," is located in the remote Amundsen Sea in West Antarctica. It's a wide and fast-flowing glacier, roughly the size of Florida or Great Britain, and it has been a significant focus of scientific study due to its sensitivity to climate change.



Thwaites Glacier is one of the most vulnerable and important glaciers in the world in terms of future global sea-level rise. It is believed that the glacier is undergoing significant change due to warming oceans, and this change is accelerating.



<h3 id="h-accelerating-pace-of-ice-loss-is-troubling">Accelerating pace of ice loss is troubling&nbsp;</h3>



In the past few decades, the speed at which Thwaites Glacier is flowing into the sea has nearly doubled. Satellite measurements have shown that the glacier is losing an enormous amount of ice each year, nearly 50 billion tons annually, contributing to rising global sea levels. If the entire Thwaites Glacier were to melt, it could raise the world's oceans by about 65 centimeters (over 2 feet).



A critical concern is that much of Thwaites sits on land that is below sea level, in a configuration known as "marine-based." This situation means that as the glacier's grounding line – the point where the glacier's ice lifts off the land and starts floating on the sea – retreats inland, it can pass over deeper and deeper valleys. This process allows more and more ice to discharge into the sea, which might accelerate the glacier's melt in a phenomenon known as "marine ice sheet instability."



<h3 id="h-collapse-of-thwaites-would-cause-disastrous-chain-reaction">Collapse of Thwaites would cause disastrous chain reaction</h3>



The stability of Thwaites is also important because it backs up other glaciers, acting as a kind of doorstop, and preventing the ice in these glaciers from flowing into the sea. The collapse of Thwaites could potentially destabilize a larger part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which contains enough ice to raise sea levels by an additional several meters.



Despite its remote location, research teams from around the world have been traveling to Thwaites for study. They're using ice-penetrating radar and other instruments to map the ice and the sea floor, and are drilling into the glacier to understand its stability and the factors affecting its rapid change.



—-



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Predicting the future behavior of Thwaites, the Doomsday Glacier

Scientists have mapped the ground beneath Antarctica's most vulnerable glacier,...

The fascinating world of infant communication is peppered with squeals, vowel-like sounds, growls, and short, word-like sounds such as "ba" or "aga". These are known as protophones, the precursors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-when-speech-is-directed-at-them/">speech</a>.&nbsp;



Over time, these protophones evolve into early words, then gradually transform into phrases and sentences as the child grows older.



While it's a known fact that some babies are naturally more "talkative" than others, new research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106884">iScience</a> uncovers fascinating insights into gender differences in these early vocalizations.&nbsp;



The researchers have discovered that during the first year of life, male babies appear to "talk" more than their female counterparts. This finding confirms earlier, smaller studies by the same team but remains a surprising revelation.



<h2 id="h-why-this-finding-was-a-surprise-to-scientists">Why this finding was a surprise to scientists</h2>



Why the surprise? It challenges a long-standing belief that females typically have a language advantage over males. This discrepancy between the study results and traditional expectations offers compelling implications for understanding the evolutionary foundations of language, say the researchers.



"Females are believed widely to have a small but discernible advantage over males in language," said D. Kimbrough Oller of <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/">The University of Memphis</a>. "However, our findings show that in the first year, males tend to produce more speech-like vocalizations than females."



However, the early language advantage shown by male infants is transient. "While boys showed higher rates of vocalization in the first year, girls caught up and surpassed boys by the end of the second year," Oller noted.



<h2 id="h-accidental-discovery">Accidental discovery</h2>



Interestingly, Oller and his colleagues did not initially set out to examine gender differences. They were primarily interested in the origins of language in infancy. Had they been asked to predict the results, they would have guessed that female infants might produce more sounds than males. Yet, the outcome was consistent with their previous study published in Current Biology in 2020.



The team undertook a more extensive study to validate this unexpected pattern. The analysis involved over 450,000 hours of all-day recordings of 5,899 infants using a device about the size of an iPod. The recordings were automatically analyzed to count infant and adult utterances across the first two years of life.



"This is the biggest sample for any study ever conducted on language development, as far as we know," said Oller.



The data collected showed that male infants made about 10% more utterances in the first year compared to females.&nbsp;



However, in the second year, the trend reversed, with female infants making about 7% more sounds than males. Notably, this gender difference was present despite the fact that the adults caring for these infants spoke more words to female infants in both years compared to males.



<h2 id="h-things-begin-to-change-in-the-second-year-of-life">Things begin to change in the second year of life</h2>



The researchers speculate that the higher early vocal activity of male infants might simply be a reflection of their generally higher activity levels. However, this explanation doesn't hold up well, as male infants' increased vocalizations diminish by 16 months, while their higher physical activity levels persist.



Oller suggests these findings could align with an evolutionary theory. It's possible that infants are programmed to make many sounds early on to communicate their health and vitality, thus improving their chances of survival.



If that's the case, why would male infants be more vocal than females in the first year but not later?



"We think it may be because boys are more vulnerable to dying in the first year than girls," said Oller. "Given the higher mortality rates of males in the first year, they may be under especially high evolutionary pressure to produce vocal fitness signals."&nbsp;



By the second year of life, as mortality rates decrease dramatically for both genders, the pressure on special fitness signaling is lower for both boys and girls, explained Oller.



The researchers said that further research is needed to understand how caregivers react to these baby sounds.



"We anticipate that caregivers will show discernible reactions of interest and of being charmed by the speech-like sounds," said Oller. He noted that these vocalizations from babies elicit genuine feelings of affection in caregivers, along with a willingness to invest in the infants' well-being.



<h2 id="h-next-follow-up-experiment-is-on-the-drawing-board">Next follow-up experiment is on the drawing board</h2>



The team is curious to see how caregivers will react differently to the speech-like sounds of boys and girls. However, there's a catch - the caregivers might need to be informed about the baby's gender beforehand. That's because it's still unknown whether the gender can be discerned merely from these vocalizations.



In conclusion, this groundbreaking research offers valuable insights into the early language development of infants and the surprising ways in which gender differences can manifest. While the male infants' early advantage in vocalization is short-lived, it points towards fascinating evolutionary strategies possibly linked to survival.



As the researchers continue to uncover more about the fascinating journey of language development, we'll gain a better understanding of the incredible complexity and resilience of human communication. As they say, every "ba" or "aga" is a step towards the intricate symphony of human language.



<h2 id="h-more-about-infant-cognitive-development">More about infant cognitive development</h2>



Infant cognitive development is a fascinating process that unfolds across several stages, with milestones in areas such as language acquisition, motor skills, and reasoning ability. Here's an overview of key developmental stages, although it's important to note that individual children may progress at different rates:



<h3 id="h-language-development">Language Development</h3>



<ul>
<li>0-5 Months: Infants start to make sense of the world around them through sounds. They will start to recognize their parent's voices and begin cooing and making simple vowel sounds.</li>



<li>6-11 Months: During this stage, babies will start babbling, making sounds like "ba-ba" or "ma-ma." They are exploring the sounds that they can make with their mouths and learning to associate them with reactions from adults.</li>



<li>12-17 Months: This is the typical age for first words. Initially, vocabulary grows slowly, and words may not always be used correctly. However, babies at this stage are increasingly capable of understanding simple instructions.</li>



<li>18-24 Months: Vocabulary begins to increase more rapidly, and infants may start to form simple two-word phrases. They are also better at understanding more complex instructions.</li>
</ul>



<h3 id="h-motor-development">Motor Development</h3>



<ul>
<li>0-6 Months: Infants develop their gross motor skills, learning to roll over, sit up with support, and eventually sit independently.</li>



<li>7-12 Months: During this stage, babies usually learn to crawl, pull up to a standing position, and may even take their first steps.</li>



<li>13-18 Months: Toddlers will become more confident in walking and will begin to explore running, climbing, and possibly even jumping. Fine motor skills also improve, allowing them to manipulate objects with more precision.</li>
</ul>



<h3 id="h-reasoning-and-decision-making">Reasoning and Decision-Making</h3>



The development of reasoning skills and decision-making is a bit more complex. While it's clear that infants and toddlers are constantly learning and experimenting with their environment, the cognitive processes behind these activities are not as well-understood.



<ul>
<li>0-12 Months: Infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen. This is a foundational concept in understanding cause-and-effect relationships.</li>



<li>12-24 Months: Toddlers begin to show early signs of problem-solving skills, such as pushing a stool to reach a toy on a high shelf. They also start to understand more complex cause-and-effect relationships.</li>



<li>2-3 Years: Around this age, children begin to develop early symbolic play and imagination, which contribute to decision-making and reasoning. They may also begin to understand simple rules and routines.</li>



<li>3-5 Years: Preschool-aged children begin to demonstrate more sophisticated reasoning abilities. They can understand basic logic and can solve more complex problems. They also begin to understand the concept of time and can plan for future events.</li>
</ul>



Again, these are general guidelines and there can be significant variation in the timing and progression of these milestones. It's also important to remember that cognitive development in infants and children is influenced by many factors, including genetics, environment, and parental interaction.&nbsp;



—-



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Male babies talk more than females during the first year

The fascinating world of infant communication is peppered with squeals,...

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Observing the outer planets Today&#8217;s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) project,  which was designed to obtain to help experts investigate the atmospheric dynamics and evolution of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Yearly observations from Hubble will provide an important series of images that can be studied by planetary scientists. Here we explain the characteristics of the outer planets : Although they are further from the Sun, they are all within the solar system. The outer planets are also known as gaseous planets , since they do not have a solid surface. The outer planets are also known as giant planets , since their size is much larger than that of the inner planets. Like the Inner Planets, the Outer Planets share similarities but each also has its own unique characteristics. As well as all being huge and being made up mostly of gases , all four have rings spinning around them, with Saturn having the most famous rings. All four planets also have large numbers of moons orbiting them.  Observing the outer planets shown in the video above will show you the mission schedule events.
Video Credit: NASA Goddard 
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer