Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Cyclone Michaung, which slammed into the southern Indian coast on December 5, 2023 with intense winds and torrential rainfall. Michaung made landfall between Nellore and Kavali in the state of Andhra Pradesh. 



"When it made landfall, the storm had sustained winds of 90 to 100 kilometers (56 to 62 miles) per hour, according to the India Meteorological Department," said NASA.



"The VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the NOAA-20 satellite captured this image after landfall, as the weakening storm moved northward and winds had slowed to 65 to 75 kilometers per hour."



As the cyclone approached, tall waves crashed into southern coastal towns and entire villages were submerged, according to a report from Reuters. Trees were uprooted, roads were damaged, and cars were swept away.&nbsp;



By Wednesday, rescue operations were launched in Chennai, a city of over six million people. Rescuers used inflatable rafts and ropes to pull people from their flooded homes and air force helicopters dropped food to some of those who remained stranded.



Among the widespread destruction, there have been 13 confirmed deaths due to causes including falling structures and electrocution.



Cyclones are relatively common along the southern coast of India, particularly in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. This region is prone to cyclonic activity primarily due to its geographical location and certain meteorological factors.&nbsp;



Cyclones in this area tend to occur mainly in two seasons: the pre-monsoon season (April-June) and the post-monsoon season (October-December).



During these periods, warm ocean temperatures, high humidity, and favorable wind patterns contribute to the development and intensification of cyclones.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Cyclone Michaung caused widespread destruction in southern India

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a volcanic plume drifting from Anak Krakatau, a small island in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. 



Anak Krakatau, which means "Child of Krakatoa," emerged from the sea in 1927, forming over the caldera of the infamous Krakatoa volcano, which erupted catastrophically in 1883.&nbsp;



This earlier eruption was one of the most violent volcanic events in recorded history, known for its immense power and the global climate impact it had due to the large amount of ash it sent into the upper atmosphere.



Anak Krakatau has been growing continuously since its emergence, with frequent eruptions that have reshaped its structure and size over time.&nbsp;



"Geologists have tallied 57 eruptive periods from this location since the beginning of the Holocene, roughly 11,700 years ago," said NASA. "The most recent eruptive period, which started in May 2021 and continued into December 2023, has featured frequent but generally mild Strombolian blasts of volcanic gases and ash particles."&nbsp;



"Materials ejected from the volcano’s vent are typically lofted a few hundred meters above the summit, and small lava flows occasionally drain down the island's flanks and into the sea."



"Beginning on November 26, 2023, geologists with the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation began to report more intense explosions, with plumes of volcanic material rising up to 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above the vent."&nbsp;



The public has been warned to stay at least 5 kilometers (3 miles) from the crater. Due to elevated risks of ash in the area, the Volcanic Ash Advisory Center in Darwin, Australia, has issued multiple warnings to the aviation community.



The image was captured on December 2, 2023 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Volcanic activity has intensified on Anak Krakatau

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features a false-color image of Lake Abbe in northeast Ethiopia. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.&nbsp;



"Visible as the large round dark area, Lake Abbe, also known as Lake Abhe, straddles the border of Ethiopia to the west and Djibouti to the east. The lake is 19 km wide and 17 km long and is extremely salty. It is dotted with clusters of steaming limestone chimneys and surrounded by large salt flats, visible in white, and rift volcanoes," says ESA.



"The biggest volcano in the image is Mount Dama Ali, a dormant 25-km-wide shield volcano that rises on the northwest shore of the lake."



"Lake Abbe and Lake Afambo, which is visible at the top of the image, are part of a chain of six connected salt lakes, fed by the Awash River - one of Ethiopia’s biggest rivers.'



Copernicus Sentinel-2’s near-infrared channel highlights vegetation in bright red. This strategy makes it easy to spot algal blooms, such as the one that is visible in Lake Abbe. According to ESA, the light blue color on the west shore indicates sediment discharged into the lake.



"Because of its dry, desert, almost lunar landscape and the steaming, sulphuric vents, Lake Abbe is considered one of the most inaccessible areas on Earth," says ESA. "Earth observation satellites are key in these cases as they are particularly relevant for monitoring remote regions such as this."



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Lake Abbe in northeast Ethiopia

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory </a>&nbsp;features an astronaut photograph of Abu Dhabi, located on the coast of the Persian Gulf.



Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second-most populous city of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is also the capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the largest of the UAE's seven emirates.&nbsp;



Abu Dhabi possesses around 9% of the world's proven oil reserves and about 5% of the world's natural gas. Consequently, oil exports have fueled its rapid development and provided substantial wealth.



"Prior to the formation of the UAE in the 1970s, Abu Dhabi was a municipality of less than 62,000 people. The region experienced a rapid population increase over the past five decades due to its role in the petroleum and financial industries, which enabled the city’s population to grow to about 1.5 million people by the early 2020s," said NASA.



The city places a strong emphasis on promoting Emirati culture and heritage. It hosts numerous events, festivals, and has several museums and cultural centers.



"The landscape of the Abu Dhabi emirate is mainly composed of wind-blown sand, mangroves, rocky outcrops, and intertidal flats. The Abu Dhabi Sabkha, visible along the coastline as brown, non-vegetated land, was produced by wind erosion of ancient dunes and the deposition of tidal sediments," said NASA.



"Sabkhas are flat coastal areas that are characteristically high in salt. The abundance of salt in the soil limits the ability of vegetation to develop on the sabkha."



"In contrast to the barren sabkha, green mangrove forests are present along the coastline as well. Mangrove forests are regions of shrubs and trees with dense root systems that protect the intertidal zones from coastal erosion."



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Abu Dhabi, the capital city of the United Arab Emirates

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory &nbsp;features...

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission view of Tutuila, a tropical island in the American Samoa archipelago.



American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of five main islands and two atolls. The largest and most populous island is Tutuila, where Pago Pago, the capital city, is situated.



The eastern part of the chain of islands forms the American Samoa, while the western part forms the independent state of Samoa.



Tutuila Island is known for its rugged terrain, lush landscapes, and deep harbors. It's the economic and political center of American Samoa, with the majority of the population residing here. The island's geography features volcanic peaks, with Mount Alava and Matafao Peak being the highest points, offering stunning views and rich biodiversity.



American Samoa as a whole has a unique blend of American and Samoan culture. The territory maintains traditional Samoan customs, making it a fascinating place for cultural studies. The economy primarily revolves around fishing and the services sector, with canned tuna being a significant export.



The National Park of American Samoa, partly located on Tutuila, helps preserve the tropical rainforests, coral reefs, and Samoan culture. This park is unique because it's one of the only national parks in the United States that's leased rather than owned by the government, reflecting the strong communal land traditions of Samoa.



Image Credit: ESA 



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Tutuila in the American Samoa archipelago 

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> have uncovered compelling evidence suggesting the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shock-discovery-saturns-moon-enceladus-has-all-of-the-ingredients-necessary-for-life/">life</a> on Mercury, particularly at its north pole. Using images from NASA's MESSENGER probe, the researchers discovered features that appear to be salt glaciers within Mercury's Raditladi and Eminescu craters. 



Unlike ice formations on Earth, these glaciers would consist of salt compounds that trapped volatiles such as water, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-the-glaciers">Origin of the glaciers</h2>



The formation of the glaciers is attributed to the impact of space rocks on Mercury's surface. The impacts penetrated the basaltic outer layer, releasing the volatile-rich compounds from beneath the surface.&nbsp;



Mercury's extreme temperatures, reaching up to 806°F (430°C) during the day, have since caused the evaporation of these compounds. However, the remnants of the glaciers are identifiable through Earth-like geological features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitable-conditions">Habitable conditions</h2>



“These Mercurian glaciers, distinct from Earth’s, originate from deeply buried Volatile Rich Layers (VRLs) exposed by asteroid impacts. Our models strongly affirm that salt flow likely produced these glaciers and that after their emplacement they retained volatiles for over 1 billion years,” said study co-author Bryan Travis.



This comparison sparks the theory that subsurface areas on Mercury, shielded from the Sun's intense heat, might harbor conditions conducive to extreme forms of life.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldilocks-zones-nbsp">Goldilocks zones&nbsp;</h2>



“Specific salt compounds on Earth create habitable niches even in some of the harshest environments where they occur, such as the arid Atacama Desert in Chile," said study lead author Alexis Rodriguez. "This line of thinking leads us to ponder the possibility of subsurface areas on Mercury that might be more hospitable than its harsh surface."&nbsp;



"These areas could potentially act as depth-dependent ‘Goldilocks zones,’ analogous to the region around a star where the existence of liquid water on a planet might enable life as we know it, but in this case, the focus is on the right depth below the planet’s surface rather than the right distance from a star."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volatile-rich-layers">Volatile Rich Layers</h2>



The research challenges the notion of Mercury as a planet devoid of volatiles. It suggests that Volatile Rich Layers (VRLs) are potentially hidden beneath the planet’s surface



“A central mystery concerning Mercury revolves around the genesis of its glaciers and chaotic terrains. What mechanism was responsible for the formation of VRLs? In our research, we introduce a model that integrates recent observational data to address this question," said Rodriguez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-s-north-pole">Mercury’s north pole</h2>



"Notably, we examine the Borealis Chaos, located in Mercury’s north polar region. This area is characterized by intricate patterns of disintegration, significant enough to have obliterated entire populations of craters, some dating back approximately 4 billion years."&nbsp;



"Beneath this collapsed layer lies an even more ancient, cratered paleo-surface, previously identified through gravity studies. The juxtaposition of the fragmented upper crust, now forming chaotic terrain, over this gravity-revealed ancient surface, suggests that the VRLs were emplaced atop an already solidified landscape."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-long-held-theories">Challenging long-held theories</h2>



Rodriguez said that these findings challenge prevailing theories of VRL formation that traditionally centered on mantle differentiation processes, where minerals separate into different layers within the planet’s interior.&nbsp;



"Instead, the evidence suggests a grand-scale structure, possibly stemming from the collapse of a fleeting, hot primordial atmosphere early in Mercury’s history. This atmospheric collapse might have occurred mostly during the extended nighttime periods when the planet’s surface was not exposed to the Sun’s intense heat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



These insights were made possible through the use of sophisticated models and detailed analysis of observational data. The study represents a significant stride in understanding Mercury's geological history and its potential to host life.



“This groundbreaking discovery of Mercurian glaciers extends our comprehension of the environmental parameters that could sustain life, adding a vital dimension to our exploration of astrobiology also relevant to the potential habitability of Mercury-like exoplanets," said Rodriguez.



The research was supported by NASA’s Solar System Workings (SSW) Program. The results are published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/acf219" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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Is there life on Mercury? Possibly in the planet's craters, study reveals

Scientists at the Planetary Science Institute have uncovered compelling evidence...

The Earth is currently undergoing a significant transformation due to global warming. The cumulative impact of these changes is leading us to what are known as 'tipping points' in the climate system.



Key indicators of these changes include the shrinking of ice sheets, rising sea levels, and the widespread die-off of coral reefs. These events are not just isolated occurrences. They represent a continuous breaking of climate records and signal a shift in the fundamental workings of the Earth system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-climate-tipping-points">Defining climate tipping points</h2>



"<a href="https://global-tipping-points.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Global Tipping Points Report</a>," the most comprehensive assessment of tipping points ever conducted, indicates that humanity is currently on a disastrous trajectory. Climate scientists reveal that the world is at a pivotal moment, with threats from Earth system tipping points and progress towards positive tipping points both accelerating. 



The concept of 'tipping points' in climate science is crucial. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>), these tipping points are defined as "critical thresholds in a system that, when exceeded, can lead to a significant change in the state of the system, often with an understanding that the change is irreversible." 



In simpler terms, these are points in the Earth's system where minor changes can initiate self-reinforcing loops. These loops push the system from one stable state into a drastically different and often irreversible state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-and-consequences">Examples and consequences</h2>



A clear illustration of such a tipping point is the potential transformation of rainforests into dry savannas due to a rise in global temperatures, primarily caused by fossil fuel burning. Such changes are driven by feedback loops that continue even if the initial cause ceases. 



For instance, a forest ecosystem might remain in its 'tipped' state even if temperatures drop below the critical threshold.



These shifts can take decades or centuries to stabilize in a new state. However, if tipping points are being crossed currently or in the near future, the full scope of their impact might not be evident for centuries.



The crossing of one tipping point can trigger additional tipping elements. Consequently, this creates a domino effect that may render some areas less suitable for human and natural systems. 



For example, the Arctic region is warming at a rate almost four times faster than the global average. This leads to accelerated ice melt and potentially impacting global ocean circulation and monsoon patterns. Such changes could increase drought frequencies in regions like the Amazon rainforest, further intensifying global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-climate-tipping-elements">Identifying climate tipping elements</h2>



In the early 2000s, scientists first identified a range of tipping elements, with the assumption that they would be activated with a global temperature rise of 4°C. 



However, advancements in scientific understanding have led to a reevaluation of these elements. They now include the cryosphere, ocean-atmosphere systems, and biosphere, encompassing phenomena from the melting of polar ice sheets to coral reef die-offs.



The recently published "<a href="https://global-tipping-points.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Tipping Points Report</a>" highlights that five major systems are already at risk at the current level of global warming. These include the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, permafrost regions, coral reefs, and specific ocean circulation patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-global-tipping-points">Monitoring global tipping points</h2>



Since the Industrial Revolution, our planet has warmed by approximately 1.2°C. Sadly, current pledges under the Paris Agreement are setting us on a path towards a 2.5°C -- 2.9°C rise in temperature this century. Recent evaluations have determined that surpassing a 1.5°C increase in global warming poses the risk of crossing several thresholds for climate tipping points.



Earth observation plays a vital role in monitoring and understanding these climate tipping points. Satellites provide comprehensive views of Earth's systems. They enable scientists to track changes in polar ice, deforestation rates, ocean temperatures, and other critical indicators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-of-satellite-systems">Use of satellite systems </h2>



Satellites such as ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/CryoSat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CryoSat</a> and <a href="https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/missions/sentinel-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Copernicus Sentinel-1</a> are instrumental in measuring changes in ice volume and flow. Others, providing data on gravity, help ascertain the extent of ice loss in polar regions. This information is crucial in identifying potential tipping points in ice sheet stability and their response to climate change.



Moreover, optical satellites like <a href="https://sentinel.esa.int/web/sentinel/missions/sentinel-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sentinel-2</a> are pivotal in monitoring changes in land cover or vegetation, including the health of ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest. Missions like ESA’s Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (<a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/SMOS" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMOS</a>) satellite and the upcoming Fluorescence Explorer (<a href="https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/flex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FLEX</a>) contribute to our understanding of soil moisture and vegetation health. This information then helps scientists assess terrestrial ecosystem resilience to climate impacts.



In terms of ocean circulation, satellites such as Sentinel-3 and SMOS offer insights into sea surface temperatures, currents, and salinity. They shed light on the dynamics of systems like the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation.



The data captured by these satellites is invaluable for the early detection of environmental shifts. This information enhances our understanding of complex climate phenomena. It is critical in developing effective strategies for climate mitigation and adaptation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommendations-for-change">Recommendations for change</h2>



The report presents six key recommendations:



<ol start="1">
<li>Immediate phase-out of fossil fuels and land-use emissions, targeting a complete stop before 2050. </li>



<li>Strengthening adaptation and "loss and damage" governance while acknowledging global inequalities. </li>



<li>Inclusion of tipping points in global climate assessments and national climate action plans. </li>



<li>Coordinated policy efforts to trigger positive tipping points. </li>



<li>Convening an urgent global summit on tipping points. </li>



<li>Enhancing understanding of tipping points, advocating for a special report by the IPCC on this topic.</li>
</ol>



In summary, the "Global Tipping Points Report" serves as a wake-up call and a guide for humanity at this pivotal moment. It outlines the imminent dangers of negative tipping points and the transformative potential of positive ones. The choices made now will determine the future trajectory of our planet and its inhabitants.



As the Earth system approaches these tipping points, the role of comprehensive observation and understanding becomes more crucial than ever in guiding our responses to these unprecedented changes.



Parts of the Global Tipping Points Report are published in <a href="https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/special_issue1247.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a special issue of the journal Earth System Dynamics</a>.



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Global Tipping Points Report shows humanity on a disastrous trajectory

The Earth is currently undergoing a significant transformation due to...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/root-bacteria-protects-plants/">Bacteria</a> that benefit plants are thought to be a critical contributor to crops and ecosystems, but climate change may reduce their numbers, according to a new study by an international team of researchers published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00869-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



The collaboration, including Francisco Dini-Andreote, professor of plant science at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>, characterized the abundances and distributions of plant beneficial bacteria (PBB) from soils collected across the globe. The researchers then modeled how these microbial communities may be impacted by fossil-fuel dependent climate change in the next century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-second-genome">The second genome</h2>



Leveraging existing data from the <a href="https://earthmicrobiome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth Microbiome Project</a>, the researchers identified microbes that may provide services to plants such as biocontrol or limiting impacts of pathogens, plant growth promotion, and stress resistance. Such services implicate these bacteria as key components of productive agroecosystems, which primarily yield food.



“Plants are colonized by a diverse set of microbes on and in their roots, leaves and stems,” Dini-Andreote said. “These plant-associated microbiomes represent an extension of the plant metabolic capacity - often termed ‘the second genome of plants.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-community-patterns">Microbial community patterns</h2>



This notion echoes the hologenome concept, which considers the total set of genes contained by an organism and its associated microbiome to make inferences about organismal health and evolution.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, characterizing the biogeography of PBB sets the stage for understanding the variables that govern global microbial community patterns and predicting their future in a rapidly shifting world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed several trends in PBB diversity, including higher levels of diversity and richness in lower latitudes, with the highest concentration in North America and Africa. A total of 396 genera, the taxonomic rank above species level, were identified.&nbsp;



The researchers found that local environmental variables - climate, in particular - were strong predictors of PBB community composition, likely exerting strong influences on PBB distribution. This suggests that climate influences what bacteria are found where and in what proportion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-scenarios-nbsp">Future scenarios&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate how PBB abundances and distributions may change over the next century, the researchers modeled several climate scenarios based on projections from the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. 



Under the fossil-fueled development scenario, which assumes tripled greenhouse gas emissions by 2075, the model predicted that PBB associated with biocontrol and stress resistance would decline by 0.60 percent in 80 percent of global regions, as opposed to 0.07 percent under a Sustainability scenario.&nbsp;



Under all scenarios, middle-latitude regions are projected to experience steady declines, whereas increases in PBB are anticipated in polar and equatorial regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-validation-is-needed">Further validation is needed</h2>



Dini-Andreote noted that predictive studies such as this are broadly impactful but cautioned that models are limited and must be experimentally validated. For instance, in controlled settings, plant-soil systems can be exposed to warming or drought conditions, after which researchers can evaluate shifts based on the impact and adaptation of PBB communities relative to controls.&nbsp;



In other words, experimentation is required to know how PBB will be affected under climate-related stress, and what levels of PBB decline will have a critical impact on plant health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-food-insecurity-nbsp">Addressing food insecurity&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to informing community ecology research, the researchers said they hope to spark agricultural innovation and applications for increased food security. But those innovations are unlikely to include soil probiotics to restore diminished PBB.&nbsp;



Dini-Andreote said that such bioinoculants can often have several shortcomings such as requiring continual application. Additionally, only a small fraction, about 5 to 10 percent, of soil microbes can be cultured, which limits the development of full-spectrum probiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



However, Dini-Andreote offered an alternative. “By advancing our understanding of how these distinct PBB survive in association with plants, for instance in the plant rhizosphere, we can develop strategies to engineer crops to produce compounds that feed these beneficial microbes.”&nbsp;



Through this approach, the researchers suggested, plants could recruit beneficial bacteria with no need for the external input of probiotics. The potential impacts of applications like this are untold, Dini-Andreote said, but underscore the importance of exploring the rapidly advancing frontier of microbiomes.



“This high-profile research is a testament to Dr. Dini-Andreote’s impactful and original research on plant-microbe interactions in a One Health context, spanning soil, plant and human health," Seth Bordenstein, director of the <a href="https://www.huck.psu.edu/institutes-and-centers/microbiome-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Health Microbiome Center</a> at Penn State. “His vision for plant hologenome studies and integration with global environmental and geographic data is not only driving textbook-level knowledge, but it also raises the alarm on evidence-backed sustainability challenges,” he concluded.



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Beneficial plant bacteria likely to decline due to climate change

Bacteria that benefit plants are thought to be a critical...

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Shadows on the Moon Today&#8217;s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features sunlight and shadows near the Moon&#8217;s South Pole.
The images were captured over the course of two lunar days, which is approximately the equivalent of two months on Earth. 
The data for the visualization was obtained by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft. Shadows on the Moon are The largest acceptable origin explanation is that the Moon formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth, out of the debris from a giant impact between the planet and a hypothesized Mars-sized body called Theia. It also is too wide to orbit because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/foraging-habits-of-seabirds-altered-by-turbulent-tidal-flows/">tidal</a> interaction with the Earth. 
Also near the side of the Moon is marked by dark volcanic maria, which fill the spaces between bright ancient crustal highlands and prominent impact craters. Most of the large impact basins and mare surfaces were in place by the end of the Imbrian period, some three billion years ago. The lunar surface is relatively non-reflective, with a reflectance just slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt. However, because it has a large angular diameter, the full moon is the brightest celestial object in the night sky. Also, 59% of the total lunar surface can be seen from Earth through shifts in perspective due to liberation. And the Moon formed about 4.51 billion years ago 
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Video Credit: NASA Goddard 
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer