A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Snow-capped mountains are valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parts-of-asia-face-irreversible-declines-in-freshwater-storage/">freshwater</a> resources that could potentially be wiped out by global warming in the coming decades. These "water towers" provide up to 80 percent of the world's freshwater, and more than half of the global population depends on mountain ecosystems for water, food, and energy.&nbsp;



Last year, a study co-led by Alan Rhoades and Erica Siirila-Woodburn of the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Berkeley Lab</a> predicted that mountain ranges in the western United States will regularly experience low-to-no-snow winters in 35 to 60 years if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced.



In a new study, Rhoades and his colleagues have determined that mountain ranges in the southern midlatitudes will face a low-to-no-snow future much sooner. These mountains, particularly in the Andean region of Chile, may transition to low-to-no-snow conditions as early as 2046.



According to the researchers, low-to-no-snow occurs when the annual maximum water stored as snowpack is within the bottom 30 percent of historical conditions for a decade or more. The study revealed that low-to-no-snow winters will emerge in the southern midlatitudes at a third of the warming compared to the northern midlatitudes.



“These findings are pretty shocking. We assumed that both regions in the southern and northern hemispheres would respond similarly to climate change, and that the Andes would be more resilient given its high elevation,” said Rhoades. “This shows that not every degree of warming has the same effect in one region as another.”



On a positive note, the researchers found that low-to-no-snow winters can be prevented in both the northern and southern midlatitude mountain ranges if global warming is limited to 2.5 degrees Celsius. Rhoades pointed to another study from the Berkeley Lab, which found that it is possible to reach net zero CO2 emissions in the United States by 2050. This could be accomplished by rebuilding the energy infrastructure to run primarily on renewable energy.



“It just requires the will and initiative to invest financial resources at the level of urgency that climate change demands, which means we need to start doing this today,” said Rhoades.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01518-y">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Mountains face low-to-no-snow winters in a warming climate

Snow-capped mountains are valuable freshwater resources that could potentially be...

Sweet corn crops in the American Midwest are threatened by unprecedented summer temperatures, according to a new study from the University of Illinois. A team of researchers in the <a href="https://aces.illinois.edu/">College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences</a> has found that sweet corn yields are declining under conditions of extreme heat.



The experts report that sweet corn yields drop significantly with extreme heat during flowering, particularly in rainfed fields across the Midwest.



“The reality is that producing sweet corn, one of the most popular vegetable crops in the U.S., will be more difficult in the future," said study lead author Daljeet Dhaliwal. "We need to develop new approaches and technologies to help crops adapt to climate change."



Dhaliwal worked with Professor Marty Williams to document sweet corn yields, growing season temperatures, and precipitation over 27 years.&nbsp;



“Our analysis reveals that small temperature changes have a greater influence on crop yield compared to small precipitation changes for both rainfed and irrigated fields in the Midwest and Northwest, but rainfed production shows greater sensitivities,” said Professor Williams.



“If there's a bad time for extreme heat, it's during flowering. That’s especially true in a crop where ear quality is so important. With heat stress during flowering, you can have ears with fewer kernels or very misshapen kernels that look nothing like what the consumer is expecting."



The U.S. Global Change Research Program predicts that by the middle of this century, there will be 20 to 30 more days over 32 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit) across much of the United States. The study was focused on the effects of “extreme degree days” with temperatures above 30 degrees Celsius, or 86 degrees Fahrenheit.&nbsp;



The researchers found that, in rainfed fields, every extreme degree day during flowering led to an additional yield loss of two percent. However, more than one day at 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit) could reduce a sweet corn yield by 20 percent.



According to Professor Williams, there’s only so much breeders can do to build in heat tolerance. “The question becomes how do we develop sweet corn to become more resilient to increasing environmental stressors? To what extent can you do that by managing the crop versus improving the crop itself? These are hard questions."



“The thing we really need to do to prevent worse outcomes is to minimize further climate change. But we're in a period where we're going to have to deal with what's already set in motion. Our trajectory is already set for the next several decades.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23237-2">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sweet corn yields are suffering in hotter conditions

Sweet corn crops in the American Midwest are threatened by...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> and <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> has recently combined iron, copper, and a simple LED light to develop a low-cost technique which could be key to distributing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrogen-vehicles-will-soon-be-less-expensive-and-much-more-realistic/">hydrogen</a>, a fuel packing massive amounts of energy with no carbon pollution. By using nanotechnology and advanced computation methods, the experts managed to split hydrogen from liquid ammonia, a process that until now has been very expensive and energy intensive. This technique could be employed to realize hydrogen’s potential as a clean, low emission fuel which could help meet energy demands without intensifying the climate crisis.



“We hear a lot about hydrogen being the ultimate clean fuel, if only it was less expensive and easy to store and retrieve for use,” said study senior author&nbsp;Naomi Halas, a professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at. “This result demonstrates that we are moving rapidly towards that goal, with a new, streamlined way to release hydrogen on-demand from a practical hydrogen storage medium using earth-abundant materials and the technological breakthrough of solid-state lighting.”&nbsp;



As a green fuel, hydrogen offers many advantages, such as high energy density and no carbon emissions. However, pure hydrogen is very expensive to compress for transport and difficult to store for extended periods. Recently, scientists have started to use intermediate chemicals, such as ammonia, to transport and store hydrogen. One of the problems they have been facing though was cracking ammonia into hydrogen and nitrogen, a process requiring high temperatures of over 400 degrees Celsius (732 Fahrenheit).&nbsp;



To solve these problems, the researchers harnessed light through nanotechnology to break the chemical bonds that hold ammonia molecules together rather than using heat to shatter them. Moreover, they employed a much cheaper catalyst containing iron and copper. These methods helped them extract hydrogen from ammonia using only light from energy-efficient LEDs at room temperature without additional heating.



In future research, the team aims to decrease the costs and carbon pollution involved with creating the ammonia that begins the transportation cycle. “Hydrogen is used ubiquitously in industry and will be used increasingly as fuel as the world seeks to decarbonize its energy sources,” said co-author Emily Carter, an expert in Energy and the Environment at Princeton.&nbsp;



“However, today it is mostly made unsustainably from natural gas – creating carbon dioxide emissions – and is difficult to transport and store. Hydrogen needs to be made and transported sustainably where it is needed. If carbon-emission-free ammonia could be produced, for example by electrolytic reduction of nitrogen using decarbonized electricity, it could be transported, stored, and possibly serve as an on-demand source of green hydrogen using the LED-illuminated iron-copper photocatalysts reported here.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abn5636">Science</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Unlocking hydrogen's potential as a green fuel

A team of researchers led by Princeton University and Rice...

The single-celled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasite-makes-infected-people-look-more-attractive/">parasite</a> called Toxoplasma gondii reproduces sexually only in cats, but can infect all warm-blooded animals, including humans. In fact, scientists estimate that between 30 to 50 percent of people globally are infected with this parasite, which, for those with healthy immune systems, remains for life as dormant tissue cysts. While some previous studies have argued that there is a correlation between people having this parasite in their brains and increased risk-taking, others have disputed these findings.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/">Yellowstone Wolf Project</a> has found that wolves infected with this widespread parasite are far more likely to become the leaders of their packs, suggesting that T. gondii may embolden its host to take more risks.



The scientists analyzed blood samples of nearly 230 wolves and 62 cougars (the large wild cats known to be the spreaders of the parasite). They discovered that the infected wolves were more likely to foray deeper into cougar territory than the uninfected ones, and they were 11 times more likely to leave their pack. Stunningly, infected wolves were also found to be up to 46 times more likely to become pack leaders – a role normally taken by the most aggressive animals.



While “being bolder is not necessarily a bad thing” – as study co-lead author and research associated at the Yellowstone Wolf Project Kira Cassidy argued - it can “lower survival for the bolder animals as they might make decisions that put them in danger more often. Wolves do not have the survival space to take too many more risks than they already do.”



This is only the second study investigating T. gondii’s effect on a wild animal, after scientists discovered last year that infected hyena cubs are more likely to get closer to, and killed by, lions in Kenya. However, laboratory research found that infected rodents often use their instinctual fear of cats, which drives them into the claws of the only host where the parasite can reproduce.



Yet, scientists are not yet sure whether these findings show clear causation. “A wolf that is a born risk-taker may simply be more likely to venture into cougar territory and contract Toxoplasma,” said William Sullivan, a professor of Pharmacology and Toxicology at <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University</a>, who studied this parasite for over 25 years. But “if the findings are correct, they suggest we may be underestimating the impact Toxoplasma has on ecosystems around the world.”



Further research is needed to assess the effects of this parasite on humans, and clarify whether it can also induce risk-taking behaviors in our species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-04122-0">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Brain parasite increases risk-taking in wolves

The single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii reproduces sexually only in...

As humans age, maintaining a positive and predictable social environment – such as keeping close ties to family and friends - becomes increasingly important. While some declines in health are inevitable, living in a positive social environment can help stave off some of the key stressors and challenges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-ties-influence-the-social-behavior-of-aging-animals/">aging</a>. Now, with recent technological advances, scientists are beginning to tease out the mysterious relation between the dynamics of one’s social environment and molecular changes in the brain.&nbsp;



However, with human studies difficult to perform and with aging processes protracted over decades during a typical human lifespan, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) has turned to some of our closest genetic cousins, nonhuman primates, to better understand how the social environment can alter physiological processes, from the organismal level all the way down to the genes.



“We still don’t have a good handle on how our social environment can ‘get under the skin’ to affect our bodies and brains, but a lot of recent work has pointed to changes at the level of gene regulation–how our genes are turned on and off,” said study senior author Noah Snyder-Mackler, an expert in neurodegenerative diseases at ASU.



The scientists focused on rhesus macaques, which exhibit some of the same age-related changes as humans, including declines in bone density and muscle mass, immune system changes, and impairment of behavioral, sensory, and cognitive function. By building upon over 15 years of research on the interactions between social behavior, genetics, and the brain in a group of macaques from Puerto Rico, the experts found that females with a higher social status had younger, more resilient molecular profiles, suggesting a critical link between the social environment and brain health.



The researchers generated comprehensive gene expression datasets from 15 different regions of the brain, while also investigating in greater detail a specific area of the brain – the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex – which is known to be associated with memory, planning, and decision making. The analyses revealed strong correlations between markers of aging and social adversity, as well as parallels between macaque and human gene expression signatures of age. However, there were also some important differences between the molecular profiles of humans and macaques, suggesting that there may be root causes of some neurodegenerative diseases that are unique to humans.&nbsp;



“This suggests that, while neurodegeneration pathways in humans differ from macaques in their age profiles in some regions, they still exhibit strong overlap with social adversity, paralleling epidemiological links in humans between social adversity and neurodegenerative diseases,” said study co-author Alex DeCasien, a biological anthropologist and evolutionary neuroscientist at the <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/">National Institute of Mental Health</a>.



“Evidence in humans and other social species suggests that variability in the risk, onset, and progression of age-related morbidities is explained in part by variation in social adversity. In female macaques, for instance, low social status is associated with increased mortality, and its effects on immune cell gene expression is similar to gene expression signatures of aging in humans,” Snyder-Mackler concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-022-01197-0">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Social adversity linked to premature aging

As humans age, maintaining a positive and predictable social environment...

According to a new report by the <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en">World Meteorological Organization</a> (WMO) and the <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/">Copernicus Climate Change Service</a>, the unprecedented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-the-record-2021-heatwave-in-north-america/">heatwaves</a> that Europe experienced this summer led to over 20,000 excess deaths - defined as the difference between the number of deaths that occurred and those expected based on historical trends.



During these heatwaves – largely caused by climate change – temperatures exceeded 40C (104F) in London, some regions in southwestern France reached 42C, while cities such as Seville and Córdoba in Spain set groundbreaking records of 44C. These extremely high temperatures led to a large number of excess deaths all around Europe.&nbsp;



In England and Wales, for instance, 3,271 excess deaths were recorded from June to September, which was higher by 6.2 percent than the five-year average. France reported 10,420 deaths over the summer months, with one in four of these deaths happening during one of the three massive heatwaves the country experienced, while in Spain there were 4,655 heat-attributable deaths from June to August. In Germany, experts estimate that 4,500 people died over the summer due to extreme temperatures.



“Heatwaves are one of the biggest threats posed by climate change. High temperatures are responsible for thousands of deaths across the world every year, many of which go underreported,” said Friederike Otto, a senior lecturer in Climate Science at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>. “Despite this overwhelming evidence, there is still little public awareness of the dangers that extreme temperatures present to human health.”



“Heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense as the globe warms up, so we can expect more and hotter heatwaves in future,” added Eunice Lo, a research fellow in Climate Change at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. “Scientists have linked many past heatwaves to human-induced climate change. This means that observed heatwaves have been made more likely to occur or more intense because of human emissions of greenhouse gases.”



According to Dr. Lo, even if we halt greenhouse emissions completely, such intense heatwaves will continue to occur during this century, suggesting the urgent need of societies to learn how to adapt to extreme heat. “This includes designing homes, schools and hospitals that have good ventilation and prevent overheating, increasing green space and parks in cities, and making heat warnings accessible to all,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The “Provisional State of the Global Climate in 2022” report can be found <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/climate/wmo-statement-state-of-global-climate">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Heatwaves in Europe linked to over 20,000 excess deaths

According to a new report by the World Meteorological Organization...

During the past few decades, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-carnivores-face-range-losses-in-the-future/">African carnivores</a> have undergone significant range and population declines. Unfortunately, although conservation planning and the management of endangered species require comprehensive and accurate assessments of population status and trends, biodiversity monitoring is not evenly distributed or occurring where it is most needed.



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has provided the first systematic review of African large carnivore population assessment published during the past two decades, in order to identify knowledge gaps and provide recommendations for better monitoring.



“Research effort is significantly biased towards lions (Panthera leo) and against striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), despite the latter being the species with the widest continental range. African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) also exhibited a negative bias in research attention, although this is partly explained by its relatively restricted distribution,” the study authors reported.&nbsp;



“Our findings highlight the urgent need for additional cheetah population assessments, particularly in northern, western, and central Africa. Due to their large country ranges, studies in Chad and Ethiopia should especially be considered a priority.”



According to the researchers, population assessments have been biased towards southern and eastern Africa, especially South Africa and Kenya. Moreover, most studies have been conducted in protected areas, while non-protected and trophy hunting regions received far less attention.



The scientists recommend as priority for future research regions from northern, western, and central Africa, particularly countries such as Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan, and Chad, which currently lack any published estimates but are known to house large carnivore populations. Moreover, donors and foreign researchers should maximize the involvement of local scientists, students, and practitioners in future assessments, through capacity building initiatives, including the provision of training, funding, and equipment.



On a species level, population assessments of striped hyenas, African wild dogs, and cheetahs are urgently needed, especially in countries such as Botswana, Tanzania, Chad, and Ethiopia. “Overall, large parts of Africa remain under-represented in the literature, and opportunities exist for further research on most species and in most countries. We develop recommendations for actions aimed at overcoming the identified biases and provide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers with priorities to help inform future research and monitoring agendas,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/14354/">PeerJ</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Assessments of large African carnivores urgently needed

During the past few decades, African carnivores have undergone significant...

A team of scientists from <a href="https://www.hudsoncarbon.com/">Hudson Carbon</a> – a research center based in New York which studies carbon storage – <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pharmaceutical-companies-could-lose-billions-to-cannabis/">cannabis</a> plants could be the missing player in humanity’s fight against climate change, as hemp can absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere more than twice as effectively as trees. The experts found that, while trees can capture about six tons of CO2 per year, hemp can suck up to 16 tons. Moreover, CO2 also becomes permanently encased within hemp fibers, which can be used in a variety of products, ranging from textiles and car parts to medicine.



Although the United States only accounts for about five percent of the global population, it is responsible for 28 percent of the world’s carbon emissions. “Roughly speaking, if [the US] did 50 million acres of hemp, we would be sequestering a couple hundred million tons of carbon per year on that acreage,” said Ben Dobson, the founder and president of Hudson Carbon.



Hemp is considered a highly purifying plant, pulling toxins from the air and permanently trapping them within its fibers. Moreover, since it absorbs carbon from the air as it grows, it is a so-called “carbon-negative crop.” Other benefits of hemp include the fact that it is one of the fastest-growing plants in the world, reaching four meters in height in only 100 days, while needing significantly less amounts of water to cultivate it.



Besides purifying the air of greenhouse gases, cannabis plants can also absorb carcinogenic heavy metals such as mercury, lead, or cadmium from soils – elements which, although are suitable for crops used for food, are highly dangerous for people who consume these plants.



Thus, since carbon emissions are one of the leading causes of climate change, cultivating more hemp for the purpose of soaking up this damaging gas from the atmosphere is essential for avoiding a climate catastrophe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Cannabis plants could help in the fight against climate change

A team of scientists from Hudson Carbon – a research...

U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-parks-endangered-species/">national park</a> traffic has grown steadily over the past decade, with popular parks such as Yosemite or Yellowstone reaching over one million visitors per year. In such heavily used areas, it is expected that animals will change their behavior to avoid humans. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> (UW), even in remote, rarely visited national parks, the presence of just a few humans can significantly impact the activity of wildlife residing there.&nbsp;



“There’s been increasing recognition of how much just the presence of humans in these places, and our recreating there, can impact wildlife,” said senior author&nbsp;Laura Prugh, an associate professor of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at UW. “These results are striking in showing that really any level of human activity can have an effect on wildlife.”



The researchers focused on the Glacier Bay National Park, a coastal area in southeast Alaska which is accessible only by boat or plane, and attracts less than 40,000 visitors per year. They installed 40 motion-activated cameras across 10 sites to examine the behavior of four animal species – wolves, black bears, brown bears, and moose – during two summers.



The investigation revealed that, if humans were present in the areas, the cameras detected less than five animals per week across all the species studied, suggesting that the animals generally avoid areas visited by humans. Moreover, in backcountry areas, wildlife detections dropped to zero when 40 or more humans visited each week.



“It was eye-opening to see the number of wildlife sightings we are ‘missing’ just by recreating in backcountry areas of Glacier Bay,” said study lead author&nbsp;Mira Sytsma, who completed the research as a graduate student at UW. “I was surprised that for all four species, wildlife detections were always highest when there wasn’t any human activity. So many people visit national parks for the chance to view wildlife, and that desire alone may reduce the chance of it happening.”&nbsp;



Although all four animal species showed changes in activity due to humans, wolves appeared to be most affected by human presence, while brown bears were the least affected. Surprisingly, moose were more active during the times of day and locations where people were seen, suggesting that they might be using humans as a protective shield against predators.



These findings could help park managers consider different approaches to making parks more accessible to both humans and wildlife, by concentrating trails and human use in only a few areas, or put restrictions on the time of day or days in which people can visit the parks.



“Our findings lend support to concentrating human activities in some areas, because if you’re going to go above zero human activity and it’s going to have an impact, you might as well go way above zero in some areas and then have other areas where you have almost no human activity. In those areas, then, wildlife can live their natural lives unaffected by people,” Professor Prugh concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/publications/journals/people-and-nature/">People and Nature</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals in national parks are impacted by human visitors

U.S. national park traffic has grown steadily over the past...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> has revealed that one in eight older adults developed depression for the first time during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-with-long-covid-experience-discrimination/">COVID-19</a> pandemic. Among individuals who had experienced depression in the past, the outcome was even more shocking. By the fall of 2020, nearly half of people with a history of depression had relapsed.&nbsp;



“We hope our findings can help health and social work professionals improve targeted screening and outreach to identify and serve older adults most at risk for depression,” said study first author Andie MacNeil.



“The high rate of first-onset depression in 2020 highlights the substantial mental health toll that the pandemic caused in a formerly mentally healthy group of older adults.”&nbsp;



Many studies have confirmed the widespread prevalence of depression among older adults during the pandemic, but few have investigated the percentage of people who relapsed or experienced depressive symptoms for the very first time.&nbsp;



“The devastation of the pandemic which upended so many aspects of daily life hit those with a history of depression particularly hard,” said study co-author Sapriya Birk. “Health professionals need to be vigilant in screening their patients who had mental health problems at an earlier time in their life.”



According to the experts, factors that were frequently associated with depression in the fall of 2020 included inadequate income and savings, loneliness, chronic pain, trouble accessing healthcare, a history of adverse childhood experiences, and family conflict.



Feelings of loneliness, isolation, and a lack of companionship increased the risk of depression by four to five times.&nbsp;



“It is not surprising that the lock-down was particularly difficult for older adults who were isolated and lonely during the pandemic," explained study co-author Ying Jiang. "Social connections and social support are essential for well-being and mental health. Better support and outreach are needed for those who are isolated."



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215032">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Many adults developed depression for the first time in 2020

A new study from the University of Toronto has revealed...

The massive heatwave that hammered North America from late June to early July 2021 was an unprecedented event, leading to at least 1,400 casualties. The intense heat, which stretched from British Columbia to Washington, Oregon, and beyond, lasted for nine days.



The heatwave exceeded average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-shorten-the-lifespan-of-fig-tree-pollinators/">temperatures</a> by 10 degrees Celsius (or 18 degrees Fahrenheit). On single days in some regions, the average temperature was surpassed by a staggering 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit). 



Soon after, scientists blamed anthropogenic climate change for this event’s extremity. Now, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a> confirms that conclusion, but argues that multiple mechanisms – some climate-related and others more in the realm of disastrous coincidences - were at play and led to such mind-bending temperatures.



“It was so extreme, it’s tempting to apply the label of a ‘black swan’ event, one that can’t be predicted,” said study lead author Samuel Bartusek, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. &nbsp;“But there’s a boundary between the totally unpredictable, the plausible, and the totally expected that’s hard to categorize. I would call this more of gray swan.”



By analyzing climate data starting from the 1950s together with daily weather observations from the weeks before and during the heatwave, the scientists found that such an event would have been impossible without human-induced climate change. However, they argued that about a third of the heatwave came from “nonlinear forces” - or short-term weather patterns which helped lock in the heat that was then amplified by a warming climate.



According to the researchers, an important driver was the disruption of the jet stream, which usually carries air west to east across the Northern Hemisphere along a circular path. However, before the heatwave, the jet stream stalled and bent into enormous waves, with four north-south peaks and troughs. Underneath each peak, heat-generating high-pressure systems emerged, one of which settled on Western North America, creating what meteorologists call a “heat dome.”



Another, longer-term key factor was the climate-driven drying of soils across much of the U.S. and Canadian western regions, which reduced evaporation of water from vegetation that could have otherwise helped counteract the heatwave.



Currently, unprecedented heat and droughts continue to affect these regions and, if climate change remains unmitigated, their frequency and intensity will likely increase. “We can certainly expect more hot periods in this area and other areas, just due to the increase in global temperatures, and the way it shifts the probability of extreme events by huge amounts,” Bartusek concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What caused the record 2021 heatwave in North America?

The massive heatwave that hammered North America from late June...

A large number of studies conducted around the world have documented people’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-information-existing-beliefs/">beliefs</a> in witchcraft, or the idea that certain individuals have supernatural capacities to inflict harm on others. Yet, although understanding people’s witchcraft beliefs is important for policymaking and other community engagement efforts, global-scale statistical assessments of the prevalence of such beliefs have been lacking.



Now, a new study conducted by Boris Gershman, an economist at the <a href="https://www.american.edu/">American University in Washington</a>, has found that witchcraft beliefs are much more widespread across the world than previously thought. The scientist compiled a comprehensive dataset that captured such beliefs among over 140,000 people from 95 countries and territories, revealing that over 40 percent of the participants believed that “certain people can cast curses or spells that cause bad things to happen to someone.”&nbsp;



While these beliefs appear to exist nearly everywhere in the world, they were found to vary substantially between countries and within specific world regions. For instance, while only nine percent of participants in Sweden reported to believe in witchcraft, over 90 percent of respondents in Tunisia claimed to held such beliefs. Moreover, Gershman found that, although beliefs cut across various socio-demographic groups, people with higher levels of education and economic security were less likely to believe in witchcraft.&nbsp;



In addition, witchcraft beliefs were found to differ between countries according to various psychological, cultural, institutional, and socioeconomic factors. For example, such beliefs are usually linked with weak institutions, low levels of social trust, and low innovation, as well as conformist cultures and high levels of in-group bias (the tendency of people to favor others that are most similar to them).



According to Gershman, some of the potential costs of witchcraft beliefs include disrupted social relations, high levels of anxiety, pessimistic worldviews, and a marked lack of entrepreneurial culture and innovative activity.



These findings could be used to help optimize policies and development projects in specific areas by accounting for local witchcraft beliefs.



The study is published in the journal<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276872"> PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Many people around the world believe in witchcraft

A large number of studies conducted around the world have...

A new project led by <a href="https://www.staffs.ac.uk/">Staffordshire University</a> and funded by <a href="https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en">Horizon Europe</a> aims to contribute forensic intelligence to help protecting endangered species such as wolf, bear, lynx, or sturgeon from remote parts of Europe. Over the next three years, the NATURE FIRST project will bring together 12 global partners to safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> and protect the habitats of many animal species that are currently threatened by human activities, by developing proactive and preventive capabilities for nature conservation and law enforcement through a combination of forensic intelligence and remote sensing technologies.



Spanning Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Serbia and Spain, this project will focus on regions such as the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube Delta, the Stara Planina Mountains, the Os Ancares and the O Courel, by drawing upon real-time data from satellites, drones, cameras, and other technological devices to closely monitor these locations.



“The overall aim is to halt and reverse the decline of biodiversity in Europe. We want to improve natural habitats where certain species are an incredibly important part of the ecosystem. To achieve this, we need a better understanding of why and where biodiversity is declining and what the key triggers are,” explained Claire Gwinnett, a professor of Forensic and Environmental Science at Staffordshire.



“As most of the threats and pressures on biodiversity are man-induced, this project will combine ecology and forensic science. This novel approach will use remote sensing technologies, machine learning and wildlife forensic methods to detect and recognize traces of human activities that negatively affect the environment.”



The regions that the scientists will investigate cover vast land masses that can’t be easily monitored from the ground. Thus, the use of advanced technologies to detect biodiversity threats - such as poaching of flora and fauna, trafficking and trading of rare animals and plants, or setting fires to forests and other natural areas for agricultural and commercial purposes – is essential for preserving biodiversity.



“The aim of the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 is to ensure that ecosystems are healthy, resilient to climate change and rich in biodiversity so that they can keep delivering the range of services essential to the prosperity and well-being of all of us. We are excited to be taking positive steps to help achieve this by working with such a fantastic group of global partners,” Gwinnett concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Forensics could be used to safeguard biodiversity

A new project led by Staffordshire University and funded by...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> has shown that the lifespan of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-cannot-fly-straight-after-ingesting-pesticides/">honey bees</a> kept in a controlled, laboratory environment is 50 percent shorter than it used to be in the 1970s. When the researchers modeled the effect of current shorter lifespans, the results corresponded to the increased colony loss and reduced honey production rates observed by U.S. beekeepers in recent decades.



Since bee colonies naturally age and die off, colony turnover is an accepted factor in the beekeeping industry. However, over the past few decades, U.S. beekeepers have reported unusually high loss rates, meaning they had to replace more colonies to keep operations viable.&nbsp;



To understand this phenomenon, scientists investigated environmental stressors, diseases, parasites, pesticide exposure, and nutrition. This new study is one the first to provide evidence of an overall decline in honey bee lifespans potentially independent of environmental factors, suggesting that genetics may be influencing the broader trends observed in the beekeeping industry.



“We’re isolating bees from the colony life just before they emerge as adults, so whatever is reducing their lifespan is happening before that point,” said study lead author Anthony Nearman, a Ph.D. student in Entomology at the University of Maryland. “This introduces the idea of a genetic component. If this hypothesis is right, it also points to a possible solution. If we can isolate some genetic factors, then maybe we can breed for longer-lived honey bees.”



While performing experiments on bees grown in the laboratory to assess the effect of supplementing the caged bees’ sugar water diet with plain water to mimic natural conditions, the researchers noticed that, regardless of diet, the average lifespan of the bees were half that of caged bees in similar experiments in the 1970s.



“When I plotted the lifespans over time, I realized, wow, there’s actually this huge time effect going on. Standardized protocols for rearing honey bees in the lab weren’t really formalized until the 2000s, so you would think that lifespans would be longer or unchanged, because we’re getting better at this, right? Instead, we saw a doubling of mortality rate,” Nearman reported.



Although laboratory environments are different from bee colonies, historical records of caged bees suggest a similar lifespan to colony bees. Moreover, previous research showed that, in the real world, shorter honey bee lifespans corresponded to less foraging time and lower honey production.&nbsp;



Initially, the scientists assumed that the caged bees could be experiencing some type of low-level viral contamination or pesticide exposure during their larval stage. Yet, none of them have shown any symptoms of such exposures, making the researchers think that a genetic component may be the lead cause of this worrisome decline in longevity.



Further research is needed to compare trends in honey bee lifespans across the U.S. and other countries, and to isolate and compare potential contributing factors in declining lifespans, such as genetics, the presence of viruses, or pesticide use in local bee stocks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-21401-2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey bee lifespans are mysteriously declining

A recent study led by the University of Maryland has...

Puffer fish, a delicacy in Japanese cuisine, contain a lethal toxin that can lead to food poisoning and a swift death if improperly prepared. The fish’s liver and ovaries contain a powerful neurotoxin called tetrodotoxin (TTX). Though its purpose is unclear, puffer fish also have analogs of TTX that are non-toxic. Researchers at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> have proposed that puffer fish use these toxin analogs to communicate using smell.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For the research, the team studied grass puffer fish. Grass puffers are considered a problem for recreational anglers as they eat bait and break fishing lines. Others enjoy their appearance and some people keep them as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>.



Since childhood, Professor Hideki Abe was delighted by the grass puffer’s “charming appearance." As a biologist, he was more intrigued by their spawning behavior. “I was fascinated by the hypothesis that their toxin may be involved in their spawning behavior as a pheromone,” he explained. Pheromones are chemicals that are perceived by fish using their olfactory senses and affect the behavior of others.&nbsp;



The grass puffer accumulates the neurotoxin TTX to discourage would-be predators. They also accumulate a non-toxic analog of TTX called TDT. To better grasp this phenomenon, the research team investigated the compound. The results showed that TDT serves as a smell that attracts other grass puffers and the olfactory sensory cells that they use to sense it.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Surprisingly, the team discovered that rather than responding to the toxic TTX, the puffer fish responded to its non-toxic analog, TDT, implying that it behaves as an odorant that attracts grass puffers.&nbsp;



The attractive properties of TDT were studied by putting grass puffers into a fish tank, and then introducing it to only one side. Responding to the chemical, the grass puffers gathered in the part of the tank where it was added.&nbsp; The results were not expected given previous TTX studies.&nbsp;



“The TTX used in earlier studies was derived from living organisms and had low purification; therefore, we assumed that it might not only contain TTX but other analogs, including TDT, which might have actually induced the odor response," said Professor Abe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



By using pure TDT, long-held beliefs about the role of TTX in pheromone signaling may be overturned.&nbsp;



“Prey animals contain both the toxin and its analog, so grass puffers may use the smell of TDT as a signal to find prey animals bearing TTX, such as flatworms, starfish, gastropods, and skeleton shrimp,” said Professor Abe.



Because TTX and TDT are located in the ovaries, it is released from the eggs of a female during spawning. This was found to protect eggs from predators while also attracting males.&nbsp;



These results are a new perspective and clarify the biological functions of the non-toxic analog. The researchers expect their work to impact future research on the reproductive behavior of puffer fish.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Puffer fish communicate using non-toxic substances

Puffer fish, a delicacy in Japanese cuisine, contain a lethal...

A new species of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/">dinosaur</a> age has been identified from the Atlantic coast of Angola. An international team named the new genus and species Epapatelo otyikokolo. With wings spanning nearly 16 feet, this flying reptile was found in the same region as fossils from large marine animals currently on display at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



The fossils date back to the Late Cretaceous which is extremely rare. “This new discovery gives us a much better understanding of the ecological role of the creatures that were flying above the waves of Bentiaba, on the west coast of Africa, approximately 71.5 million years ago,” said team member Michael J. Polcyn.&nbsp;



Paloentologists Louis L. Jacobs and Polcyn forged the Projecto PaleoAngola partnership with collaborators in Angola, Portugal, and the Netherlands to explore Angola’s rich fossil history. The international team discovered and collected the fourteen bones from Epapatelo otyikokolo in Bentiaba, Angola, starting in 2005. Bentiaba is located on the Angola coastline that the team&nbsp; called a “museum in the ground” because of the many fossils that were discovered.



Once they returned, the team spent 13 years with a small army of students to prepare the excavated fossils. Epapatelo otyikokolo is believed to have been a fish-eating pterosaur similar to large modern-day seabirds.



“They likely spent time flying above open-water environments and diving to feed, like gannets and brown pelicans do today,” said study co-author Louis L. Jacobs. “Epapatelo otyikokolo was not a small animal, and its wingspan was approximately 4.8 m, or nearly 16 feet.”&nbsp;



Since the study, more fossils have been discovered suggesting that the species could have been even larger in size. Pterosaurs were impressive creatures, with some of the largest species having wingspans of nearly 35 feet.



Many of those fossils are currently on display at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History “Sea Monsters Unearthed” exhibit.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New pterosaur species found on the coast of Angola

A new species of the dinosaur age has been identified...

A new study led by <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> in Denmark has found that, much like humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seals-can-perceive-rhythm-early-in-life/">seals</a> can both distinguish and react differently to various rhythms soon after birth. While the ability to distinguish rhythms has already been well-documented in birds, this is one of the first studies identifying this capacity in non-human mammals. According to the experts, these findings are an important step forward in our understanding of human musicality and its relationship with language development.



The scientists tested 20 harbor seal pups to see if they have an understanding of rhythm, by playing sequences of seal calls in different rhythmic variations and tempi over a period of 30 minutes. The experiments revealed that seals reacted differently, depending on which type of rhythm they were exposed to.



“We filmed the seals’ reactions to the sounds and measured how many times they turned their heads to look at where the sounds were coming from. We then examined whether there was a difference between how many times the seals turned their heads, and how long they looked towards the sound, depending on the rhythm we played. This allowed us to see whether the different rhythms produced different reactions,” said study senior author Andrea Ravignani, an expert in the neural processing of music at Aarhus.



According to the researchers, these findings may provide not only a better understanding of the seals’ sense of rhythm, but also of human language development, which is known to go hand in hand with the emergence of a sense of rhythm in infants. By showing evidence that another vocally plastic mammal can perceive different rhythms, this study supports the scientific hypothesis that the two abilities are interconnected.



“We can conclude that even very young, untrained seals can distinguish vocalizations from other seals, based on their rhythms. It shows that we are not the only mammals to show rhythmic understanding and learn vocalizations. The two abilities may possibly have developed in parallel in both seals and human beings,” Ravignani said.



Further research is needed to clarify whether seals can detect rhythms in sounds other than those produced by their conspecifics, whether they can perceive more complex rhythms, and whether other non-human mammals also have these capacities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0316">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seals have a surprising sense of rhythm

A new study led by Aarhus University in Denmark has...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/home.html">German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment</a> has recently found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cows-are-relaxed-by-face-to-face-interactions-with-people/">cows</a> fed with industrial hemp silage – a common ingredient in animal feed – show increased yawning, salivation, and unsteady movements, which are potential indicators of cannabinoid intoxication. These compounds could also be transferred into the milk they produce, with some samples showing levels high enough to impact human health.



“Our study shows that feeding cannabinoid-rich industrial hemp silage made from leaves, flowers, and seeds leads to a decrease in feed intake and milk yield in dairy cows. A transfer of cannabinoids into foods of animal origin is conceivable when by-products of hemp production and the whole plant are used as feedstuffs,” the authors explained.



Due to recent changes in global cannabis regulations, there is currently an increase in demand for industrial hemp for a variety of uses, including insulation, the development of textiles, paper, ropes, bioplastics, and biofuels, as well as its widespread use as animal feed. Since hemp contains cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its derivatives, it can induce psychoactive effects on animals that consume it.



To test the effect of industrial hemp on dairy cows, the researchers initially started adapting ten lactating Holstein Freisian cows by replacing up to 0.92 kilograms of the corn silage they usually consumed with low-THC industrial hemp silage. Afterwards, the cows were split into two groups and were fed either 0.84 kilograms or 1.68 kilograms of high-THC hemp silage per day. During the study period, the scientists measured the cows’ feed intake, milk yield, heart and respiratory rates, and body temperature, while also recording behavioral changes, such as muscle tremors, hypersalivation, or changes in coordination.



While the low-THC variety had no effect on the cows during the first experimental stage, both doses of the high-THC variety resulted in significant behavioral changes. Moreover, from the second day of exposure, the cows decreased their feed intake and milk yield. By using laboratory separation methods and computer models, the scientists measured the levels of cannabinoids transferred to the milk from the feed, and discovered that, although there was a less than one percent transfer rate, the large quantities of food the cows consumed meant that substantial amounts were present in the milk too.



While the current data is insufficient for drawing clear conclusions on the health risks for humans posed by consuming such milk, these findings will hopefully lead to further research on the effects of feeding cows with industrial hemp.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00623-7">Nature Food</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cows are getting high from industrial hemp

A team of researchers from the German Federal Institute for...

Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), also known as hairy or Asian two-horned rhinos, are among the most critically endangered large mammal species on Earth. They used to inhabit a continuous, vast area in East and Southeast Asia but the estimated remaining 50-80 individuals are now confined to around 10 fragmented populations that are scattered across Sumatra and Indonesian Borneo. Habitat loss, poaching and limited breeding opportunities continue to cause populations to decline and extinction is now a very real possibility for this, the smallest and most ancient of the five extant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhinos-show-that-diseases-can-disrupt-conservation-efforts/">rhinoceros</a> species.



Due to the fragmented nature of the remaining population, breeding encounters between males and females are rare, and inbreeding is inevitable. This situation calls for an urgent reintroduction of new genetic material to stop the erosion of genetic diversity. Captive breeding programs involving the nine individuals in zoos around the world have been spectacularly unsuccessful and Kertam, the last male Sumatran rhino in Malaysia, died in 2018, limiting the chances of introducing new genetic material even further.&nbsp;



However, a team of Berlin scientists led by Dr.&nbsp;Vera Zywitza and Dr&nbsp;Sebastian Diecke, head of the Pluripotent Stem Cells Platform at the Max Delbrück Center in Berlin, feel that all is not lost just yet. They and their international partners have set out to turn skin cells taken from now deceased Sumatran rhinos into stem cells, from which they can then derive egg and sperm cells to be used in in vitro fertilization in the laboratory. The embryos formed in this way, which will be the offspring of Kertam and other already deceased or infertile individuals, will be carried to term by surrogate rhino mothers.



In the scientific journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105414">iScience</a>, the team, led by first author Zywitza and last author Diecke, have reported their initial success in this ambitious project – they have produced induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from the skin cells of Kertam, which were taken by biopsy from this male before he died, and were kept frozen. These iPSCs are a powerful tool to fight extinction because they can be used to make every cell type in a body, including egg and sperm cells. Fertile and viable offspring have already been generated in the laboratory using iPSCs from mice, and the technique is increasingly being applied to a variety of other mammalian species.&nbsp;



Another advantage of producing iPSCs from rare and threatened species is that these cells never die, but continue to divide infinitely. This means they can preserve a copy of the genome from a threatened species for decades into the future, allowing scientists to use the genetic material potentially to resurrect the species. In fact, the technology platform developed its stem cell technologies as part of the BioRescue research project for the even more critically endangered northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni)&nbsp;– of which only two females now remain, living in a Kenyan wildlife reserve.&nbsp;



“Our current study has benefited a lot from the knowledge gained through this large-scale project, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research,” says Zywitza. Professor Thomas Hildebrandt, head of the Reproduction Management Department at the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) in Berlin, and his research group, were also significantly involved in the project.



Zywitza recounts how all those involved in the current study were surprised and pleased to discover that the methods used to turn the skin cells of northern white rhinos into stem cells also worked well with the cells of Sumatran rhinos. Under the microscope, the stem cells of both rhino species were barely distinguishable from human iPS cells. Nevertheless, there were species-specific differences: “In contrast to northern white rhino iPSCs, Kertam’s iPSCs could not be cultivated without feeder cells, which release growth factors that help to keep stem cells in a pluripotent state,” explains Zywitza.&nbsp;



The researchers see their success so far as the first step towards fighting the extinction of the Sumatran rhino using stem cell-associated techniques. Their next goal is to use Kertam’s iPS cells to grow sperm suitable for artificial insemination. “This step is more difficult,” says Zywitza. “To obtain sperm cells, we first need to use the iPS cells to cultivate primordial germ cells – the precursors of eggs and sperm.” They also plan to obtain iPS cells from other Sumatran rhinos to increase the genetic diversity in storage, since the reintroduction of genetic material in future will be crucial to support a healthy and self-sustaining Sumatran rhino population.



Reproduction expert Thomas Hildebrandt explains why efforts like these are necessary: “Measures are indeed being taken in Indonesia to preserve the Sumatran rhino population by bringing together the remaining individuals in wildlife reserves,” he says. “But females that have not been pregnant for a long time often become infertile, for example due to cysts that develop on their reproductive organs, or they may just be too old to bear young.”



“Even though our work is attempting to make the seemingly impossible possible – to ensure the survival of animals that would otherwise probably disappear from our planet – it must remain an exception and not become the rule,” emphasizes Zywitza. “Despite all the buzz around what we are doing in the lab, this can at best make a small contribution to saving these rhinos from extinction. The protection and conservation of the animals’ few remaining habitats is at least equally important.”



Image Credit: Ben Jastram, Leibniz-IZW



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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The Sumatran rhino may have another chance at survival

Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), also known as hairy or Asian...

There has been much research recently exploring the role of the gut microbiome in the health of humans and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-communicate-with-animals-using-artificial-intelligence/">animals</a>. Indeed, mammalian gut microbes have been shown to affect aspects of development, digestion, physiology, metabolism, immunity, mental health and behavior. In addition, individuals with autism or autistic-like behaviour are known to have altered gut microbe communities. Thus, the relationship between the microbiome and behavior is reciprocal, since social interactions can influence the gut microbiome, which in turn can affect social behavior.



With these connections in mind, researchers from the University of Oxford, U.K., and the University of Boulder, Colorado, set out to investigate the relationship between the gut microbiome and the social behavior of wild rhesus macaque monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on the island of Cayo Santiago, off Puerto Rico. In particular, they wondered whether monkeys with better social networks have healthier gut microbiomes compared to individuals that are less connected.&nbsp;



Macaques have an Asian origin and are found in many countries, including India, Thailand, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Vietnam. A group of 409 was introduced onto the 15.2 ha island of Cayo Santiago in 1938, and their behavior and social relationships have been studied there ever since. They live in social groups composed of a few adult males and many adult females and their offspring, and grooming is their primary means of making and maintaining relationships. Grooming interactions are thus a good indicator of social connectedness between individuals.



In this study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1032495">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>, 50 uncontaminated fecal samples were collected from a specific group of macaques between 2012 and 2013. The group consisted of 22 males and 16 females between the ages of six and 20 years. Social connectedness between group members was measured in terms of the time each monkey spent grooming or being groomed during this two-year period, as well as his or her number of grooming partners. In this way, the researchers could correlate social connectedness with the gut microbiome composition of the monkeys in the group.&nbsp;



“Macaques are highly social animals and grooming is their main way of making and maintaining relationships, so grooming provides a good indicator of social interactions," explained study co-author Dr. Karli Watson from the Institute of Cognitive Science at CU Boulder.



DNA analysis of gut microbes was conducted by the researchers to find out how microbiome diversity within and between macaques was related to grooming interactions, whilst controlling for the effects of rank, sex, age, season and sampling year. The results showed that gut microbiome composition differed considerably between individuals in the group, as did the extent of social interactions.&nbsp;



Specifically, the amount of grooming an individual received was a significant factor explaining differences in microbiome composition between macaques. Put simply, monkeys that had more friends who groomed them also had more gut microbes associated with healthy functions, and fewer microbes associated with disease.&nbsp;



“Engagement in social interactions was positively related to the abundance of certain gut microbes with beneficial immunological functions, and negatively related to the abundance of potentially pathogenic members of the microbiota,” said co-author Dr. Philip Burnet, a professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Oxford.



For example, genera more abundant in the most sociable monkeys included Faecalibacterium&nbsp;and&nbsp;Prevotella. Conversely, the genus&nbsp;Streptococcus, which in humans can cause diseases such as strep throat and,&nbsp;pneumonia, was most abundant in less sociable monkeys.



Lead author Dr. Katerina Johnson, a research associate at the Department of Experimental Psychology and the Department of Psychiatry of the University of Oxford, said: “Here we show that more sociable monkeys have a higher abundance of beneficial gut bacteria, and a lower abundance of potentially disease-causing bacteria. It is particularly striking that we find a strong positive relationship between the abundance of the gut microbe&nbsp;Faecalibacterium&nbsp;and how sociable the animals are.&nbsp;Faecalibacterium&nbsp;is well known for its potent anti-inflammatory properties and is associated with good health.”



These findings are also consistent with findings in human populations where autism is associated with an altered gut microbial community. Autistic individuals engage in less social contact and it is possible that limited social interactions influence the gut microbiome negatively. However, the converse may also be true, namely that a distinctly altered gut microbiome may affect behavioral traits and, therefore, sociability. In this way, it is possible that the relationship between these two variables is indeed reciprocal.&nbsp;



Although none of the monkeys in the test group was classified as autistic, some were more sociable than others, and took part in more grooming activities. Just as in human society, some individuals show more social behavior while others are more isolated. Grooming in macaques involves hand-to-mouth actions and this undoubtedly affects the microbial community in the gut. Previous research has shown that grooming leads to increased similarity in the gut microbiomes of individual monkeys in social groups.&nbsp;



“The relationship between social behavior and microbial abundances may be the direct result of social transmission of microbes, for example through grooming. It could also be an indirect effect, as monkeys with fewer friends may be more stressed, which then affects the abundance of these microbes. As well as behavior influencing the microbiome, we also know it is a reciprocal relationship, whereby the microbiome can in turn affect the brain and behavior,” said Johnson.



"As our society is increasingly substituting online interactions for real-life ones, these important research findings underline the fact that as primates, we evolved not only in a social world but a microbial one as well," said study co-author Dr. Robin Dunbar, a professor from the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford.



The authors conclude: “Our findings advance our understanding of how gut microbial communities may be associated with host behavior and reveal that social relationships may be intertwined with health and immune status&nbsp;via&nbsp;the microbiota.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Can close friendships improve our gut health?

There has been much research recently exploring the role of...

Cephalopods – a group of animals including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-violent-squid-attack-200-million-years-ago/">squids</a>, octopuses, and cuttlefish – are extremely intelligent creatures capable of behaviors such as processing information to change their shape, color, and even texture in order to blend with the environment, communicating with conspecifics, and using tools to solve problems – capacities that are possible due to the fact that they have the most complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conspicuous-frogs-have-big-brains-to-evade-predators/">brains</a> of any invertebrates on Earth.



By studying the visual systems of these soft-bodied animals – which is where two thirds of their central processing tissue are located – a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> discovered that their nervous system develops in a surprisingly similar way with that of vertebrates, despite the fact that the two groups diverged from each other over 500 million years ago.



The experts used a new live-imagining technique to watch neurons being created in the embryo in almost real-time, and tracked these cells through the development of the nervous system in the retina. The neural stem cells that they tracked behaved eerily similar to the way such cells behave in vertebrates during the development of their nervous system. These findings suggest that not only are they using similar mechanisms to make their big brains, but that the way in which the cells act, divide, and are shaped may essentially layout the blueprint required to develop this type of nervous system in both vertebrates and invertebrates.



“Our conclusions were surprising because a lot of what we know about nervous system development in vertebrates has long been thought to be special to that lineage,” said study senior author Kristen Koenig, an expert in cephalopod evolution at Harvard. “By observing the fact that the process is very similar, what it suggested to us is that these two independently evolved very large nervous systems are using the same mechanisms to build them. What that suggests is that those mechanisms — those tools — the animals use during development may be important for building big nervous systems.”



An innovative live-imaging technique allowed the researchers to observe how stem cells called “neural progenitor cells” are organized. These cells form a special kind of structure – known as a pseudostratified epithelium – which consists of elongated and densely packed cells. Moreover, the investigations revealed that the nucleus of these structures moves up and down before and after dividing – a movement through which the tissues are kept organized and growth is promoted.



Such a structure is used by vertebrates to develop their brains and eyes and was traditionally considered as one of the reasons the vertebrate nervous system could grow so large and complex. Surprisingly, this type of neural epitheliums appears widespread among invertebrates too. “One of the big takeaways from this type of work is just how valuable it is to study the diversity of life. By studying this diversity, you can actually really come back to fundamental ideas about even our own development and our own biomedically relevant questions. You can really speak to those questions,” Koenig concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.027">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did octopuses develop complex brains?

Cephalopods – a group of animals including squids, octopuses, and...

Pearl <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-oyster-reefs-would-produce-major-benefits/">oysters</a> are a major aquaculture animal in Japan, since they produce beautiful pearls that are sought after for necklaces, rings, and earrings. While in the early 1990s, this industry was bringing in over 88 billion yen annually, over the past two decades, a combination of novel diseases and red tides has caused production of Japan’s pearls drop from about 70,000 kilograms a year to just 20,000.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology</a> (OIST) has constructed a high-quality, chromosome-scale genome of pearl oysters that they hope can be used to find more resilient strains.



“It’s very important to establish the genome,” said study first authors Takeshi Takeuchi, an expert in Marine Genomics at OIST. “Genomes are the full set of an organism’s genes - many of which are essential for survival. With the complete gene sequence, we can do many experiments and answer questions around immunity and how the pearls form.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists found that the oysters’ genomes are made up of 14 pairs of chromosomes, with the two pairs of each chromosome carrying nearly identical genes. However, the analyses have also revealed subtle differences between the two chromosomes of a pair - chromosome pair 9 - which were found to be related to immune processes. “Different genes on a pair of chromosomes is a significant find because the proteins can recognize different types of infectious diseases,”&nbsp;Dr. Takeuchi explained.



When animals such as pearl oysters are cultured, there are often strains that have a higher rate of survival or produces more beautiful pearls. Farmers frequently breed two animals with these strains, leading to inbreeding and reducing genetic diversity. If this reduced diversity occurs in the chromosomes with genes responsible for immunity, it can impact the animal’s resistance to pathogens. Thus, as Dr. Takeuchi concluded, it is highly important to maintain the genome diversity in aquaculture populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/dnares/dsac035">DNA Research</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal the molecular fingerprint of pearl oysters

Pearl oysters are a major aquaculture animal in Japan, since...

While we are familiar with the ways in which human activities are currently threatening the abundance and diversity of wild species on land, information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/">biodiversity</a> changes in the oceans is not as easy to obtain. It’s estimated that intense fishing across the planet’s oceans has led to roughly half of all commercially harvested fish and invertebrate stocks becoming overfished during the 20th&nbsp;century, and the effects of these fisheries on ocean biodiversity are poorly researched and understood.&nbsp;



In a new study, scientists from Spain, the U.S. and Canada, have used the risk categories and criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s ‘Red List of Threatened Species’ to help develop an understanding of changing biodiversity among 52 populations of oceanic tuna, billfish and sharks since1950. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) labels a species as critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), or vulnerable (V) on the basis of how much its population has declined over the past three generations or 10 years, whichever period is longer. Other categories include near threatened (NT) and of least concern (LC).



Dr. Maria José&nbsp;Juan-Jordá from the Basque Research and Technology Alliance, and colleagues, built upon this classification system and developed a continuous Red List Index (RLI) of yearly changes in extinction risk for populations of seven tuna species, six billfish species, and five shark species over the past 70 years. This helped them to understand the health of oceanic biodiversity as well as the overall impacts of fishing mortality and conservation efforts on these populations of predatory fish.



The researchers found that, between 1950 and 2008, the global RLI trajectory of these fish populations grew worse by around 27 percent. This reflected an increasing extinction risk due to fishing pressure for these iconic oceanic predatory species. However, as calls for better monitoring and effective fisheries management strategies were heeded, mortality due to fishing declined and populations of tuna and billfish gradually recovered. For tunas, the RLI started to improve in the 1990s and end of the 2000s whereas the RLI for billfishes deteriorated until the early 2000s, improving only during the past decade.&nbsp;



In particular, since 2008, populations of southern bluefin tuna have improved from critical to vulnerable, while yellowfin tuna, swordfish, blue marlin, striped marlin, and black marlin have moved to the categories near threatened or of least concern. These findings suggest that effective ocean fisheries management has shifted the biodiversity loss curve for tunas and billfishes. These target species are now being more successfully managed to ensure maximum sustainable catches.



However, the same cannot be said for oceanic shark species. The extinction risk for sharks, which remain largely undermanaged, continues to rise. Sharks are often captured as bycatch in other fisheries, and their numbers and biodiversity continue to decline, leading to increasing risk of biodiversity loss. The researchers report that there seems to be high resistance to any measure that might meaningfully curb fishing mortality for sharks, and emphasize that unless effective management actions are adopted to reduce shark mortality for each fishery and shark species – including international trade regulation – their risk trajectories will continue worsening in the future.&nbsp;



The authors state: “Our study connects annual changes in fishing mortality and extinction risk globally over the past 70 years for oceanic tunas, billfishes, and sharks and reveals how effective management for highly valuable commercial species of tunas and billfishes has reversed the biodiversity loss curve while the extinction risk of undermanaged sharks continues to increase.”



In a related Perspective, Matthew Burgess and Sarah Becker write: “The conservation statuses of threatened target species can be improved by managing the fishing industry, which can benefit the industry economically in the long run while allowing the threatened species to recover. However, the protection of high-vulnerability bycatch and non-target species is expected to be more difficult because they will require fisheries to invest in better fishing gear and targeting practices, or reduce fishing efforts, without directly benefiting from these changes.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abj0211">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tunas, billfishes, and sharks are sentinels of global ocean health

While we are familiar with the ways in which human...

According to recent reports from organizations such as BirdLife International, more than half of all shorebird populations are currently in a state of decline. Despite being a global phenomenon, the driving factors behind the dwindling numbers of sandpipers, plovers, avocets, oystercatchers, and other shorebirds remain unidentified.



In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en">University of Lisbon</a> have pinpointed environmental changes that may help to explain why shorebirds are vanishing.



"Shorebird declines are occurring worldwide but the causes are not fully understood," wrote the study authors. "Recent literature suggests that the deterioration of habitat quality at their non-breeding areas, mostly located in temperate and tropical coastal wetlands, might be a major contributing factor. However, most studies carried out so far tend to be restricted to a few regions."



"Remote sensing can help correct such geographical bias on knowledge by providing a standardized approach on how shorebird habitats have been changing over the last few decades at a global scale."



The team used remote sensing data to analyze <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wooden-shipwrecks-have-become-diverse-microbial-habitats/">habitat</a> changes in 907 sites - known as Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) - over the last two decades. The researchers were especially focused on changes in low tide feeding areas and high tide roosting areas.&nbsp;



"Globally, supratidal areas (used as roosting habitat) have changed more significantly than tidal flats (used as feeding habitat). Yet, we found striking losses of tidal flats in IBAs distributed in several regions of the East Asian - Australasian Flyway," wrote the researchers.



"At supratidal areas, there was a general expansion of marshland, grassland and urban areas, contrasting with a decline of barren land, woodland and cropland. The expansion of marshland occurred in IBAs of most regions of the world. Urban areas also expanded consistently in supratidal areas within the most populated regions of the world."



The experts noted that the loss of barren land is particularly concerning as it may translate into a loss of high-quality roosts. According to the study, changes may be urgently needed to save some species of the East Asian - Australasian Flyway that are facing population collapses due to habitat loss.



“This global approach is a step forward to understand the causes of shorebird declines, a group of birds that is already threatened," said study lead author Carlos David Santos. “Many species of this group are long-distance migrants, some moving more than 20.000 km annually, thus they can be affected by environmental changes occurring at different regions of the world - this is why a global analysis of such changes was so important."



The research was a collaboration between experts from the Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) and the Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c) at Ciências ULisboa.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159707">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New clues about the mysterious decline of shorebirds

According to recent reports from organizations such as BirdLife International,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noble-false-widow-spiders-prey-upon-protected-bat-species/">False widow spiders</a> (Steatoda grossa)&nbsp;are a globally invasive species capable of reproducing year-round. However, little is known about the reproductive behavior of this common species of spider, colloquially known as the cupboard spider, due to its tendency to predominantly live in buildings.&nbsp;



Now, a recent study led by <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> has revealed how female spiders communicate by using pheromones to construct more attractive webs in order to lure mate-seeking males. According to the experts, these females disseminate pheromones from their webs to attract males and deposit contact pheromone components on their webs that induce courtship by the males once they arrive. In addition, the researchers also identified the organ that produces these pheromones (the posterior aggregate silk gland), as well as the chemical structure of the pheromones involved in courtship behavior.



“We also found that female false widow spiders have a sophisticated method to constantly&nbsp;‘mate call’ by slowly breaking down the courtship-inducing pheromone components to sex attractant pheromone components that lures the males in,” said study lead author Andreas Fischer, a doctoral student in Biology at Simon Fraser.



The scientists compared 93 sexually mature, adult virgin female false widow spiders that spun webs on wooden triangular prism scaffolds or bamboo skewers with 70 immature sub-adult females that were also allowed to build webs. Then, they collected web samples and identified their pheromone components, while testing the webs’ ability to attract and induce courtship behavior in male spiders.



The analysis revealed that females are able to actively adjust the attractiveness of their webs to males, by fine-tuning the pH level in their silk and thus controlling the enzyme involved in the transition of contact, courtship-inducing pheromone components to mate attractant pheromone components.



This, while previously only insects were known to actively time pheromone production and dissemination, and to modulate the amount of pheromones they emit, these findings suggest that arachnids, such as web-building spiders, could also be capable of such amazing feats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04072-7">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

False widow spiders use pheromones to manipulate mates

False widow spiders (Steatoda grossa)&nbsp;are a globally invasive species capable...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumble-bees-can-play-with-objects-for-fun/">Bumblebees</a> use several different cues to locate and identify suitable flowers from which to harvest pollen and nectar. They home in on flower scent and color, but are also sensitive to the electrical field around a flower. These tiny electric fields form from the imbalance of charge between the ground and the atmosphere, and are unique to each species, depending on the plant’s distance from the ground and the shape of the blooms. Flowers use electric fields as an additional means by which to advertise themselves to pollinators, but it seems that human activities can change these electrical cues and make it more difficult for pollinators to sense the presence of suitable flowers.



A study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus">PNAS&nbsp;Nexus</a> has investigated the effects, on bumblebees, of spraying plants with fertilizers and pesticides. These chemical sprays cause alterations to the electric fields around flowers for up to 25 minutes after exposure, which is far longer than the fluctuations caused by natural phenomena, such as wind. The researchers found that bumblebees were less likely to land on flowers that had been sprayed with fertilizers or pesticides, and that this resulted in a reduction in bee feeding effort.



<a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/ellard-hunting">Dr. Ellard Hunting</a>&nbsp;of Bristol’s&nbsp;<a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/">School of Biological Sciences</a>,&nbsp;and his team, noted that fertilizers did not affect the bees’ vision or sense of smell, and so they set out to mimic the electrical changes caused by fertilizers and pesticides in the field by manipulating flowers electrically. The results of their experiments showed that bumblebees were able to detect and discriminate against the small and dynamic electric field alterations that are caused by the chemicals.



“We know that chemicals are toxic, but we know little about how they affect the immediate interaction between plants and pollinators. Flowers have a range of cues that attract bees to promote feeding and pollination. For instance, bees use cues like flower odor and color, but they also use electric fields to identify plants," explained Dr. Hunting. “A big issue is thus – agrochemical application can distort floral cues and modify behavior in pollinators like bees."



And it is not only bumblebees and sprays of fertilizer or pesticide that are involved here: various other airborne particles such as nanoparticles, exhaust gasses, nano-plastics, and viral particles may have similar impacts, affecting a wide array of organisms that use the electric fields that are virtually everywhere in the natural environment.



“What makes this study important is that it’s the first known example of anthropogenic ‘noise’ interfering with a terrestrial animal’s electrical sense. It’s much like motorboat noise that hinders the ability of fish to detect their predators, or artificial light at night that confuses moths; the fertilizers are a source of noise to bees trying to detect floral electrical cues," said study co-author Sam England.



“This widens our understanding of the multifaceted ways in which human activity is negatively impacting the natural world, which can seem quite depressing, but it will hopefully allow us to introduce or invent solutions to prevent the adverse effects that these chemicals may be having on bees."



“The fact that fertilizers affect pollinator behavior by interfering with the way an organism perceives its physical environment offers a new perspective on how human-made chemicals disturb the natural environment," concluded Dr. Hunting.



The project was funded by the European Research Council and the Swiss National Science Foundation.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fertilizers disrupt flower electrical fields and confuse bees

Bumblebees use several different cues to locate and identify suitable...

Last week, the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm">U.S. National Park Service</a> (NPS) made an online plea aimed at protecting a peculiar species of frog – the Sonoran desert toad (Bufo alvarius) – which secretes a toxin with powerful psychedelic effects, a phenomenon leading an increasing number of people to either lick the back of these toads or collect and store the toxins they secrete for later consumption. While hallucinations and euphoria are common effects of this activity, experts warn that this highly potent toxin can also cause nausea, anxiety, seizures and, in some cases, even death.



“As we say with most things you come across in a national park, whether it be a banana slug, unfamiliar mushroom, or a large toad with glowing eyes in the dead of night, please refrain from licking,” the NPS officials said.



Demand for the toads’ secretions has boomed in recent years, with a growing retreat industry offering these chemicals to visitors seeking psychedelic experiences. Sometimes, this experience is even treated as a sacred ceremony, with participants paying thousands of dollars to get access to the hallucinogenic compound.



While it is not clear how many people actually lick the toads, for decades already, users have often dried into crystals and smoked in a pipe the substance in the toxins that the toad excretes when threatened (5-MeO-DMT), in order to experience 15 to 30 minutes of intense hallucinations and euphoria. Although this substance is illegal in the United States, where it is classified as a Schedule 1 controlled substance, it is legal in Mexico, thus attracting a large number of international visitors.



Increased interest in this experience has brought new dangers for this toad, which is found mainly in the Sonoran desert in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Already targeted by predators such as racoons, and run over on roads by motor vehicles, the toad is currently also the target of poaching, over-harvesting, and illegal trafficking, leading conservation experts to list is as “endangered” in California and “threatened” in Mexico.



The NPS’s online plea can be found <a href="https://www.facebook.com/nationalparkservice/posts/pfbid02mEPQogXSFmUscGiEueFVFGG1FXS6RF41oEGN9qtS819QGusVeGuCzkaZ8TqsY2rQl">here</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

National Park Service warns of the dangers of licking toads

Last week, the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) made an...

The Tiger Beach in Bahamas is famous not only for its pristine beauty, but also for being frequented by an animal that might scare some people, but is in fact a major tourist attraction: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-migrations-are-shifting-as-temperatures-rise/">Tiger shark</a> (Galeocerdo cuvier). Since the sea is crystal clear and only five meters deep, the sharks – which often surpass three meters in length – can be seen easily, and are often drawn to the site by local tour operators who throw fish and other food in the water.



Now, a team of researchers from Brazil and the United States has discovered that females of the species which frequently visit the area are larger and have higher hormone levels than conspecifics that spend less time there. These findings point to possible effects of mass tourism on this species.



“The area was dominated by large females, some of them pregnant. Generally speaking, hormone levels were higher in female sharks that frequented the area, where they were fed, than in others that didn’t interact much with divers. Moreover, the former’s nutritional state was better, and they had more omega-3 in their blood,” said study lead author Bianca Rigel, an expert in Biosciences at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a>.



“We can’t say whether tourism is or isn’t harming these animals, as we were unable to collect material for testing before and after interaction with divers, which would have been ideal. However, we now have a body of evidence that will be helpful for future evaluations,” added study co-author, a professor of Biology at the same university.



By collecting blood samples from 33 sharks captured in this area, the researchers discovered that females that spent more time there had higher levels of omega-3 and other acids, as well as nitrogen isotopes – most probably due to the foods they were given by tour operators. Moreover, their hormone levels were also strikingly higher compared to those of sharks that were not frequenting the area – by a factor of three in the case of testosterone, four in that of estradiol, and 16.4 in that of corticosteroids.&nbsp;



“We don’t know exactly why this was. Levels of these hormones might have been higher as part of their more aggressive social dominance behavior while they were swimming with many other sharks,” Moreira explained. “Another hypothesis is that they were at a stage in their life cycle when they were ready to reproduce. Juveniles haven’t reached reproductive age and naturally have less of these hormones.”&nbsp;



Although the reasons for these physical alterations are not yet clear, these findings stress the importance of considering life cycle stages, hormone levels, and nutritional states in assessing the impact of tourism on sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.07.004">Animal Behavior</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiger sharks that interact with tourists exhibit physical differences

The Tiger Beach in Bahamas is famous not only for...

In a new study led by <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a>, experts report that up to 32 harlequin frog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australians-are-unaware-of-their-most-endangered-species/">species</a> which were believed to be extinct have been rediscovered in the wild. The researchers say their work provides a “glimmer of hope” against a backdrop of grim narratives around biodiversity, especially for amphibians.&nbsp;



The scientists hope the research project, which involved a combination of literature review and field work, will create a sense of urgency to better protect and conserve these rediscovered species.



“I can’t tell you how special it is to hold something we never thought we’d see again,” said study lead author Kyle Jaynes. "We want people to walk away from this with a glimmer of hope that we can still address the problems of the biodiversity crisis.



“But rediscovery does not equal recovery. This story isn’t over for these frogs, and we’re not where we want to be in terms of conservation and protection. We still have a lot to learn and a lot to do.”



While harlequin frogs that were thought to be extinct have been reappearing over the last two decades, these discoveries were reported as isolated events. As part of the study, new genetic data has been collected that will help inform conservation efforts.&nbsp;



“This study opens up a lot of other questions,” said Professor Sarah Fitzpatrick. “For example, why are these frogs persisting? What we found points to the fact that there probably isn’t a single explanation. And now that we’ve described these frogs, how do we ensure their recovery?”



“We really want people to understand how important our partnerships are. We were invited into this work by our Ecuadorian colleagues. They’ve been working tirelessly on these challenges for decades. There are so many things that they bring to this work that make it possible.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dozens of frog species rediscovered in Ecuador

In a new study led by Michigan State University, experts...

Beavers are famous for building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beaver-dams-cold-water-fish/">dams</a>. They do this in order to create a pond in which they can then build a lodge with an underwater entrance. The lodge is made of sticks and mud, and it is a place where beavers can stay safe and warm, raise their young, store food for winter and hide from predators such as wolves, coyotes and mountain lions. The dams modify the natural habitat such that new ecosystems are created and this provides suitable conditions for other wetland species.&nbsp;



Apart from creating wetlands, however, beaver dams also control water flow downstream, reduce turbidity, prevent erosion and help to cleanse water of contaminants from pesticides and fertilizers. And now, a new study has revealed that, as climate change worsens water quality and threatens ecosystems, beaver dams may actually help reduce the damage.



In a report published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34022-0">Nature Communications</a>, a team of experts led by Stanford University have found that beaver dams can have a significant positive influence on water quality. In fact, this influence turns out to be far greater than the influence of climate-driven, seasonal extremes in precipitation. The wooden barriers raise water levels upstream, diverting water into surrounding soils and secondary waterways, collectively called a riparian zone. These zones act like filters, straining out excess nutrients and contaminants before water re-enters the main channel downstream.



“As we’re getting drier and warmer in the mountain watersheds in the American West, that should lead to water quality degradation,” said study senior author Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/scott-fendorf">Scott Fendorf</a>. “Yet unbeknownst to us prior to this study, the outsized influence of beaver activity on water quality is a positive counter to climate change.”



The opportunity to study the effects of a beaver dam on water quality came about by chance, rather than being the result of careful planning. As a PhD student in Fendorf’s lab in 2017, lead study author Christian Dewey had started doing field work along the East River, a main tributary of the Colorado River near Crested Butte in central Colorado. Initially, Dewey had set out to track seasonal changes in hydrology, and riparian zone impacts on nutrients and contaminants in a mountainous watershed.



“Completely by luck, a beaver decided to build a dam at our study site,” said Dewey, who is now a postdoctoral scholar at Oregon State University (whose mascot, incidentally, is a beaver). “The construction of this beaver dam afforded us the opportunity to run a great natural experiment.”



The researchers analyzed data on water levels recorded hourly by sensors installed in the river and throughout the riparian area. They also collected water samples, including from below the ground’s surface, to monitor nutrient and contaminant levels. This information was then used to compare water quality along this stretch of the East River during a dry year (2018), with water quality in the following year, when water levels were unusually high. In addition, these year-long datasets were compared with measurements of water quality made during the three-month period, starting in late July 2018, when the beaver dam blocked the river.&nbsp;



Normally, during periods of drought, as less water flows through rivers and streams, the concentrations of contaminants and excess nutrients, such as nitrogen (in the form of nitrates), increase. These contaminants often come from fertilizers or herbicides that are used on surrounding agricultural land and enter the rivers as runoff. Major downpours and seasonal snowmelt are then needed to flush out the contaminants and restore water quality.&nbsp;



Beaver dams trap water in the form of a pond behind the wall. This not only slows the flow of water, but also creates a difference in pressure between the water above the dam wall and below it. The increased pressure pushes water from the dam into the surrounding soils where microbes use the contaminants, particularly nitrates, for their own metabolic needs.



Warm, dry summers following spring snowmelt also produce big level changes, which generate a pressure gradient that pushes water into surrounding soils. The larger the pressure gradient, the greater the flow of water and nitrates into soils, where microbes transform nitrate and other contaminants into innocuous substances.



In the East River, the researchers found that the increase in pressure gradient was at least 10 times greater with the dam present than it was during the summer peak without the dam. This applied in both the high-water year (2019) and the drought year (2018). In other words, the effects of the beaver dam exceeded climatic hydrological extremes - in either direction of drought or abundant snowmelt - by an order of magnitude.



“Beavers are countering water quality degradation and improving water quality by producing simulated hydrological extremes that dwarf what the climate is doing,” said Professor Fendorf.



While it was present, the beaver dam boosted the removal of unwanted nitrogen from the study section of the East River by a massive 44 percent over the seasonal extremes. Nitrogen is an especially pernicious problem for water quality as it promotes algal growth which, when the algae die and decompose, uses up the supply of oxygen in the water and makes the ecosystem unsuitable other aquatic organisms.&nbsp;



The role of beavers and their dams in filtering and cleaning water resources is likely to increase in importance as climate change produces greater variability and more extreme weather conditions. &nbsp;



“We would expect climate change to induce hydrological extremes and degradation of water quality during drought periods, and in this study, we’re seeing that would indeed have been true if it weren’t for this other ecological change taking place, which is the beavers, their proliferating dams, and their growing populations," said Professor Fendorf.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beaver dams mitigate the effects of climate change on rivers

Beavers are famous for building dams. They do this in...

While the scientific community has previously warned about an alarming decline in insect populations, not much has been done to address this issue on a global scale. Now, an international team of experts is providing a convincing overview of the role of climate change and climatic extremes in driving insect decline.&nbsp;



"If no action is taken to better understand and reduce the impact of climate change on insects, we will drastically limit our chances of a sustainable future with healthy ecosystems." This is the warning from a paper composed by 70 scientists from 19 countries around the world as part of the of the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1553">Scientists’ Warning</a> series.&nbsp;



"Climate change aggravates other human-mediated environmental problems," said lead author Jeffrey Harvey from the <a href="https://nioo.knaw.nl/en">Netherlands Institute of Ecology</a>. "Including habitat loss and fragmentation, various forms of pollution, overharvesting and invasive species."



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-important-roles-in-ecosystems/">Insects</a> play critical roles in many ecosystems, making this problem incredibly urgent, as ecosystem loss is on the rise.



"The gradual increase in global surface temperature impacts insects in their physiology, behaviour, phenology, distribution and species interactions. But also, more and longer lasting extreme events leave their traces," said Harvey.



While fruit flies, butterflies and flour beetles have the capacity to survive heat waves, they can become sterilized and unable to reproduce. Bumblebees, in particular, are very sensitive to heat, and climate change is now considered the main factor in the decline of several North American species.



"Cold-blooded insects are among the groups of organisms most seriously affected by climate change, because their body temperature and metabolism are strongly linked with the temperature of the surrounding air," said Harvey.



Insects also play a critical role in supporting the global economy through services such as pollination, pest control, nutrient cycling and decomposition of waste. These vitally important services help to sustain humanity and provide billions of dollars annually to the global economy.&nbsp;



"The late renowned ant ecologist Edward O. Wilson, once argued that ‘it is the little things that run the world’. And they do!’" said Harvey.



The ability for insects to adapt to global warming is further impacted by human threats such as habitat destruction and pesticides. Heatwaves and droughts can drastically harm insect populations in the short term, making insects less able to adapt to more gradual warming.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The paper includes solutions and management strategies. Individuals can help by caring for different wild plants, providing food and shelter for insects during climate extremes. Reducing the use of pesticides and other chemicals is also recommended.&nbsp;



"Insects are tough little critters and we should be relieved that there is still room to correct our mistakes," said Harvey. "We really need to enact policies to stabilise the global climate. In the meantime, at both government and individual levels, we can all pitch in and make urban and rural landscapes more insect-friendly."



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insects need urgent help to survive climate change

While the scientific community has previously warned about an alarming...

Cats often exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-chemical-that-triggers-aggression-in-women-blocks-it-in-men/">aggression</a> toward humans and other problematic behaviors, yet the underlying causes of such issues have remained relatively unknown. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>, experts have found a correlation between poor socialization with humans and the development of fearfulness and aggression in cats.&nbsp;



"Problematic behavior is a remarkable welfare issue in cats (Felis catus), as it is one of the most common reasons for relinquishment. The probability of developing problematic behaviors is likely influenced by several variables, but these remain little studied," wrote the researchers.



"In this study, we examined the associations of fearfulness, aggression toward humans, and excessive grooming with nearly thirty variables in a survey dataset of over 3,200 cats."



"Poor socialization with humans and a history of being a rescue cat were associated with higher fearfulness, indicating that the proper socialization of kittens is beneficial for avoiding fear-related problematic behaviors. Overall, our study highlights the complexity of three problematic behaviors in cats."



According to study lead author Salla Mikkola, the team wanted to find out what factors are associated with the problematic behavior of cats, such as fearfulness, aggression towards humans and excessive grooming. "We utilized a survey dataset previously collected in our research, which we have already used to investigate the construction of the feline personality."



The survey included statements on the pet's reaction to strangers, sudden noises and changes at home. Survey respondents were also asked about excessive grooming and signs of aggression toward humans.  These included scratching or attempts to bite in conjunction with care, such as when being brushed. 



“We investigated the link between these problematic behavioral and personality traits, and almost 30 behavioural, environmental and biological factors. For example, the socialization of cats with humans was associated with fearfulness," said Mikkola.



"Cats who had come into contact with unfamiliar adults and children under 12 weeks of age only a few times or not at all were more fearful than cats who met strangers on a weekly or daily basis. Fearful cats also received, on average, higher scores for litter box issues, aggression and excessive grooming."



Professor Hannes Lohi noted that there was less aggression and fearfulness in households with more than one cat, but the reason for this is not yet clear. "It may be that the companionship of other cats is an important stimulus for cats, or alternatively, people don’t want to take a mate for their aggressive cat due to its nature. Research carried out through a different design is needed to explain causalities."



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105265">iScience</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kittens who socialize with humans are less fearful, aggressive

Cats often exhibit aggression toward humans and other problematic behaviors,...

Thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-their-roots-to-sense-manganese-deficiency/">plants</a> and animals are classified as being "data deficient" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Data deficiency means that there is not adequate information to assess the extinction risk of these species. Now, a new study has revealed that more than half of all lesser-known species may be threatened with extinction.



“We looked at species that are relatively poorly known, but where at least the geographical distribution is known. These species tend to be threatened with extinction more often than ones that we know more about,” explained study co-author Professor Francesca Verones from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU).



Overall, the IUCN has listed 20,469 species as being data deficient. The research team used machine learning to calculate the risk of extinction for 7,699 of the little-known species, explained study co-author Jan Borgelt.



Compared with individual cases that the researchers analyzed manually, the computer model-created probabilities were extremely accurate.



“We found that as many as 85 percent of the amphibians that we have limited knowledge of are in danger of becoming extinct. For other groups, like mammals and reptiles, this applies to around half of the species,” said Borgelt.



Even though species unknown to us often face an uphill battle, the consolation is that new knowledge can be of great use if used correctly, said Borgelt. “More areas could become worthy of protective measures if we take species that we have little data on into account."



Borgelt also emphasized that the intention behind using the models is not to replace the work conducted by researchers, but to provide a first estimate of the risk of species becoming extinct in cases where there is not yet enough data.



"The Red List assesses extinction risks and reports Red List categorization for more than 140,000 species based on a set of quantitative criteria10 relying for instance on extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population trends, or population size," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"However, the sheer amount of known and unknown species globally, the dynamic nature of threats and trends, and limited human resources for undertaking such Red List assessments turn this critical endeavour into a Sisyphean task."



"Consequently, only a small proportion of known species have been assessed for their conservation priority so far, unevenly distributed across space, time and taxa."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03638-9">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Data deficient species are often the most threatened

Thousands of plants and animals are classified as being "data...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergene-transformed-the-social-hierarchy-of-fire-ants/">Fire ants</a> are an invasive species in the southeastern United States which are currently expanding their range due to climate change. When they sting, they inject significant amounts of venom that triggers immune responses in various animal species, ranging from lizards and livestock to humans.&nbsp;



In eastern fence lizards – a species occurring throughout the same region – repeated stinging by fire ants can lead to paralysis and even death. However, these lizards frequently eat fire ants. Now, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has found that eating fire ants may prepare a lizard’s immune system to be stung by the ants, thus increasing their resilience to these pests.



“We know that lizards from areas with fire ants have different immune profiles than lizards in areas without them,” said study senior author Tracy Langkilde, a professor of Biology at Penn State.&nbsp;“Because the immune system is so critical for survival, we wanted to determine if these differences in immune profiles can be directly attributed to lizards frequently being stung by fire ants, eating fire ants, or something else.”



The scientists examined six immune measures in response to three weeks of lizards either being fed dead fire ants or being stung by them three times per week. The analysis revealed that, when lizards were fed fire ants, three immune measures were enhanced in comparison with lizards being repeatedly stung: an elevation in the levels of a type of white blood cells called basophils; an increase in complement activity that helps antibodies and other parts of the immune system function properly; and a rise in a type of immunoglobulin antibody (IgM) known to be reactive to fire ant venom.



“All three of these immune aspects are expected to help lizards survive a fire ant attack,” said study lead author Catherine Tylan, a graduate student at Penn State. “For example, the fire ant-specific antibodies and complement could help bind up venom so it can no longer negatively impact the body. It’s possible that exposure to fire ant venom from the consumed fire ants stimulates an increased immune response, acting somewhat like a vaccine. So, eating fire ants may incidentally help lizards prepare for future venom exposure from stings.”



These findings could help explain the immune patterns observed in lizards in the fields. “Lizards caught from areas with fire ants have higher anti-fire ant antibodies and basophils than lizards from areas without fire ants,” Tylan reported. “This study showed these same immune responses when lizards were fed fire ants, suggesting that the difference in these two immune measures in the field may be a result of lizards eating fire ants.”



“Together, these results help us understand the potential health-relevant consequences of exposure to invasive species. Interestingly, our results suggest that native animals may be able to offset immune consequences of venom exposure by consuming these same species,” Professor Langkilde concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02939-8">Biological Invasions</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lizards that eat fire ants develop greater immunity

Fire ants are an invasive species in the southeastern United...

The loss of forests is not good news for bats. Clearance and harvesting of trees threaten the habitat of many bat species that make their homes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-in-protected-indigenous-lands-are-healthy-and-resilient/">forests</a>. Although policy makers understand the importance to biodiversity of in-tact forest habitats, it is unlikely that timber harvesting will ever stop. Humans need wood and so most forest areas will undoubtedly end up being managed for various human needs, including tree growth and removal, hunting and recreation.&nbsp;



This applies also to forests in eastern North America, where bats are additionally threatened by high mortality rates due to white-nose syndrome and collision with wind turbines. Timber harvest could affect bats either positively or negatively in these forests, depending on the management approach and the ecological needs of each species. Although there have been many previous studies on the potential impact of timber harvest on bats, there are many gaps in our understanding due, in part, to the logistical challenges inherent in studying these nocturnal, highly mobile animals.



According to recent <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> research, certain forest management strategies actually suit the habitat requirements of eastern red bats (Lasiurus borealis), meaning that this species is likely to co-exist successfully with, and even benefit from, managed forests in future. The study made use of radio telemetry to track the movements of 26 eastern red bats at a managed Indiana forest site. The study lasted three years and bats were tracked at various times during this period. The data were used to identify where the bats most often foraged and roosted.&nbsp;



“With white nose syndrome causing major declines in many bat species, the eastern red bat has become the most commonly detected bat in many Midwestern forests, making up 70 to 80 percent of the captures in our Indiana study site. So from that perspective, they probably have the most sizeable effect on the forest. To manage the landscape holistically, we should consider species that might have a disproportionate impact,” says&nbsp;<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Elizabeth-Beilke">Elizabeth Beilke</a>, postdoctoral researcher in the&nbsp;<a href="https://nres.illinois.edu/">Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences</a>&nbsp;(NRES) at U of I, and lead author on the study.



The researchers attached tiny radio transmitters to as many red bats as they could capture, and tracked them between May and August, 2017–2019, in two state forests in south-central Indiana. The 26 bats included 18 females and 7 males (one female was tracked twice). During monitoring, the researchers installed themselves at spots on top of ridges to pick up the bats’ signals every five minutes, while the animals were active. They said this approach gave different data from what is normally obtained using acoustic cues only.&nbsp;



Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://nres.illinois.edu/directory/jmokeefe">Joy O’Keefe</a> says it’s an improvement over acoustic methods, where researchers listen for bat calls. With acoustics, researchers can’t distinguish individual bats, potentially missing important differences due to sex, age, health, and other factors. It is sometimes challenging to identify bat species from acoustic cues and, furthermore, bats do not always echolocate while they fly. Acoustic cues are also more difficult to detect in denser vegetation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The results of the telemetry tracking and analysis, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120604">Forest Ecology and Management</a>, showed that eastern red bats foraged over a relatively small area (81&nbsp;ha or 200 acres) and traveled a maximum distance of 1404&nbsp;m from their roosts. They favored foraging near maintained openings in forest, near recent regeneration openings, roads, and ponds within the study area. In addition, they roosted preferentially near maintained openings, recent regeneration openings, and ponds, switching roosts every two days. They selected large, mature trees for roosting, and preferred to roost where vegetation was less dense.&nbsp;



“Red bats are selecting and using parts of the forest that are associated with forest management, including recent timber harvests and maintained forest openings. They're also using ponds, roads, and ridges more than we’d expect, based on availability. Our data suggest these bats can coexist with forest management,” Beilke says. “This is heartening because timber harvest isn’t going away; it’s a human need. But this work demonstrates that management practices like timber harvest aren’t inherently harmful to bats and could even benefit certain species.”



The results are similar to O’Keefe’s&nbsp;<a href="https://aces.illinois.edu/news/sending-bat-signal-forest-use-endangered-species">previous</a>&nbsp;findings for endangered Indiana bats and threatened northern long-eared bats in the same hardwood ecosystem site in Indiana. Those bats preferentially foraged and roosted near thinned areas, small patch cuts, and ponds.



“It seems like the more recent practice of harvesting smaller sections of the forest is a better approach, not only for regenerating oaks and hickories, but also for these bats. That’s opposed to large clear cuts, where we take out a lot of the forest at once. Oaks and hickories also respond well to shelterwood harvests, which offer shade to tiny tree seedlings during hot, dry summers. These partially shaded forest patches are the kinds of places bats prefer, as well,” O’Keefe says.



The researchers were encouraged by the finding that red bats can coexist with forest management practices, and may even benefit from them. They were delighted to capture one female bat twice during their study; not only did they capture her at the same site for two years running, but also she frequented the same spots in the forest in both years. O’Keefe says, “I think that's a testament to the forest. It must be good quality habitat for bats to migrate to winter sites and to come back.”



Although red bats are becoming the most common bat species in many forests, and they’re less susceptible to white nose syndrome due to their solitary roosting habits, the species is far from entirely safe.



“Unfortunately, eastern red bats die in huge numbers at wind turbines and a few recent papers have suggested they are declining range-wide. This is a shame because they’re very different from other bat species in this region. They roost solitarily in foliage, exposed to the elements, and give birth to three to four pups at once. Plus, they’re devastatingly cute,” Beilke says.



The authors conclude that, when considering habitat for eastern red bats in central hardwood forests, land managers should work to maintain large tracts of mature (&gt;90&nbsp;years old) forest, interspersed with young regeneration openings and provisions of perennial water, such as ponds. This will ensure suitable habitat for these fascinating small mammals.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Eastern red bats do well in managed forests

The loss of forests is not good news for bats....

We are all familiar with the joy derived from sharing something noteworthy with a friend or family member. Even young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-causes-of-sedentary-behavior-in-children/">children</a> develop gestures, such as pointing or holding out a hand, to direct a parent’s attention to something interesting. This behavior of "sharing for the sake of sharing" has always been seen as pretty much unique to humans, and not part of the common behavioral repertoire of other primates.



However, scientists have now documented the first instance of a wild chimpanzee appearing to show an object to another individual, apparently simply for the sake of sharing the experience. The report, published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a>, contains video footage of Fiona, an adult chimpanzee from the Ngogo chimpanzee community in Kibale National Park, Uganda, showing her mother a leaf during a grooming session.



“People love sharing experiences with each other – social media capitalizes on this trait, and even in our first year of life we start to show others interesting things we’ve found," said study lead author Dr. Claudia Wilke from the Department of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>&nbsp;



“It has been suggested that ‘sharing for sharing’s sake’ is a uniquely human trait, but our observation of these wild chimpanzees challenges this,” she explained. “We observed an adult chimpanzee showing her mother a leaf she had been grooming, not because she wanted her to do anything with the leaf, but most likely because she simply wanted her to also look at the leaf.”



“Our observations suggest that, in specific social circumstances, chimps may show each other objects of interest, to share attention about them, and that this behavior may not be unique to humans," said study co-author Simon Townsend.&nbsp;



While conducting behavioral research on the Ngogo chimpanzees between 2013 and 2020, the scientists recorded many instances of "leaf-grooming." This occurs during bouts of social or self-grooming, when a groomer plucks a nearby leaf, strokes it and manipulates it with the fingers or mouth as if grooming it, and stares closely at it. The function of this behavior has not yet been explained, although it is hypothesized to be a way of inspecting ecto-parasites, such as lice or ticks, that have been placed on the leaves.&nbsp;



In one instance, however, the video footage records Fiona holding a leaf and stretching out her arm towards her mother as though seeking her mother’s attention. Initially, the mother lowers her eyes to look at the leaf, but Fiona then thrusts the leaf even further towards her mother’s face, requiring the mother to adjust her head to pay full attention to the object. After obtaining the desired attention, Fiona stops gesturing to her mother, withdraws the leaf and continues to groom it.



The researchers examined video footage of more than 80 similar leaf-grooming events in order to rule out other explanations for the behavior. They could not find any evidence that leaf-grooming is related to eating (mostly the leaves are not eaten), or to initiating play behavior or grooming. In more than three quarters of the recorded clips of leaf grooming, chimps sitting next to each other do both pay attention to the leaves being used, but Fiona is the only chimp found to have gestured in order to encourage her mother to take a look.&nbsp;



“She’s not offering it for food. She doesn’t want her mum to do anything. She just wants them to look at it together, and be like ‘Oh, cool, nice!’” said study co-author Professor Katie Slocombe.



It is recognized that chimps use gestures to communicate with others, but this is usually to illicit a specific functional response. “Sometimes when they’re grooming in this community of chimpanzees, they’ll scratch a particular location on their body … and that indicates ‘I want you to groom me here,’” said Slocombe. “If they have their hands out towards something, it means ‘give me that.’”&nbsp;



The researchers say their results are consistent with the argument that Fiona gestured declaratively to show her mother the leaf, and that her gesture led to simultaneous attention to the leaf. This suggests that, in highly specific social conditions, wild chimpanzees, like humans, may be motivated to communicate cooperatively and share interest and attention simply for the sake of sharing.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Professor Frans de Waal, a primatologist at Emory University who was not involved in the work, described the observation as remarkable. “It signifies that chimpanzees, and perhaps also other apes, grasp that other individuals gather information the way they do themselves, and are willing to share information with others without any prompting or rewards or self-serving purposes,” he said.



Slocombe added: “While there is a need to identify further examples of this behavior in chimpanzees, our observations indicate that sharing attention for sharing’s sake is not unique to humans. It has been argued that our ability to share experiences helped us to evolve the cognitive abilities that set us apart from other species, such as our capacity for joint action, cooperation and language.”&nbsp;



“Our observations raise new questions about why humans share experiences more often than our closest living relatives and whether engaging in this behavior at a higher frequency than other species can still explain the evolution of cognitive functions underpinning human social behavior,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Wild chimpanzees like to share cool things with others

We are all familiar with the joy derived from sharing...

Scientists have long been puzzled by a strange natural phenomenon: the fact that vibrant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-animals-got-their-complex-color-patterns/">color patterns</a> in various animal species seem to serve different roles. While some animals use these patterns to attract mates, others employ them to ward off predators.&nbsp;



By examining the role of color patterning in all the major groups of land vertebrates – amphibians, mammals, birds, crocodilians, turtles, lizards, and snakes – a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> has identified a strong and consistent link between the function of animals’ bright colors and the activity patterns of their evolutionary ancestors. The experts found that species which use their bright colors as a sexual signal were descended from ancestors that were active during the day, while those that use such colors to deter predators had ancestors which were active during the night.



“This pattern generally seems to hold across land vertebrates, a group with about 40,000 species that evolved over 350 million years,” said study senior author John Wiens, a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Arizona. “It doesn’t matter how a species produces the colors. The way that a bird makes red is different from how a lizard makes red, but this general pattern of day-night activity still works.”



The scientist discovered that vividly colored lizards and birds typically use their coloring as a sexual signal to attract mates, while colorful amphibians and snakes usually wear them as a warning signal for predators. While many of these amphibians and snakes are currently diurnal, their ancestors were nocturnal. Thus, there is no clear connection between warning colors and present-day diurnal or nocturnal activity.



Early in their evolution, most of the ancestors of modern species started out drab and dully colored. However, vivid coloration evolved over time across many different lineages and, since they helped animals survive and reproduce, they became established and passed on to future generations.&nbsp;



“Traits that we see today in species can be a result of their evolutionary history,” said study lead author Zachary Emberts, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Arizona. “We were looking for evolutionary patterns, so we did two separate analyses, one that used their current day-night activity and one that used their ancestral day-night activity.”



Since ancestors of amphibians and snakes spent time interacting and mating with their conspecifics in the dark, having bright colors offered them no sexual advantage. Thus, their intense coloring may have evolved for a very different purpose: a warning sign for predators. “Animals generally use these colors either as a sexual signal or as a warning signal – rarely both,” Professor Wiens concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evo.14636">Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

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